Ecological Anthropology: Hunting and Gathering, The Origins of Food Production,Horticulture and Pastoralism

Chapters 5, 6, 7, 8, pages 125-249 in Introduction to Cultural Ecology by Mark Sutton and E.N. Anderson

Chapter Five: Hunting and GatheringUntil about 10 thousand years ago all humans were hunters and gatherers (exploiters of wild resources rather than domesticated) Foraging, moving about a landscape with no permanent dwelling, is now the more accepted term Four Characteristics:Under produce resources, few material possessionsRoutinely share foodTend to be egalitarianDivision of labor by gender, men hunt & women gather

Bias in Hunter-Gather Studies Privileging the hunter (male) when gathering (female) often provided as many or more caloriesLeast evolved or most primitive society when their adaptive success (i.e. Australian Aboriginal 50K years) dwarfs agricultural or industrial societyContemporary examples found on marginal land when they often existed in areas rich in resources. Marshall Sahlins called them the original affluent society working less and having less population pressure than agricultural or industrial societies

Settlement and SubsistenceSeasonal round: movement to attain and monitor and share information about their environment and to maximize the exploitation of resources Strategy: A general long-term plan to attain information and make a livingTactic: A specific method of obtaining information and exploiting a resource

Case Study: The Nuu-Chan Nulth of British ColumbiaOccupied and area of abundant diverse resources, i.e. five species of salmon named individually with the general term salmon never usedPotlatch: A complex cycle of gift giving ceremonies that used the display and transfer of material wealth to validate and increase social status and kinship solidarity

The Nuu-ChanNulthLittle environmental manipulationAll things animals, trees, and rocks had spirits and had to be treated as one would treat a human. Stripping bark would entail asking the tree permission and providing explanationWhaling would require months-long ceremonies

Case Study: The Mbuti of the Ituri Forest in Central AfricaMutualistic or interdependent relationship between the Mbuti (mythic pygmies or short people of Darkest Africa) and neighboring Bila agriculturalistsDepend on each other for traded goods and diverse environmental exploitation and manipulation

The Mbuti and Bila of the Ituri Forest in Central AfricaMbuti childern of the Forest material possessions of little value, instead happiness and well-beingManage the benevolent forest through ritual, maintaining a ceremonial relationship, only hungry Mbuti is a lazy Mbuti. See themselves as superior to stupid BilaBila fear the forest, as farmers they see themselves as superior adults to childlike materially poor Mbuti who require their assistance for survivalMbuti and Bila interdependence has strengthened with outside civil strife

Chapter Six: The OriginsOf Food Production10,000 B.P. humans began to domesticate plants and animals in the Middle East and form interdependent relationships with some select speciesExamples: wheat, barley, dogs, sheep, and goatsThey also began altering landscapes through the clearing of field and the diversion of rivers and streams

The Transition to AgricultureHunting and gathering and Agriculture Co-evolved, utilization of wild and domesticated resources the normThree factors led to Agricultures growthEnvironmental Change: Warmer and Dryer ClimatePopulation Pressure: Human population expansion required additional food Organizational Change: Groups began to utilize resources more effectively

The Impact of Agriculture on the Natural environmentLarge-scale and long-term landscape alteration led to:Loss of entire ecosystemsHabit destructionDecrease in biodiversity [Semiotic web]Decrease in surface and subsurface fresh water Soil erosion/exhaustion & pollution of waterClimate change to to less carbon sequestering

The Impact of Agriculture on People and CulturesDramatic increase in populationDependence on a few species for survivalIncrease in work load for most (not elite rich)Increase in diseases related to crowded livingGeneral health improvement & longer life expectancyIncrease in scale and impact of warfareLoss of traditional environmental knowledge increase in specialized knowledge

Chapter Seven: HorticultureHorticulture:Low-intensity, small-scale agriculture involving the use of relatively small fields, plots, or gardens with an integration of wild resources an little environmental alterationGroups live primarily in one place all year in a tribal-level organization often sharing habitat with hunters and gatherersHuman labor and small hand tools predominate Crops grown mainly for consumption by family unit and dispersal within tribe

HorticultureGardens: small fields cultivated repeatedly by individuals or small groupsChinampas: small raised gardens built in water usually as part of a large agricultural systemTerraced Gardens: small fields constructed on sloping terrain Slash and Burn: one-time cultivation of a small field consisting of poor soil due to constant rain, woodlands and forestsSwidden Agriculture: Integrates slash and burn with fallow periods and crop rotation to create long-term sustainable cultivation

Case Study: The Grand Valley Dani of Highland New GuineaThe Dani: members of a series of related groups of horticulturalist in Western New GuineaFirst contact by Occident in 1933Live in a temperate fertile mountain valleyOnce forest but converted to fields and grasslands90% of diet is yams, can name dozens of varietiesPigs supplement and add protein Prevalent warfare keeps minimizes travel Frequent ceremonies around warfare distributes pigs & protein

Case Study: The Lozi of Western ZambiaThe Lozi: Twenty-five separate tribes located in Western Zambia on the grassy broad floodplain along the Zambezi River surrounded by forestsHorticulture, cattle, and fishing (little environmental impact)Horticulture: Chinampa Water Gardens, Slash and Burn fieldsCattle: Primary domesticated animalFishing: Major protein sourceSeasonal movement around floodingExtensive class oriented social system

Chapter 8: PastoralismPrimary subsistence derives from the husbandry of one or a few domestic animalsHerbivores: cattle, horses, sheep, llamas, alpacas, goats, camels, & similar animals (reindeer are an example of pastoralism with non-domesticated animalsMutually beneficial relationshipAnimals provide: meat, milk, hide, dung, wool, labor, companionship, transportationHumans provide: protection from predators, steady food supply, health care, an expanded habitat, and assured reproductive success

PastoralismRequires a great deal of land as a pasture baseMore productive than hunting and gathering typically less productive than agricultureEfficient way to store resources, on the hoofDiverse social-political organization and when moving their animals they need to interact effectively with other groups whose lands they traverseGreater population than hunting and gathering typically less than agricultureSignificant landscape alteration from grazing, however, typically less environmental degradation than from agriculture, i.e. ecological equilibrium of Alpine herders

Case Study: The MaasaiOf East AfricaTo the Maasai, cattle form the basis of lifeFood (milch pastorialism, milk and blood), materials, currency, marriage legitimization, and solidification of social relationshipsOccupy two ecozones, an arid plain and a better-watered mountain areaMen raised to be warriors, protect cattle and pillage cattle from othersConstant goal is to have as many cattle as possible Rigorous burning of brush limits biodiversityResource management system: animals, pastures, water

Case Study: The Navaho of the American SouthwestLive as Pastoralists in Arizona and New Mexico on the largest reservation in North America, occupy land that overlaps with horticultural HopiLandscape is rugged mountainous terrain with forests of pine and juniper, deep canyons, high mesas and many valleysHalf of the reservation is desert with enough grass for men to graze of sheep, overgrazing has caused significant environmental degradationFemales dominant in politics with family matriarch foremost decision makerConflict with Hopi over land rights and ownership