Ecology of the Chinese Peasant Household

The House-Field-Town Nexus and its Decline in the Qing

An accompaniment to chapter 3 of An Ecohistory of People’s China

Stevan HarrellRevised for Han Chinese Society and Culture

6 February 2013

Historical Frequency of Floods and Droughts in the Wei River Plain

Source, Yin Shuyan et al., Historical Drought and Water disasters in the Weihe Plain. Acta Geographica Sinica 15(1):197-205, 2005.

Qing—Disturbance and slow variables

Qing slow variables:Population growth (Oct 5)Agricultural extension and Intensification (Oct 10)Increased water capture(Oct 12)The house-field-town nexus and the decline in its resilience (today, October 24)

Qing--Hysteresis

Qing Hystereses:Eroded landsAltered watercoursesOvertaxed institutions (today we concentrate on household level)

P r o d u c t i v i t y

R e

s I i

e n

c e

Waterworks as illustration of the curvilinear relationship between productivity/intensification and resilience

Start with irregular rainfallBuild a reservoirReservoir contains excess in big stormsReservoir retains water in droughtsNatural events don’t become disastersHarvests become more reliable

Reclaim more landReservoir can’t release water, exceeds capacityCommunity more dependent on lands that will floodNatural events become disasters

Resilience varies directly with productivity

Resilience varies inversely with productivity

Intensification

The Household Developmental Cycle

Nuclear Stem Joint Nuclear

The House-Field-Town Nexus

Wat

er

Fuel, Wild foods, Ecosystem services

Construction materials

Forest and

Pasture

Fields

House Village

TownSales, Rents, TaxesPurchases

Food

, Fib

erFe

rtiliz

erW

ate

r

Cooperation

Figure 3-3Flows of Household Goods and ServicesSolid arrows are private goodsDashed arrows are common pool goodsImportance of flows is roughly proportional to weights of arrows.

Cooperati

on

Affines’Village

Household’s Own Field

The house-field-town nexus

The house-field-town nexus: materials and ventilation

The house-field-town nexus: House plans and spirits

The house-field-town nexus: House plans and household structure

The house-field-town nexus: The Village as an agglomeration of houses with obligations of reciprocity

The house-field-town nexus

The house-field-town nexus: Private resources

The house-field-town nexus: Resource Commons

The house-field-town nexus

Market

State

Landlords

Buffers or Guarantors• Infrastructure: mostly waterworks • Institutions

– Kin groups– Irrigation Associations– Temples

• Beliefs and values: See descriptions in Fei, Yang, Leonard, etc. – Frugality– Recycling– Generational Continuity– Within-community Reciprocity

• Ecological buffers– Wetlands– Forests: Recall Elvin and Marks– Fallow land– Ungrazed pasture

Population Growth in the Qing and PRC

www.chinaprofile.comKent G. Deng, Unveiling China’s true population statistics for the pre-modern era from census data. Population Review 43 (2), 2004

food, feed, clothing, construction mat.

sales, rents, taxespurchases

fertilizers

Energy

(s+r+t)-p=exploitationWithin bounds=moral economy

Rough balanceGuarantors Infrastructure Institutions Values Eco. buffers

Flows in the house-field-town nexus

food, feed, clothing, construction mat.

sales, rents, taxespurchases

fertilizers

Energy

(s+r+t)-p=exploitation

Rough balanceGuarantors Infrastructure Institutions Values Eco. buffers

Slow variable change in the house-field-town nexus

DepletesTopsoilForest biomassGround waterGame animals, etc

food, feed, clothing, construction mat.

fertilizers

EnergyNew World crops in hilly areas as slow variables

IncreasesFertilityPopulationArea Planted

DepletesTopsoilForest biomassWetland reserves

Weakens Guarantors Infrastructure Institutions Values Eco. buffers

food, feed, clothing, construction mat.

fertilizers

EnergyPopulation explosion as slow variable

IncreasesFertilityPopulationArea Planted

DepletesTopsoilForest biomassWetland reserves

Weakens guarantorsInfrastructure maintenanceAdaptability of institutions

Summary of Loss of Ecosystem Resilience in the Qing Dynasty

INSTITUTIONS

INFRASTRUCTURE

ECOLOGICALBUFFERS

VALUES

Wetlands reclaimedForests converted to grainPastures grazed more intenselySwidden cycle shortened

Strain increasedMore locked inMaintenance deteriorates

Limited adaptation to new environmentsReaching capacity in rule-making and adjudicationMigration and refugees disturb composition

Desperation leads to re-evaluation of self-interestValue transmission and teaching disrupted

Positive Feedback Loops Within the House-Field Axis

Convert Forest to Arable

Increased runoff

Soil Loss

Flooding

Lower Productivity

Need for more land

Positive Feedback Loops Within the House-Field Axis

Reclaim Wetland

Lose buffer against storms Flooding Lower

Productivity

Need for more land

Positive Feedback Loops Within the House-Town Axis

More demand on granaries Less tax collection

Less relief and market grain

Decreased resilience in the house-town axisInstitutions of granaries and market fail as guarantors

Moral economy disrupted

Prices rise

Less cooperation

Tax evasion

More state coercion

Positive Feedback Loops Between the House-Field and the House-Town Axes

Reclaim Wetland

Lose buffer against storms Flooding

Less reliability of crop

Less goodsConvert Forest to Arable

Decreased resilience in the house-field axis:Ecosystem buffer fails as guarantor

More demand on granaries

Less tax collection

Less relief and market grain

Decreased resilience in the house-town axisInstitutions of granaries and market fail as guarantors

Moral economy disrupted

Prices rise

Refugees

Rebels

Decreased resilience on both axes, community institutions and values fail as guarantors

Implications for Resilience Theory

• System can remain in backloop for a long time

100-150 years

Implications for Resilience Theory• Or chaos of late Qing can be seen as alternative

stable state

Population Growth

GuarantorWeakening

Weather eventsMilitary actions

Increased exploitation

Mid-Ming System State

Late Qing System State