Ecosoc Notes

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Follow Up to the Rio+20

In 1992, the United Nations Conference on Environment and

Development (UNCED), otherwise known as the Rio Summit,

Rio Conference, or the Earth Summit, begun in Rio deJaneiro, Brazil, where more than 170 members of the

United Nations participated along with more than 2,400

representatives of non-governmental organizations (NGOs).

The result of this conference was Agenda 21, which was an

agenda for actions for the United Nations (UN),

multilateral organizations as well as member nations.

This agenda was designed for the world to prepare for the

21st century (hence the name, Agenda 21).

Ten years later, in 2002, the World Summit on SustainableDevelopment (WSSD), also known as Earth Summit 2002

took place in Johannesburg, South Africa. In the second

round of the Earth Summit, major decisions were reached;

including the restoration of the worlds depleted

fisheries for 2015. Aside from this agreement, a major

declaration was published and agreed by member states.The

document was known as the Johannesburg Declaration. In

this declaration, a series of issues were outlined

including the issue of poverty eradication, loss of

biodiversity, and the deep fault line that is dividing

the rich and the poor. Within the document was a list ofcommitments that governments plan to take.

In 2012, Rio+20 convened. The conference, formally known

as The United Nations Conference on Sustainable

Development (UNCSD), also known as Rio 2012, Rio+20, and

Earth Summit 2012 is the third of the three conferences

on the issue of sustainable development. These seven

main, critical issues are: jobs, energy, cities, food,

water, oceans, and disasters. Each of these seven main

critical issues linked back to sustainability, such as

sustainable energy, sustainable cities, and so on. Today,in 2013, a framework is needed in order to allow all

member states to follow and accomplish. This framework

should be based on the results from the conference.

The main achievement of the conference, seemingly

pointless in comparison with past conferences, is to

create the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by the

end of 2013. The SDG topics should encompass all three

aspects of sustainable development economic, social and

environmental and will seek to accomplish a set of

goals by a certain time that will be determined. Thesegoals will act like the goals of the Millennium


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Development Goals (MDGs) that were created in 2000 and to

be completed by 2015.

Outcomes of the Rio+20 conference were outlined with

extensive detail in a document published as The FutureWe Want, which begins with Our Common Vision and

continues on with a list of reaffirmation, goals, and so

on. Some major goals include renewing Agenda 21 and to

establish the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This

document is notable for its detail of steps that have to

be taken as a follow-up to the conference.

Ten years following the 1992 UNCED conference, the WSSD

conference convened in Johannesburg, South Africa.

Following the conference were two significant outcomes -

first, the Johannesburg Declaration, and second, theagreement to restore depleted fisheries by 2015. The

Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development was

based on the agreements made in Stockholm Conference of

1972 and UNCED of 1992 as well as the declarations and

agreements established in these conferences.

Some of the topics in the Johannesburg Declaration

include chronic hunger, malnutrition, chronic hunger,

foreign occupation and armed conflicts, xenophobia,

illicit drug problems, terrorism, trafficking in persons,

natural disasters, etc. One notable detail of thisconference is that President Bush boycotted this

conference because of his belief that the conference was

useless and impotent which is partially true from the

unsuccessful declarations created in 1972 and 1992. The

United States did not have any contribution to this

conference at all.

Monetary Issues

Sustainable development is a process in which

requires all three of its components educational

development, economic development, and environmentalprotection to be taken care of with large amounts of

monetary funding, aiding, development and/or care. This

is an issue, however, to many LEDCs because of the lack

of governmental funds available to spend on such small

scales with little guarantee of success. In many ways,

development requires large funds in order to pay for new

changes to a nation. Protection of natural resources can

be hard to many nations as natural resources is one of

their source of economic income. An example would be

nations in the Middle East in which use fossil fuel or

oil as its primary source of income, which isenvironmentally devastating, but the only source of their


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economic income in which allows it government to sustain

its economy.

A big example of green development would be China.

With its booming industries, this nation is successfullychiefly because of its industries and extraction of

natural resources. If the government spends billions of

dollars into developing green energy, the result may not

be beneficial to the nation. Not only will the production

ability decrease, the nations resource exports will

decrease tremendously. On the other hand, if China does

not decrease its rate of production, sustainable

development will become a major issue as the nations

resources come to an end.

Lack of international CooperationSince the Stockholm Conference in 1972, it has been

clear that international cooperation is needed in order

to achieve these goals however international

cooperation has proven to be unsuccessful. International

cooperation is a significant portion to success in

sustainable development in many ways. In order to prevent

over-consumption of natural resources within one nation,

international trade and resource extraction is necessary

to assist one anothers development. In order to tackle

social development and to tackle poverty, MEDCs need to

support the LEDCs. Not necessarily through monetarymethods, but through assisting in providing successful

methods and resources for the LEDCs. After all of the

past major conferences however, there has not been

significant international cooperation to tackle these

issues. The success of the MDGs on the other hand can be

seen through strong international cooperation. For

instance, the success of the second goal of the MDGs on

achieving universal primary education has been successful

because the MEDCs have supplied LEDCs with methods to

promote education, resource for quality education, and

monetary funds to construct educational facilities(schools, research institutions, etc.).

Creation of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

One of the major decisions reached at the Rio+20

conference was the global attention on sustainable

development, and the need for the creation of a set of

goals like that of the Millennium Development Goals

(MDGs). The SDGs will be created with a broad range of

goals to be achieved with consideration that

sustainable development is a broad topic. The SDGs will

have to encompass the economic and social developmentissues, as well as any and all methods to protect the


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current environment. The SDG is considered a method to

tackle the issue of international cooperation and the

criticism that past declarations established by

sustainable development conferences to be impotent. With

a clear deadline and a set list of goals, the UnitedNations and all its members can strive to achieve these

goals together. Agenda 21 and its follow-up declarations

is a good background for the creation of these goals, as

it states a list of issues that should be tackled in the

21st century. Note that these goals should be tackled

within the next decades to come before sustainable

development and environmental protection becomes an

unachievable dream.

The World Bank UNDP - UNESCO

The World Bank is an international bank in whichprovides loans to developing nations in order to assist

their development and to fight against poverty. Following

the Rio+20 event, World Bank has published a series of

papers in which discusses the need for green growth, and

to move beyond GDP and incorporate natural capital

accounting in order to set international SDGs for energy,

food, and water so that we can shift to a more

sustainable path in the future. Following the conference,

the World Bank began its push for green development for

all fields in order to protect the environment while

developing the other sectors. This is important for WorldBank not only offers loans, but also provides plans for

the developing nations to use with their money in order

to allow these nations become more self-sustainable. With

World Banks dedication into a sustainable world, the

developing nations are more likely to follow the World

Banks lead.

The United States of America

The United States, a tertiary sector nation, has

supported sustainable development since the Stockholm

Conference of 1972, however, felt that the conferences,no matter the size were impotent with no major

improvements at all. Because of this, President Bush

boycotted the WSSD of 2002 in Johannesburg. United

States, however, has a great interest in creating a

successful set of goals as a follow-up framework for

Rio+20.

The European Union (EU)

Despite recent economic issues, the EU is a great

example for the environmental protection sector of thethree strands of sustainable development. The EU protects


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the environment through green initiatives in many ways.

This includes large spending on energy sources such as

solar power, wind power, and hydropower. As the majority

of the EU nations move closer to the tertiary sector,

environmental protection is becoming an achievable goaland green structures are also being built. The EU nations

are great examples for achieving environmental

protection.

Evaluation of Previous Attempts

Throughout the past, there have been multiple

documents created to tackle the issue of sustainable

development. The primary examples of these are the

Stockholm Declaration, Agenda 21, and the Johannesburg

Declaration. All three of these have common issues.

First, throughout past attempts to tackle sustainabledevelopment, there has been a lack of international

cooperation. This is the most important part of a

successful sustainable development declaration or goal,

for it requires nations to assist one another and thus

benefit from each other without extracting more resources

from within each nation. In order to achieve social

development, MEDCs have to help LEDCs by providing

resources, methods, and monetary funds. In order to

achieve economic development, nations cannot succeed

without the help of globalization with import and export

of resources to and from each nation. Environmentalprotection is also important instead of over-

consumption, trading with other nations and/or extraction

of limited resources can solve this issue significantly.

Detailed declaration has been another issue; there

has been a lack of specificity in all three

aforementioned declarations and/or Agenda 21. These

declarations merely outlined the issues that has to be

solved, methods to solve them and how to implement these

solutions. None of these declarations, however, outlined

a specific deadline for the goals to be achieved or gaveany nation incentive to actually work to achieve the

goals. Ultimately, following each of the conferences,

there has been little to no work done on sustainable

development on the global scale compared to what should

have been done.

Possible Solutions

The document created immediately following Rio+20

Future We Want outlines a list of actions that should

be taken. Not all of these may be achievable, but many of

them are the possible solutions to a truly sustainabledevelopment. This document is like Agenda 21, where a


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list of actions our outlined, however, needs a framework

in place to allow these actions to be taken. The document

addresses several topics and methods to resolve them.

Some of these include poverty eradication and increase in

primary education, sustainable energy through greenenergy methods, food security through subsidizing of

sustainable agricultural projects and more. The creation

of the SDG is another significant portion of this

document. By creating a set of goals, it may offer a

solution to the issue by incentivizing countries to

follow and complete these goals within a set amount of

time.

Energy For All

Without the appropriate access to energy, many rely on

polluting and inefficient sources of energy that causeseveral forms of chronic illnesses and kill nearly two

million people annually. Additionally, without

electricity, many households employ women and girls in

foraging for fuel, which comes with unnecessary security

risks.

As of 2011, more than 1.3 billion people worldwide,

mostly in developing countries, do not have any access to

electricity. Of this, approximately 580 million people

alone are in Sub-Saharan Africa and 280 million are in

India, according to the International Energy Agencys2011 World Energy Outlook (WEO). These figures indicate

that energy access is indeed a severe issue affecting a

large portion of the world population. Because of the

pressing degree of electricity access, or lack thereof,

this issue has become a large focus of many governments,

especially in poorer nations.

It has been projected that without international

recognition and commitment to improve universal

electricity access, the problem, which is most abundant

in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, will not onlypersist but also deepen in the long-run. Given this, many

electrification organizations have established systems to

monitor more accurately the needs and status of

development and electrification in several areas. In

addition, the United Nations (UN) Secretary-General Ban

Ki-Moon has prioritized the issues of universal energy

access and sustainable energy. In his Sustainable Energy

for All Initiative (SE4ALL), one of the objectives to be

met by 2030 is ensuring universal access to modern energy

services, namely electricity. In addition, 2012 was

declared as the International Year of Sustainable Energyfor All.


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Ensuring Electricity Provision is Sustainable and

Environmentally Friendly

By ensuring universal electricity access, it is

assumed that the electrification rate will increasegreatly, especially by 2030. Doing so will result in

higher global energy demands as well as greater carbon

dioxide emissions which may lead to climate change. The

IEAs WEO concluded that achieving universal electricity

access by 2030 would result in about a mere 2% increase

in global emissions due to the fact that the 1.3 billion

people without electricity are those living in least

developed countries (LDCs) and thus, will use less

electricity than those in developed countries. It is

notable to know that the energy use of the habitants of

New York City alone is equivalent to all of those livingin Sub-Saharan Africa.

Despite this small projected increase in emissions,

it is important to realize that the true establishment of

electricity in households may not be identical to what is

planned and this will steer the global emission increase

away from the ideal. Furthermore, the population without

access to electricity is not static. The population will

increase and the population without electricity will

increase as well and so the projected figures may not be

entirely accurate. Thus, this issue must also be tackledproperly or the gain in one area will become a lost in

another.

Financing

According to the IEA, as of 2011, a total investment

of approximately $1 trillion will be required to achieve

the goal of universal access to modern energy

(electricity and clean cooking facilities) by 2030, which

is approximately $49 each year until 2030. In addition,

$602 billion more will be needed for investment to

provide universal access to electricity alone, with 64%of this budget required in Sub- Saharan Africa. There are

many possible methods of providing access to electricity,

some requiring more money although it may be more

sustainable and less harmful to the environment.

Different methods of financing as well as many mechanism

roles used will be different according to the needs and

characteristics of each country. Many countries using

inappropriate mechanisms face a more difficult time

trying to provide electricity access to unconnected

households.

Subsidizing Costs for Electrification


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Often times, subsidies are required to cover part of

the capital and/or operating costs for electrification

because a large proportion of the unconnected households

cannot afford to pay fully the cost of electricity

services. The means through which subsidies becomeavailable vary from country to country and must be

managed specifically for each country, and this may pose

as an issue for countries without experience with

electrification of unconnected households.

Financing within Low-Income Countries with Low

Electrification Rates

It is particularly more challenging for low-income

countries with low electrification rates to expand

electricity access within the country. Once a country

reaches a medium level of electrification and a certainincome level, universal electricity access becomes fairly

easier due to the fact that there is an increasing mass

of taxpayers as well as electricity consumers who are

able to provide the funds needed to allow for more

sustainable electrification. In low-income countries with

low electrification rates, available resources and the

number of consumers and taxpayers capable of contributing

to subsidies are more limited. In addition to this,

poorly performing utilities and regressive pricing

policies often aggravate this issue further.

Financing from and Cooperation Among Relevant Parties

For some net oil-importing developing countries, the

rising and volatile prices have posed as a larger

challenge for expanding electricity access as well as

energy access in general and also become an extra burden

on fiscal budgets. As seen, the financial requirements

may be beyond the capabilities of the nations in need

alone thus the financial burden falls upon other nations

as well as relevant organizations. In order to be able to

finance the expansion of electricity access in developing

countries, more cooperation among as well as funding frommany sectors is essential for the goal to be met. Without

enough financing as well as cooperation within donors,

the progress of universal electrification is deterred.

Inefficiencies of Implementation

There are certain concerns when it comes to the

implementation of electricity into developing countries.

First, it may prove to be difficult to ensure lasting and

dependable access to electricity with adequate capacity

of production, transmission and distribution. As

previously mentioned also, there are different methodsand models for providing electricity access and this may


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play a role in making the provision inefficient and not

cost-effective. These problems are further intensified

with the fact that different countries have different

needs and uses of electricity and thus there is no single

specific institutional model for electrification.

There are several successful cases based on

different types of models (i.e. public, private,

cooperative, etc.), and the implemented model used to

electrify a nation should be based on the countries

individual strengths as well as the problems being faced.

Countries to be electrified must take into account how to

make use of limited resources in the most efficient and

cost-effective manner, keeping in mind all the

aforementioned issues as well. Many nations are still

lacking in this matter and thus the effective andsuccessful increase in electrification in developing

countries is impeded and not as successful as should be.

Management of Implementation

As mentioned, it is important to ensure that the

model in use for implementation is appropriate for each

country. It is also equally crucial for the management of

the electrification to have a strong leadership. Certain

leadership groups, either agencies, utilities, or

governments, may not possess efficient administration,

technical capacities to support contractors andproviders, organization, proper communication, and a

comprehensive understanding of the issues relevant to

each area or country. Because of such inadequacy, the

management of electrification is not entirely proficient

and thus, reduces the electrification rate that is in

fact possible.

In addition, a sustained commitment from the

government to supporting electrification is important for

successful electrification of unconnected households.

However, this commitment is a long-term one, lasting atleast 15 to 20 years. Several developing countries with

political turmoil and constant change in conflicted

governing bodies face an issue with this commitment

issue, as the coherence of policies may not be present.

Good communication as well as continuous support is

needed in the long-term and so it is evident why the

progress of electrification rate increase is not as

pronounced.

Monitoring Progress

Monitoring progress of connecting the unconnectedproves to be an issue especially in isolated communities


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part of its support for the SE4ALL initiative. The World

Banks Energy Sector Management Assistance Program

(ESMAP) has given initial funding of $15 million to the

SE4ALL Technical Assistance Program (S-TAP), which will

begin in five countries in Sub-Saharan Africa includingBurundi, Guinea, Liberia, Mozambique, and Senegal. The

World Bank plans to expand the number of countries and

reach 20 countries with electricity access by 2030.

Peoples Republic of China

China has been active in financing universal

electricity access initiative efforts. In addition to

increasing its domestic electrification rate (one of the

largest in Asia), it has also provided funds and loans to

other unlit countries, especially in Africa. In addition

to its previous financing for Africa, Chinas presidentXi Jinping renewed an offer for a $20 billion in loans to

help African nations. In addition, private sectors from

China have also played a role in electrifying unconnected

countries. Certain companies have signed deals with

certain African countries to build power plants to help

improve electrification levels.

European Union (EU)

The European Union, although consists of developed

countries, has pledged its commitment to the UN SE4ALL

Initiative to help increase access to electricity duringthe EU SE4ALL Summit. It has pledged, in 2012, to finance

electricity access to 500 million people or approximately

38% of the worlds population without electricity by

2030.

Germany

Germany itself at the same summit has confirmed that the

nation will individually commit to increase their

overseas funding. It has pledged a 500 million euro

pledge and will aid in supporting developing countries

governments work to increase electricity access to 100million people.

Other MEDCs

Several countries such as the United States and Japan

have pledged large amounts of money to help improve the

quality of life in African nations, specifically in terms

of electricity access. Many things have been done

including loans, working to develop legal framework that

will ensure sustainable development, as well as

construction of renewable energy sources such as wind

farms which in turn produce electricity. Smaller projectsand products have been created that can be used to help


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increase access to electricity on a smaller-scale, such

as the Soccket Ball designed by students at Harvard

University.

Evaluation of Previous Attempts to Resolve the IssueNo project pertaining to increasing the number of

households with access to electricity has been complete

yet. However there are several ongoing initiatives and

projects that have already provided substantial results

to evaluate.

The improvement of electricity access in Vietnam can

be observed and evaluated as it shows how low-income

countries can in fact overcome difficulties and succeed

in increasing the number of households with electricity.

Local communities participated and helped in improvingthe design of rural electrification programs in Vietnam.

In addition, evidence showed that there was long-term

government commitment in increasing figures of

electrification levels in Vietnam. Vietnam also made use

of its strong public utility as well as small and medium

enterprises (SMEs) for maintenance and service provision

in rural areas. Within 15 years, the electrification

level in rural areas increased from 15 to 95% with the

aid of three World Bank projects as well as the recently

approved Rural Distribution Project. Moreover, Vietnam

has adopted a long-term national plan implemented inphases to contribute to its success.

Overall, it can be seen that good cooperation

between different sectors as well as effective planning

relevant to the domestic characteristics yield successful

results in providing access to electricity.

Another relevant project supported by the World Bank is

the Accelerated Electricity Access (Rural) Expansion

Project for Ethiopia. The objectives were to establish a

sustainable program for expanding access to electricity

in rural areas and as a result mitigating poverty. Theproject ended in late 2012 and yielded satisfactory

results. Out of the 382 towns in their goal, 244 towns

showed good progress. Within approximately 6 years after

the initial phase of the project (May 2006), 24,000

household electricity connections were made (April 2012).

However, the target set had been 182,000 household

connections and was to be completed about seven months

(December 2012) after the 24,000 household reading.

Although successful, it can be seen that the project did

not meet its goals. This may have been because unplanned

events that impeded the installation of electrificationsystems or because of poor management and cooperation


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between those involved. This project is one of many that

brought the number of unconnected households down

although it did not reach its ideal goal.

It can be seen from the above examples that it is

indeed possible to improve the number of households withelectricity. However, the level of success varies with

the proper planning, managing, and executing and thus

should be taken into account when modeling for a new

initiative.

Possible Solutions

There are several possible solutions to maximize the

number of households with access to electricity. Possible

solutions include improving upon pre-existing initiatives

as well as ensuring effective planning before the

execution of new projects. There are several importantfactors to be noted and focused on in these projects.

Better communication with the local communities should be

encouraged in order to raise cooperation levels as well

as knowledge that will help in the maintenance of

electrical systems. It is also important to improve

commitment from the government so that the implementation

of such projects is smooth and as effective as possible.

Importantly, because each country has different

resources, needs, and characteristics, a well-structured

survey and monitoring system should be completed toensure that the framework, scheme, or approach being

implemented for the country is most appropriate and

applicable and is working well. The needs and the

location of unconnected locations should be taken into

account to ensure the most cost-effective way to increase

access. For example, extending electricity distribution

grids is usually the cheapest and most effective.

However, in areas far from existing grids, off-grid

options become more justifiable. Also, in the case of

inefficient operation, these monitoring systems will be

good informants of issues that need to be tackled andwhether or not it is appropriate to modify the

electrification approach.

Transparency is also a crucial aspect of this

process. This will ensure that the access expansion is

being done appropriately and everyone can track the

progress. Additionally, when planning new initiatives, it

should be noted that the high average access rates in

certain regions could mask the low rates in countries in

the same area, leaving them disregarded and not helped

when compared to others. These discrepancies should beacknowledged and taken into consideration when initiating


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and organizing projects. It is also appropriate to

prioritize certain areas in order to create a balance

between efficiency and equality. Countries in the final

stages of electrification tend to prioritize poorest

regions while those in the early stages tend to focus onareas that are financially viable. This will all depend

on the country and what it prioritizes should be the most

efficient and cost-effective. There is no single specific

correct way and each country will have a specific set of

factors to be considered in order for the increase in

household electricity increase to be maximized.

There are several other solutions to increasing the

number of households with access to electricity. One

would be to encourage the creation of systems that

generate electricity on a smaller-scale so that in the

least, households will be able to partially have accessto electricity. This could include sponsoring science-

related projects and inventions that can generate

electricity with lower cost that may be more affordable

to some households. In addition, raising awareness about

this issue may help increase cooperation and attention on

this issue so that the expedition of the projects is

faster. This may also lead to more funds being provided

to support the SE4ALL Initiative, which has been working

towards reaching the goal of universal electricity access

by 2030.

June 13-22, 2012: The UN Conference on Sustainable

Development (UNCSD), also known as Rio 2012, Rio+20, and

Earth Summit 2012 was held. Themes incorporated include

universal electrification by 2030. Reports regarding this

subject were also released.

June 30, 2013:U.S. President Barack Obama pledged $7

billion to the Power Africa Initiative, June 30, 2013

which looks to double access to electricity in Ethiopia,

Ghana, Kenya, Liberia,

Nigeria, and Tanzania.

Achieving Food Security Through Sustainable and EquitableAgricultural Systems

The increasing prevalence of malnutrition in some

regions is further evidence of the constrained capacity

of many developing countries to meet the minimum

nutritional requirements of their populations. According

to Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), a 70 percent increase in agricultural production will be needed


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by 2050 to keep up with population growth. This will

exert enormous pressure on the productive capacity of

agricultural systems across the world and will have

important consequences for farmers and consumers

everywhere. Demand for food rises as populations grow.Types of food consumed change as peoples income

increase. In order to meet these demands, farmers seek to

produce more crops, livestock, and fish.

The productivity of smallholders in poor countries

is typically less than it could be. Efforts to increase

productivity have led, in some cases, to pressure on

natural resources such as water, land, energy,

biodiversity, and ecosystem service and to environmental

damage, especially in parts of the world with fragile

ecosystems. Hence the absolute need for policies thatcombine sustainable intensification of food production

and equitable distribution so that all people have access

to sufficient, safe and nutritious food at all times.

Achieving food security involves an increase in the

availability of balanced and nutritious food, through

intensified production of food for human use, and

reducing waste. It also means ensuring that people have

better, sustainable and equitable access to food through

decent jobs, increased purchasing power and well-

functioning local and regional markets. With absence of

any one of these factors, food security will not lastlong and eventually collapse.

Agriculture and the Green Economy

Strategic Options and Implementation of Sustainable

Practices

Strategic options for sustainability apply along the

length of food value chains. They include changes in

agricultural production patterns, integrated management

of access to natural resources and rewarding

sustainability in food production systems and markets.

Implementation of sustainable practices is encouragedthrough incentives. But such incentives only work if

markets and trading systems function fairly and

efficiently. They depend on institutional arrangements

that protect and enforce property rights and market

mechanisms that ensure prices reflect the opportunity

costs of environmental damage or resource exploitation.

For example, if prices and labels reflect the true cost

of unsustainable production, the adoption of sustainable

practices will be encouraged. Incentives should only be

used if they effectively encourage sustainable strategic

choices. Targeted measures supporting peoples access


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to sustainably produced nutritious food can be

implemented as needed.

Failure to adopt sustainable agriculture and food system

results in failure to guarantee food security to

consumers and therefore also harms the producers,ultimately resulting in an endless vicious cycle. In

order to establish a sustainable agricultural

infrastructure, strategic options and sustainable

practices should be implemented.

Often times, food security is difficult to achieve

because of lack of aid and care on these smallholders. In

regions like sub-Saharan Africa, where the agricultural

markets are not as smooth as they are in other developed

countries, smallholders role is very important in terms

of food availability and sustainability. Yet they areusually being ignored, because of difficulty in access to

the smallholders and that it requires a lot of time and

effort to reach every single smallholder, which is not

cost effective in governmental perspectives.

Smallholder Agriculture and Small-Scale Production

Systems

Importance of Smallholders

Smallholder agriculture has a central role to play

in increasing agricultural production sustainably and in

reducing poverty. Small-scale farmers and enterprises,many of them led by women, produce most of the worlds

food and should therefore be at the center of policies on

food and nutrition security. Efforts to connect

smallholder farmers to markets for example, through

food procurement operations in the context of

governmental stockholding for food security purposes or

for global food assistancecontribute to farmer

productivity.

The well-being of smallholders depends on their

maintaining access to natural, financial and technicalresources and hence these resources must be fully

protected. It is essential that any dealings involving

governments, smallholders and large-scale businesses be

conducted in the full respect for human rights.

Sustainable development of rural communities is also

vital in moving towards a Green Economy.

Peoples Access

Peoples access to the food they need depends on

food markets functioning well at local, national,

regional and global levels, and on their ability to payfor food. Open markets, together with rules and


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regulations that foster fair trade and the respect of

human rights all contribute to more equitable access.

Recourse to trade-distorting support policies and

protectionism should be avoided. In light of the existing

intergovernmental commitments, humanitarian foodpurchases should be exempted from export restrictions and

extraordinary taxes. Sustainable food value chains from

production, through processing, transport and trade, to

consumers increase the availability of food, generate

income, and help create and maintain decent green jobs.

In order to achieve food security through a sustainable

agricultural system, not only the producers have to adopt

effective methods, but also the consumers should have

access to the food market.

The problem is, many people including the producersand the consumers do not have adequate access routines to

the food markets. There is a lack of effective mediating

mechanism that allows smooth transactions between

consumers and producers, which seriously harms the food

availability and sustainability.

Climate Change

The recurring climate change and irregular weather

patterns have made achieving food security more difficult

by requiring more sophisticated region-specific approach

and methods to local agricultural industries. This thusresults in a more expensive installation of equipment and

technologies. Crops have to be selected or modified to

produce maximum yields and farmers have to get used to

new ways of farming.

Climate change makes the development and

introduction of drought-resistant African crop varieties

ever more important. For instance, FAO is currently

helping a number of African countries distribute a new

breed of rice, which was specifically designed for

Africas often harsh growing conditions and can yieldmore than three times as much as traditional varieties.

However, if agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa is to

advance beyond subsistence level or reach further than

local markets, major investments will be needed in

infrastructure. Growing food is not enough; it then has

to be moved to national and export markets, and this

calls for transport and communications infrastructure and

appropriate storage and cold-chain distribution

facilities.

Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO)


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The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United

Nations (FAO) is a specialized agency of the United

Nations that leads international efforts to defeat

hunger. Serving both developed and developing countries,

FAO acts as a neutral forum where all nations meet asequals to negotiate agreements and debate policy. FAO is

also a source of knowledge and information, and helps

developing countries and countries in transition

modernize and improve agriculture, forestry and fisheries

practices, ensuring good nutrition and food security for

all. Its Latin motto, fiat panis, translates into

English as "let there be bread". As of 8 August, 2013,

FAO has 194 member states, along with the European Union

as a member organization, and the Faroe Islands and

Tokelau, which are associate members.

MDG Africa Steering Group

Recognizing that the region poses a special problem,

the United Nations, in September 2007, launched a new

high-level international development initiative, the MDG

Africa Steering Group, to help put Africa back on track

towards achieving the MDGs. Along with the African Union,

FAO will provide leadership in the Steering Group, whichincludes UN agencies and other major international and

regional organizations, on issues relating to agriculture

and food security. Efforts to reduce hunger in Africa

have been hampered by natural and human-induced

disasters, including conflicts and the spread of

HIV/AIDS. And while economic growth in a number of

African countries has been impressive over the last few

years, the evidence is that growth alone, in the absence

of specific measures to combat hunger, may leave a large

number of people behind, particularly in rural areas.

Special Programme for Food Security (SPFS)

The flagship initiative on hunger reduction of the

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

(FAO)is being scaled up to the National Programme for

Food Security (NPFS). In over 100 countries worldwide,

these programmes promote effective solutions towards the

elimination of hunger,

undernourishment and poverty. More than $770 million from

donors and national governments have been invested in

FAO-supported food security programmes, which promote

national ownership and local empowerment. Almost half ofthese programmes are in sub-Saharan Africa, where the


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highest concentration of malnutrition is to be found and

where one in three people suffered from chronic hunger in

2001-2003. The situation is complicated by rapid

population growth and, now, by high vulnerability to

climate change.

Evaluation of Previous Attempts to Resolve the Issue

Although the concept of food security has emerged in

1943 and since then countries have tried to resolve the

issue. There are some achievements made. Improved

household food security has been achieved in two ways,

through a greater variety of nutritious food produced and

consumed by farm families, and through the increase of

income from selling farm products promoted by the

Project. More and more an income increase may also be the

consequence of better marketing and higher prices thatfarm families get for their products.

Resolution A/RES/65/178on agricultural development and

food security, passed in 2010, addresses the food

security problems more specifically in African countries,

where most basic agricultural infrastructures have not

been fully established yet. It calls for actions and

supports towards the region, yet does not suggest enough

practical solution to the root causes. It is valuable in

a sense that it approaches through improving the

agricultural sectors.

Resolution A/RES/66/220on agricultural development and

food security, passed in 2011, also addresses the

agricultural development and food security. It also

discusses the African countries. This resolution further

extends upon the previous resolution, and calls for

development and installation of sustainable agricultural

infrastructure. It stresses the importance of all-around

approach towards the issue.

Resolution A/RES/67/174on the right to food stressesthat all people including those suffering from

malnutrition and food insecurity are rightful in their

attempts to access of food.

In spite of the several resolutions regarding the

food security and sustainable development, there are

still a lot of people suffering from food insecurity.

There are still 870 million people, or one in eight of

the people living in the earth are undernourished. Of

these people, 852 million are in developing nations.

Possible Solutions


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Ending hunger and malnutrition is an essential part

of sustainable development. To do so, policies and

investments for food and nutrition security should have

characteristics such as but not limited to encouraging

the production of more food while protecting naturalresources and supporting inclusive rural development;

reducing waste and losses along the food value chain from

producer to consumer; enabling all people to secure year-

round access to the varieties of food required for good

nutrition, including through stable, open, well-

functioning markets and food supply systems; ensuring

that households and all individuals within them are able

to purchase, access and use the food they need through

benefiting from adequate productive resources, decent

work and job opportunities, well-designed social

protection and food assistance programs, with safety netsthat protect the food security and productive potential

of the most vulnerable and knowledge and understanding on

nutrition and care, especially needs in prenatal care and

childhood.

Comprehensive economic and social analyses,

reflecting the full costs and benefits of natural

resource use in food value chains, can help governments,

farmers, businesses, consumers and others to evaluate

options, identify synergies and make better choices. A

combination of participatory processes and sound analysesis needed to establish the policies, prices and

incentives to encourage sustainable agriculture and food

systems.

There is no single blueprint for sustainable agriculture

and food security, and no one set of policies is globally

applicable. Policy choices are best informed through

economic analyses that take account of the local

environmental and social realities. Implementation should

be scaled up in ways that take account of local

conditions and national priorities. Strategies for

sustainable implementation will vary between landscapes,social contexts, climates and ecosystems. Hence local

communities need to participate in identifying and

implementing the strategies and to help establish the

right incentives.

There is no single blueprint for sustainable

agriculture and food security, and no one set of policies

is globally applicable. Policy choices are best informed

through economic analyses that take account of the local

environmental and social realities. Implementation should

be scaled up in ways that take account of localconditions and national priorities. Strategies for


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sustainable implementation will vary between landscapes,

social contexts, climates and ecosystems. Hence local

communities need to participate in identifying and

implementing the strategies and to help establish the

right incentives.


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Promoting MDG 2: Primary Universal Education

GOAL 2: ACHIEVE UNIVERSAL PRIMARY EDUCATION

GOAL 2.A: Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere, boysand girls alike, will be able to complete a full course

of primary schooling

Of all the [millennium] goals, educating children

particularly girls has the greatest impact on

eliminating poverty. Studies show that an extra year of

secondary schooling for girls can increase their future

wages by 10 to 20%. World Bank

Through studies by various organizations, including

UNDP, UNESCO and the World Bank, it has been shown thatwith a basic primary education, future generations are

more likely to achieve higher and be more successful in

life. With basic literacy and numeracy abilities,

children are more likely to begin distinguishing the

rights and wrongs in life. UNDP research programs have

shown that with a completed compulsory education for a

child in Less Economically Developed Countries (LEDCs)

can assist the children in understanding basic right and

wrong, and often times allow children to resist when

forced to participate as child soldiers or sex trades. A

basic compulsory education allows children to read andlearn even after graduating from primary (elementary)

school for they can continue to read on their own and

develop more logical concepts.

The education given in elementary school is

primarily to establish a basis for students to continue

learning by themselves. The goal of MDG 2 is to allow

this to begin in order to assist in the development of

education, combat the issues of child soldier, illegal

sex trade of young children, and to combat poverty.

United Nations has published and stated that enrollmentin primary education in developing regions has reached

90% in a major statistical research in late 2011, a

significant statistic that shows that this goal is nearly

complete. The remaining 10%, approximately 57 million

children, however, are still out of school.

Major Steps Taken

Prior to the creation of the MDG, the idea of

promoting education was already stressed as a major step

in development, and was often promoted in resolutions.

Education is a primary source of development for itpromotes the future generations ability to make decision


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the better the education, the better the next

generation will be at making decisions. The major steps

taken prior to the creation of the MDGs are primarily

initiated by loans given by the World Bank and/or UNDP,

where these loans have been issued to developing memberstates under low interest rates in order to construct

schools and begin educational programs. After the

establishment of the MDGs, the education goal took a

sharp turn positively.

Many organizations began to focus on this issue by

assisting through donations of funds, resources,

facilities, and most importantly time. More than 10,000

schools have been built in Eastern Africa, resulting in a

major success. These steps, however, are slowing down

ever since the United Nations has published that the goalis achievable, nations have been supporting this issue

less. It is still important for all members of the United

Nations to continue to assist in aiding this issue until

it is fully accomplished.

Cost-Efficiency

Cost efficiency, or the cost-effectiveness, is the

extent in which a nation is able to achieve its purpose

with the loans given to the budget allocated to the

assistance provided. It is one of the main issues of

achieving the MDG 2, for there is a finite amount ofmoney given to each nation in order to assist their

construction of schools and to upkeep it. There is a need

for cost-efficiency schools to be constructed with

maximized quality of education in order to guarantee the

success of the childs education.

Sanitization

School is a place where large amounts of students go

through each day, especially in small schools in the

underdeveloped regions where more than 50 students mayhave to be crammed into one small room for each class,

causing a sanitation issue. Sanitation issues can include

unsanitary toilets, food, equipment and resources.

Students who attend the classes may easily be infected by

one another. There will be a need to guarantee the

sanitation of the school, especially those of the LEDCs

in order to prevent major spread of diseases and to

further gain the trust of families in these

underdeveloped regions.

Teachers and/or Faculty


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The teachers and/or faculty must be able to teach in

the local dialect and allow students to establish a basic

level of literacy and numeracy abilities and be able to

work with large amounts of students. These teachers must

be trained in order to establish a strong educationalsystem. In the past, there have been methods to use

foreign teachers. However, this has been proven a bad

method for the students need to learn to read and write

in the local dialect in order to be more successful.

Teachers who are not trained properly are inefficient

ways to spend the fund. Spending money to train proper

teachers will cast a greater effect other than just

achieving primary education but to allow the education

to be truly useful in combating poverty eradication.

Gender InequalityThe issue of gender inequality is once again an

issue when discussing education, for the majority of the

people receiving education is still the male population.

Gender equality rooted from past sexism in under-

developed nations, where societies generally held the

belief that the men in the family are in charge, and

women only played the role of reproduction. This is,

however, wrong in the modern world. Despite gender

inequality being less of an issue, there are still

regions in which more than 70% of the students enrolled

being boys. Females are still a major essence to thedevelopment and poverty eradication of any nation. With a

basic education, female students with minimum of 5 years

of education understand how to deal skills needed in life

better, as well as promoting late-marriage and late-

sexual activity.

The World Bank

Fight Against EducationThe World Bank, for the past 50 years, have worked

directly with the International Development Association

(IDA) to build educational systems. With the help of theIDA, the World Bank has trained more than 3 million

additional teachers and built or renovated more than 2

million classrooms. This has allowed more than 105

million children to begin their primary education. Along

with the education, the World Bank has also assisted in

purchasing and/or distribution hundreds of millions of

textbooks.

Statistics and ResultsAccording to the World Bank, researches have shown that a

girl with a 5th grade education is likelier to decrease

her chances of AIDS/HIV infection, find employment in


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life, seek medical care, vote, and gain access to credit.

All of these factors can successfully assist in achieving

the MDG goals. With the assist of the World Bank, the

world was able to have two-thirds (2/3) of developing

nations reach gender parity in primary schools. Otherthan that, the World Bank has directly funded 3 fragile

states in which have successfully achieved MDG 2 as of

2009, whereas more are underway.

United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF)

UNICEF is another branch of United Nations in which

directly focuses their humanitarian aid towards children.

This organization generally provides children with health

inspections, food, clothing, shelter, protection, and

most importantly education.

Methods used by UNICEFUNICEF, throughout the past 40 years, has continuously

assisted in building schools throughout under-developed

and developing regions. UNICEF published a report in 2008

stating a need for incentives in order to have a higher

enrollment rate. Methods taken by UNICEF include

positioning the organizations medical checks, food and/or

humanitarian aids, and other programs directly in the

schools where students are being educated. This method

was successful through statistical information providedby UNICEF in their report in 2011.

The United Nations Population Fund

The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) is an

international development agency that promotes the right

of every living person to enjoy a life of health and

equal opportunity. The UNFPA has directly assisted in

tackling the issue of equality between male and female

enrolled in education by promoting education for women in

sub-Saharan regions with the assistance of UNICEF and

UNDP.

United Kingdom

United Kingdom is one of the nations that fund the

most significant amount of money and resources for

nations in UNICEF to be directed to South East Asian

nations as well as nations in Africa that remain

underdeveloped. This nation supports the issue by

researching deeply into developing methods to solve this

issue. Some of the biggest campaigns led by UNICEF are

based on methods developed by United Kingdom such as

that of promoting health care within education centers


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for children, methods for promoting gender equality

within classrooms, etc.

In 2008,the world suffered from a recession, resulting

in significant drops in funding for education and lack ofresources supplied to many schools in Sub- Saharan

Africa. Large amounts of children were dropping out of

school and many did not finish primary education


Throughout the past years, there has been hundreds

of organizations in which participated to assist in

completing this goal. The majority of the organizations

assisted by donating money to local governments in which

construct schools through the support and monitoring of

international organizations. This has been successful forthe first few years, by simply constructing a school a

large amount of families have decided to allow their

children to be educated in school. This is the primary

reason why this particular MDG had a sudden boost in

percentage completed, and within the first 10 years,

approximately 50 million students were put into school.

Behind this entire operation of constructing school,

many actions were also taken to better satisfy the

quality of education of the children. First, the majority

of the governments had begun spending a higher percent ofits GDP on education, allowing more teachers to be

trained properly for teaching. The quality of education

has thus increased. The issue, however, is not the

teachers at the school teaching, but rather the lack of

additional adults at these schools. Prior to 2005,

schools were often attacked, causing large amounts of

child abduction and increase in child soldiers. This

issue has been tackled by 2009, when World Bank has

planned out strategized locations and methods to protect

the childs safety. The primary problem today is to

encourage families to allow their children to come outfor education and provide reasons to allow them to

entrust their children to the schools that have been

constructed.

Possible Solutions

It has now been 13 years since the establishment of

the MDGs, and MDG 2 is far into its path to success. The

amount of children who are now enrolled has increased

significantly, and is continuing to increase. However, at

this rate, the goal will not be completed by 2015.

Governments, especially LEDCs, should continue to work


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directly with organizations such as the IDA, World Bank,

UNICEF, and UNDP in order to reach this goal sooner.

Some of the actions all developing member states

should take is to increase government spending on

education programs for children. The money put intoeducational programs by the government as well as funding

organizations such as the World Bank should accomplish a

series of necessary goals. First, teachers will be

required to teach quality information to the children;

these teachers will have to be hired and/or trained.

Second, facilities for education must be built in order

to allow students to feel like they are having a safe

environment when studying. Third, a minority of the money

should be invested in promoting education within each

nation, methods can differ depending on nations, however,

definitely providing incentives.

Other allocations of money that should be considered

include sanitation and promoting gender equality. The

issue of sanitation in underdeveloped regions is vital in

the protection of the childrens health. UNICEF has

currently assisted many schools in creating a method of

sanitization in order to ensure the safety of the

children from these hazardous infections. Promotion of

gender equality is also vital. In order to create a

strong nation, studies show that promotion of women

rights can assist significantly. Women who are noteducated often result in participating in sexual

activities at young ages and having large families in

which the families cannot support for. If this issue can

be tackled, poverty eradication will be one significant

step forward. The promotion of gender equality within

these primary education schools is thus important in the

following years.

Governments should incentivize families to allow

children to receive education in order to increase the

enrollment rates. Many families choose not to educatetheir children due to issues of safety and/or money.

This, however, should not be a problem because education

is the primary step towards building a safer society.

Governments should consider offering free education or

education at low prices.


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Sustainable Development and ICT challenges: Connectingthe Unconnected

The dramatic advancements and changes in technology

and economics of communications allowed for the expansionof communication access as well as a wider ranges of

communication services. These changes greatly affected

economic and social structures as well as individual

behavior. ICTs have been a major driving force of

globalization in capital, labor, as well as product

markets. Immediate communication also becomes more

readily available. In addition, the Internet has

transformed the availability of information and

drastically changed several traditional structures.

In addition, the sustainability framework, set bythe Earth Summits of 1992 and 2002, considered three

elements of sustainability to be of great importance:

economic development, social development, and

environmental protection. Without access ICTs, global

communication and knowledge exchange are hindered. These

issues affect our ability to manage the economic, social,

and environmental sides of sustainable development. Thus,

it is essential to be able to provide ICTs to those

without access because not only will their lives improve

in aspects such as basic health case, education, and

information access, lifting them up from infopoverty,sustainability issues can be more easily addressed with

more involvement from a larger group of people. More

importantly, the United Nations has made it a goal,

through Target 8F of the Millennium Development Goals

(MDGs) to make the benefits of new technologies,

especially information and communications, available to

all.

World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS)

In 2001, the UN General Assembly approved Resolution

56/183, which endorsed the holding of the WSIS to discussopportunities and challenges in the information society,

in response to the UN Millennium Declaration, which

targeted implementing ICTs to facilitate achieving the

MDGs. The WSIS Research was two of the conferences

sponsored by the United Nations with main focuses on

information, communication, and information society in

general. The two conferences took place in Geneva,

Switzerland, in 2003, and in Tunis, Tunisia, in 2005. The

WSISs main aim was to connect the gap between the global

digital divide, which exists between more economically

developed countries (MEDCs) and less economically


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developed countries (LEDCs), by expanding Internet access

in the developing world.

With delegates from 175 countries, the Geneva Summit

adopted a Declaration of Principles, which essentiallywas a road map for achieving an accessible information

society. A Plan of Action was also developed which set a

goal for connecting 50 percent of the worlds population

to the online world by 2015. The Tunis Summit also then

attracted 1,500 people from international organizations,

6,200 from non- governmental organizations (NGOs), 4,800

from the private sector, as well as 980 from the media.

The summit resulted in the Tunis Commitment, the Tunis

Agenda for the Information Society, and the establishment

of the Internet Governance Forum. The Tunis Summit (also

known as the second phase) had an objective of puttingGenevas Plan of Action into motion as well as finding

solutions and reaching agreements in the fields of

Internet governance and financing mechanisms.

History and Geography

Several countries suffer from not being able to

connect the unconnected because of their history and

geography. History and geography together shape the

lifestyle of the people, which in some cases hinders

development and ICT implementation. At times, people are

so adapted to their lifestyle that they become reluctantin making use of communication technologies. Geography,

too, by itself also is a key issue that makes connecting

the unconnected a difficult task. In many countries, a

large majority of its population lives in the capital

city.

Beyond that, however, the population density outside

of large cities becomes extremely small, making

establishing telecommunication systems ineffective and

inefficient. Large distances and sparse population make

it difficult for such systems to extend. The UnitedNations Development Program (UNDP) dubs these challenges

in geography as the tyranny of distance.

Mongolia is an excellent example of how history and

geography pose as major difficulties of creating access

to ICTs. Mongolia is a vast country with 1.6 million

square kilometers of area and a population of

approximately 2.7 million people. Of these 2.7 people,

one million live in the capital city of Ulaanbaatar while

the population density outside of Ulaanbaatar is a mere

one person per square kilometer. Additionally, more thana third of its population still has nomadic lifestyles


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and hence any communication between these people is very

difficult because of the distances and constant movement

involved.

Lack of Electricity AccessIt is evident that the establishment and use of ICTs

for the most part will require some sort of access to

electricity. However, with more than 1.3 billion people

world wide (as of 2011) without any access to

electricity, any form of technology may not be added. The

lack of consistent and affordable electricity impedes the

deployment of ICTs especially in rural areas. With no

main power source, or no stable power source for

electricity, electricity becomes unreliable and unstable,

affecting the rate at which ICT can diffuse to

unconnected areas. Electricity concerns also makeprovision of ICT access rather inefficient and not cost-

effective. In addition, with the lack of electricity

access, being connected to ICTs may not be of any concern

at all as many of the people without electricity are

essentially faced with the lack of the most basic

services such as health care and education.

Environmental Challenges

There are key issues tied to the environment that

are inevitable when trying to increase ICT access. These

issues are in interplay with each other and areunavoidable. This is especially because such unconnected

areas are in LEDCs and least developed countries (LDCs),

and these areas are prone to certain environment

conditions that cannot be controlled with the resources

already available. There are also other concerns about

ICTs themselves that may pose a threat towards the

environment.

Physical Environmental Challenges

The physical environment in most remote areas can be

characterized by some sort of combination of heat, dust,and humidity, a combination that is a challenge for most

computers and communication technologies. Many of these

devices generate large amounts of heat, and if not

properly dissipated, their performance deteriorates to a

point that they may in fact seem inoperable. Dust also

contributes to impeding heat dissipation. It also

jeopardizes sensitive electronics by shorting circuits

and impeding airflow. Humidity also leads to corrosion,

condensation, and the build up of mold. All of these

issues cause problems to the lifespan of the equipment.

Undoubtedly, this issue makes providing effective accessto ICT difficult and not cost-effective, which may be a


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concern to many investors who may be interested in

helping combat the absence of ICTs in developing

countries.

Effects of ICTs on the EnvironmentWith climate change and environmental sustainability

becoming a concern of many, one must become aware of the

effects ICTs may have on such issues. Implementing some

forms of ICTs may prove to be electrically wasteful.

Although ICTs can be used to facilitate a more knowledge-

based society in order to combat climate and

environmental damage, the use of ICTs can also act as a

contributor to environmental damage through energy usage,

emissions, and pollution from disposal. These matters

must also be taken into account when providing ICT access

to those without it and thus, as a burgeoning concern,increases the difficulty of doing so.

Financing Challenges

Not much is known about the exact costs of providing

ICTs to unconnected areas and communities. With the

current economy as well as budgetary and resource

constraints, a widespread investment in ICTs (in any

capacity) is probably not very possible in a large

majority of developing countries. Also, investment incertain areas and placing ICT facilities in different

locations will lead to different effects. In the past,

placing such facilities in unsuitable places may prove to

be less cost effective, creating a larger financial

burden than should be.

Additionally, financing for ICTs may have large

costs, both up-front and for maintenance. Governments as

well as related sectors tend to rely on different types

of financing as well as cost recovery mechanisms such as

loans and public-private partnerships (PPPs). Theeffectiveness of these mechanisms may not have been

studied thoroughly in this context and thus, current

mechanisms in use or ones that have been used may not

have been in the best interest of the population as

different communities will have different characteristics

and needs and frameworks adapted may not be completely

applicable in every case.

Other Key Issues

There are also several other challenges, such as

human resources and institutional obstacles that createissues and difficulties for connecting people to ICTs.


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Inexperienced ICT users, a lack of trained technical

support, uncoordinated or absent governance mechanisms or

inadequate framework, and lack of monitoring are among

the many other key challenges. Inexperienced users may

create problems for attempting effective use of ICTs, andthus requires technical support and maintenance. However,

in rural areas, these people might not be available and

thus such support is not present. Without technical

support, maintaining functioning ICT devices may be

difficult and ineffective and the lifespan of such

devices may also risk being shortened.

With the absence of governance mechanisms or

inadequate implementation framework, programs aimed to

connect the unconnected become inefficient as the plans

may not be entirely suitable for certain areas andimportant aspects of the issue may be overlooked, either

intentionally because of corruption. The lack of

monitoring personnel or facilities also provides space

for ineffective practice. Monitoring allows for any

inefficiencies, corruption and issues to be properly and

immediately tackled. However, without such, problems may

be left unsolved for a long time, which, again,

contributes to a waste of resources that can be spent on

improving access in other areas.

International Telecommunication Union (ITU)The ITU is a UN agency that specializes in ICTs and is

committed to connecting the world. The ITU consists of

over 190 states and 700 companies, academia members and

associates, and is an international umbrella that brings

together all telecommunication stakeholders. It launched

a series of summits called Connect the World Summits in

order to grasp the opportunities that ICTs provide in

terms of competitiveness and social development. In

addition, it has pledged cooperation to facilitate ICT

development programs, such as in the Pacific Island

region.

International Institute for Sustainable Development

(IISD)

The challenge of sustainability and its relationship with

global economic, social, and technological trends has

been one of the IISDs concerns since its formation in

1990. Its Global Connectivity program has also focused

for more a long period of time on the impact of ICTs,

especially in the Internet, on sustainability and in

changing the underlying framework of economic, social,

and environmental policy. The IISD is a Canadian-based,international public policy research institute for


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sustainable development. The IISD promotes the transition

toward a more sustainable future with the use of policy

research, information exchange, analysis, and advocacy.

Such tools can be used to further understand the impact

of ICTs on sustainable development, to evaluate progressso that relevant sectors can improve the efficiency of

programs geared towards connecting the unconnected.

Pacific Island Nations

The stance of several Pacific Island nations on ICT

development became more evident after the Pacific ICT

Ministerial Forum: Connecting the Unconnected, which was

held in 2009 in Tonga. Up to thirteen ICT ministers from

different Pacific Island nations, also including twoprime ministers, came to a consensus to set priorities

and actions in order to spur ICT development with the

partnership of the ITU. Together, participating

governments called for better cooperation and

coordination among partners to minimize any overlap and

maximize the impact of ICT development projects and

investments.

Financial institutions

There have been several financial entities that have

pledged support for projects and programs driven toimprove the ICT access situation as the importance of

ICTs becomes increasingly apparent and pertinent to

sustainable development. The World Bank has promised to

double their aid flows into the ICT sector specifically

to $2 billion by the year 2012. Additionally, the African

Development Bank as well as the EU amongst many have also

made pledges to help increase their role as stakeholders.

September 2000: The MDGs were signed and developed out of

the Millennium Declaration. Several goals pertain to ICT,

such as Target 8F.

December 21, 2001: The UN General Assembly passed

Resolution 56/183, endorsing the holding of the World

Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) in two phases.

December 10-12, 2003: The Geneva Summit, the first phase

of the WSIS, was held.

November 16-18, 2005: The Tunis Summit, the second phase

of the WSIS, was held and subsequently, May 17th was

declared World Information Society Day. The WorldInformation Society Days main objective is to raise


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global awareness of societal changes brought about by

ICTs.


In 2002 and 2003, the then UN Secretary-General,Kofi Annan, challenged the tycoons of Silicon Valley

bring more of its remarkable dynamism and innovation to

the developing world. He also issued a challenge for

them to create computer and communication systems that

would allow villages to afford ICT4D. Several of the

projects that stemmed from this challenge include

computer movements (such as the Simputer movement), the

creation of free wireless systems and initiating lab

programs for the development of cheap devices that will

connect the unconnected (such as the MIT Media Lab).

Despite the fact that it seemed that those involved wereoveroptimistic about what their gadgets could do to

improve the situation, change has been seen, however

small. Generally, the attempts made in response to Kofi

Annans challenge were sufficient on a small scale, and

allowed for progress towards connecting the unconnected.

There have also been several attempts using the One

Laptop per Child (OLPC) program around the world in an

attempt to connect more people to the Internet, mostly to

improve education. However, it is noteworthy because

those who were originally unconnected were allowed tobecome connected and the improvement in education results

may lead to sustainable development. Among the many

successful OLPC program worldwide, several were also

considered failures. The OLPC program in Peru, for

example, failed to meet to live up to its goals. Peru

chose to focus its program in isolated, rural areas. This

may seem promising, however, areas such as these have

virtually no support staff and dont have anyone with

experience using computers. Additionally, the funding was

centered on costs of hardware and deployment with little

to no budget created for improving connectivity orplanning.

Another notable aspect of improving prospects of

connecting the unconnected is seen in the WSIS

conferences and their progress. The WSIS has been

successful in drawing their Plan of Action as well as

their Declaration of Principles. The Geneva Summit, the

first phase of the Summit, left the question of Internet

governance as well as funding unresolved. However, in the

second phase of the Summit, in documents on financial

mechanisms, governments acknowledged the insufficiency offinancing provided as well as measures taken until then


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to building an information society as planned. Also, the

WSIS conferences were criticized. Governments could not

come to an agreement on the principle of a financial

effort to overcome the digital divide, which was the

purpose of the Summit. Some civil society groups evenwent so far as to reject the term digital divide.

Possible Solutions

With regards to possible solutions, the most

important issues to tackle are the ones mentioned in the

Key Issues section of this report. History and geography

are particularly difficult to overcome, however, some

kind of mechanism must be developed to prevail over the

existing lifestyle of people in different communities and

societies. Additionally, the lack of electricity access

is also a large issue and must be tackled in tandem withICT challenges in order to increase the number of people

with access to ICTs and improve sustainable development

prospects. Any framework and financing system

implementation must also be carefully planned prior to

execution to ensure maximum efficiency and effectiveness.

Different areas have different characteristics and needs

and no framework is universally applicable. Installing

monitoring mechanisms and systems could ensure maximum

efficiency. Doing so will also help track any corruption

that hinders the progress of this issue. With this,

environment challenges must be kept in mind to maximizecost-effectiveness and minimize any damage done on the

environment and the climate.

There are several other suggestions that can be

expanded upon to improve ICT distribution for

sustainability. There is a large and unused potential to

save energy if software for energy efficiency are

designed. Energy consumption can be systematically

lessened and will save costs that can be used to increase

the number of people gaining access to ICTs. Programs and

competitions that encourage such software development mayprove to be useful in this case not only in the context

of allowing for the creation of power-saving software,

but also in the context of raising awareness of the

importance of ICTs in sustainable development. Efforts

are also needed to reduce hardware obsolescence and to

increase the lifespan of ICT hardware in order to make

any installation as efficient and cost-effective as

possible.

In addition, similar to former Secretary General

Kofi Annans challenge to Silicon Valley, challenges forprojects and plans to improve access to ICTs may prove to


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not only raise more awareness, but to initiate innovative

plans that may surpass the projects already in place in

the present. However, no matter how innovative such plans

are, it is always important to consider the maintenance

of the ICT facilities being installed. Most of theregions where ICTs are slowly reaching do not have much

experience with the hardware, and it is very important to

train technical support or maintenance personnel in order

to ensure a long lasting system and that the connection

being created is stable and reliable.

Lastly, there are certain issues that impede the

proper implementation of ICTs. For the most part, ICTs

can be unfriendly to the environment and may require

large financial resources for efficient distribution. It

is important to keep in mind the three important aspectsof sustainability in the process of granting the

unconnected access to ICTs. These aspects include

sustainable production, sustainable consumption, and

sustainable organization.


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Reducing the Number of Deaths Due to Lack of Access toSanitation

One of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

established by the United Nations to be achieved by 2015is to combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases (Goal

6). A large proportion of such diseases are preventable

and caused by lack of access to sanitation. Goal 7

concerning environmental sustainability also aims to

halve the proportion of people of the population without

sustainable access to safe drinking as well as basic

sanitation. In this, the proportion of the urban

population with improved sanitation is targeted.

Lack of Awareness and Knowledge

A large proportion of the population do not realizethe benefits, both in health and the economy, that come

with sanitation on the individual level, the community

leve

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