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Economic Cooperation Organization is an Intergovernmentalregional organization established in 1985 by Islamic Republicof Iran, Islamic Republic of Pakistan and Republic of Turkey forthe purpose of promoting economic, technical and culturalcooperation among the Member States. It is the successororganization of what was the Regional Cooperation forDevelopment (RCD), founded in 1964, which ended activitiesin 1979.In the fall of 1992, ECO expanded to include seven new

members, namely Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, Republic ofAzerbaijan, Republic of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Republicof Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Republic of Uzbekistan. ECO'ssecretariat and cultural department are located in Tehran.ECO Cultural Institute (ECI) is an independent specialized

agency within the ECO Family and aims at fostering, under-standing and the preservation of the rich cultural heritage ofits Members through common projects in the fields of themedia, literature, art, philosophy, sports and education.

ContentsAFGHANISTAN03. Afghanistan, Cradle of Striking Architectural Remnants of All Ages

REPUBLIC OF AZERBAIJAN 08.Republic of Azerbaijan Architecture At the Cross Roads of Western Asia &Eastern Europe

IRAN14.Meaning & Function of Persian Architectural Decoration20.Tradational Design Inspires Iranian Contemporary Architecture

KAZAKHSTAN26.Kazakhstan ArchitectureLegacy of the Earliest Sedentary Tribes

KYRGYZSTAN32.Architecture of Kyrgyz Republic

PAKISTAN38.Of Architects & Architecture in Pakistan48.Muslim Art Heritage of Pakistan

TAJIKISTAN54.Tajikistan Architectural Traditions

TURKEY58.Turkish Architecture & City Planning

TURKMENISTAN64.Turkmenistan Architecture,A Synthesis of Modern, National & Local Traditions

UZBEKISTAN68.The Splendors of Uzbekistan Architecture

03 08

14 26

32 38

54 58

64 68

THE QUARTERLY CULTURAL MAGAZINE OF ECO CULTURAL INSTITUE (ECI)

IN THE NAME OF THE MOST HIGH

EDITORIALProtecting ECO's

Architectural Heritage,A Regional Perspective

As members of ECO family, we are very fortunatethat apart from the bonds of faith and history, weshare so much in so many diverse fields, with strongcommonalities in our life-style and our cultural her-itage. They are evident in many of our precious mon-uments and architectural land-marks, presented inthis Edition of ECO Heritage journal, which are the liv-ing symbols of a shared history and a common past. It would be fairly safe to state that, there are no

other regions in the world that its constituents haveso much in common, like what we have here in theECO countries. Our dwellings, our places of worship,our madresahs and our other cultural milestones inthe ECO region are irreplaceable sources of life andinspiration. They are our touchstones, our benchmarkand part of our identity. Our architectural heritage isour legacy from the past, what we live with today, andwhat we pass on to future generations.To value our heritage in all its dimensions, to care for

it as a treasure bequeathed to us by our ancestors, torecognize that it is our duty to transmit it intact to ourchildren, is a sign of wisdom. Indeed, if nationsbecome more aware of the factors that have influ-enced their history and shaped their identity, they arebetter placed to engage with and build peaceful rela-tions with other peoples and to forge their future.

At this particular time in history, as the fabrics ofcivilized human society seems, increasingly underattack by forces that deny the very existence of ashared heritage, forces that strike at the very heart ofour sense of community, we should be more cog-nizant of the fact that protecting our architecturalheritage is protecting our identity.

PublisherECO Cultural Institute (ECI)

PresidentH.E. Prof. Iftikhar Husain Arif

Executive Director/ManagingEditorAmb. Mohammad Reza Hajikarim Jabbari

Board of AdvisorsSarvar Molaei -Afghanistan , Latif Nazemi-Afghanistan , Mehdi Mohaghegh-Iran , Mohammad Ali Eslami Nadooshan-Iran , Mirza Molla Ahmad-Tajikistan , Safar Abdollah-Tajikistan , ®Justice Javeed Iqbal-Pakistan , Uxi Mufti - Pakistan

Board of EditorsGolmaki BakhtiariParisa FirouzkouhiShahmansour Khajaev

Chief EditorAli Sabzalian

Graphic DesignSeyed Kianoush Saadatmand

AddressNo. 10, Naz St., Movahed Danesh Ave., Aghdasiyeh, TehranIslamic Republic of Iran

InformationTel:+98-21-27673216Zip Code: 1957653643P.O.Box: 19395/6414Email: [email protected]

Note:The views expressed by the writers/ authors of the articles,

published in “ECO Heritage” do not necessarily representthe views of ECI, but are

the personal views of the authors themselves. ECI reserves the right/discretion to amend, revise, edit,

delete or scrutinize any part or portion of the text as andwherever deemed necessary.

Front Cover :Nasir al-Mulk Mosque Shiraz, IRANPhoto Selection: Reza Saadaati

Issue15. Vol6. Winter 2015Afghanistan

3Afghanistan

AfghanistanCradle of Striking

Architectural Remnants of All Ages*

Afghanistan has made major contributions to theworld architecture and some of the most famous monu-ments of Islamic architecture are to be found inAfghanistan. UNESCO has acknowledged Afghanistan'srole by declaring the Minaret of Jam and the Valley ofBamiyan as the "home of the famous Buddhas" and a"world heritage site".

The country contains striking architectural remnants ofall ages, including Greek and Buddhist stupas andmonasteries, arches, monuments, intricate Islamicminarets, temples and forts.

Brief highlights of some of Afghanistan's architecturallandmarks are presented here:

Det

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i Mos

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Entr

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, Her

at

Issue15. Vol6. Winter 2015 Afghanistan

BalkhBactra or Balkh was feted by

the classical authors, as, " Balkhthe Beautiful", "Balkh theMother of all towns ", before itwas pillaged by Genghis Khanin 1220.

In 2004, after some chancediscoveries of Hellenistic archi-tectural features, near Balkh, atTepe Zargaran, in about 7meters below the ground, anaccumulation of archi-tectural blocks wereuncovered. Many ofthese had originatedfrom demolished Greekbuildings. In the Balkhcitadel, significantremains going back tothe Achamenid period,(6th -4th centuries BCE)are currently undergo-ing excavation.

The Shrine ofKhoja Abu Nasr

The main sight ofBalkh is the late 15thcentury (late Timurid)Shrine of Khwaja Parsa,built by Sulatn Husayn Bayqara.The turquoise pumpkin domewith its fluted tiling is very simi-lar to the Mausoleum ofGawhar- Shad in Herat.

This shrine with a large iwanflanked by two truncatedminarets and, behind it, anoctagonal building with aribbed dome on a high drumwas dedicated to Khwaja Parsa(d.1460), a theologian whotaught at the madrasa near the

site.

Noh Gumbad (Nine Domes)The oldest surviving example

of monumental Islamic architec-ture in Afghanistan is themosque of Noh Gumbad (NineDomes) near the town of Balkh,dating from the 9th or early10th century.

The Noh Gumbad belongs tothe transitional period ofmedieval architecture when pre-Islamic traditions began to mixwith emerging new features,foreshadowing a new architec-tural style that later dominated

the country in the 10th - 12thcenturies.

Mazare Sharif

Mazare Sharif, the capital ofBalkh province, is a major trad-ing center famous for Karakul, agreat variety of traditional car-pets and high quality, long -sta-ple cotton.

The city is named for the mag-nificent shrine of Hazarat-e Ali(AS), cousin and the son-in-lawof the Prophet Mohammad(PBUH).

Hazarat- e Ali was martyred in

661 and buried in Kufa, nearNajaf in present day Iraq. Localtradition, however relates thathis remains have been broughtto Balkh by his followers andthe great Seljuk Sultan Sanjar,ordered a shrine built here in1136.

HeratThe history of Herat has been

one of repeated destruction andreconstruction.Conqueror after con-queror, from the timeof Alexander theMacedonian, havetaken it, destroyed it,and then rebuilt it. In1221, Herat was takenby the Mongols. Tuli,the son of Genghiskhan, ruled Heart forsome time, but the citi-zens revolted andkilled the Mongol gar-rison. Extremelyangered, Genghis Khanrode upon the city with80000 troops andbesieged it for sixmonths, leaving only a

small number of inhabitants. In 1381, it was Timur's turn to

totally overwhelm the town, how-ever, his son, Shah Rukh, rebuilt itand started the cultural renais-sance which made it the center oflearning and culture. During theTimurid rule, the famous Persianpoet Jami and great miniaturistBehzad were born in Heart.Queen Gowhar- Shad's Musallawas built, the ancient Gazargahwas restored and once again thecity flourished.

4Afghanistan

Shrine of Hazrat-e Ali (A.S.), Mazare Sharif


5Afghanistan

Masjid-e Jami

The Masjid-e Jami', also knownas the Great Mosque of Herat isAfghanistan's finest Islamic build-ing, and one of the greatest inCentral Asia. It is located in thecenter of the city, in the Heratprovince of north-westernAfghanistan. It was built byGhurids, the famous SultanGhayas-ud-Din Ghori, who laid itsfoundation in 1200 AD, and laterextended by severalrulers as Heratchanged rulers downthe centuries from theTimurids, to theSafavids, to theMughals and theUzbeks, all of whomsupported the institu-tion of the mosque.

Most communities inthe Islamic world,apart from numeroussmall neighborhoodmosques for dailyprayer, have a largermosque, to function asa congregationalmosque for Fridayservices accompaniedwith a major sermon.

Spatially, the Jama Masjid wasnot always the largest mosque inHerat; a much bigger complex,the Mosque and Madressa ofGawharshad, also built by theTimurids, was located in thenorthern part of the city.

Though many of the glazed tileshave been replaced during sub-sequent periods, the GreatMosque in Herat was given its

present form during the closingyears of the fifteenth century.

Two huge minarets flank themain iwan. Almost every squarecentre is covered in breathtakingmosaic, surrounded by bluebands of Quranic script andPersian calligraphy.

Gawharshad MusallaComplex

The largest historic architecturalcomplex that survives in westernAfghanistan, the GawharshadMusalla Complex was completed

in 1417 under the direction ofQueen Gawharshad, wife of theTimurid ruler Shah Rukh (reign:1405-1447), who had movedthe Timurid capital fromSamarkand to Herat in 1405.After the sultan's death, theQueen became de facto rulerover an empire that stretchedfrom the Tigris River to theChinese border.

The Musalla Complex wasoriginally very large, all thatremains today are a mosque,the mausoleum of Gawharshad,five minarets and the remains ofthe madrasa of Hussein Baiqara.

Renowned for the forest ofminarets that occupied theoriginal site, the tops of theminarets were destroyed byBritish artillery fire in 1963, andmost of the buildings were pur-posely demolished in 1885under the direction of Britishtroops who feared a Russianattack on Herat that never actu-ally occurred. Only the minaretsand the Mausoleum of GawharShad were allowed to remain.Incomparable works of art were

sacrificed in the process.The carnage in 1885 leftonly nine minaretsstanding in the entirecomplex, three of whichwere felled by earth-quakes in 1931 and 1951.

Gazargah

Another highlight ofHerat is the Sufi shrine ofGazargah (bleachingGround), a complex ofbuildings east of the citywhere the renowned sufipoet, Khwaja AbdullahAnsari, is buried. Ansarilived between 1006 and1089.

The constructions were startedunder Shahrukh. There is a hall-way with a domed and paintedroof. On the left there is amosque; on the right there is astaircase that leads to a roomwhere the pilgrims believe apiece of hair belonging toProphet Muhammad (PBUH) iskept.

The shrine enclosing the tombwas commissioned by Timurid

Eastern View, Masjid-e Jami, Herat.

Issue15. Vol6. Winter 2015 Afghanistan

ruler Shahrukh (1405-1447) andcompleted by Architect Qavamal-Din Shirazi in 1425, as notedin the inscription on the south-west portal.

Qala Ikhtiaruddin

This fort, held byGhaznavids, Seljusks,Ghorids, Mongols, Timurids,and the Safavids, still domi-nates the city landscape andis believed to have original-ly been built by Alexanderthe Macedonian.

The Minaret ofJam

The Minaret of Jam isone of the few well-pre-served monuments rep-resenting the exception-al artistic creativity andmastery of structural

engineering of the time. Itsarchitecture and ornamentationare outstanding from the pointof view of art history, fusingtogether elements from earlierdevelopments in the region inan exceptional way and exertinga strong influence on laterarchitecture in the region.

At 1,900 m above sea leveland far from any town, the

Minaret of Jam rises within arugged valley along theHari-rud River at its junc-tion with the river Jamaround 215km-east ofHerat. Rising to 65m froma 9m diameter octagonalbase, its four superim-posed, tapering cylindri-cal shafts are construct-ed from fired bricks. TheMinaret is completelycovered with geometricdecoration in reliefenhanced with a Kuficinscription in turquoisetiles.

Built in 1194 by thegreat Ghurid SultanGhiyas-od-din (1153-1203), its emplace-ment probably marks

the site of theancient city

of

Firuzkuh, believed to have beenthe summer capital of theGhurid dynasty. Surroundingremains include a group ofstones with inscriptions fromthe 11th to 12th centuries onthe Kushkak hill, and vestiges ofcastles and towers of the Ghuridsettlements on the banks of theHari River as well as to the eastof the Minaret.

This graceful soaring structureis an outstanding example ofthe architecture and ornamenta-tion of the Islamic period inCentral Asia and played a sig-nificant role in their further dis-semination as far as India asdemonstrated by the QutbMinar, Delhi, begun in 1202 andcompleted in the early 14thcentury.

With its 65-m height, it is thesecond tallest in the Islamicworld and a UNESCO WorldHeritage Site . The high minaretbuilt around 1190, entirely ofbaked bricks is famous for itsintricate brick, stucco andglazed tile decoration, whichconsists of alternating bands ofkufic and naskhi calligraphy,geometric patterns, and verses

6Afghanistan

The Minaret of Jam isone of the few well-preserved monumentsrepresenting the excep-tional artistic creativityand mastery of struc-tural engineering of thetime

“


from the Holy Qur'an. As of 2013, the minaret

remained on the list of WorldHeritage in Danger, under seri-ous threat of erosion, and wasnot actively being preserved.

The Minaret of Jam has a strik-ing similarity to the minaretbuilt by Masud III in Ghazni. It isthought to have been a directinspiration for the Qutub Minarin Delhi, which was also built bythe Ghurid Dynasty.

After the Qutub Minar in Delhi,India, which it inspired, theMinaret of Jam is the second-tallest brick minaret in theworld.

Ghazni The historic city of Ghazni,

located in east-centralAfghanistan lies beside theGhazni River on a high plateauat an elevation of 2,225 m.Afghanistan's only remainingwalled town, is dominated by a45-metre high citadel built inthe 13th century.

The towers were originallymuch higher but the top circu-lar parts no longer exist. Thetowers are star-shaped withintricate decoration in mono-chrome small bricks and carvedterracotta. The larger tower, ofMasud III, is slightly older(between 1099 and 1114), thesmaller one, of Bahramshah, canbe dated to middle of the 12thcentury.

Around the nearby village ofRowzeh-e Sultan, on the oldroad to Kabul are the ruins ofancient Ghazna, including two43-metre) towers and the tombof Mahmud of Ghazna (971-

1030), the most powerful sultanof the Ghaznavid dynasty.

Ghazni's early history isobscure; it has probably existedat least since the 7th century.Early in the 11th century, underMahmud of Ghazna, the townbecame the capital of the vastempire of the Ghaznavids,Afghanistan's first Muslimdynasty.

Giant Buddhas ofBamiyan

The Buddhas of Bamiyan weretwo 6th century monumentalstatues of standing buddhacarved into the side of a cliff inthe Bamiyan valley which means"the place of shining light" issituated in the Hazarajat regionof central Afghanistan, 230 kmnorthwest of Kabul at an alti-tude of 2,500 meters . Built in507 AD, (smaller), and 554 AD,(larger) the statues representedthe classic blended style ofGandhara art. The main bodieswere hewn directly from thesandstone cliffs, but detailswere modeled in mud mixedwith straw, coated with stucco.This coating, practically all ofwhich wore away long ago, waspainted to enhance the expres-sions of the faces, hands andfolds of the robes; the largerone was painted carmine redand the smaller one was paint-ed multiple colors. The statuesrepresented the classic blendedstyle of Indo-Greek art. Thelarger statue before it's unfor-tunate destruction by theTaliban group, stood at 53meters above the town ofBamiyan - as high as a 10-storey building and was consid-ered to be the most remarkablerepresentation of the Buddhaanywhere in the world. Once, itand its 38-metre-high compan-ion were painted in gold and

other colors, and decked in daz-zling ornaments. There werecountless rich frescoes depict-ing the life of the Buddha andlife in the town of Bamiyan atthe time.

.................................................................................*Compiled by ECI staff member, based

on available sources, including valuableinformation provided by the Embassy ofI.R. Afghanistan, Tehran

7Afghanistan

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Issue15. Vol6. Winter 2015 Rep. of Azerbaijan

8Rep. of Azerbaijan

Human history starts from natural caves, whereprimitive people used to live. There are many ofthese caves in Azerbaijan. For instance, the caves dis-covered in Caucasus Hills, Talesh Mountains situatedin modern-day Nakhchivan AutonomousRepublic, Zangilan, Kalbajar, Gadabay, Goygol,

Shamakhi, Qazakh, andalso Azykh Grave Cave

which is located in

Fuzuli District.Following the formation of Mannaeans rule and

after the emergence of Atropatense dynasty, fencedcities were built and defense facilities (fortifications)and huge castles were constructed by Atropatensegovernment. However, the major step in urban plan-ning was taken during Caucasian Albania era.

The strong walls of Qabla city equipped with urbanirrigation system in which ceramic pipes were

used, defense systems and forti-fications made of stone

on Demir GapiNotch, or Uzan

Divarlar (literal-

Republic ofAzerbaijan

Architecture At the Cross Roads of Western

Asia & Eastern Europe

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Issue15. Vol6. Winter 2015Rep. of Azerbaijan

9Rep. of Azerbaijan

ly meaning tall walls), Chirag Gala a dome-shapedChristian shrine situated in Lekit Valley, the dome inGuma Valley, the shrine complex in Mingachevir Cityalong with other historical findings are indicative ofthe high level of urban planning in ancient times.

Barda was the epicenter of Azerbaijan's architecture,were many buildings including various mosques,seminaries, caravanserais, bazaars and public bathsexisted in the city.

Emergence of different architecture schools in Aran,Nakhichevan, Shirvan and Absheron, gave rise to

shared common architectural style. NakhchivanSchool of architecture reached the pinnacle afterAbubakr Oghli Ajami Nakhichevani (the promi-nent architect of those days) built the tombs ofYusef bin Kowsir and Momenh Khatoon.

Shaki Khanate Palace, which was used as winterresidence by Mohammad Hassan Khan, is seen asan 18 century architecture masterpiece. Thefaçade of the building is replete with geometricaldesigns. An inlaid window framed with colorfulglasses lies in the central part of the building. Allof the walls and the ceilings of the six rooms and4 halls and 2 balconies in the palace have beenbedecked with a vitrine featuring a special topic.The scenes of hunting of elephants, birds, drag-ons as well as vignettes depicting royal life havebeen created with simple geometrical shapes.

Sun light passes through the colorful glasses ofthe windows of the palace and creates rainbowcolors, attracting viewers' attention. The Old Cityis situated on the low hills overlooking theCaspian Sea. It has been surrounded with thewalls of the castle. There are special sites insidethe palace. Maiden Tower and Shirvanshah Palacelie inside the city.

Shirvanshahs Palace was built after the ShirvanshahKhanate transferred the capital from Shemakha toBaku. The palace included different parts such asroyal office, the mausoleum of Shirvanshahs, palacemosque, the palace bath-house, the tomb of royalscientist Seyed Yahya Bakuei. Maiden Tower was oneof the most important components of Baku defensesystem and was seen as the most important castle inBaku in 12th century and was one the greatest cas-tles in Shirvanshah dynasty.

In December 2000, the Old City of Baku, includingthe Palace of the Shirvanshahs and Maiden Tower,became the first location in Azerbaijan to be classi-fied as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.

Azerbaijan architecture lost many of its works at theend of 20th century as a consequence of 1990-1994Karabakh War. Most of the historical monuments inKarabakh and surrounding areas such as Lachin,Kalbajar, Zngilan, Qubadli, Jebreil, Fuzuli and Agdamwere occupied by the neighboring Armenians and asa result, many of the historical monuments in theseareas, were destroyed.

The architecture style of buildings in Azerbaijan is acombination of Eastern, European and Modern archi-tecture.

Since 7th century and after the advent of Islam,architecture schools in Azerbaijan underwent changeand transformation. Architecture style used in new

Old

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10Rep. of Azerbaijan

buildings was reminiscent of the architecture used inmosques, seminaries, mausoleums and caravanserais.In this architecture style, animal figures were replacedwith geometrical and plant signs.

Local architectural schools were formed in 11 and12 centuries following the spread of feudalism. Thesearchitecture styles can be divided into two major cat-egories. Shirvani-Apsheronsk style which was used innortheastern regions of Azerbaijan and Nakhichevanistyle which was used in southwestern parts of thecountry.

Using stones is characteristic of Shirvani-Apsheronsk architecture but in Nakhichevani stylebricks are mainly used for constructing buildings. Theworks in which Shirvani architecture has been usedare bulky and huge and have few figures and designsand in the first glance highlight the magnificence andthe accuracy in the construction of the building.Unlike Shirvani architecture, the buildings in whichNakhichevani architecture style is used are decoratedwith delicate and beautiful shapes which attract theattention of viewers. The beautiful patterns used inthis style not only met the artistic needs of that era,but also were used in the architecture styles of nextperiods in Azerbaijan.

Construction expanded in major cities acrossAzerbaijan. The walls of the cities, bulwarks, castles,palaces, mosques, minarets, mausoleums, bath-hous-

es and other components of the cities were con-structed. Fortifications, caravanserais, water cisterns,and bridges were constructed in the major traderoutes in the cities. The main construction materialsused in Azerbaijan during medieval period werestones, fired and non-fired bricks. Also, dome-shapedand conic minarets were played major role in decora-tion system.

Geometrical designs were generally used in brickbuildings. After the middle of the 12th century, whenusing bricks in buildings started, they were colored

and beautiful decoration was created with blue-col-ored bricks. Scripts and designs were extravagantlyused in architecture in those days. Massive designsmade of a large number of tiny glazed bricks werecreated in which the name of the architect or the per-son, who had ordered the work, was written.

In 18 century, Azerbaijan's architecture lost its mag-nificent structure. And industrial oil excavations werestarted in Absheron Island at the end of 19 century.

In this era, the number of charitable people con-structing schools, hospital, and public buildingsincreased. Ismailiyya Building is one of the mostimportant buildings constructed in this period. Thebuilding is now used by National Academy ofAzerbaijan Sciences, Maylov Theater Hall (which istoday used as Azerbaijan's Opera and AkhoundovBallet Center); Mukhtarov Palace (which is today usedas a venue for holding wedding ceremonies).

Azerbaijan's architecture in Soviet era features aform of Eastern Islam. For example, Baku RailwayStation is one of the buildings constructed in this era.During 1920s Azerbaijan's architecture, inspired withideas aimed at manifesting structure, was integratedinto 3-D form.

The picture drawn by Engelbert Kaempfer in 1630

The

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and the Huffman Atlas in 1734 depict Baku hemmedin by a castle in which the residence of the peoplewas designated according to their social classes.Aqshalvar (people wearing white pants, those whohad gone on pilgrimage to Mecca), Gamichlar (boat-men), Arabahchilar (carriage drivers), Hamamchilar (bathmen) Seyidlar (decendents of prophetMohammad (PBUH) ) Johood Zeinalari (Jewish resi-dents) and etc. In 12th century, people could enterthe city through two gates; Salyan gate andShemakha gate. But at the end of the 19th century,several other gates were discovered. Also, under-ground paths were discovered by architects andmasons.

Old City (Ichiri Shahr)After the oil investments which reached their peak

in mid 19th century, when there was no residentialspace inside the city (Castle city), the city expandedoutside the castle and that is why it was called "IchiriShahr" or inner city. The internal part of the city cov-ered a 22 hectare area which is now hosting severalhistorical and architectural sites. Four of these monu-ments have been registered asworld heritage sites and 28 oth-ers have been classified asnational heritage sites.

Nowadays, Old City(Ichiri Shahr) is seen as alive city, which hasmaintained its uniqueneighborhood andfaçade, accommodat-ing 1300 families. Inbrief, it is a city insideanother city.

Old City was recog-nized as a reservedcultural-historicalheritage in 1977 andin December 2000,along with MaidenCastle andShirvanshahs Palace,was classified as aWorld Heritage Siteby UNESCO. OldCity, nowadays, isknown as a bril-

liant pearl in the history of human cultural heritage.

Shirvanshahs PalaceShirvanshahs Palace was built by Khalilollah Shirvan

Shah, back in 15th century. It was built after theShirvan dynasty decided to transfer the country'scapital from quake-struck Shemakha city to Baku. Thepalace was gradually built on the hill. The palacecomplex included different parts such as royal officeand ministers' house. This cannot be confirmed cer-tainly because the palace in which the tombs ofShirvan shahs lie, also accommodates the mau-soleum of prominent Muslim cleric and scientistSeyyed Yahya Bakuei as well as a mosque. There aremany undiscovered things in the Old City and thediscovered works are just a small part of the historicalsites in the city. Recently, architects have discoveredruins of huge bath-houses which include manyundiscovered paths in Palace Park neighborhood.However, the buildings constructed in the area areseen as a major obstacle to further discoveries in thisregard. More discoveries can be made only throughguesswork which suggests that these buildings in thecity included a massive royal complex. For example,

the royal stableis yet to be

Shirvanshah Palace


discovered. The palace includes not only administra-tive center, but also hosts the educational and cultur-al center of Shirvan Shahs dynasty which has beenbuilt in accordance with a time line and various archi-tecture styles. It has been constructed in three floorssimilar to the arches carved in the slopes of the hill.

Maiden Tower (Giza Galasi)It is seen as a legacy from medieval age. It is not

clear when the complex was built. There is aninscription installed at the top of the castle near theright entrance. The inscription has been written inKufi and reads: This inscription belongs to Masoudibn Davood. The inscription was believed to havebeen created in 12th century, but it has beenrevealed that the castlewas built in two phas-

es. The first stage dates back to 1-10 centuries. The castle has been built on the rocky headland.

The tube-shaped structure is 28 meters high and 16.5meters wide. The walls are 5 meters wide on bottomand 4 meters wide on top. A strange cape has beenattached to the eastern part of the castle, which hasremained unknown to the date. The internal space ofthe tower has been divided into 8 floors. Each ofthese round-shaped units has been built separatelyand includes narrow grooves through which sunlightpenetrates into the building. The floors of the towersare connected through a curved staircase built insidethe wall. But the first and second floors were con-nected with rope stairs so that they were easilyremoved in dangerous situations. The residents usedto dig round niches inside the walls in which 25 cmclay pipes were designated and a 21 meter deep wellwere dug inside. There is no consensus on the possi-ble functions of the tower. There are not manyfences around the tower and it does not include fullresidential facilities. It is also considered as a weakstructure from defensive point of view. It is assumedthat the tower was used for religious purposes duringpre-Islamic period. The widows of the tower havebeen designed in a way that sunlight shines on thecenter of the building on Noruz Day (when length ofday and night is equal). This idea has been raised byprominent architect Abbas Islamov. Following theadvent of Islam, idolatry was abandoned and theMaiden Tower was turned into a military site in thedefense system of Baku and later it was used as alighthouse. In 1964 the tower was turned into amuseum and in 2000 it was classified as a WorldHeritage Site by UNESCO.

Momeneh Khatoun TombThis glorious national architectural work is one of

the most well-known Eastern architectural workswhich was built by Azeriarchitect Abubakr AghluAjami Nakhichevani in 1186.The monument was createdafter the founder ofAzerbaijan's the governmentShamseddin Eldeniz decid-ed to build a mausoleumaround the tomb of hiswife Momeneh Khatoun.His son finished the job.On the walls of the mau-soleum there are someKufic scripts. The mau-soleum was originally 34meters high but by the

Mai

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aku




passage of time 8 meter of the monument was erod-ed and (at the moment it is smaller than its originalsize). The site is 24.65 meters high and 12.75 meterswide. (Maiden Tower is 28 meters high and 16.5meters wide.) The mausoleum can be divided intotwo sections: underground and on the ground. It has10 dimensions and lies on a small stand. Someresearchers believe that the founders of Atabakandynasty, Ildgez and his wife as well as his sonMohammad Jahan Pahlavan have been buried in the

mausoleum. The mausoleum has been built and dec-orated beautifully. All of the 10 dimensions of themonument are connected in the center forming adome in the center. The parts of the mausoleumwhich lie on the ground have been decorated withQuranic scripts. In the interior section of the dome,there are four round medals, on each of which, thename of a Caliph has been written.

Shamakhy Juma Mosque (Friday Mosque of Shamakhy)Shamakhy Juma Mosque is the oldest and biggest

mosque in Azerbaijan. The complex is said to havebeen built in the 8th century. The Arabic scripts onthe entrance door of the mosque suggest that it wasbuilt in 744. That is why it is seen as one of the oldestmosques in the Caucuses region. The architecturalstructure used in the shabestan (prayer place) of themosque has been designed in a way that the insidespace is divided into three sections which are con-nected through wide entrances.

The mosque was damaged by an earthquake backin 1859 and was reconstructed later. In 1902, anotherearthquake hit the area, severely damaging themosque. It was ultimately reconstructed by Azeriarchitect Zivar bey Ahmadbeov who was from the

city of Shamakh and a Polish engineer Jozef Ploszko. The Juma Mosque of Shamakhy witnessed the mas-

sacre of Azeri people by the "Armenian RevolutionaryFederation" in 1918. They forcefully trapped the peo-ple inside, before the mosque was burnt.

In December 2009, the order about the restorationof the state historical-architectural monuments, theFriday mosque of Shamakhy was written by IlhamAliyev-the current President of Azerbaijan.

Nardaran CastleThe tube-shaped castle was built in Nardaran (a

town 25 kilometers north of Baku) in 1301. The toweris 12.5 meters high. The name of architect Mahmoudibn Sa'ad has been written on the inscriptions insidethe tower. He is also the builder of Bi Bi old mosqueas well as Mulla Ahmad Mosque in the castle of Baku.The inscriptions inside the tower, which have beentranslated by A.A. Askarzade, read: In the Name ofGod, the Merciful, the Compassionate, we wereordered to build here (this castle) with our Halalmoney (Halal Dirhams) with an aim of visiting theAlmighty God and satisfying him and be rewarded byhim. Ramadan 700 AH (1301 AD).

Azerbaijan's Presidential PalaceThe presidential palace is one of the national archi-

tectural works created by Lev Rudnev. The construc-tion of the building, seen as one of his most valuableworks, took 20 years and was completed during theSoviet Union period. As Lev Rudnev himself said, thework he has created is neither a building nor a sculp-ture, but a statue-shaped building. The architecturaldimensions of the building, Lenin's statue and mas-sive tribunes which have been installed near thesquare verify this issue. Combination of sculpture andarchitecture can be clearly seen in this architecturalwork. In 1955, Lenin statue was installed in the com-plex. The statue is made of bronze and granite andwas created by prominent sculptor D.M. Garyaghdi.Following the disintegration of the Soviet Union in1991 and after Azerbaijan declare independence, thenational flag of Azerbaijan was installed in the placeof the statue. The architecture of the different partsof the building are not consistent. For instance, themain entrance door looks very formal (formal andglorious) and is not in harmony with the arch-shapedwalls. The building could have been to the taste ofthe people in those old days, but all in all, the struc-ture of the building is seen as a weak architecturalwork.

.......................................................................................................................................*Courtesy of the Embassy of Republic of Azerbaijan – Tehran

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It is through design in its deep-est sense that the Iranian geniusfor visual beauty has found itsmost adequate and characteristicexpression. To the twentieth cen-tury Western mind, words like"ornamental" and "decorative" toooften suggest something of sec-ondary importance. In architec-ture, simple and massive formscertainly have independent valueof their own but they also providethe substructure for ornamenta-tion. Ornament can both embel-lish architectural form and exist asan aesthetic achievement in itsown pure design. The inherentlysymbolic character of Persian

design, coupled with the icono-clastic ban against figural andother naturalistic representations,endowed Persian ornament with aseriousness and intensity unfamil-iar in Western culture. Because somuch aesthetic talent has been soseriously concentrated on orna-ment, a more sympathetic anddetailed study of it is required. Inno other architecture has orna-ment played such a vital and cre-ative role as in Persia.

A genius for lucid and vigorousdecoration was already a strikingfeature of the prehistoric potteryof this region, and sumptuousembellishment, mentioned in theearliest descriptions of buildings,has been archaeologically con-firmed. In fact, important struc-tures of all periods in Persia havebeen aglow with color, often

resplendent with gilding andmural painting or enriched bycarved stucco or ingenious pat-terns in brick or tiles.

With the Islamic period therebegan a new chapter in the histo-ry of architectural ornament andthe relation of structure to decora-tion. Within the slowly maturingtradition of color and pattern asan essential of the building art oldthemes re-emerged, slowly infil-trated from earlier contacts withIndia, China and the Hellenic west.The discovery and control of newmaterials and techniques wasnowhere else exploited with suchzest and knowledge.

Meaning & Function of Persian

Architectural DecorationBy: Arthur Upham Pope *

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The theological prohibitionagainst the representation of liv-ing forms, although not formulat-ed by Muhammed himself,expressed a real dread of possiblycontaminating the new religionwith idolatry. Muhammed wasaware of the Near Eastern disposi-tion to see magical symbolic pow-ers in natural objects and phe-nomena, and he was anxious tokeep religion pure from such dis-tractions. Hence, within themosques and in the decorationfor mosques or tombs, we findfew representations of actual liv-ing forms. However, even theorthodox caliphs of Baghdad,proud and luxury-loving, curiousand open-minded, did not hesi-tate to adorn their great palaceswith human figures (largely ofHellenic inspiration); in privacy,confident of their power, theythought to escape theologicalcensure. Similarly, in the palaces ofPersia its figural representationwas common. From ancient andespecially Sasanian times, therewas abundant precedent for ani-mal forms, and familiarity, sympa-thy and talent all made animalrepresentations vivid. For the rep-resentations of human beings,there was less precedent, so thatalthough human figures were rep-resented both in pottery and instucco panels during the Islamicperiod, they were for the mostpart closely related to architecton-ic form.

Even though figural composi-tions of the enthroned king sur-rounded by his courtiers are oftengraceful and highly decorative(and one or two individual figuresare not without merit), all figuraltypes must be observed with tol-

erance and judged for their deco-rative significance.

They were probably all richlypolychromed and, when viewedtogether with patterns of geomet-ric designs, dados, tiles, and occa-sionally mural paintings placedabove them, the effect must havebeen quite beautiful.

All the arts of Persia are closelyinterrelated and all express acommon cultural inspiration.

The great Islamic art of calligra-phy, with its standards of rhythm,precision and expressive forminstructs and disciplines otherarts. Poetry, universal and indis-pensable in Persian life, togetherwith philosophy, overt andimplicit, nourish all culturalexpressions. Analogies betweenPersian poetry and visual designare numerous: rhythm andrhyme, stress and resolution, sur-prise and fulfillment merely heada long list of characteristics thathave their counterparts in each.

Both are distinguished by a live-ly appreciation of sensuousdelight as well as the abstract.The talent for rational abstractionenabled major aesthetic creationsto escape a particularity, turningthem toward generalized expres-sions of timeless significance. Adecisive element in the develop-ment of abstract motifs was thePersian predilection for mathe-matics and philosophy. Faith inthe controlling power of signifi-cant forms shows itself early inPersian art and is a central featureof its finer poetry.

Not only are the motives ofpoetry and visual ornamentdeeply akin, but at times theyalso share the same faults. In both,the urge for ingenious elaboration(a horror vacui is a temptation andquite consciously), represents thevault of heaven. Floral and geo-metric patterns were both treatedas segments of an infinitely exten-sible whole that in imagination

was coextensive with limitlessspace.

Despite dazzling achievementsin polychrome ornament, Persiandesigners also knew the value ofpure white. In many places,

unadorned white was used withimpressive effect, enhanced byproximity to areas of intense blue.Often the white stalactite half-domes, especially in portals, pile

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up like sunlit summer clouds. Suchcontrasting effects are characteris-tic in Persia: the dark green oasiscontrasts with the bright glare ofthe desert wilderness; in towns

the monumental buildings, richand intense in color, provide astartling relief to the drabness ofstreets and the blank whiteness ofhouses.

The relation of Persian ornamentto structure has often been mis-understood and is frequently citedas a seductive misalliance, as ifthis decoration were just gor-geous fabric applied to the sur-face. In good examples, ornamentis visually organic with the struc-ture, often appearing as if inher-ent in the material, like the grain-ing of wood or veining of mar-ble. It identifies, defines andemphasizes the component ele-ments and their functions bymeans of patterns appropriate inscale and character, as in asuperb fifteenth century niche ofthe Masjid-i-Jami in Isfahan. Atiny colonette, a huge dome, wallpanels, arches and dados willeach have clearly separate deco-rative treatment and the impliedmovement of the pattern willaccord with stresses and direc-tions in the structure itself as wellas adding new qualities of rich-ness and vitality.

Thus, in the facade of theMasjid-i-Ali (1522) at Isfahan, thewall is carefully distinguishedfrom the vertical, presumablyweight-bearing members by thesurface design. The patterns onthe curtain wall are static anddirectionless while those on thepilasters are powerfully andunmistakably driving upward.The compulsion of the designintensifies, even exaggerates, themechanical operation of eachsection. Of course, such a bal-ance between the values ofrevealed construction andembellishment is not alwaysmaintained. It is in itself animperfectly defined ideal, varying

with available materials, technicalcompetence and changes in taste.The result is ornament which canrange from bleak mechanics to analmost suffocating luxury.

In the architecture of any period,the coordination of structure andornament is often imperfect, with

structural values concealed, frus-trated or over-emphasized. It ismore usual, however, to see orna-ment used to enhance, to giveadded life to the mechanicalforms. The huge arabesqueswheeling over a dome increaseour sense of its rotundity; the tightband of a dense inscription justbelow the swelling of a domesharpens our sense of expandinginner pressures above it; and stoutverticals of rectangular Kufic givean unmistakable feeling of rein-forced support.

The many forms of Persian orna-mentation are rendered in differ-ent materials: brick in countlessforms; stucco; to a lesser degree,wood (in exquisite patterns forrailings and ceilings); metals, forwindow gratings and ceremonialdoorways (generally repose overwood); and polychrome faience, inmosaic fragments or solid tiles.

BrickBrick was an accepted building

material throughout the wholeancient Near East, for the hand-molded plane-convex brick hadbeen invented in Persia by thethird millennium B.C. MajorAchaemenid buildings, composedlargely of stone, as well asSasanian buildings, occasionally ofcut stone but more generally offilled stone rubble, are related intheir masonry technique to brickconstruction. There were goodreasons for the Persian preferencefor brick (other than the scarcity oftimber): it is more durable thanstone, far less expensive, permitsof rapid construction and, becauseof its superior elasticity, demon-strates quickly the physical forcesat work in the structure. These are

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qualities that encouraged instruc-tive experiment and final achieve-ment. For the creation of mass, foringenious solution of structuralproblems, or for inherent decora-tive possibilities, brick offeredmany advantages which thePersian explored to the utmost,always with sympathetic regardfor the nature of the material.Nonetheless, though brick was ingeneral use, its decorative possi-bilities were not exploited untilwell into the Islamic period; stuccohad been more or less supreme asa surface ornament during mostof the long preceding period.The potential beauties ofbrick, such as various typesof bonding, ornamental end-plugs, contrasting textures,pattern inlays and overlays,began to be thoughtfullyrealized only in the tenthcentury.

With the Seljuks, brickworkwas carried to a perfection,both aesthetic and construc-tional that has perhaps neverbeen equaled since. Thedome of the Masjid-i-Jami inIsfahan is of an unsurpassedmajesty, and the time-defy-ing, stark strength of theCunbad-i-Qabus is unique.

How competent these brickbuilders were is demonstrated bythe impressive number of surviv-ing monuments. Besides the sin-gle-shell domes of the Masjid-i-Jami of Isfahan, still intact afternearly 900 years, there are almosta dozen slender, delicately taperedminarets (over a hundred feethigh!) still standing in the Isfahanarea alone and this in an earth-quake country. They can only bethe products of first-class brick,

first-class mortar, first-class crafts-men, and superior designers.Furthermore, a number weremade of sun-dried brick and eventhese lasted for at least a few cen-turies, a tribute to all concerned.

It is in the north, in Azarbaijan,that brickwork reached its ulti-mate beauty. In the Gunbad-i-Surkh, as Godard, Schroeder andothers agree, we have perhaps themost beautiful example of brick-work known. The angle columnsare composed of ten shapes ofcut brick, involving at least eightmolds perfectly adapted to thecurving profile of the colonette.Here also ingenious and some-times deceptively simple patterns

are worked into the panels, butthe undecorated brick itself is ofsuch fine quality that it seems tomeet all decorative requirements.

StuccoFrom earliest times, stucco-

carved, molded, painted-was oneof the major elements in Persianarchitectural ornament, extensivelyused and highly developed. Fornearly 2,000 years the Persianshave devised, experimented withand perfected types of stuccotreatment, producing a series ofmasterpieces in a succession ofstyles that are unequaled any-

where. Too frequently, stucco isdisparaged, for it is felt that thismedium does not sufficientlyresist the designer, that it enableshim to create light fantasies with-out a sense of responsibility orthoughtful planning.

The actual execution of stuccopatterns, requiring a carver's skill,is not extremely difficult, butdesign is. The merit of Persianstucco lies primarily in its design-really great design is always a dis-ciplined and imaginative work ofgenius. It is significant that stuccopatterns as well as designs for lus-

ter faience, mosaic faienceand painted ornament werefrequently made by the sameartist.

The patterns are often quitecomplex, five or six compo-nents interwoven and mov-ing in various and contrarydirections. The carver mustforesee how the final formswill develop out of the start-ing points in the first (deep-est) layer, at which pointthere can only be hints ofwhat they are going to looklike when brought to the sur-face and integrated withother elements. Memory,

imagination and precision are allrequired if the result is to berational and consistent, ratherthan confused, for confusion isindeed a danger if improvisationtends to overcome discipline andthorough planning.

It must be remembered thatcarved stucco was widely andexpertly developed throughoutthe whole Islamic world. There areearly and splendid examples inCairo, Baghdad and Jerusalem aswell as many other places.146 But

Detail of Wall Decorations, Sheykh Ahmad Ibn Abi-l-Hasan,13th-14th centuries and 1440-43, Torbat-e Jaam, Iran


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these inventive and often veryhandsome stuccos are mostlygeometric pattern. Floral magnifi-cence and exploitation of its fluidpossibilities was capable of stimu-lating more symbolic and emo-tional responses. The full develop-ment of this lyrical type of carvedstucco was chiefly due to Persianinspiration and workmanship.

The Persian mihrabs were largelythe works of individual designers.In fact these works fall into severalwell-defined groups, each exhibit-ing a similar style and feeling, butthe differences between thesegroups are not due to tem-poral sequence. Instead, theyare evidence of artistic inde-pendence and vitality. Theexuberant, complicatedthree-dimensional type con-tinued for over three hun-dred years. The precise ele-gant mihrab of the PirHamza Push at Varamindated 1180- almost contem-porary with the Alaviyan-isas far apart from it in feelingas Holbein from El Greco;and the lacelike character ofthe stucco mihrab at Rezeieh(1277) is of still another con-ception.

In Persian stucco work of a highdegree of inventiveness was main-tained over long periods and thevariety of components used instucco decoration is quite aston-ishing, even greater than in thestucco of Western Islam, ancientthough it is. Some of these ele-ments changed and developedvery rapidly, but others (like theguard stripes, which were veryingenious but simple) were oftenrepeated with only slight modifi-cation over a period of centuries.

Even today, there are very skillfulstucco workers in Persia creatinghandsome things, sometimes verywell designed. In too many cases,however, they have become vic-tims of the nineteenth centuryWestern preference for pictorialrealism, and naturalistic rosebudshave less to recommend themthan the magnificent imaginaryblooms of earlier stucco. Thepower of design, which requireseffort, talent and discipline, easilydegenerates as exacting standardsgive way before such superficialdemands. But, in the hands of thegreatest Persian designers, stuccowas always especially adapted forthe expression of floral abundance

and surging vitality. In the greatmihrabs, it was capable of sustain-ing attention, a confusing (but notconfused) complex of multiplestrands, emerging suddenly bydeep inner compulsion, creatingnew forms and magical blooms.When beautifully designed andexecuted, stucco was the acme ofopulence; patterns were lively andintricate in their movement, freebut rhythmic, providing the wor-shipper with an opportunity forintoxicating self-obliteration andfor an intensely felt awareness ofan ultimate reality.

Tile & MosaicFaience

Rivaling stucco but never com-pletely displacing it was theimpressive development of enam-eled tile, considered Persia's great-est contribution to ornament. Theluster faience mihrabs whichappeared at the end of the thir-teenth century were exquisite,even startling in their beauty.

The demand for complicated flo-ral ornament, both abstract androughly pictorial, had been wellestablished in the ornamentation

of the tenth and eleventhcentury Korans. The use oftiny fragments of cut tileappeared first in Maragha inthe beginning of the twelfthcentury and suggested thepossibilities of combiningfinely divided units of suchtiles instead of the earlier sin-gle, solid colored tiles. Thistechnique of faience mosaicwas continuously developedand improved until, by thefifteenth century, it reached adegree of luxuriance-a purityand intensity of harmoniouscolors-hardly ever equaled inarchitectural ornament. It

quite literally has to be seen to beappreciated, for so much of itsappeal lies in fluctuating tones,changing light and reflections;even then, however, it seemsimpossible.

Whole buildings are investedwith these brilliant colors and fluiddesigns that look as if they wereno more difficult to create thanpainted patterns. In the Persian cli-mate painted designs could notlast in good condition for morethan a few generations, whereas

Detail of Wall Decorations, Sheykh Ahmad Ibn Abi-l-Hasan,13th-14th centuries and 1440-43, Torbat-e Jaam, Iran


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mosaic faience retains its colorindefinitely and is as fresh six hun-dred years later without loss ofluster.

By the time of Shah Abbas I, inthe late sixteenth and early seven-teenth centuries, mosaic faiencecovered entire buildings. In doingso, the quality of many individualpanels doubtless deteriorated,especially because of the intro-duction of enamel haft-rangi tileas a replacement for mosaicfaience throughout many interiors.

In ornamentation as well asstructure, the Safavid period rep-resents the culmination of Persiantraditions. At this time all of thedifferent decorative techniqueswere combined: from the delicate-ly painted plaster of the Savamihrab through faience mosaic topainted enamel tiles and includingeven the oldest technique ofenameled brickwork. This foster-ing of varied techniques must alsohave been greatly aided by themobility of the craftsmen, for frominscriptions we know that theSafavid work at Sava was accom-plished by a mason from Yazd,that the Masjid-i-Ali portal atIsfahan was made by a craftsmanfrom Tabriz, and that parts of theShrine at Mashhad were done byartists from Isfahan and Shiraz.

ConclusionThe architecture of Persia across

the centuries displays great vari-ety, both structural and aesthetic,developing gradually and coher-ently out of prior traditions andexperience. Without sudden inno-vations and despite the repeatedtrauma of invasions and culturalshocks, it has achieved and indi-

viduality distinct from that ofother Muslim countries. Its para-mount virtues are several: amarked feeling for form and scale;structural inventiveness, especiallyin vault and dome construction; agenious for decoration with afreedom and success not rivaledin any other architecture. Whileplan and layout, especially in latercenturies, was of the highestorder, construction was rarelyequal in solidity and sophistica-tion to European masonry. But thevery survival of so many earlymonuments - especially the loftyminarets - in a country afflicted bydevastating invasions and earth-quakes, to say nothing of thedamage inflicted by brick-hungryvillagers, is proof that permanencewas an effective ideal for manyarchitects.

While decorative values are fullyexploited, the primary function ofthese forms and patterns is toemphasize, suggest and correlateapparent constructive forces andthus give the impression of con-tinuous and harmoniously bal-anced energies. With the excep-tion of the costly mosaic faience,the materiasls used in Persianbuilding and the methodsemployed permitted rapid andinexpensive construction so that arelatively small country was ableto create a disproportionatelylarge number of important monu-ments.There was a humane char-acter to all of the arts of Persia.The agonizing scenes depicted inso much of Christian art wererepulsive to the Persian, who hada lively appreciation of the charmsof the present world. This humani-ty is evident in the architecture,which in the Islamic period espe-cially, was for the general benefit,accessible and shared by all. Therange of expressive effects variedfrom the solemn and austere, tograndeur, magnificence, or fairy-like charm. Mosques were places

of beauty, conducive to joy, con-templation and religious fervor. Asone inscription read: "Themosques are the Gardens ofParadise" - and so the Persianbuilders and decorators made

them, ornaments and validexpressions of Islam.

……………….…….…….…….………….…………..* Part of the Book "Persian

Architecture", published by Thames &Hudson, London.

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Architecture is not only a form of art, butalso many other forms of arts affect archi-tecture in direct and indirect ways. Toachieve any positive and creative task, nec-essary conditions should be provided atfirst. One of the most important and essen-

tial conditions is the architectural and envi-ronmental "space" where creativity material-izes; therefore, it is evident that architecture,which itself is one of the seven categories ofart, also plays a critical role in the creativeflourishing of other art forms.

IranianContemporary Architecture

Tradational Design Inspires

By: Ahmad Zohadi*

Agha Bozorg Mosque / School (Masjed-e Agha BozorgKashan, Architect: Haj Shabanali, 1825

I would like to highlight my view points toanalyze the theme and the message whichcould best reflect the actual image of Iraniancontemporary architecture. Our culturalbeliefs shape the way we look at ourselvesand view our world. Some major factorsdirectly and indirectly affect and shape thecultural identity of any society and this iden-tity in turn creates and shapes all aspects ofthat society including its art and architec-ture. These factors are historical, religious,demographic, and geographical. Culture,consist of sets of beliefs, traditions and waysof life which societies adopt throughouttheir history.

Furthermore, I would like to state that, thearchitectural designs in the contemporaryera, should consider, keep and use its tradi-tional identity, while at the same time incor-porate the new and modern methods ofarchitecture where they may be more practi-cal and suitable for today's needs.

The contemporary architecture of Iranstarted during the Qajar dynasty in late 18thCentury when modernism and the modernlife style were introduced into Iran, whereseveral modern schools were built, includingthe first higher education institute called"Dar-al- fonoon" (polytechnic) while at thesame time, some Iranian students were sentto Europe for advanced education.

The second period of contemporary archi-tecture of Iran started right after the WorldWar I with the rule of a new dynasty calledPahlavi. Due to the authoritarian nature ofthat rule, the whole political, socio-econom-ic and cultural structure of the country weredrastically influenced and changed.

The third period of contemporary architec-ture of Iran started after the World War IIwith the rule of the new western backedmonarchy of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi,which lasted for 37 years until the victory ofthe Islamic revolution in1979. During this 37years, (1941 to 1979), several architecturalstyles based on socio-cultural and architec-tural development in the West were devel-oped in the country.

The fourth period of the contemporaryarchitecture of Iran has started from theIslamic revolution of 1979 to the presenttime. Two years after the victory of theRevolution, a devastating 8-year-war wasimposed on the country by Iraq's Baathist

regime, as a result of which the constructionactivities came to a halt. However, after theconclusion of the war, such activities wereresumed with a high speed, due to theincrease of population in major cities andalso because of the tremendous need foradequate shelter.

Here, I would like to portray the image of afew post Revolution era structures, eventhough presenting a balanced view of archi-tectural development for this periodrequires a more comprehensive analysis ofthe situation.

During and after the imposed war, migra-tion to Tehran increased dramatically. As a

result of this, the city's population grew rap-idly and consequently the real estate devel-opers used commercial style homes andbuildings which where only made for quickfinancial gains and did not give much con-sideration to architectural expressions.

However, some good and significant proj-ects have been developed during this periodwhich, among other factors, have taken intoconsideration: aesthetic aspects, originality,innovative ideas and concepts, modern tech-nology, while being compatible and harmo-nious with its own time period, as well asbeing competitive at international level.


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Rafsanjan SportComplex

Location: Rafsanjan, KermanArchitect: Seyed Hadi Mirmiran

Date: 1995

The design of this sports complex drawson the typology of the traditional icehousesof southern Iran. In a similar manner to theicehouses, it combines an opaque volume(the cone shaped Dome) with transparentelements (the wall and the diagonal glazedroof that divides indoor and Outdoorpools). All internal walls are of brick andexposed concrete, which helps preserve theSpatial integrity of the interior despite thediversity of the programmed (gymnasia,pools, saunas, Restaurant, etc). The structureis reinforced concrete: external walls aredouble-layered and Insulated.

Tehran BarAssociationociation

Location: TehranArchitect: Seyed Hadi MirmiranDate: 2001

The exterior of the Tehran Bar Associationrepresents the idea of 'justice' through anabstraction of the form of a giant balance(defined by brass and copper cladding).The interior strives for Maximum trans-parency -- even for a 'sense of floating' --with offices organized in two vertical vol-umes divided by a light shaft that widensas it proceeds upwards.


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Architectural Designof Cinema Farhang

Location:TehranArchitect: Bahram ShirdelDate: 2011

In Tehran at the northern part of the dis-trict 3, in vicinity of Shariati St., a 3800 sqmplot area, the current location of the CinemaFarhang is the proposed location of thisimportant center of cultural cinematic com-plex. The project is generally divided intothree main Retail Central Public Terrace andMovie Theaters. Both retail spaces andmovie theaters are separately located by thecentral public terrace with the dual role con-necting them and also act as an urban pub-lic space which causes a link between urbanspace of Shariati St. and the Park at westernpart of the project through a widestairway.The volumetric structure of thisproject is derived from the idea of the domeand specifically the Persian Orchin domewhich is formed by the placement of themovie theaters and their lobbies.

This complex includes 12 movie theaterswith 150,250,350 and 500 seats capacitywith the ability of becoming a 1000 seatsauditorium to meet the needs of its publicevents.

Shahkaram Office &Commercial Building

Location: KarajArchitect: Hooman Balazadeh

Date: 2007

The concept of project windows isderived from the idea of traditional Iranianwindows (Orosi) in which the small colorfulmodules of glass both control the intensitya colorful effect of light and shadow on theinner surfaces. Adjusting the proportion ofthe volume composition, since the buildinghas a narrow width in comparison to itsheight, the whole complex is divided intotwo major parts in width and height toreduce the effect of stretched proportions.Thus a big rectangular module wasarranged to define the general division ofmain entrance, office and commercial unitson the main façade. The next step wasdesigning a texture on the main transparentfaçade based on the concept of expandinggeometry; an Iranian architectural conceptin which one module becomes a base forthe formation of a whole complex.


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beams underneath covered by galva-nized metal sheets, in fact plenty ofdetails and joints have been fixed bysame material/ generally the source ofthe lights are invisible and placedinside the galvanized metal sheet pock-ets interior floor are covered by whitemarble stone and some part mattglass/ and outside with hammered graystone and the fountains are carvedfrom white travertine.

Besides using the local materials andsymmetrical geometry in the project, tomeet the local identity, looking for themeaningful elements which could pro-vide more intimate space for usershave been pursued.

These elements used to convey adeep feeling which comes out fromIranian spiritual thoughts.

Cultural Centerin Esfahan,

Architect: Farhad AhmadiDate: 2007

The project embrace several culturalactivities to attract different group ofaudience and promote original Iranianart in the scale of the city and interna-tional as well. The program consist of(400 Seats) cinema/ (350seats) theater/foyer/restaurant fountain vaults/coffeeshop/galleries/library/handicraft

Workshops/classes/offices/seminarroom/plateaus/art shopping/courtyards/ and a large pond. In harmonywith the original architecture in Esfahanthe facades are finished with handmadebrick and has been combined withwhite hammered send stone. Brick andstone also used for interior walls/cement render with steel tube on thecorners and joints is the main materialfor interior wall finish / reinforced con-crete on the roof left expose frominside and roughly hammered and steel


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Mellat Cineplex Park Location: Tehran

Architects: Reza Daneshmir & Catherine Spiridonoff

Date: 2008

Architectural journals have played animportant role in the development ofIranian contemporary architecture.

There are many architectural journals aswell as numerous website and blogs dedi-cated to- Architecture.

The Iranian Architects Society also regular-ly organizes conferences, exhibitions andother event, as well as celebrations of sen-ior Architects.

In 1979 there were four schools of archi-tecture and some 3,000 architects in Iran.Today the existence of some 300 schools ofarchitecture and 150,000 students createsand explosion in the number ofArchitectures in the country.

New approach:Today, at the dawn of the 21st century,

there are a number of new projects andapproaches attributable especially to thegeneration of architects born after the1970s, that better represent the aspira-tions and realities of a society that isstruggling on many fronts.

The projects carried out by a numberof architects of this generation can playan important role in enhancing the gen-eral quality of national architectural pro-duction in the coming years.

.......................................................................................................*The author is an Iranian architect, researcher, pub-

lisher, CEO and Editor in Chief of 2A Architecturalmagazine, Tehran.

Mellat Cineplex Park, Tehran (2008)

KazakhstanArchitecture

26Kazakhstan

In Kazakhstan, the traces of the ear-liest Paleolithic tribes have been foundin the south-western slopes of Karataumountains, in areas such asBorykazgan and Tanirkazgan, Karasuriver and Betpak on the banks ofBukhtarma and Arystandy rivers wherethe stone inscriptions date back to 30-10 thousand years BC. The dwellingsand settlements of the earliest seden-tary tribes have been discovered inthe Central, Northern,Western and EasternKazakhstan. A.Kh.Margulan believes thatKazakhstan was once themost populous countryof the Bronze Age (XVIII-VIII centuries BC) whenthe residential houseswere built of severalrooms consistingof 200 square

meters. However, early in the first millenni-

um BC, several types of mobile,nomadic households emerged thatthe historians attribute to Saka tribes.Through the study of stationarydwellings of the Middle and LateBronze Age with those of the nomadicones, some links and similarities couldbe traced. Due to the lack of knowl-

edge, often all typesof nomadic homes(from the tent tothe polygonal cab-ins) have beengenerally termed"yurt". The inven-tion and spread ofsuch houses andtheir widespreaduse date back to

the middle ofthe first mil-

Legacy of the Earliest Sedentary Tribes

Nur

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lennium. The architectural struc-tures surviving from the dawn ofhumanity can be consideredhuman’s first efforts to material-ize the spirit of his ancestors.Evidence to this are differenttypes of megalithic constructionsthat were erected in the shapes ofharsh rectangular with one orseveral concentric circles, dol-mens, stone coffins and fences.

The tradition of building mega-lithic structures continued for along time. With the changes thatoccurred in the living ways andthe establishment of tribalalliances, this tradition contin-ued to exist until the earlyMiddle Ages (VIII-X century),after which, with the formationof feudalism within the coun-try, the ancient traditions grad-ually became history andwhere replaced by modernforms. The art of architecturehad flourished among Syr-Darya tribes, and the methodsthey applied in building con-struction have been preservedto date.

This is evidenced by thearchitecture of the Tagiskenmausoleums located approxi-mately 20 kilometers south-westof Kzyl-Orda on the way toInkardarya. Architectural tradi-tions of Tagisken dating to LateBronze Age further developed inclose connection to the previousstructures of Inkardarya valley(attributed to the IV century BC)made in the form of multi-cham-ber constructions with conicaldomes towering above a cylindri-cal or prismatic shafts, which holda special, important place amongthe architectural monuments ofKazakhstan and Central Asia.

It was during the constructionof this mausoleum that domesemerged as an important archi-tectural form and design andbricks were used as their mainbuilding material. With the grow-ing influence of Turkic tribes fromthe east, many traditional cus-toms including the funeral rituals,changed and timber was used toerect yurt-like tombs, coveredwith conical and pyramidal vaults.The emergence of such new formof architecture was probably dueto the combination of traditionalforms of resident tribes of theregion with those of the Turks.Then faceted walls and weremoved along with brick con-

struction. Since this then, multi-faceted, brick walls and domeswere built. During the time ofSakas, Kazakhstan’s art reached asufficiently high level of develop-ment and structures of astonish-ing size and scale were erected.

Usuns and Kangs were the fol-lowers of Saka customs and tradi-tions whose architectural meth-ods developed through the years700 (till the 5th century). In sum-mers and winters, UsunMountains were host to thenomadic tribes along theMountain Rivers. The archaeolog-ical excavations in Chirik Rabat,located in Zhanadarya, have

unearthed the remains of twostructures named “Babishmulla II”.The use of burnt bricks as floorcoverings in the northwesternpart of the building and a layer ofstucco with detailed ornamenta-tion reflects high levels of archi-tectural development during thisperiod.

Here, it is easy to find traces ofcombination of some methods inthe architecture of mausoleumthat was the characteristic of resi-dential houses of the time and itscombination with those designsused in the architecture of

Khorezm castles during VII-VIIIcenturies (Teshik Kala, Majorand Minor Kyz Kala), as well asthe residential dwellings ofancient Pyanjikent, Varakhsha,South Kazakhstan (Baba-Ata,Aktobe-3, Kulana,… castles).

Due to the mass migrationsof the littoral tribes of SyrDarya towards the south thathappened during the II centu-ry BC, the use of cross andApasiacae patterns becamepopular in the architecture ofcircular mausoleum.

"Chirik-Rabat" is the name ofa region in Amu Darya delta

that was mainly inhabited byfarmers. Here, Apasiacae cultureand traditions developed andenriched well, the best exampleof which is the outstanding archi-tectural monuments of "Barak-Tam" settlement (IV-V centuryBC) located in the northern deltaof Akchadarya on the borderlinesof present-day Uzbekistan andKazakhstan.

Undoubtedly, architectural styleof the time was influenced by thedominant ideology of the thensociety. fire worshipers of these

Shakpak- Ata underground mosque

steppes well promoted theZoroastrian doctrine. In the firstcentury AD, when Buddhism tookover Mazdaism, Christianityappeared. Archeological excava-tions of "Chol-Tobe" and "Kyzyl-Kainar" settlements in Talach val-ley have revealed ruins of twogrand architectural complexesincluding two unique Christianchurches dating to the beginningof Common Era which are match-less in world architecture.

Due to the formation of Turkickhanate, architectural and build-ing styles went through signifi-cant changes that left a majorinfluence on the constructionmethods of traditional memorialstructures that have reached usdown the generations to thepresent times. In this period, cul-tural and urban structures such ascastles and palaces, temples, andso on, became architecturally verydeveloped. These include Kuiruk-Tobe, Baba-Ata, Aktobe, Taraz,Kulan - a sanctuary inKokmardan, Barak-Tam, Akyrtascastle-palace and others, con-

structed mainly in the VII-IX cen-turies. Among the early MiddleAges castles of southernKazakhstan, the remains ofunique "Akyrtas" stone structuredating to VII-VIII centuries is sig-nificant. Polyfunctional castle-palaces were constructed to serveas strong fortifications againstthe enemies, housing caravansand performing religious rituals…

The Arab conquest infused anew phase of development forthose who were seeking newsocial relations in the south ofKazakhstan which contributed tothe development of new types ofbuildings and structures.

The Middle Ages (X-XVIII centuries)

Since the 10th century, thenomads started expanding theyurts interior space. To this pur-pose, they improved the designand lighting conditions, as well asthe beauty of the appearance.

Until the 13th century, thepalace structures, mobiledwellings (covered wagons), andhuts made of tree leaves and

branches existed in the nomadicsocieties.

During XVI-XVII centuries,nomadic yurt dwellings werereplaced by doubled-domedhouses called "Turk" and"Mongol" types, the distinguish-ing feature of which was a rela-tively flat roof that was more con-venient for carriage, and morereliable aerodynamic quality inexposure to strong steppe winds.

The erection of the so-called"tower mausoleums" becamepopular during the X-XI centuries.

Although it is impossible to linkthe construction of such funerarystructures with religious instruc-tions or believing in the afterlife,but this tradition accelerated withthe spread of Islam. The idea ofcommemorating the memory ofthe ancestors (which was regard-ed as a social duty for thenomads) was best expressed inthe construction of vertical build-ings.

One of the most outstandinghistorical monuments ofKazakhstan in the new period is

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the Babaji Khatun mausoleum(end of X - beginning of XI centu-ry), located 28 kilometers fromTaraz, where the feudal architec-ture begins. With its unique archi-tectural composition, this mau-soleum became the first of mar-quee type buildings. Anotherattraction of this mausoleum areits two domes: the internal one ishemispherical and ribbed whilethe external is a pyramidal, corru-gated hipped roof. It is distin-guished from other structuresdue to its simplicity of forms, lim-ited ornamentation yet high qual-ity of construction - that has pre-served the structure safe for cen-turies. Architecture of Karakhanmausoleum is also notable. It isbelieved that the construction ofthis structure has laid the groundfor the birth of other architecturalmasterpieces such as Aisha Bibi,which is considered as one of theunique structures throughout theterritory of Central Asia andKazakhstan. Judging by the halfsurvived facade, the surroundingarea and the restored exterior by

M. Bulatov, one may presumethat it is an artwork of an out-standing master architect, withfull command over constructiontechniques.

Mongol domination of theregion hindered more growthand flourishing of the architecturethroughout the whole territory.Gradually, the negative conse-quences of the presence ofMongols in the central, southwestand western parts of the region –where the art of architecture washighly revered – diminished andanother epoch began for the fur-ther development and flourishingof this art form.

During the XIV century, inMangyshlak Peninsula, missionar-ies erected the first mosques forthe promotion of Islam and tokeep people from harsh climaticconditions and thus, more thanten underground mosques havebeen found in this area. Thestructures of southern Kazakhstanof the XIV century are testimonyto the high level of architecture ofthe period. For example, ShakpakAta mosque is a matchless archi-tectural monument being the firstand only structure of Central Asiaand Kazakhstan with a stonefaçade. The impressive KhojaAhmed Yasawi mausoleum wasbuilt in Turkestan during XIV andXV centuries and is a synthesis ofartistic traditions of Mesopotamiawith those of Kazakhstan’s localarchitecture. The architecturalplan of the mausoleum left agreat impact on the folk architec-ture of Kazakhstan which waspreserved for centuries.

Late XIX – BeginningXX Centuries

During this period, the maintypes of nomadic dwellings areformed with the main one beingthe Kazakh yurt with a strongnational identity and regional

characteristics. Thus in a nomadicsociety, architectural and artisticideas evolved in specific condi-tions which aimed at creating atype of dwelling that is light,durable, beautiful and useful. Itshould be noted that an individ-ual family had several yurts.

The accession of Kazakhstan toRussia has contributed to thedevelopment of a settled form ofmanagement against a back-ground of "shoshaly" (earth-houses and overground build-ings) leading to more intensivedevelopment of land and rectan-gular dwellings. Along with localtypes of dwellings with typicallyadobe walls and flat roofs, housesof Russian peasant immigrants,Ukrainian jerry buildings andUzbek huts were formed. In theWestern and North-Western partsof Kazakhstan with cold andlong-lasting winters, a totally newdesign was produced as a solu-tion to the residential estate withcompact layout of all elements.Farm buildings, cattle-breedingpremises, stockrooms for foodstorage and equipment, com-bined in one large buildingjoined the residential homes.Light wood coverings on thecolumns provided the ground tomask such a large building anddivide it into separate premises.Especially in the late 19th andearly 20th centuries, quite signifi-cant changes happened in thearchitecture of Kazakhs houses.More prosperous part of the pop-ulation had two and often threeor four bedrooms apartmentsinstead of the old single-roomedhouses. There was no morenecessity for fortified settlements;construction had gone beyond


29Kazakhstan

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the stronghold. This process con-tributed to a radical change inthe type of rural dwellings. A dif-ferentiation of dwelling on func-tional grounds occurred, but thearchitectural-artistic organizationof space, particularly the livingroom and kitchen-dining room,almost completely preservedtheirs traditional structure. In theSemirechye district new type ofresidential houses called"korzhun" appeared.

Immigrants from Russia andthe settled autochthonic popula-tion of the land built new types ofdwelling houses which can bedivided into four types accordingto their architectural, functional,and artistic features.

In the first half of the 19th cen-tury, construction businessreduced in scale and was mainlysupported in the western andcentral Kazakhstan. There weresufficiently large memorial build-ings in the West. The constructionof mausoleums of Taichik (earlyXIX century), Tulek (1930s), Tort-kora (1940s) and others are typi-cal of the architecture of centralKazakhstan at that period. Typicalarchitecture of the XIX century isreflected in the appearance of theabove mentioned buildings.

Concentrically-tent-like mau-soleums and mausoleums withporticos on the facades (evidenceof the influence of Europeanarchitecture, which came viaRussia) emerged for the first timehere.

The final 30 years of the XIXcentury has a special place in thehistory of folk architecture. Theregular process flourished mainlyin southern, central and westernregions of the Republic. This is

evidenced by the architecture ofthe mosque-mausoleum of Baba-Ata, Jabrail, Mirali-Bab,Zhusupbek mausoleums in SouthKazakhstan, Kara-Sopa inKyzylorda, Sagyn-Dyka, Jantaya,Aktobe, Baitymbeta in Jambulregions. Nevertheless, the maintype of tombstones still had aportal and dome.

The architects continued tostrive for the perfection of theplasticity of the basic size ofstructures. Examples include themausoleum of Mirali-Bab inSayram built in the late XIX cen-tury, Jabrail in Turbat village andothers. It is impossible not to paycareful attention to the appear-ance of concentrically dome-shaped and new multi-domedtypes of tombstones in southernKazakhstan highlighting the inno-vative trends in architecture ofthe late XIX century. An exampleof the first one is the Rustembekamausoleum in the Tasty village ofSouth Kazakhstan region.Sagyndyk mausoleum has anunusual pentagonal type which isnot very widespread inKazakhstan.

Moreover, the final 30 years ofthe XIX century was a heydayperiod in the architecture of west-ern Kazakhstan when in a rela-tively short period of time, quite alot of facilities appeared: theImanbai (1870), the Ergalia (1874),the Murza-Muru (1880), theZhuban (1895-1896), the Aitaman(1897-1898), the Omar and Tur(1897) and N. Kalishula (1900)mausoleums, which are the pearlsof not only of West Kazakhstanarchitectural school, but of theentire Kazakh architecture.

The quest for best metaphoricalillustration of the afterlife as wellas love and finding beauty couldbe found in the historical objectsof the late XIX and beginning ofXX centuries especially inMangyshlak Peninsula (and in

Nurbergan Mausoleum façademore than the others). Duringthis period, simple structures withcylindrical domes and thick wallsemerged that soon became pop-ular among the residents of west-ern Kazakhstan.

Annexation to Russia con-tributed inclusion of Kazakhstanin the economic system of thedeveloping Russian capitalism.The emergence of new residentialsettlements in industrial regionscontributed to the outflow ofindigenous Muslim population ofthe steppes towards towns, wherethey constructed mosques topractice their religion.Construction of important admin-istrative and business centers andpublic buildings commenced atthe instruction of the Russiancapital and for example, in 1795,at the instruction of QueenCatherine II, the first stonemosque was erected in Kyrgyzsteppes of Petropavlovsk.Analysis of late XIX and begin-ning XX century mosques indi-cates that although a general

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guideline had been prescribedfor the construction of such struc-tures, but folk, regional featureswere observed.

Among the religious Islamicbuildings of Kazakhstan, a smallgroup of mosques with free-standing minarets are found.Here minarets are built on a spe-cific order with regular decreasein the shaft volume from the bot-tom to the top, which creates theillusion of greater height ofminarets than they actually are.Alternations of black and whitehorizontal bands on façadedesigns are reminiscent of Turkishmosques; windows with horse-shoe arches resemble those ofSpanish-Maghreb architecture,but at the same time with a hintof gothic pattern. The bow cupolaover the entrance could havebeen the direct influence ofRussian architecture, or have evenmore complex roots tracing backto the common architectural fea-tures of North Africa to Japan.

Another example of themosques in this group is the so-

called Great Mosque of CasaLynskey which deserves attentionas the Kazakh version of theCentral Asian mosques.

The mosque - madrasah com-plex built by a merchant calledValibaem Yoldashevym in 1887-1892 in Zharkent holds a specialplace in the architecture of thelate XIX century Kazakhstan.Although allegedly, the complexwas built "without drawings," yetit stands out for its fine urbanplanning and occupies an entirecity block in the downtown area.The main building of the mosqueis surrounded by a park. Thesetypes of yards and their designwere very popular throughout thenorth-eastern regions of Xinjiangof that time and are rooted in thepre-Islamic temples of CentralAsia where religious building waslocated in the middle of the yard.The mosque has a square planwith a square mihrab in thesouth-west side of the largestructure. It is a synthesis of folk,traditional architecture with thoseof the Chinese ones. It is definite-ly a best example of the fineworks of master folk artists ofKazakhstan (Hasan Pulat, Ruzi

Selim and others).With the accession of

Kazakhstan to Russia, theRussian-European architecturaltraditions began to leave its foot-print on the architecture andespecially the urban planning ofthe country. Among them,Christian religious buildings holda special place. One of the mostoutstanding works of theOrthodox religious architecture ofthe XVIII century, preserved in theterritory of Kazakhstan, is theArchangel Michael Cathedral inUralsk (1741-1751).

In the 90s of the XIX century,the architecture of religious build-ings of Christians in Kazakhstanwas enriched: new groups ofchurches and cathedrals emergedin some of which, the "Greek"cross, with equal length andwidth were placed.

………….........................................………..Compiled by ECI Staff Members from

the Great Soviet Encyclopedia.Russian-Persian Translation: Mohsen

HajjarianPersian-English Translation: Parisa

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31Kazakhstan

Blue-roofed Central Museum, Almaty

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The Kyrgyz people did not have an estab-lished architecture of their own before theycame under Russian rule. Governmental andurban architecture is in the Soviet style. Citieswere designed with many parks and plazasfilled with benches that focused on monu-ments to Soviet achievements. Much of thehousing in urban centers consists of largeapartment blocks, where families live in two- orthree-room apartments. Bazaars come in allsizes, and are divided so that products of thesame type are sold side by side.

Most houses are of one story, withopen-ended peaked roofs thatprovide storage space.Outer decorations vary byethnicity. Families live infenced-in compoundsthat may contain themain house, an out-door kitchen, barnsfor animals, shedsfor storage, gar-dens, and fruittrees. The tradi-tionaldwelling wastheportableboz-ui,made ofwoolfelton acol-

lapsible wooden frame, which people still livein when they take their animals to the summerpastures.

Throughout the country, floors and walls arelined with carpets and fabric hangings.Furniture usually is placed along the walls, leav-ing most of a room empty.

Public art abounds in the form of statues,murals, roadside plaques, and building decora-tions. One of the most popular themes isManas, the legendary father and hero of theKyrgyz people.

His deeds are commemorated in thenational epic Manas, which is chanted

by manaschis. Manas is the symbolof Kyrgyz bravery and is often

shown astride a rearing horse,with sword in hand, fighting the

enemies of the Kyrgyz people.While they call Manas their"father," the Kyrgyz do not

see themselves as a war-like people. Instead,

they are a family ofartists. This identity is

embodied in theyurt, or boz-ui,

the traditionalKyrgyz

dwelling. Theboz-ui is an

importantcultural

sym-bol,

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as both the center of the Kyrgyz family and theshowplace of Kyrgyz art. The Kyrgyz flag reflects this.On a field of red a yellow sun is centered with fortyrays coming from it. In the center of the sun is atunduk, the top of the boz-ui. It was under this thatthe family gathered.

Inside the boz-ui are hung all the forms of Kyrgyzcraftsmanship, including rugs called shirdaks. Theyare made of brightly colored appliquéd wool felt,with stylized nature motifs that have been passeddown for generations. These motifs are also oftenused for borders and decorations on public art.

Manas MonumentManas is the name of the Kyrgyz epic and the hero

- the main character- that united Kyrgyz tribes. With500,553 lines of story narrated by Prince Sayakbaya,it is often referred to as the world's longest epic.Unlike other epics, the Kyrgyz epic "Manas", is thestory of not only the hero but eight consecutivegenerations of one family. The name "Manas" waschosen to honor the hero and Kyrgyz Khan namedManas. It was composed in 9th-10th centuries withits first lines appearing in 1856. Legends aboundthat "Manas" is the word of God not man. When thecomposer of Manas Epic woke up after sleeping, hefound himself capable of composing its verses.

Manas is the famous national hero of the Kyrgyzpeople, the embodiment of strength, courage andwisdom. The epic narrates the stories of the strug-gles of the seven generations of a family fighting forthe freedom and prosperity of Kyrgyz people."Manas" consists of eight parts, each of which isnamed after the main character and narrates thestories of his generation of heroes. The characteristicfeature of "Manas" is the abundance of heroes'images and epic pictures. In addition, the "Manas"also illustrates the scenes of wars and battles.

"Manas" has been translated and published inChinese language in China with the most interestingparts translated into English, French, German andJapanese. Kyrgyz national epic "Manas" is not onlyvery popular among the Kyrgyz people but alsoround the globe. Declaring the year 1995 "Year ofManas" testifies to this fact.

Historical ArchitectureKyrgyzstan has a rich history dating back to antiq-

uity. On the territory of the republic there are morethan 5,000 archeological and architectural monu-ments of historical importance.

Burana Tower The Burana Tower, dating to 10th-11th centuries, is

located 12 km to the southwest of Tukmok on theway to the picturesque Kegety gorge on northernslopes of Kyrgyz ridge. This cultural and historicalmonument belongs to Karakhanids that had muchof Central Asian under their command around 900years ago.

Built on an octagonal stone plinth, the Minaret ismade of burnt bricks. There are ornamental brick-works have been applied in a specific order aroundthe tower shaft which reduces in diameter from 9 m

at the bottom to 6 m at the top. The tower's heightused to be 44-48 m of which 21 m has nowremained. On the southern part, there is a doorwayat a height of 5 m from the ground with a steep,winding stairway leading the visitors inside thetower and enabling them to climb to the top.

Excavations conducted in the tower's surroundingareas have uncovered the remains of three mau-soleums and dwellings houses dating to XI-XII cen-turies. Probably, Burana was the tallest structure of

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the ancient city Balasagun, the northern capital ofTurkic states Karakhanids. In 1218, the conquest ofthe city by the Tatar and Mongols lead to thedestruction of the Balasagun in a way that in theXIV century, the civilization here ceased to exist.

In 1976, Burana ancient settlement was declareda state reserve. Having been restored, the settle-ment was opened in 1977 as a NationalArchaeological and Architectural Museum calledthe "The Republic's Museum of Archeology". Themain landmarks of this open-air museum are theBurana Tower and the tomb stones carved in theshape of idols (6th-10th centuries). Other treas-ures of the museum are stone petroglyphs (datingto 1 thousand BC) and additional archaeologicalartifacts.

Ak-Beshim SettlementSix km to north-west of Burana Tower is the Ak-

Beshim settlement (Suyab) which is considered oneof the cultural and economic centers of the ChuiValley (6-7 centuries.). The city is spread over a vastarea including Shahristan (the city center) with acitadel of a total area of 35 ha enclosed by a subur-ban area of about 60 hectares. The city is surround-ed by thick walls thus separating the civic and ruralsettlements from the outskirts. The excavations herehave revealed the remains of two Buddhist temples,a Christian church, a palace structure and an arrayof residential houses, irrigation networks and otherfeatures of medieval architecture. Probably, this areahad been the original location of Balasagun city,subsequently overgrown to the east.

Krasnaya Rechka (Red River)Krasnorechenskoye (or Krasnaya Rechka) is a village

in the Chuy Province of Kyrgyzstan 8 km east ofKant. The town of Krasnaya Rechka (Navikat) haslong been one of the most important of all theurban settlements in the Chuy Valley and in theTien-Shan region.

The remains of this ancient city are located 38 kilo-meters east of Bishkek. It is a typical of 5-10 cen-turies' settled culture. The irregular mounds andsofty eroded clay walls rippling off the valley floorare the remains of the Silk Road City of Navekat,which flourished from the 6th to the 12th centuries.The founders were Sogdians; Navekat means "newcity" in Sogdian. Archaeological excavations in andaround the town have revealed remains of twoBuddhist temples south of the town walls and aBuddhist cemetery, a fortress, a Karakhanid palacecomplex, Nestorian-Christian cemeteries and votivestones in the citadel as well as a Zoroastrian fire altarand grave site in the western suburbs.

Moreover, pieces of Buddhist paintings and sculp-tures, as well as a huge Buddha statue (over 12 m) ofcast clay ornamented with finely elaborated coloreddrapery and coloring have also been unearthed.

Tash-Rabat CaravanseraiBuilt in the 10th century in the northern part of the

Kyrgyz Republic, Tash-Rabat Caravanserai was once apopular inn for merchants and travelers. Erectedback in the 15th century, 80 km from the moderndistrict center of At-Bashi, this place is said to haveinitially served as a monastery, later on turning to an

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inn on the trade routes from Central Asia toChina. Actually, few stone structures have stoodthe test of time in Central Asia one of thembeing the very Tash-Rabat Caravanserai. It isone of the largest stone structures builtthroughout the ancient Central Asia. Massivestone walls with two towers and a powerfulentrance portal served as reliable protection forthe guests. In 1980, archeologists began study-ing the details of the structure's plan. The wallswere in 35,7 in 33,7 m with several domes. Thebuilding's interior is composed of a large hallwith 31 rooms around. Out of these 31 rooms,twenty one have high domed roofs with pat-terned interiors while the other eleven are for-

nicated. The main hall's floor is covered withflat stones while others lack such covering. Insome rooms, deep hallows could be seen onthe floor, one of them being 2,7 m deep and0,9 m wide. The name of the building's archi-tect is still remained shrouded in mystery. Thehistorians suppose that the caravanserai havebeen constructed at the instruction ofMohammad Khan, a then local ruler. However,the aboriginals are of the opinion that it waserected by a father and son. When the con-struction work is over, the boy finds out about acaravan approaching. Out of curiosity, he goesto welcome the travelers but never returnsbecause there was a beautiful girl travellingwith the caravan for whom the boy leaves hisfamily. Tash-Rabat is one of the rare medieval

structures preserved well to date.

Koshoi-Gorgon Settlement Located 20 km west of At-Bashi, Koshoi-

Gorgon are the remains of an ancient 250x250m fortress dating to 8th-10th centuries whichserved as a military headquarters of the rulersin the east of the Karakhanids' state. It is amodel of Muslim architecture, located on thecaravan route.

Manas Gumbez Manas Gumbez (mausoleum) is located 20 km

from the Talas city at the foot of Karool-ChokaMountain. It is a religious, memorial complex ofXIV century the main landmark of which is aportal-dome brick mausoleum with an internaland external ogival dome and a ribbed tent ona drum crowning almost the entire cubic vol-ume. After the reconstruction in 1970, theManas Ordosu memorial complex was openedincluding Manas Gumbez, Manas Museum-Reserve and a mosque. According to somesources, in 1334, an Emir's daughter was buriedin Gumbez.

Ken-Kol BurialKen-Kola Cemetery located in Talas region

consists of more than 60 mounds belonging to3-2 centuries BC.

OshOsh is one of the most ancient cities of Asia.

The first settlement were established at the footof the four-peaked Bara-Kuh Mountain (160 m)3,000 years ago. In the XIV century, SheikhSuleiman was buried there and the mountainwas therefore named Takht-i-Suleiman(Suleiman's throne), and consequently,Suleiman-Too became a sacred mountain.There are still pilgrims who come here in thehope of healing in the holy place the proof ofwhich are colored pieces of fabrics tied to thebranches of trees and shrubs. Legends havethat imprints of the horse shoes belong toProphet Babur's horse. At one of its vertices,there is the house of Babur, a mausoleum ofXVI-XVII centuries.

On the mountain slope there is a cave with amuseum. Osh city itself is home to RawatAbdulla Khan mosque (XVI-XVII cc), Asaf ibnBuhriya mausoleum (XVII-XVIII cc), AlymbekDatka mosque (XIX c.) and around 30 other his-torical monuments. Ancient Osh (IV century BC

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- V century AD) was an important settlementon the Great Silk Road. The remains of manyancient castles such as Mirzalim-Dobo, Chayan-Dobo, Otuz -Atyr, fortress Mady and othershave been discovered on the city outskirts. TheSurot-Tash rock, with more than 100 petro-glyphs (1st millennium BC), is located on thesuburbs of Osh.

UzgenLocated on the caravan route from Samarkand

to Kashgar, Uzgen is an ancient city of VIII-IXcenturies on the territory of Kyrgyzstan. It usedto look as a mighty fortress. By becoming thecapital of Fergana in the XI-XII centuries, Uzgenstrengthened its position. The central part ofthe city was full of picturesque buildings withnarrow streets and the market square, cara-vanserais and public baths. There were largemadrassas and mosques but now only aminaret and 3 mausoleums located 120 kmfrom the city, remind the visitors of the city'sglorious past as the best examples of CentralAsian architecture of XI-XI centuries. Uzgenarchitectural complex, with square-plannedhalls and elaborated decoration on the mainfaçade, is a typical of portal-domed memorialbuildings., The middle mausoleum dating to thebeginning of the XI century, and the earlieststructure of the complex, had external dimen-sions of 12x12 m and internal - 8.5 x 8.5 m; itwas decorated with patterned brickwork andcarvings and had two portals on the south andwest. Facades of the northern (1152-1153) andsouthern (1186-1187) mausoleums have beendeveloped into rectangular portals, with anentrance portico with a lancet arch on columns.The façade is delicately ornamented withinscriptions holding a flat plate. In addition tothe patterned brickwork and carved stucco,these mausoleums are decorated with carvedterracotta.

Kara Darya SettlementLocated between Uzgen and the village of

Kara- Yining, Kara-Darya settlement dating to3rd-4th, centuries BC, is an example of theKushan architecture.

ShorobashatKyrgyzstan is a country with a rich history.

There are more than 5000 architectural monu-ments of historical significance on its territory.Kara-Daria, Kosh-Bulak, Djanybazaeskiy and

Shorobashat settlements were built in IV-I cen-turies BC.

Occupying an area of about 70 hectares(1400?500m) between Uzgen and Jalal-Abadare the ruins of Shorobashat settlement, thelarge administrative, military and religious cen-ter of the IV-V centuries BC. It is surrounded bya single shaft, about 3 km long and 6 m inheight and consists of four relatively independ-ent fortified parts: the citadel, the religiouscomplex, a refuge and a military camp. Thetrapezoidal-shaped fortress-citadel is approxi-mately 250,300 m enclosed, on the northwest,with a fenced area for conducting religious cer-emonies. Two structures have remained rela-tively untouched here. In the first one, fewsculptures were found while the second house-

hold, there were cooking pits and hallows tolive in. The western part served as a refuge forthe people while enemies attacked. The militarycamp is built in the form of an oblique square,which distinguishes it from the typical ovalplans of other fortifications.

Shah-Fazil MausoleumThe Mausoleum of Shakh-Fazil is in the Safid-

Bulend village of Jalal-Abad region, presumablydating to the 9th-12th centuries. Built of brickon an octagonal plan, it is covered with a domewith rich internal decoration and a plain exter-nal appearance.

The complex includes a nature monument -the Archa-Mazar sacred mountain - and the

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Bronze Age monuments of 18th-19th centuries.Later, the Alamberdar mausoleum complex of the19th century, the Holy Hermit Cave, Shah-Fazil mau-soleum and Safid-Bulent mausoleum were includedin the complex. A characteristic feature of these sitesis the combination of simple living with that of luxu-ry decorations in the interior, reflected through deli-cate stucco works and carvings of blue, yellow andred colors. The mausoleum is a square building of 11metres height. The interior is decorated with richstucco carvings called Ganch. Legends have it thathere, defenseless people were once attacked and2700 soldiers beheaded. A local girl called "Bulan"washes all decapitated heads to find her beloved'shead. Archeological excavations have revealed thatthe ruler of Fergana, Mahmud ibn Nasir, known asShah Fazil has been buried here and the mausoleumhas been built in his honor. In 2003, the mau-soleum's building was restored. Nowadays, Shah Fazilmausoleum is not only of great scientific and histori-cal value but serves as a place of regular pilgrimage.

KarakolKarakol has served as Russia's outpost in the Issyk-

Kul region since 1869. A pier has been built close tothe dock on the road from Kazakhstan to Kashgar.Moreover, a 8.5 m high and 365 tons monument wasbuilt in 1982 after Prjevalski, the renowned Russiantraveler and researcher. Above this monument, thereis a one-toned eagle with its wings 3 m widespreadsitting on a stone cliff. Each of the monument'sdetails has a symbolic meaning. Other landmarks ofthe complex beside the monument include a muse-

um and a tomb of a traveler.Among the famous architectural monuments of

Karakol are the Buddhist-style, Dungan mosque(19th century), a Christian church built in 1871. In the10th-12th centuries, a chain of residential houseswere built around Issyk-Kul Lake on one of the mainSilk Road routes. Cities consisted of citadels, shahris-tans and loosely arranged dwellings of farmers andnomadic herders. During the conquest of Kokand(18th century), the Kokand troops built fortifications- called Kokand fortresses - on hills and encircledthem with rectangular closed walls.

Throughout the Issyk-Kul territory, there are lots ofarchaeological and architectural monuments. OnIssyk-Kul's southern shore, there are ruins dating to14th century. In Cholpon-Ata, there is an open airmuseum exhibiting petroglyphs (rock carvings).

Saimaluu-TashSaimaluu-Tash (Kyrgyz "painted stone") is one of

the world's largest galleries of petroglyphs. In thenorth-eastern slope of the Fergana Range (not veryfar from Kazarman), around 91,900 and at an alti-tude of over 3,000 m besides Kara Darya, about15,625 petroglyphs have been discovered totallymaking 107,525 petroglyphs dating to 3rd-2nd mil-lenniums BC. The cultural, historical landmarks arethe basis of the spiritual culture of the Kyrgyz peo-ple, their distinctive national traditions, customs,folklore, national cuisine, numerous pieces of deco-rative art and crafts, traditional folk ceremonies andtheatrical performances.

..........................................................................................................................Courtesy of the Embassy of the Kyrgyz Republic, Tehran

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was developed after the coming of the Greeks in the1st Century BCE. A good example of this is in Taxila,near Islamabad where the Gandhara Civilization (1stCentury BCE-11th Century CE) flourished and was atits peak during the 1st to 5th Century CE. Here theworld's first university was established, housed in asprawling campus of structures with courtyards andlarge enclosed open spaces. Inspiration for thesespaces undoubtedly came from the Roman arenasand employed for the first time in Buddhist placesof worship.

The Arabs invaded the southern part of what isnow Pakistan in the 7th century and introducedIslamic motifs and the Kufic script in the mosquesthat they built. During this time the north was ruledby the Hindu Shahi dynasty and the Hindu templesthat they constructed particularly along the saltrange, south-east of Islamabad, were greatly influ-enced by the Gandhara tradition and the Hinduarchitecture of Kashmir.

During the Ghauri and Sultanate Period (12th to15th Century) when artisans from Central Asia andKhurasan came along not only with invading Muslimarmies but also with missionary sufi saints, a newtradition in architecture evolved. Decorative motifswith indigenous elements were effectively used andthe structures became more and more refined. Thetombs of the sufi saint Bahauddin Zakaria (1260)and his grandson Shah Ruknuddin Alam (1320) inthe city of Multan are excellent examples of therefined Sultanate Architecture.

There are some wonderful examples of architectureof the Imperial Mughal Period (15th to 18th Century)found in and around Lahore and in the southerntown of Thatta where the unique Shah JahaniMosque is located. New elements in the designwere introduced, like the use of water fountains andwater channels in beautifully laid out formal gardensthat were integral to the architecture. Red sandstoneand marble were used as exterior cladding andexquisite tile work, pietra-dura and fresco in theinteriors of the monumental structures like theLahore Fort, Badshahi Mosque and Moghul EmperorJahangir's tomb. In other public and residentialbuildings the construction was predominantly inbrick and wood.

Temples and Gurdwaras built during the Sikh peri-od (18th and 19th century) had a distinct influenceof Mughal Architecture and the architecture of theHindu temples of the north.

An entirely new architectural style was introduced

by the British during the British Colonial Period(1848-1947). It was inspired by the classical archi-tecture of Europe and the Victorian and EdwardianArchitecture of England. With the starting of the rail-ways and laying of railway tracks in the mid 19thcentury, use of steel girders in construction to spanlarge spaces became increasingly popular. Some ofthe large structures like railway stations, markets andpublic halls employed steel girders in the roofingsystem.

In order to consolidate their rule, the British con-structed army cantonments adjacent to key townsand cities of India. This was followed by civic build-

ings that housed government offices and institution-al buildings such as hospitals and schools, mainlyfor the British elite, and, churches of both theProtestant and Roman Catholic denominations inthe Gothic Style. In the later part of the Colonialperiod, a new architectural movement started withthe emulation of indigenous design vocabularyusing bluster columns, multi-foiled arches, domesand cupolas which resulted in some magnificentpublic buildings like the Islamia College, Peshawar, astring of buildings in Lahore, such as the High Court,Railway Station, Tollington Market, GovernmentCollege, Aitcheson College, Town Hall and Lahore

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Museum, and, the St. Patrick's Cathedral, EmpressMarket, Frere Hall, Sindh High Court, SindhAssembly, Cantonment Railway Station and a host ofother buildings in Karachi, constructed during thelatter half of the 19th and early part of the 20thCentury.

Post Independence - First Phase(1947-1977)

When Pakistan was created, there were only ahandful of architects in practice, the majority of whowere trained in UK or in Indian schools following theBritish system. There were a few British architects,already practicing in the larger cities, who hadstayed on. Over the next twenty years, only a fewarchitects, all foreign educated, joined the ranks.Pakistan did not have an architecture degree pro-gramme until the early sixties when the NationalCollege of Arts (originally Mayo School of Art)upgraded its 3-year architectural assistantshipcourse to a full-fledged 5-year programme and theFaculty of Architecture was introduced in the newlyestablished West Pakistan University of Engineering& Technology in Lahore and the East PakistanUniversity of Engineering & Technology in Dhaka,graduating their first batches in 1967.

With the influx of millions of Muslim refugees fromIndia, the bulk of them settling in Karachi and othercities and towns of Sindh Province in the South andin Lahore and some other towns of Punjab Provincein the North, this was one of the largest migrations

in world history requiring massive new infrastructureand housing. The well established engineering pro-fession provided the professional and technicalexpertise to support this but due to the dire short-age of architects, the engineers and draftsmen tookon the role of the architect with disastrous results.Engineering firms grew larger and more influential,bagging design contracts of major projects.

Among the handful of architects of the first gener-ation the name of Mahdi Ali Mirza (1910-62) standsout. Although Mirza designed very few buildings,he left a rich architectural legacy for a generation ofarchitects to emulate. His houses in Karachi andLahore have a distinct flavor reminiscent of FrankLloyd Wright's Chicago homes. He extensively usedlocally quarried stone in his structures and providedlarge window openings to create harmony with thesurrounding greenery and water bodies which hemeticulously designed. Among the public buildingshe designed as Chief Architect of the Governmentwere the Forest Training Institute in Peshawar andPakistan Security Printing Corporation in Karachi.

In a design competition conducted by theGovernment of Pakistan through the InternationalUnion of Architects in 1957 for the mausoleum ofthe Father of the Nation Mohammed Ali Jinnah,Mirza, who then worked for the Government wasnot allowed to take part in the competition. Hisinterest and enthusiasm did not prevent him fromsecretly submitting a proposal through RaglanSquire & Partners of UK who had their offices in

Alhamra Complex, Lahore, by Nayyar Ali Dada


41Pakistan

Karachi and were working on other projects. Fromout of the fifty plus international entries, Mirza'sentry was selected for award of first prize. It isanother matter that because of family interferenceand pressure, the competition results were set asideand the project was handed to Yahya Merchant fromBombay, an old architect friend of Jinnah's family.

Mirza founded and wasPrincipal of the first school ofarchitecture in Karachi in 1954with the objective to create acadre of architectural assistants.This school was subsequentlyupgraded to a degree awardinginstitution twenty years later.Mirza is also credited withfounding the Institute ofArchitects, Pakistan of which hewas elected its first President in1957. After unsuccessfullystruggling to fight off cancer fortwo years, Mirza died in early1962 in a London hospital.

Minoo Mistry's and Rusi Sohrab Rustomji's educa-tional and corporate buildings in Karachi during thefirst decade of the country's independence wererefreshing and distinctly different from thosedesigned by the engineering firms of the time. M. A.Ahed and Zaheer-Ud-Deen Khawaja, who bothworked for the government for a long period,designed some notable public buildings whilst they

were employed and later when in private practiceduring the sixties and seventies. The firms of Naqvi& Siddiquie and Tajuddin Bhamani in Karachi andMurat Khan and Noon & Qayyum in Lahore werepopular for the first three decades with scores ofbuilt projects in the public and private sectors allacross Pakistan, including substantial work in thenew capital city of Islamabad.

Political instability in the early years of independ-ence slowed down developmental progress butfrom 1958 to 1969, under the regime of FieldMarshal Ayub Khan the economy flourished and thepace and volume of construction increased manyfold. Site for the new capital of Islamabad wasselected close to the city of Rawalpindi and therenowned Greek planner Constantinos Doxiadis wasgiven the task of designing the new city. Pakistaniarchitectural firms were for the first time, throughseveral architectural competitions, provided theopportunity to design a large number of govern-ment offices and public housing schemes inIslamabad.

Design of the larger and more prestigious projectslike the Federal Secretariat Complex was awarded toGio Ponti of Italy and for the design of the CapitalComplex comprising the President's House, TheNational Assembly and the Foreign Office some of

the world's leading architects,including Louis Kahn, wereinvited to present their designproposals to a special commit-tee appointed by theGovernment for this purpose.

After seeing various presenta-tions and going through manymonths of discussions anddebate, the committee finallyawarded the design of thethree buildings of the CapitalComplex to Edward DurrellStone of US who was alsoPresident J. F. Kennedy's

favourite architect and who had earlier designed,amongst other projects, the American Embassy inNew Delhi. About the same time, Stone alsodesigned two other government projects, theimposing WAPDA House in Lahore and the NationalShipping Corporation Building in Karachi.

Subsequently, Japanese architect Kenzo Tange wasinvited to design the Supreme Court and more

Among the hand-ful of architects of

the first generation thename of Mahdi Ali Mirza(1910-62) stands out.Although Mirza designedvery few buildings, heleft a rich architecturallegacy for a generationof architects to emulate.

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recently, in the nineties, Asad I. A. Khan, the ChiefArchitect of NESPAK, a large government ownedengineering and architectural firm, was tasked withdesigning the Prime Minister's Secretariat, also inIslamabad. In between, several other governmentbuildings, mostly non-descript, were constructed.Almost all of these buildings were designed byarchitects who knowingly or unknowingly sub-scribed to the Modern Movement and their architec-ture followed the "international style". During theconstruction boom of the sixties, other foreign archi-tects designed prominent buildings for the hospital-ity, corporate and banking sectors. William Tabler ofUS designed hotels for the Intercontinental Chain inKarachi, Lahore, Rawalpindi and Peshawar; Leo A.Daly designed the imposing 28 storey circularshaped head office building for Habib Bank inKarachi, the first fair-faced concrete structure inPakistan and which remained the tallest in the coun-try for several decades.

The University of Karachi campus and its buildingswere designed in the early sixties by Le Corbusier'sstar pupil, French architect Michel Ecochard. Thecampus buildings are true representatives of theModern Movement and are perhaps the only build-ings in Pakistan which faithfully follow the designprinciples laid down in the 'Theory of Proportions'developed by Corbusier, one of the great masters of20th century architecture, apioneer and faithful adherent ofthe Modern Movement. Thebuildings are most appropriate-ly designed by Ecochard cater-ing to Karachi's warm, humidclimate and the prevalent seabreeze. It is unfortunate thatthe campus landscape designdeveloped by the architect in astyle based on the traditionalIslamic principles was neverimplemented.

Also completed in the earlysixties was the AmericanEmbassy in Karachi by Richard Neutra, one of theforemost American architects of the 20th century.This was Neutra's only public project built outsideUS and the only one in South Asia. The Embassy wassubsequently downgraded in 1966 to a Consulatewith the moving of the Diplomatic Missions toIslamabad. A sleek, 'L' shaped four storey structurewith a dramatic entrance canopy, the US Consulatehas an imposing presence in the heart of the city,

right across the Gothic style Frere Hall and gardensbuilt a hundred years earlier.

Post Independence - Second Phase(1978-1999)

Two Pakistani architects with different educationalbackgrounds and styles startedtheir respective practices inKarachi and Lahore about thesame time in the mid-sixties,emerged in the seventies tomake waves in the small archi-tectural community: Habib FidaAli, trained in the early sixties atthe AA School of Architecture,London, returned to Karachi andafter briefly working with anexpatriate American architectWilliam Perry, started his ownpractice. After designing a fewprivate residences and othersmall spaces, he completed his

first major commissioned project, the Shell House inKarachi in 1978. This impressive building was thefirst of the numerous fair-face concrete structuresdesigned by Fida Ali all over the country during thenext 36 years. The precisely detailed fair face façadeis an architectural identity that has become synony-mous with his name.

The Siemens Head Office, Commercial Union,FORUM, Sui Southern Gas Co., Faisal Bank Head

During the con-struction boom ofthe sixties, other for-eign architectsdesigned prominentbuildings for the hos-pitality, corporate andbanking sectors.

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Office, Karachi Club Annexe and the British DeputyHigh Commission in Karachi, and, Sui Northern GasCo. and Lahore University of Management Sciences(LUMS) Campus in Lahore are the prominent proj-ects designed by this confirmed modernist. Severalbuildings in the LUMS campus have been finished inred brick though, a material indigenous to Lahorethat Fida Ali extensively used for the first time.

The other pioneer of the second phase, Nayyar AliDada, studied at the National College of Art (NCA),formerly Mayo School of Art and was from the firstbatch of students who graduated in 1965 after com-pleting the upgraded five-year architecture pro-gramme. Interested in the visual arts and poetry,Nayyar became part of an intimate circle of poets,artists and prominent intellectuals of Lahore duringthe sixties and seventies. This close interactionseems to have had a great influence on his thinkingand his creativity. One of Nayyar's early commis-sions was to design a house in Lahore for his men-tor, the Principal of National College of Arts (NCA),Professor Shakir Ali, considered as Pakistan'sNational Painter. Working on a shoe string budgetDada selected from a nearby kiln over-burnt redbricks, which were then generally used as cheapbrick ballast in road works, for exterior facing of thehouse with dramatic effect. Other architects quicklyadapted this and with the sudden demand for burntbricks in Lahore, kiln owners jacked up the prices!After Shakir Ali's death in 1975, his house was con-verted into a museum.

His first major project after which he catapultedinto fame was the Alhambra Arts Council Complexin Lahore (1978-86) for which he later won the inau-gural ARCASIA Awards Gold Medal in 1992 and TheAga Khan Award for Architecture in 1995. By usingexposed brick façade in these hexagonal shapedstructures inspired by the traditional materials andhistoric building forms of Punjab, Dada pioneeredthe re-introduction of brick in Lahore and recon-nected the brick tradition in architecture that wasvirtually lost during the colonial period spanningover a hundred and fifty years.

Other projects like the Open Air Theatre, GhaddafiStadium, Habib Bank, Shoukat Khanum Hospital,EXPO Centre and Beaconhouse National Universityin Lahore, Serena Hotel, Bahria Mosque and the F-9Park in Islamabad and other projects in Faisalabadand Peshawar designed during the last thirty yearshave had a profound influence on the cityscape ofthese cities and have motivated a very large numberof architects, including Dada's peers and students, toadopt brick as a medium of architectural expressionin Lahore and other cities and towns of Punjab.

A positive impact on the architecture of Pakistancame with the initiation of an international dialogueamongst architects, historians, intellectuals andthinkers under the patronage of His Highness KarimAga Khan through a series of global seminars begin-ning 1977. The dialogue helped in defining, under-standing and appreciating architecture both in thehistorical and contemporary contexts in the Muslim

IBA Prayer Hall, Karachi, by NBCL

World, its dimensions and relevance to the lives ofMuslim Communities. As a natural consequence,this then led to the institution of the triennial AgaKhan Award for Architecture, undoubtedly the mostprestigious awards given to recognize architecturalprojects that have positively impacted Muslim com-munities across the world. The first cycle of theAward culminated in a grand ceremony held in thehistoric Mughal era Shalimar Gardens in Lahore in1980.

Following this, The Aga Khan University andHospital in Karachi designed by Tom Payette ofBoston, US, in the early eighties (and ongoing) isperhaps the one project that has, undoubtedly, hada profound influence on the thinking of the localarchitects. In the main hospital building, Payette hascreated a series of landscaped courtyards throughwhich filtered light and the sea breeze help effec-tively keep the non-air conditioned areas cool dur-ing the summers. He has also used wind catchersfrom the roof to circulate breeze, a concept that wasprevalent in this area for centuries. Local wood craft,stone, decorative tile work and hand printed textileswere most effectively used in the project with whichThe Aga Khan himself was involved at all stages.

About the same time, through another initiative ofthe Aga Khan, the quarterly magazine Mimar, editedby Hasanuddin Khan and published in Singapore,made its appearance. For the first time ever, select-ed projects designed by Asian architects, particularlythose built in Muslim communities, were extensivelyshowcased. The magazine published scholarly arti-cles and reviews and monographs of emergingarchitects in the Asian region, many of whom havenow become internationally known. Mimar was amuch sought after publication because architects inPakistan were for the first time exposed to regionalarchitecture that they could genuinely relate to con-textually and culturally…… and even emulate.

Words like 'context', 'relevance', 'vernacular','regionalism', 'symbolism', 'sustainable', 'pastiche',etc., were increasingly used in discourses and discus-sions amongst Pakistani architects and a good num-ber of them were influenced by the theoreticalunderpinnings that both the Award and Mimar gen-erated. There was a growing consciousness amongthe architects of what and how they were designingand who they were designing for.

In the hospitality sector, Canadian architectRamesh Khosla of the Montreal based architecturalfirm ARCOP, was commissioned to design two mid-

size hotels during the late eighties owned by aninvestment company belonging to the Aga Khan:The Serena Hotels in Quetta and Faisalabad. (Thelargest and most prominent in the Serena chain isthe Serena Islamabad designed by Nayyar Ali Dadain the nineties) Ramesh Khosla had earlier won theAga Khan Award for his Agra Sheraton Hotel in thefirst cycle of the Award in 1980. The Quetta SerenaHotel with an adobe exterior finish that follows thevocabulary of the mud architecture commonlyfound in the small towns and villages of BaluchistanProvince did not go very well with the local popula-tion whose expectations of the much hyped hotelexterior were different from that of the architect!

The Faisalabad Serena is appropriately done inexposed brick, the indigenous building material ofthe Punjab Province. Both these exquisitely designedhotels set new standards of hospitality design inPakistan.

Among the second generation of architects thatemerged in the eighties were brothers Arshad andShahid Abdulla who returned to Pakistan after stud-ies in US in the early seventies, joined the Karachifirm of Pyarali Merali, a brilliant architect who hadbecome known for his slick residences. At theheight of his popularity and demand, Pyarali migrat-


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ed to Europe and left the firm in the hands of thetwo young brothers. Initially continuing in the samemould, the Abdullas gradually blossomed into theirown and developed a distinct style of architectureby which their houses were recognizable because ofthe crisp exteriors, innovative use of materials andexquisite detailing. The firm, by now known asArshad Shahid Abdulla (ASA), designed several insti-tutional, commercial and health care buildings dur-ing the eighties, nineties and beyond. Arshad, theolder brother was responsible for the design of thelarger projects whilst Shahid enjoyed doing smallerprojects and corporate interiors in which he excelledand made a name for himself.

Amongst ASA's earlier projects, Sheikh ZayedHospital in Lahore, Murshed Hospital, KidneyCentre, Indus Valley School of Art & Architectureand Textile Institute of Pakistan in Karachi, and, theMCB Bank in Islamabad stand out. Their laterworks include the 29 storey MCB Tower, theDolmen City Mall and Hunar Foundation, all inKarachi. In addition, ASA have designed hundredsof schools all over Pakistan for The CitizensFoundation, an NGO which provides quality pri-mary and secondary education to thousands ofchildren from marginalized communities living ineconomically and socially deprived areas.

The firm of Ahed Associates established in 1964 inKarachi was given a big boost with Ejaz Ahed join-ing and taking over the reins from his father M. A.Ahed in 1977, three years after his return fromstudies at the IIT, Chicago. The younger Ahed con-tinued with some of the projects already started,like the Bolan Medical College, Quetta and thePakistan Insurance Corporation Building in Karachi.Other projects like the Habib Bank Building,Islamabad, NWFP Agricultural University, Peshawar(with SOM), The Russian Consulate with StaffHousing and the Aventis Head Office, Karachi,

amongst many others, were successfully completed.

A large multifaceted practice, Ahed Associates hasremained one of the busiest architectural firms inPakistan over the past thirty years. The firm has inthe recent past won design competitions for presti-gious projects that include the City Hall in Islamabadand the Habib University in Karachi, the latter sched-uled for completion this year. Ejaz Ahed has shownhis deep concern and has laid great stress on envi-ronmentally efficient design and energy efficientbuilding systems in all his recent projects. Many fineprojects he has designed over the years have unfor-

tunately remained un-built due to one reason or theother.

In Lahore, apart from Dada, some other architectslike Javed Najam and Wasif Ali Khan were doingsome bold and exciting work, particularly in the resi-dential sector. Kamil Khan Mumtaz, a graduate ofAA School in London and a contemporary of Dada,taught at the National College of Art for a few yearsexerting considerable influence over the designdirection and philosophy of his students who includ-ed Wasif Ali Khan and Najeeb Omar. The latter, abrilliant, multiple IAP award winning architect, hasconsciously confined his small practice in Karachi todesigning a few houses at a time. Omar had earlierbeen part of the local team of architects whoworked on the Aga Khan Hospital project and theinfluence of the detailing is evident from his focuson the central courtyard and effective integration ofthe natural elements in his design of homes wherehe extensively uses to great effect, local craft andtraditional designs and motifs.

Kamil Khan Mumtaz, the influential teacher andmentor to scores of young architects, meanwhilewent through a major re-thinking on the westernarchitectural philosophies and the theories that hehad believed in and effectively passed on to his stu-dents. Greatly influenced by the sufi traditions andthe science of cosmology, he had also becomedeeply interested in the history of vernacular archi-tecture, indigenous technologies and local craft. Hethus gradually developed, practiced and promotedan architecture that combines cosmology with allthese building traditions, and, to his credit, Mumtazhas since remained faithful to his convictions. Twoexamples that are representative of Mumtaz's newdesign philosophy are the Chand Bagh School andthe Da'arul Hikma built in the 1980's and 90's.

In Karachi, two older firms established in the early1970's, Bilgrami & Faruque and Misbah NajmiAssociates became well known for the environmentfriendly and distinctive private homes and multiplehousing complexes they designed. Samar Ali Khanand Tariq A. Qaiser who had started their respectivecareers working for ASA were greatly influenced byArshad Abdulla. They started their own offices andvery quickly gained popularity for their residentialarchitecture. Tariq Hasan of The Architects andYawar Jilani and Mehboob Khan of ARCOPAssociates began their respective practices in thelate 1980's and have since developed into large andvery successful design firms, each firm winning


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design competitions and collecting design excel-lence awards. More about these architects and theirwork will be mentioned later.

With ongoing construction in the new Capital cityof Islamabad, there was a demand for architects toset up offices in the Capital. The old Karachi basedfirm of Naqvi & Siddiquie had expanded their prac-tice and taken in M. A. Muqtadar and Eng. Alvi aspartners to set up office in Islamabad in the late six-ties. They have designed extensively for the govern-ment and the private sector in Islamabad and manyother cities in the north and continue to be active.The Karachi office of Naqvi & Siddiquie is now man-aged by the sons of the founders.

Amongst the new entrants in Islamabad wereSuhail Abbasi and Naeem Pasha who joined handsin the early seventies (the partnership lasted 25years) and designed a large number of projects inIslamabad including the National Gallery. AnwarSaeed who was chief architect of the CapitalDevelopment Authority designed in his privatecapacity a few exceptional buildings like theGrindlays Bank, a church and a few houses.Unfortunately the same standard of design and exe-cution was lacking in the many government projectsthat he designed as the Chief. Other successfularchitects who started from Islamabad during theeighties and nineties are Sikander Ajam Khan,Salman Mansoor, Naveed Aslam and Murad Jamil.

The influence of Geoffrey Bawa, master architect ofSri Lanka, on the younger generation of architects ofPakistan cannot be ignored. The coverage of Bawa'swork in MIMAR magazine during the 1980's broughthome for the first time the fact that there could be adesign vocabulary based on indigenous architecturaltraditions successfully used in contemporary build-ings and settings. Bawa's protégé and one timeassistant, C. Anjalendran, himself an architect ofinternational repute, introduced Bawa to studentswhen he conducted design workshops each year atthe newly established Indus Valley School of Art &Architecture in Karachi in the early nineties. Sincethen students of the IVS as well as students of otherschools of architecture make yearly study trips to SriLanka to visit and experience the works of the greatmaster.

Post Independence -Third Phase (2000-Present)The opening up of economy in Pakistan during the

late nineties led to increase in investment in the pri-vate sector and the first decade of this millenniumsaw a frenzy of construction activity across thecountry. It also signaled the phenomena of anincrease in high rise structures in the major cities ofthe country. The established architectural firms inthe big cities continued to dominate the skyline.

Yawar Jilani and Mehboob Khan of ARCOPAssociates designed several projects in the hospitali-ty sector, prominent among these being PearlContinental (PC) Hotel, Bhurban, Extension/Additionto PC Lahore, the cliff top PC Hotel Gawadar and PCHotel, Muzaffarabad. Amongst the many high risestructures designed by ARCOP Associates inKarachi, the most conspicuous are the recentlycompleted Ocean Tower and the Centre Point, thelatter being perhaps the most environmentallyfriendly, energy efficient, secure and 'smart' build-ing in Pakistan. Ocean Tower, which was originallydesigned as a hotel, had to undergo substantialchanges half way through the construction afterthe owners decided to change the hotel into amixed use project that now has retail stores, enter-tainment and offices.

Perhaps the most outstanding of ARCOP's proj-ects is the Al Azhar Gardens, a community housingproject for the lower middle class in the outskirts ofKarachi. Designed with extreme care and sensitivityand constructed within a very tight budget, this isone of the most successful housing schemes inPakistan. It has received the IAP Design ExcellenceAward as well as the ARCASIA gold medal.

Tariq Hasan who started with designing daringlydifferent houses became extremely popular withhis residential clients. A compulsive designer, hecontinues to produce highly creative homesdespite running a lucrative practice comprising oflarger and varied projects including industrial, com-mercial, corporate, institutional buildings and apart-ment complexes. His design of Gakuch School inGilgit won critical acclaim and the Institute ofArchitects Pakistan (IAP) Design Excellence Award.Tariq Hasan, like Yawar Jilani and other architects,has done extensive work, mainly pro-bono, for reha-bilitation of the victims of the devastating 2005Kashmir earthquake and victims of the massivecountry-wide floods of 2010. His type designs forhomes were widely followed by many NGO's work-ing in the field and he has designed several schoolsand hospitals in the affected areas.


47Pakistan

The two major projects he is currently involved inwere both acquired through nation-wide designcompetitions. The Sindh Secretariat Complex inKarachi is perhaps the largest government projectafter the Federal Secretariat in Islamabad. Sensitivelydesigned around the heritage listed Sindh HighCourt Building, Tariq Hasan had to contend withmany constraints such as height restrictions, locationof entrances and exits and internal connectivity ofthe proposed structures. Commencement of con-struction has been delayed for some time due to fis-cal constraints. The other competition winning proj-ect is the Islamabad High Court of which groundbreaking took place recently.

With the second generation of architects, aftercompletion of their studies, joining their respectivefather's firms, the old firms have become energizedwith fresh ideas and approaches. In Islamabad,Suhail Abbasi's son Fawad Abbasi, after graduatingfrom the Indus Valley School of Art & Architecture(IVS) in 2001, joined his father and since then thefirm has considerably expanded, designed somevery interesting projects, noticeably the expansion ofthe Islamabad Club. Other practices in Islamabadand Peshawar to benefit from the joining of the sec-ond generation are Salman Mansoor and AbdulQayyum Khan whose sons, also graduates of IVS,

brought with them a lot of talent and energy.

In Lahore, the talented sons of three most promi-nent architects joined their respective fathers' firmsand all are now virtually running the practices.Taimoor Khan Mumtaz joined his father Kamil KhanMumtaz, Raza Ali Dada joined his father Nayyar AliDada and Raza Ali Khan joined his father Wasif AliKhan. Despite the passing of a few years since theirreturn, the design directions and philosophy of allthe three firms seemingly have not changed ….. per-haps because of the fathers' very strong and deeplyrooted ideals!

In 2006, the two old firms of Misbah Najmi andSyed Akeel Bilgrami located in Karachi were restruc-tured and Najmi Bilgrami Collaborative (Pvt) Ltd(NBCL) was founded with the two as the FoundingChairman and Vice Chairman and three directors,Sarah Najmi Bilgrami and Ahsan Najmi, daughterand son respectively of Misbah Najmi, and, SyedZayd Bilgrami, son of the senior Bilgrami. Beforereturning to Pakistan, all three had studied at theRhode Island School of Design in US and hadgained some working experience there. This refresh-ing change has altered the dynamics of the firmwhich has considerably expanded and has enlargedthe scope of professional services it now offers.

The campus master plan of the Institute ofBusiness Administration (IBA) in Karachi and severalof the new buildings on the campus have beendesigned by NBCL after having won design compe-titions in succession. Some of these have been cov-ered by international print and e-journals and one ofthe projects was recently shortlisted for an interna-tional design award. Other projects include a mid-rise residential complex in Rawalpindi designedalong the edge of a public park.

There are many architects practicing in the largercities who have emerged during the last decadealthough some of them had established their officesmuch earlier. Mention must be made of AsadullahVarzgani who practices in Quetta and Lahore, RashidRasheed from Lahore, who is doing some very excit-ing green and sustainable projects, Iftikhar Azamfrom Karachi who is an excellent designer and has inrecent times won design competitions and is doingseveral architecture and interior projects, and,Moyena Niazi and Khadija tul Kubra have designedsome very good houses and office interiors inKarachi.

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Muslim Art Heritage of PakistanThe Islamic architecture of

Pakistan takes its birth with theestablishment of Muslim rule inSindh. It has been asserted bythe Arab chroniclers Muhammadbin Qasim built a mosque atevery place he conquered duringhis campaign. However, none ofthese exists now. The first citysubdued by him was the sea-portof Debul, now known asBanbhore, an insignificant malltown located at about forty milesnorth-east of Karachi on the oldhighway of Hyderabad. Theremains of religiousand secular build-ings revealedthrougharchaeo-logical

excavations give an insight intothe nature and characteristics ofthe early Arab architecture on thesoil of Pakistan. The city of Debulconsisted of two parts: the forti-fied citadel on a comparativelyhigher level, and the unwalledlower city. Thecitadel pos-sessedimpressivebuildings,both secu-lar as

well as religious, erected fromtime to time. In the lower citywere located bazaars and facto-ries and other residential quartersfor traders and industrial workers.The buildings were mostly con-structed with semi-dressed orundressed blocks of sandstone.Sometimes, the interior was plas-tered with mud, mixed with lime,and then whitewashed. Some ofthe spectacular buildings, uncov-ered in the citadel area, wereremains of a massive-built stonefortification wall, the great

mosque, and other residen-tial buildings. The for-

tification wall hadthree gate-

ways and

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several bastions. A flight ofexceptionally broad steps wentdown to the lake. But the mostimpressive features of the fortifi-cation were the semicircular bas-tions, built at intervals.

The mosque was built as earlyas the first decade of the 2ndcentury Hijra (8th century C.E.).Within a stone boundary wall,the mosque was erected on asquare plan right in the centre ofthe citadel. There were corridorsand cloisters on the three sides ofthe courtyard, and, on the west-ern side, was a spacious prayer-chamber. The mosque hadtwo entrance, gates. Thefacade of these gates wasdecorated with inscribedstones, several of which werediscovered from the ruins ofthe mosque. One of thesegives the date of the con-struction of the mosque, andsome unidentifiable namesresponsible for its construc-tion. The courtyard waspaved with burnt bricks andthe roof was supported bywooden pillars placed onstone bases.

Facing the northern gate ofthe mosque was the buildingof the Maktab, a necessaryadjunct to the mosque. It hasseveral corridors and rooms.Similarly, on the eastern side wasthe big building of a Sarai (cara-van Sarai). These two buildingscomplete the complex of reli-gious and social establishmentsof the city of the early Arab days.The houses were divided intoblocks with well-laid streets andlanes. The surfaces of the houseswere mostly plastered with limeand whitewashed.

Mansura, the first Arab city, wasfounded near Brahmanabad, anancient city. The remains are nowlocated in the district ofShahdadpur. It was founded byAmir bin Muhammad bin Qasimwho came to Sindh with Hakambin Awanah-al-Kalbi, and latersucceeded him to governorshipof Sindh, circumstantial between110 and 120 A.H.

The remains of this ruined andforgotten city now cover an areaof 9,000 feet by 4,500 feet, andrise to a maximum height of 35feet above the surrounding level.Another mound, smaller in size, issituated to the south-east. Boththe mounds are connected by an

earth embankment. The main cityrepresented by the biggermound had a strong fortificationof well-baked bricks strength-ened by semicircular bastionsplaced at regular intervals. Withinthe fortification were marketplaces, houses and other residen-tial buildings, including a gate-way with brick-paved floor.

The mosque discovered here isrectangular in plan, measuring150 feet north-south and 250feet east-west and surrounded bya six-and-a-half feet wide bound-ary wall. The Mehrab of the

mosque in the western wall issemi-circular in plan while theroof rested on posts of teakwood.

Early IslamicArchitecture

The inception and developmentof Islamic architecture in Pakistanowes a great deal to the inspira-tion from Central Asian traditions.It was due to the constant socialand political contacts of the localpeople with the centers of excel-

lence located at, forinstance, Bukhara,Samarqand, Merve,Baghdad etc. The localpeople especially theaffluent Muslims, oftenvisited these centers. Theimpact deepened whenimmigrants from theseplaces came and settledhere as a result ofMongol invasion.

The specimens of earlyIslamic architecture inPakistan have beenfound in Sindh andBalochistan and a tomblocally attributed toMuhammad bin Harun,

an Arab governor, and located atBela in Balochistan, may beregarded as its earliest knownmanifestation. Although no epi-graphically or literary source isavailable to testify the attribution,stylistically it belongs to a datewhen ancient Pakistan was intro-duced to the building traditionsof Seljuq period. Square on plan,the brick structure is both inter-esting as well as instructive. Thebrick ornamentation with which

The specimens of earlyIslamic architecture inPakistan have been found inSindh and Balochistan and atomb locally attributed toMuhammad bin Harun, anArab governor, and locatedat Bela in Balochistan, maybe regarded as its earliestknown manifestation.


50Pakistan

its exterior is reverted is signifi-cant. The other specimen of thisearly phase, is the tomb of ShahGardez at Adam Wahan inBahawalpur. The structure is con-structed in mud brick, both exter-nally and internally, with burntbricks. The zone of transition hasbeen created with the help ofcomer squinches on which thehigh drum is placed and above it,the dome. For the first time, wenotice here the concept of these'storeys' utilized for planningsuch funerary memorials, and inthat sense this specimen may betaken as the forerunner of thefamous Multan style of architec-ture.

It was most probably after thisinitial experimentation that thetomb of Baha-ul-Huq Zakariya atMultan was designed in 1262,and then the mausoleum ofRukn-i-Alam between a period of1320 and 1324. It has been saidthat the latter was originally builtunder the orders of Muhammadbin Tughluq as his own eternalabode, but was later on, givenaway to the descendants of thegreat saint for his burial.However, circumstantial as well asarchitectural evidence does showthat it was most probably erectedby the saint himself during hislife time. The mausoleums ofBaha-ul-Haq Zakariya and hisgrandson, Rukn-i-Alam, served asperfect models for future archi-tects who continued copying itfor well over three hundred years.More than two dozens of suchspecimens still exist on the soil ofPakistan especially at Uch,Muzaffargarh, Dera Ghazi Khan,Dera Ismail Khan, Dera Dinpanah,Sitpur and more particularly at

Multan and its neighborhood toshow how deeply the style wasadapted as a favorite medium forfunerary architecture.

Architecture of SindhThe art of building introduced

and practiced in Sindh has acharacter of its own. While thelocal traits and traditions haveplayed their role in its formation,the Iranian characteristics influ-enced greatly its personality,especially the faience and mosaicrevetment. The buildings whichare mostly' of religious characterrepresenting mosques, mau-soleums and tombs have beencreated both in brick as well as instone, and almost all the famousold cities of Sindh possess speci-mens of these edifices.

Thatta, Makli Hills, Hyderabad,Shikarpur, Sukkur, Sehwan,Khudabad, Larkana, Rohri andmany others have old mosques,mausoleums, towers, forts, pavil-ions. The foundations of brickbuildings are laid in stone andfaced with plain or enamel-facedbricks. The glazed tiles made ofhard terracotta are generally oftwo colours; white and blue, thelatter varying in hue from darkpurplish to light greenish orturquoise blue.

One of the finest examples oftile-work in Sindh is theDabgaran Mosque built by AmirKhusro Khan Charkas in 1588 C.E.The mosque has a prayer cham-ber of three bays crowned withthree flat domes. The superb tilework is executed in the interiorwhile the Mehrab in the Westernwall is faced with buff sandstonecarved in low relief with traceryand arabesque work.

Similarly, the Shah JahanMosque is also a grand edifice.The prayer chamber is balancedon the east by another chamberof similar size; both of them are

crowned by large domes. On theNorth and South, galleries openby means of arcades on thecourtyards. Ninety-three domescover the entire structure creatinga remarkable echo which travelsthroughout the prayer chambersand the arcades. The mosque

displays a remarkable feast offaience revetment.

The construction of the mosquewas begun in 1644 C.E. byNawab Abul Baqa Amir Khan onthe orders of Shah Jahan. Theeastern wing was added in 1658C.E.

Among the other funerary

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memorials at Makli Hills ofThatta, the tombs of Mirza JaniBeg Tarkhan (d. 1601) stand outprominently for picturesque andcolourful setting. The former isoctagonal in plan with halfdomed recesses on four sidesand arched door-frames, richly

carved in geometric tracery. Thedoorways crowned with Qura'nicinscriptions boldly written inwhite enamel on dark tiles is amassive square structure sur-mounted by a dome once cov-ered with light blue tiles. It hasfour round comer towers, eachhaving a staircase leading to the

roof. The interior of the dome isdecorated with a radiating designof glazed tiles set in chevrons.The tomb and the Musallah onthe West were erected respec-tively in the year 1639 C.E. and1642 C.E. Among the severalstone buildings at Makli Hills aretombs of Jam Nizam-ud-Din IsaKhan Tarkhan the Younger andJan Baba. The tombs of Mubarak

Khan, Baqi Beg Tarkhan, the Elderare remarkable for the richnessand variety of their carvings anddesigns. The tomb of Jam Nizam-ud-Din, one of the most impor-tant rulers of Samma dynasty(1461 to 1509) possesses thefinest ornamental carvings, con-sisting of carved bands in reliefrunning on the walls, and repre-senting half and full lotuses andarched panels set with sun flow-

ers. The mehrab inside is alsodelicately carved and has veryfinely cut bands of Qura'nicinscriptions. The tomb of IsaKhan Tarkhan is erected in thecenter of a square courtyard sur-rounded by high stone walls. Themassive structure built withlarge-sized stones comprises adomed chamber surrounded by atwo tiered gallery. The pillars ofthe interior walls are almost cov-ered with surface tracery. Thedouble storeyed pillared gallerieshave in the center of each side agroup of three tall, and multi-cusped arches surmounted by awide parapet.

Architecture ofImperial Mughals

The early decades of the six-teenth century witnessed anepoch making change in thesocio-political set up of ancientPakistan. It was the period whena new monarchy was establishedcommonly known as the MughalEmpire. Zaheer-ud- DinMuhammad Babar, the founder ofthis celebrated dynasty, capturedLahore during the early days ofhis conquest of the Punjab, in1524 A.C. He could not, however,find time and leisure to stay therefor long. But his second sonMirza Kamran is remembered forhis splendid pleasure-gardenwith a typical pavilion built in thecenter of a huge tank. It was therust architectural enterprise withwhich the princes of the Mughaldynasty adorned the city ofLahore. Akbar, the real founder ofthe Mughal Empire, establishedhis capital at Lahore to stay here


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for fourteen years, from 1584 to1598. He created a well-laid brickfortification in place of earliermud brick wall, with two gate-ways. The eastern gateway nowknown as Masti Gate, still exists inalmost its original shape and is ina fairly good state of preserva-tion. Besides, the Hall of Publicand Private audience, the remainsof a Royal and a few other build-ings inside the Lahore Fortbelong to the days of Akbar.Jahangir and Shah Jahan wereresponsible for the architecturaladornment of the city of Lahore.Jahangir's main contribution tothe architecture Lahore was aquadrangle in the Lahore Fortnow known as JahangirQuadrangle. In fact, the construc-tion of the quadrangle was start-ed during the later days of Akbarand was completed by Jahangir.The most interesting features ofthis quadrangle are the richlycarved columns and brackets ofred sandstone indicating theinfluence of local architecture ofthe earlier periods. The gatewayto the Jahangiri Palaces isadorned with a marble inscrip-tion giving the date of its con-struction and the name of theroyal architect. Similarly, thepalaces built in the Fort by ShahJahan are the noblest manifesta-tion of Mughal architecture. Builtin 1633-34, they are theEmperor's pri-vate apartments,the Hall of Special Audience, theLadies Garden, the SleepingChambers, the Royal Bath Rooms,the Shish Mahal and a few otherbuildings. The Diwan-e-Khas (theHall of Special Audience) is agraceful pavilion created entirelyin white marble.

Lastly, the Alamgiri Gate con-structed by Aurangzeb Alamgir isa majestic gateway for directapproach to the BadshahiMosque. The monumental gate-way is flanked by two semi-circu-lar bastions boldly fluted anddecorated with lotus designs atthe base.

Outside the Fort, opposite theAkbar's Masjidi gate is a mosque

called Begum Shahi Masjid. It isthe earliest existing mosque ofJahangir period at Lahore. Builtby Maryam Zamani Begum, in1614, the mosque is architec-turally important for its two mainfeatures; the double domes andthe most beautiful fresco paint-ing with which the whole of itsinterior is replete. The mosque issurmounted with arched towers,

one at each comer. The northerngateway possesses a Persianinscription in stucco recordingthe date of construction and thename of the builder.

The mausoleum of Jahangir (d.1627) was constructed under theorders of Shah Jahan. Originally, apleasure garden of Empress Nur

Jahan and called Dilkusha, it wasthe last abode of the Emperor.The mausoleum is constructedwithin a high perimeter wallmarked by gateways, pavedcauseways with fountains andpools etc. The central squarestructure is of one storey with

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octagonal minarets in five stageshaving profuse colour decoration.The fresco painting, the stoneinlay and the mosaic tiles, as wellas the intricate pietradura mani-fest the characteristic embellish-ments of this period. It took tenyears to complete, and was fin-ished in 1637.

The Mosque of Wazir Khan isyet another grand specimen ofthe archi-tecture of the Mughalperiod. It has unique tile mosaicfresco decoration. The large gate-way and the four majestic octag-onal minarets add to its grandeur.It was built in 1634 by the cele-

brated minister and physician ofEmperor Shahjahan, HakimIlmuddin Ansari, better known asWazir Khan.

The beautiful three-terracedShalamar Garden speciallydesigned for Shahjahan in 1642is the zenith of the recreationalarchitecture of the Mughal peri-od. It has a number of pavilionsand summer houses. The thirdterrace had the Jharoka, thesleeping chambers and the resi-dence of the Empress while thecentral terrace had a hammam;originally decorated withpietradura work. The Garden hasa canal crossed by two subsidiarychannels with three big tanksdecorated with more than 400fountains and a beautiful marblecascade. The original entrance tothe Garden was from the lowestterrace through the two majesticgateways, one on the east andthe other on the west. However,they were abandoned and anoth-er gate was opened through theRoyal Sleep Chamber on thesouth during the British days.

The Badshahi Mosque has beenconsidered as the biggest historicmosque of the world. Built in1673-74, it is a bold and solidbrick structure faced with redsandstone and embellished withdelicate stucco carving and fres-co painting. With the majesticcomer towers and beautiful bul-bous domes covered with milk-white marble, the mosque proud-ly crowns the city of Lahore. Thedouble storeyed entrancevestibule is a majestic structuredecorated with framed andcarved panelling on all itsfacades. The grand prayer cham-ber is approached by flights ofsteps, At the four comers of thecourtyard are the tall octagonaltowers and four small minarets,also octagonal, are attached tothe comers of the prayer cham-ber. The prayer chamber is

crowned with three grand bul-bous marble domes. The interiorhas decorative dado of well-pol-ished sang-i-abri.

The other more importantbuilding erected outside Lahoreduring the Mughal period couldbe cited here as the RoyalHunting Resort at Sheikhupura,the Ba' oli of the Emperor Akbardays and two other octagonaltombs of Shahjahan period atJandiyala Sher Khan nearSheikhupura; tomb of DaudBandagi at Shergarh ; a tomb atHujra Shah Muqim; tomb ofSheikh Abd-ul-Nabi inGujranwala district, an exquisitelyornamented building ofShahjahan period; tomb ofSheikh Ali Beg at Helan, Gujrat,dated 1589; a mosque and tombof Shah Burhan at Chiniot, bothof Shahjahan's days; the FarudGah-i-Shahan-i-Mughlia at Wah;the tomb of Hakim Humam andLala Rukh at Hasanabdal; theRohtas Fort and a nearby tomb;the Riwat Fort; the mosque andfort at Pharwala; the fort Sarai,tomb and the Baradari of SultanPervez at Attock; the Gorgathri,the tomb of a certain saint alongwith a mosque, and the Mosqueof Mahabat Khan at Peshawar.

These and several other monu-ments spread over the lengthand breadth of Pakistan relate thestory of the inception, growthand culmination of the variousphases and facets of Muslimarchitecture of Pakistan.

………………………………………………* From"Muslim Art Heritage of

Pakistan", Produced and published byDirectorate General of Films andPublications, Ministry of Information andBroadcasting, Government of Pakistan,Islamabad.

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Traditions*

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Over the past 100 years, Tajik arts and crafts, whichwere essentially handicrafts, have seen significantchange. The reason for this was the introduction ofintensive factory production methods and their result-ing output, which gradually pushed aside the produc-tive activities of local craftsmen and artists. The art ofbuilding houses and decorating them also changed.Even in these circumstances, however, national art has

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been extensively used in theconstruction of houses andbuildings for administrative, cul-tural and social uses. Though themajority of buildings were builtin a different way, the traditionaldecorative style was maintained.

Facing tiles and wood ceilingswere decorated and adornedwith various depictions and carv-ings. In constructing houses andbuildings, the decoration of theirwalls remained a primary con-cern. In some cities, people alsoused colorful carvedceilings, plain tiles andtraditional decoratedshelves to adorn theirhouses.

In other cities andtowns, on the contrary,the walls were decorat-ed with carvings andmodeled alabaster andthe ceilings of suchbuildings were notpainted.

In the Soviet era, therange of traditionalstyles and types ofarchitectural and deco-rative arts declinedslightly. From the mid -1930s,' in many cotton-growing farms in the north ofTajikistan, the vast public build-ings - teahouses, clubs andadministrative farm buildings -were built using elements andpatterns from the traditionalnational decorative style .

In the second half of the twen-tieth century, the modern publicbuildings in the capital andother cities of the country werebuilt in the national decorativestyle.

Paintings & Walls DecorationCommonly walls are regarded

as consisting of three parts fromthe ground to the top:

the bottom, the standing partand the ceiling. The decorationof walls depends on the style ofconstruction. Shelves were builton l-beam walls. Single-beamwalls were decorated by pictures,engravings, multi-colored paint-ings or flower adorned boards.Houses were generally decoratedwith shelves on which there wereelegant household utensils suchas cups, bowls and teapots.

Each painting was edged with a

carved canvas, with a patternwhich mainly consisted of ordi-nary triangles and quadrilaterals.All the decorative elements ofthe wall were combined into acertain combination of patternswhich was surrounded by itemsdepicting flowers or which hadbeen engraved - the ruta.

Sometimes, instead of the ruta,ornate semi-columns with basesin the form of the sun wereadded to the wall between twoshelves or pictures. Corner piecesof shelves were sometimes deco-rated with alabaster in wave

forms. In ancient times, paintersproduced their colors, addingegg yolk, glue, ink and oil paint.Pictures and paintings on thewalls were different. For instance,an artist often painted colorfullarge and small jugs with bunch-es of flowers. Jugs were rarelyfound in ancient paintings. In thepaintings of the middle of the19th century, the jugs werepainted with a large variety offlowers. Below the bunch offlowers or jug, a fleur-de-lis, mint

or other flowers andsmall bouquets werepainted, which were verystriking and looked likeliving natural flowers.

Despite the variety ofpictures and patterns, acertain range of colors,mainly whitish andbright tones, prevailed inthe decor of houses.

People sometimes usedgilded pictures and pat-terns in the more color-ful and luxurious houses.Flower stems and petalswere used as decorationand were painted with agold coating.

Shelves & Lattices The walls of all Tajik houses in

villages were decorated andadorned by shelves. Usuallybeautifully decorated summerresidences in Bukhara andSamarkand were very high andthe shelves were large, andsometimes decorated withdomes. Compared to Bukharaand Samarkand, the houses inIstaravshan

and Khujand were small and

Entrance of Mir Said Ali Hamadoni Tomb,XIV-XV centuries, restored in the late XXcenturies, Kulob

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their shelves were also small. Decorated door and window

lattices play an important role inthe adornment of Tajik people'shouses. Window lattices general-ly were 'double-sided and theouter sides were decorated withdepictions of large flowers andinner side by small flowers.

Ceiling DecorationThe design of ceilings in

Khujand and Istaravshan wasvery complicated, containingmany colors and illustra-tions. The colorsdepended on the partic-ular nature of the illus-tration, as well as theartist and customer'stastes. It should be alsonoted that, generally, inthe past, ceilings weremostly decorated withsmall illustrations offlowers using a varietyof paints mixed with eggyolk, which faded overtime. In the 20th centurystyle, the flowersbecame large, the vari-ety of colors wasreduced and oil paintswere used, which addedbrightness and expression to theillustrations. It is pleasing tothink that the national style dec-oration of buildings is now beingrevived and the extent of itsapplication is being graduallybroadened.

Tajik National ArchitectureUnlike the official court archi-

tectures, the national architecturehas never experienced periods ofcrisis. The houses of town's peo-

ple have kept the traditionaldesign during many centuries.However, in residential architec-ture of different regions of thecountry, it is possible to findmany characteristic features,peculiarities of design solutionand art traditions.

The majority of Tajiks live inkishlaks (a type of rural settle-ment). Tajik families are usuallybig and 5-6 children in the familyare quite normal. Kishlaks in themountains differ substantiallyfrom those of the plains. Kishlaksin the plains are large (200-700households), while the moun-

tainous ones, lying in narrow val-leys or on slopes, are smaller andconsist of no more than 15-20households. Many houses in thekishlaks on the slopes of themountains are located oneabove the other, and due to lackof land, the roof of the lowerbuilding is used as the yard ofthe u pper house. Because of thescarcity of good timber, roofs areflat. Also, high sloping roofs arenot necessary here becausethere is low precipitation. Insome dwellings there are twocourtyards. Behind the entrance

is the main courtyard, wherefamily life is centered.

Leading off is a second, similarcourtyard reserved for thewomen. Today, most homes havea single courtyard where familyand guests gather more easily,but a clear distinction stillremains between public and pri-vate space. In the kishlak'sdwellings, rooms are largelywithout furniture, which is stifflythe case in traditionally decorat-ed homes, with the exception of

a carved and paintedsunduk, or dowry chestpiled high, with kurpachaand kurpa (quilted blan-kets) and covered withan embroidered cloth.

Embroidery has alwaysbeen important in theornamentation of Tajikhouses. Inside the house,every part of the wall isfilled with embroideredarticles of different pur-pose and use. Niches inthe walls are coveredwith special embroi-deries. Embroideredstrips, zardevori, hangalong the upper part ofthree walls - the two lon-

gitudinal and one end-wall.Suzanis are usually placed on thewall facing the entrance, so thatthey should be the first thingone could see while entering theroom. In the town's dwellingthere are western-styled tablesand chairs, glossy glass-frontedcabinets and machine wovencarpets as well as hangings.

The principal building materialis loess. It is cheap, viscid andstable, and always at hand. It is

Hazrati Shoh MosqueMinaret, XVIII-XIX centuries,Istravshan

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used in the form of brokenpakhsa-clay, clods filled with rub-ble, adobes, clay mortar, greas-ing and plaster. Wood is alsomade use of, but thriftily.Although there are amplereserves of stone, it is seldomused as construction material onaccount of its instability in thehighly seismic zones of Tajikistan.

Climate played a substantialrole in determining the architec-ture in the area. One can spendapproximately eight to ninemonths a year in the open, espe-cially in the valley, mostly guard-ing oneself from the intense heatthan from the cold. Hence theexistence of closed-in courtyards,roofed ivans, semi-open upperbalkhona (verandas), indicatesthe importance of green planta-tions and the flowing water ofthe irrigation ditches and basins.

Numerous monuments of thearchitecture of the Tajiks (18th -the beginning of the 20 century)give an idea of its national roots.The structure of the most of thequarter mosques lacks strictcanons binding the initiative ofmasters. Houses, which areadapted to the peculiarities oflife, beliefs, and traditions, playedan important role in the nationalTajik architecture. In the NorthernTajikistan houses and groups ofhouses are found around a yardplanted with greenery. In themountains of Zeravshan and theYagnob Valley, the densely builtstepped villages consist of ajoined single roof with a heath.

There is a rich legacy of tradi-tional Pamiri architecture in theTajiks Pamirs, which is a source ofgreat pride. An ancient tradition

among the people ofBadakhshan, one noted by theGreek historian Herodotus (484-420 BC), is that God shares ahouse with its inhabitants.Hence, the people have specialreverence for their home. Theytake great pride in decoratingthe interior and investing variousparts of it with religious signifi-cance.

The traditional Pamiri house is

known as the cheed or the houseof the followers of truth. It isbuilt in such a way as to reflect asacred character, in which theoccupants feel surrounded by anatmosphere of divine blessingand guidance from the begin-ning to the end of their lives.Traditionally the house was builtof cedar, but today it is morelikely to be made from the woodof mulberry or apricot trees. The

central room is organized aroundfive wooden pillars ("sutun")which represent the prophet andthe Imams of Islam: ProphetMohammed (PBUH), Imam Ali,Imam Hussein, Imam Hassan andHazrat Fatima. Carpets and mat-tresses take the place of furnitureand also serve as decoration

along with panels, wood-cuttingand hand colored Photographs.

………………………………………………* Hamrokhon Zarifi - The Tajik Golden

Heritage-, Fifth Edition, revised and sup-plemented

ECO Tourist Guide Book- Courtesy ofthe Government of Republic ofTajikistan, Published by ECO CulturalInstitute

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TurkishArchitecture &City Planning*

Turkish architecture is a combination of the vibran-cy of Mediterranean culture with the mysticism of theEast. It enjoys the fusion of the cosmopolitan atmos-phere of the big cities with the simplicity of villagelife. Combined with Islamic artistic motives, it repre-sents a total break from Hellenistic, Roman andByzantine traditions. The Turks, coming from the hotand arid lands of the East, preferred cool and narrowstreets, covered or shaded bazaars and the ripple ofwater. The Friday mosque, with all its ancillary build-ings, marked the foci of a city district. The mosquecomplex formed a center for key activities of thecommunity including a theological school, a hospitalfor the sick, soup kitchen and, alms houses for thepoor, free lodgings for travelers and their servants.With the Islamic zeal for ritual cleanliness beforeprayer, the Turkish bath - hammam _ would be locat-ed close by as would the main bazaar, or commercialhub of the City and the administrative buildings.

The foundation of a major mosque wasalso a method ofpopulating a newtown or city quar-ter. Workers andtheir familieswould arrive,with an eco-

nomic multiplier effect. Sometimes entire communi-ties, tribes or clans were moved in, governed by asheikh, and with tax exemption as a sweetener forgiving up the roaming life. Housing, stables, work-shops and covered bazaars would develop haphaz-ard around the mosque area, like a permanentencampment, in a maze of winding streets and deadends. Turkish architecture is based on the simplest ofpremises, that of the harmonious balance of spaceand light. But from this single seed has sprung fortha dazzling display of diversity and ingenuity, fromsoaring minarets and sumptuous palaces to beautifulmansions and winding cobbled streets lined withexquisitely carved wooden houses.

Ottoman public buildings were usually made com-pletely of stone while private houses were built fromless durable materials such as adobe or timber. Thereason appears to be that public buildings were seenas being permanent, part of something greater thanthe individual; while private dwellings were not

expected to out-live their occu-pant. Significantlythe Turkish wordfor mansion,konak , literallymeans "resting

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As a result, few Turkish houses are more than twohundred years old; although we can still marvel atthe glorious mosques, public baths and religiousschools built by Sinan, the greatest of all Ottomanarchitects, in the 16th century.

The Ottoman conception of beauty was based onthe descriptions of paradise in the Koran, a place ofpeace and rest freed from the frenetic cares of thisworld. In addition to being functional, Ottoman pub-lic buildings, particularly mosques, were designed toinduce in the visitor a sense of space and contempla-tion, to be a haven of coolness and tranquility afterthe heat, noise and dust of the cramped city streets.

The same ideal was applied to public buildingsthroughout Turkey. Regional differences were con-fined to nuances of design and decoration ratherthan any fundamental shift in style. During the 18thand 19th centuries Turkish architecture began toreflect the influence of European ideas.

A similar unifying theme can be seen in Turkishdomestic architecture although the richness anddiversity of the country's culture and climate havespawned a host of different local styles, from thesquat adobe huts of eastern Anatolia and the splen-did timber houses of the Black Sea to the dazzlingwhitewashed terraces of the Aegean andMediterranean coasts.

The typical Turkish house appears to be modelledon a tent. Originally a single multi-purpose room, itgradually developed into a complex of differentrooms, each with a specific function and status in thehouse as a whole. Furniture was kept to a minimumand items such as bedding would be rolled up andstored in chests during the day. Around Iskenderunin the province of Hatay one can still find portablewooden houses, a staging post between tents and afully-fledged house. Rooms were conceived of asindividual units. When more rooms were added theywould face onto a courtyard, similar to the openspace in a camp, rather than be connected directly toeach other by connecting doors. Even in multi-storybuildings the inhabitants preferred to live only onthe highest floor, with the lower stories being givenover to stables or storerooms.

The rich would have separate summer and winterhouses. The moderately well off would make do withsummer and winter quarters within the same build-ing, with small windows in the winter rooms andlarge ones in the rooms used during the warmestweather. Many of the houses would also be dividedaccording to sex, with the women being confined tothe area known as the harem, which literally means"forbidden". Guests would be ushered into the men'squarters, where they would wait in an area called the

selamlik, "the place where one says greetings". Some of the best preserved classical Ottoman

houses are in Amasya, in the northeast of the coun-try. Here rows of picturesque half-timbered houses,with broad eaves and ornate wood carving, line thewinding narrow streets.

But the finest examples belong to Safranbolu, asmall town in the Black Sea mountains north ofAnkara. Set amongst lush greenery that characterizesthe Black Sea coast, beautifully decorated with deli-cate latticework, the houses are outstanding exam-ples of the Ottoman ability to blend architecture intoa landscape. Elsewhere in Turkey different climaticconditions and variations in the availability of build-ing materials have led to considerable regional varia-

tions on the central them. In Konya the houses were traditionally built of

adobe, with flat roofs covered with earth, similar tothose built in Hittite times. The rooms faced onto alarge courtyard, while overhangs and bay windowswere supported with timber.

In central and eastern Anatolia the harsh climatefavored the use of stone with two stories separatedby a wooden floor. In Nigd roofs were often coveredwith shrubs, stones and earth and the thick wallswere designed to keep out the harsh elements. InHarran, on the arid southeastern plain, curious coni-

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cal houses continue the ancient tradition of domedhouses. Around the Mediterranean, the houses takeon a lighter, more open aspect, with wide eaves, highceilings and large windows to catch the passingbreath of a cool breeze. In Mugla many of the houseshave a pool surrounded by flowers in the center ofthe inner courtyard where family members gather inshade cast by surrounding walls. Front doors are stillmade with a kuzulu kapi, a smaller panel in the largerwing of the main door. As one travels along thecoast itself, sparkling whitewashed houses with tim-ber balconies and tiled roofs lie dotted among theolive trees and pine groves, or line the narrow streetswinding up from the quays of tiny fishing villages.

In Kalkan the streets and passages stand open tothe sea breezes and the houses themselves appearto have taken on a Mediterranean exuberance, withcontrasting natural woodwork, mock capitals anddecorative sills. In the territory of Thrace, Europeaninfluences become more marked. Traditional one-storied houses stand in a garden, looking outwardswithout an inner courtyard.

Urban congestion also had a major influence onthe design of houses. The magnificent rows of over-hangs and balconies on the houses in the old quar-ters of Kutahya and Bursa bear witness to the own-ers' anxiety to snatch a little more light or glimpse a

better view. Turkish houses are by nature introspec-tive. Walking through the narrow winding streets ofDiyarbakir today, one is faced with nothing but blankwalls and a few windows set high in the upper story,giving little hint of the beautifully preserved court-yards and interiors modestly shielded from pryingeyes. Some of the most eclectic examples of domes-tic architecture can be seen in Istanbul, where aristo-crats and wealthy merchants constructed fabulouswaterfront villas on the shores of the Bosphorus orsummer residences amongst the cool pine forest onthe nearby Princes Islands in the Sea of Marmara.Cosmopolitan and ambitious, they often incorporat-ed various European elements into their designs forthree or four story mansions, even including towersand neoclassical columns. Yet, of residential architec-ture, providing further evidence of a remarkable abil-ity to embellish, but never destroy, a unique heritage.

An AstonishingJuxtaposition of Styles and

ElementsThe urban landscape of Turkey is dominated by the

great imperial capital of Istanbul, the modern capitalof Ankara and the Aegean port of Izmir. The gloryand drama of Istanbul make it one of the most spec-tacular cities in the world, with a history stretchingover three of the world's great empires. The purpose-built capital city of Ankara, behind its modern facade,incorporates many traces of ancient settlements inthe center of the great Anatolian plateau. And on thesoft and rich Aegean shore, Izmir remains a typicalseaside port with palm trees, promenades and gra-cious houses

Turkey's three main urban centers have each devel-oped their own distinct persona. Yet they are alsoparts of a whole. Each city highlights a differentaspect of the country's character. Istanbul is a thriv-ing commercial and cultural hub, and a living muse-um of over 2000 years of history. Ankara is a city ofquiet efficiency that lies at the heart of the country'spolitical and administrative machinery. The cosmo-politan port of Izmir remains the key commercial cityof the agriculturally rich Aegean hinterland.

Istanbul: The Queen of Cities

When Constantine the Great decided to transfer thecapital of the Roman Empire from Italy to an obscuresettlement called Byzantium, he changed the courseof history. It was an inspired choice. Set on a hilly

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promontory at the mouth of the Bosphorus, the citywas almost impregnable to attack and dominatedthe vital trade route to the Black Sea. When the citywas formally dedicated in 330 AD Constantine calledit "New Rome". But it was under his name, asConstantinople, that the city was first to take its placein history.

By the beginning of the Middle AgesConstantinople was the largest city in the knownworld. To Western travelers, accustomed to thecramped towns and villages of Dark Age Europe, itwas a place of wonder, a vast teeming metropolis ofmagnificent buildings and fabulous wealth. To theByzantines it was simply "The City". Artists, traders,philosophers and craftsmen flocked toConstantinople, each making their own contributionto the city's unique character.

The heart of the city was the Great Palace, whichwas located in the area now known as Sultan Ahmet.It was not a single building butan immense complex of palaces,gardens, barracks, administrativebuildings and imperial work-shops.

But Byzantine architecture'sgreatest monuments are ecclesi-astical rather than secular. The6th century church of HagiaSophia is still one of the mostawe - inspiring buildings in theworld. Even today its sheer sizeis breathtaking. As one standsbeneath its magnificent flatdome it is hard not to feel over-whelmed by the sense of vastness and space. As theempire's strength began to wane, the Byzantines lostboth the will and the resources for grandiose build-ing schemes. Power gradually passed to the commu-nities of foreign merchants who had establishedthemselves in the suburbs on the northern bank ofthe Golden Horn. A brief resurgence of

Byzantine art in the 14th century produced thesuperb murals and mosaics in the church of St. Saviorin Chora. It was the last flare of a dying fire. Whenthe Ottoman Sultan Fatih Mehmet II conquered thecity in 1453 it was little more than an empty shelland many of its once proud buildings were nothingmore than overgrown ruins.

But Mehmet insisted that the city was to be rebuiltand revitalized, not destroyed. A map from the turnof the 15th century shows the city crowded with newbuildings. Churches were converted into mosquesand ancient stone reused in new construction.Mehmet utilized the city's unique site to the full,building structures that symbolized the transforma-tion of the city into an Islamic capital. Monumentaledifices were placed to define the three points of thetriangle that form the core of city: on Seraglio Point,the imperial administrative center and residence,later to be known as Topkapi Palace; at the end of

the Golden Horn, the holymosque of Eyup, a companionof the Prophet; and the fortressof Yedikule at the end of the citywalls along the Marmara Sea.On the crests of the city's hills, intoday's Beyazit, Mehmet built aroyal palace, a grand bazaar anda mosque complex, locatedadjacent to each other in con-formity with Islamic ideas of cityplanning. In the Fatih Mosque,Mehmet built the first ofIstanbul's magnificentOttoman mosque

complexes, or kulliye, which includednot only the mosque itself, but spa-cious courtyards with ablution foun-tains, mausolea, schools, hospitals,libraries and other charitable institu-tions. Mehmet gave Ottoman A

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Istanbul its form, but its finest buildings belong tothe 16th century and the reign of Suleyman theMagnificent. With the resources of a vast empire athis disposal, Sinan, the Sultan's Chief Architect, con-structed a series of monuments to rank with any-thing that was being produced by his contempo-raries in Renaissance Europe: from the SuleymnaniyeMosque Complex to aqueducts, tombs and theexquisitely tiled Rustem Pasha Mosque. Sinan's build-ings are still the dominant feature of the ancientheart of the city. For Istanbul has developed in thesame way as a tree grows, adding to its peripheryrather than restructuring its heartwood.

The great mosques dominate the cityscape, asmuch for their monu-mentality as for theirposition. From a dis-tance, the dome andminarets of theSuleymaniye, forexample, form a cen-tral element in thesilhouette of the city,but up close, themosque is lost in amaze of torturousstreets. Conceived asan enclosure for spe-cific activities,mosques are notradiated by largepublic spaces;mosque courtyardsoffer an interiorspace rather than anexternal civic gather-ing place. Serving asfoci of social life,mosques formed anintegral part of theurban fabric, encour-

aging the establishment of bazaars, coffeehousesand open-air markets around their perimeter. Duringthe 18th and 19th centuries the city began to spreadalong the Bosphorus. Aristocrats built beautifulwooden villas, known as yalt, on the water's edge.The Sultans constructed splendid new palaces atBeylerbeyi, Ciragan and Dolmabahce, adopting theEuropean idiom.

In the 19th century Istanbul's commercial centerwas transferred from the peninsula of Constantine'scity to the European quarters on the northern bankof the Golden Horn. It was here that European pow-ers built luxurious mansions to house their

embassies; while local Levantine merchants con-structed multi-storied Art Nouveau houses along theGrande Rue de Pera, now known as istiklal Caddesi.

In the 19th and 20th centuries, as new quarterswere built and western-style city services introduced,Istanbul has been gradually converted into a moderncity. The seemingly haphazard Ottoman town layouthas been transformed into something closer to theEuropean style. The great fires which swept throughthe city devastated entire sections, destroying theclosely jostled wooden houses, which would then bereplaced by more durable streets of brick and stonehousing. The process continues today where a mas-sive exercise in urban renewal is sweeping awaysome of the more tumbledown areas, to be replacedby modern boulevards, parks and public transporta-tion systems. At the same time an awareness of thecultural and architectural heritage of the city has pro-moted restoration of many older buildings in the city.

In the last 20 years a huge influx of migrants fromrural Anatolia has swollen the city's population to tenmillion. The business center has moved still furtherup the hill away from the Golden Horn to what wereonce the villages of Mecidiyekoy, Gayrettepe andLevent, and where towering new skyscrapers andoffice blocks now crown the horizon. The Asian sideof the city, once a summer retreat of pleasant homes,gardens and small fishing villages, is now an endlessswathe of apartment blocks. But, if one stops to look,the stages in the city's development are still clearlyvisible in the architecture of different areas.

Ankara: A Modern Capital Restingon Ancient Foundations

In 1923, when the Turkish republic was estab-lished, Ankara was a small, windblown provincialtown, a clutch of buildings gathered around amedieval fortress, its glorious history long extin-guished.

Originally founded by the Phrygians nearly threethousand years ago, it was known as Ancyra whenAlexander the Macedonian conquered Anatolia in323 BC. Two thousand years later when JosephPitton de Tournefort passed by in 1701 he offeredthree alternative names for a city to which he wasclearly attracted: "Angora, or Angori, as some pro-nounce it, which the Turks call Engour, delighted usmore than any other city in the Levant." Tournefortwas drawn by the beauty of the Augustus

Temple which he described, when constructed in25-20 BC, as "the greatest monument ever yet inAsia." The monument still stands its inscription one

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of the most important historical sources about theregion of Augustus. By far the oldest of Ankara'srelics, the temple survived the ravages of time bybeing converted, firstly, into a Byzantine church:later, into a mosque. Augustus Temple is the mostregal of Ankara's Roman remains though the cityhides other remainders of the Eastern Empire. Astone's throw from the temple stands the columnof Julian the Apostate, the last scion of Constantinethe Great. The column was erected in his honourafter he visited the city in 362 AD during the mid-dle of his reign.

Despite this legacy, in the 1920's the decision tomake Ankara the capital of the new state appearedbizarre, almost perverse. Infrastructure and com-munications were poor. There was virtually nocommerce or industry. Many of the foreignembassies initially refused to leave their mansionsand waterfront villas in Istanbul to travel to thecenter of Anatolia.

In retrospect, though, Ankara was the idealchoice. Situated far inland, in the center of the newrepublic, it was secure from enemy attack. And thelack of any development enabled the governmentto construct a new city, purposely built as a politi-cal and administrative center. The break with thepast was symbolized by opting for a modern styleof architecture, largely influenced by the Bauhausschool, rather than the neo-Ottoman modelfavored by some.

During the 1930s Ankara grew into a moderncapital city, with broad streets, where the businessof government could be conducted free from thetumult, intrigue and commercial bustle that hadcharacterized Istanbul during the last years of theOttoman Empire. The wisdom of the decision hasbeen reinforced by the developments of the lastdecade. By the end of the 1980s migration fromthe surrounding countryside had resulted in thepopulation growing to nearly four million. A rapidrise in the number of cars had begun to clog thecity's streets and every winter Ankara was chokedby a dense smog caused by the burning of cheaplignite for central heating But a new city is easier toregulate and can be more flexible in dealing withits problems.

The introduction of natural gas and the banningof lignite have allowed the city's inhabitants tobreathe clean air again. Recently the governmenthas begun to move some of its offices out of theCity center to new premises in the suburbs. Workhas also begun on a metro to reduce publicreliance on cars and buses.

Izmir: An Aegean City Par Excellence

At the turn of the century Izmir was one of themost beautiful cities in the Mediterranean. A thrivingport, it was home to a cosmopolitan community ofmerchants and businessmen. But a disastrous fireduring the Turkish War of Independence destroyedvirtually all of the city's historic wooden houses andled to the emigration of many of its polyglot inhabi-tants.

The sections that survived around the bazaar stillkeep their original confusion of winding streets,alleys and dead ends. In the rest of the city, the

cramped winding streets have been replaced bybroad boulevards fringed with palm trees.Restaurants and cafes line the seafront.

New houses have been built on the slopes thatencircle the city, while in the old quarter the build-ings that survived the fire have been carefully pre-served.

………………………………………………………………………… * From "Turkish Landscape", Published by: The Ministry of Tourism, TurkeyGeneral Directorate of Information, 1994

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TurkmenistanArchitecture

Turkmenistan's today architec-ture is the legacy of previousgenerations used once again.This legacy left from the IslamicEra and synthetized with thoseof the modern styles andnational, local traditions of thepeople, is now thedominating architec-tural style of thecountry.

Whitemarblestone has

become the popular materialfor finishing the buildings'exterior these days.

Modern structures are beingconstructed and the historicalones extensively revivedthroughout the country. A pur-

A Synthesis of Modern, National &Local Traditions

Ruhy Masjid, Gypjak, Ashgabat

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poseful policy for the improve-ment of Ashgabat city has beenapproved to build modern resi-dential and administrativebuildings, revive historical andold structures and establishparking lots, green areas andfountains.

Architecturally speaking, theface of Ashgabat city is ever-changing; high-rises of 12floors are erected everywhereand "Ashgabat City" shoppingmall is being constructed inArchabil street with the con-struction job still on the run.The city landmarks are locatedin three spots:

Turkmenistan's TV-RadioTower, which is now the symbolof the city, the marriage hallcalled "Bakht Kushk" (meaning"the happy palace") in thesouthwest and "Aalam" merry-go-round with internationalranking.

Ahal VelayatAhal Province, is located in the

south-center of the country onthe borderlines of Karakomdesert. The capital of AhalProvince is Anau (or Annau).Many historical monuments withunique architectural features areto be found throughout the cityamong which are Khivabad,Abiverd, Serakhs and Abu-SaidMitkhene Mausoleum. Anau's citymosque, with its inscriptions ofintertwined snakes, is also con-sidered a historical monument.Since old times, Archman recre-ation and rehabilitation centerhas been known for its thermalspas for those seeking healing.With its astonishing crystal clearwater, Kow-ata undergroundLake is another thermal spaplaced in a cave of 250 meterslength, 50 m width and 65 mdepth. In a small distance fromAshgabat, Archabil and GokdereNot far from Ashgabat city, themountainous recreation areas ofArchabil and Gokdere could be

found where the tourists, withthe help of an experiencedguide, can climb the mountainsand ride horses and even enjoypicnic in the countryside. Thegrand Nisa State Historical andCultural Reserve, once one of theearliest and most importantcities of the Parthian Empire andone of the key cities of thegreater Iran, is now located 40km from Ashgabat on the out-skirts of Bagir village. The Siteconsists of two tells ofKonenusay (Old Nisa) andTyazenusay (New Nisa), both

located at the Kopet Daghmountains foothills.Archaeological excavations intwo parts of the site haverevealed richly decorated archi-tecture, illustrative of domestic,state and religious functions.Situated at the crossroads ofimportant commercial andstrategic axes, this powerfulempire formed a barrier toRoman expansion while servingas an important communicationand trading center between eastand west, north and south.

According to theassumptions madeby the modern his-torians Merv is theworld's fourthancient culturalcenter besidesEgypt, Mesopotamia,China and India.

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Balkan VelayatBalkan Province is located to

the west of the peninsula in theeast of the Caspian Sea coastbetween Kara-Bogaz-Gol Gulfand Turkmenbashi city. It isknown for its ancient historicalstructures and stunning seashores. With its wonderful sandybeaches, clear water and abun-dant flora and fauna,, here theCaspian Sea provides amplefacilities to rest or enjoy water

sports. With their numerous sea-side lodges, Avaza Resort andKhazar Nature Reserve located inthe suburbs of Turkmenbashi city,are the most popular seasidetourist destinations of this coastalregion. Here facilities are provid-ed for the prevention and curingof various lung diseases. BalkanProvince is also home to a fan-tastic, picturesque subtropicalzone called Sumbar River Valleylocated in the territory ofGarrygalin district. Here you can

see the ruins of the ancientDehistan with its famous Shir-Kabir mausoleum (11-12 cen-turies).

Dashoguz VelayatWith Dashoguz city as the

administrative center, DashoguzProvince is located in the northernpart of Turkmenistan on the leftbank of the lower reaches of theAmu Darya in Karakum desert. Inthe north of the area, there is theAmu Daria River's old delta,Sarykamysh hollow and Lake withthe Ustyurt plateau on its south-eastern edge. Kunya-Urgench islocated in the territory ofDashoguz velayat ofTurkmenistan. It is situated in thenorth-western Turkmenistan, onthe left bank of the Amu-DariaRiver. Urgench was the capital ofthe Khorezm region, which wasone of the most powerfulmedieval empires of Central Asia.

Since 995, when Urgench wasthe capital of Khorezm, the sec-ond largest and important city

after Bukhara and the pearl theterritory of Samanid dynasty, thistown has preserved its magnifi-cent architectural monumentssuch as Il-Arslan mausoleum (withits 12-part conical roof) andKhorezmshah Tekesh mausoleumdating from the XII century.

Among the significant monu-ments of Kunya-Urgench datingto the XIV century, is the mau-soleum of Turabek Khanum withan exceptional interior in spatialcomposition crowned with adome of extremely refined blueand white decoration in a delicategeometric pattern. It is a master-piece of Oriental art, unparalleledin the whole of medieval architec-ture. There is also the grand, 60-meter-high, Kutlug-Timur minaret,the highest in Central Asiabelonging to the 11th century.There are also magnificent ancientfortress cities Devkesen,Shasenem, Zmukshir, Kenevas anda lot of others.

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67Turkmenistan

Lebap VelayatWith Turkmenabat as the central

city, Lebap Province is situated onboth sides of the Amu DaryaRiver, with the Karakum desert onthe left and the Karabil Hills on itsNorth. To the northwest of theright bank lies the Kyzyl Kumdesert with Sundukli sands in thecenter and the massive Kugitangin the southeast. Lebap has goodprospects of industrial and trans-port development. Of particularinterest among the tourist desti-nations of Lebap province isKugitang mountain range with itspristine, untouched nature, filledwith rare flora and fauna. Hereyou can see not only the "LunarLandscape" but the "DinosaurPlateau" with footprints of prehis-toric reptiles and unique karstcaves. Quite the opposite of thewealth of flora of Kugitang is theRepetek Reserve - one of thelargest in the world - due to itsdiversity of reptile species.

The city museum of Atamyrat is

home to ancient caravanserais,Alamberdar and Astana-babamausoleums, which has remaineda place of pilgrimage for manybelievers to this date.

Mary VelayatMary province is located in the

south-eastern part ofTurkmenistan in the Karakumdesert. Mary city is the adminis-trative center of province. Tomany historians and archeolo-gists, Turkmenistan is the "para-dise of archaeology" because theland is replete with ancient burialmounds, hiding inside the ruins ofancient cities. Mary has a veryspecial place due to the numberof ancient castles which are sil-houettes of hill-fortresses stackedby the sands of time. They arenumerous medieval feudal struc-tures with the most significantones being the historical land-marks of Major and Minor Kyz-Kala. Several settlements, onceserving as the capital of theancient Merv in different timespans, constitute Bayram Ali Statehistorical and architectural

Reserve. These cities includeSultan Kala (9-11th centuries)Gyaur Kala (3rd century BC - 8thand 9th centuries AD), Erk kala(1st century BC), Abdullakhan Kala(15th century) and Bayram AliKhan Kala (18th century) and ofcourse one of the main attractionsof Merv, the Sultan Sanjar mau-soleum (1118-1157). The modernBayram Ali resort, one of the mostfamous resorts in Turkmenistan, isonly 100 km away from one ofthe world's oldest centers of civi-

lizations. According to theassumptions made by the mod-ern historians (including acade-mician V.Sarianidi), Merv is theworld's fourth ancient culturalcenter besides Egypt,Mesopotamia, China and India.Margush/ Margiana (GonurDepe) (2nd-1st millennium BC.)was well known to the ancientworld due to its high level ofarts and culture.

............................................................Compiled by ECI Staff Members from

the Great Soviet Encyclopedia

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Uzbekistan is a country of ancient culture enjoyingexceptional architectural patterns. In their accounts ofthe ancient cities such as Bukhara, Samarkand andKhiva and elsewhere, historians have described stun-ning palaces of the kings and rulers, aristocratic resi-dential houses, mausoleums, madrassas, etc. withevergreen gardens.

Samarkand is a cultural treasury of the peoples ofthe East, with medieval architectural monumentsunique in beauty and architectural forms, extant upto date. Modern Samarkand differs much from itsmedieval image: the city has changed but thedomes, towers and magnificent building arches dec-orated with mosaic patterns are still sparkling in thesun and drawing the eyes.The Samarkand sights andmonuments, rightly includedinto the UNESCO WorldCultural Heritage List, likepages of an old book, narratethe history of establishmentand development ofSamarkand - the city, cross-road of cultures.

At the beginning the 13thcentury, Central Asia wasinvaded by Genghis- Khanand his line of successorscontinued to rule for nearly a

century. It was just in the first half of the 14th centurythat the reconstruction of the towns and villagesdestroyed commenced which, resulted in the riseand development of the architectural activity in theregion once again. Temurid style is a fine example ofmodern architecture of the 14th-15th centuries. Assymbols of strong government, authority and victoryof the nation, palace structures were made with mar-ketplaces as symbols of the role of trade.

Urban planning culture lasted for almost anotherhundred years when Ulughbek - grandson of AmirTemur - ruled the region. Among the most signifi-cant buildings created at that time were palaces,such as Oksaroy in Shakhrisabz, the Bibi-Khonim

Mosque, and the Guri AmirMausoleum, large part of thecomplex of Shokhi Zinda, theUlughbek Madrasah inSamarkand.

Architects of the time paid agreat deal of attention to theart of gardening and horticul-ture. In 1648, architecturalactivities were focused inlarge cities such as Bukhara,Samarkand, Karmana, andTashkent. Further develop-ments occurred within resi-dential houses, markets and

The Splendors of UzbekistanArchitecture

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caravansaries. A few of the world famous CentralAsian architectural structures of the 16th and 17thcenturies are Registan in Samarkand, Minarai Kalon,Labi Khovuz, and the Ulughbek and Abdulaziz Khanmadrasah in Bukhara , and other.

Khiva became an open-air museum of Central Asiain the middle of the 18th century when large ensem-bles and buildings were constructed around it. TheTashkhauli palace (1830-38), the Muhammad ofOlimkhon madrasah (1851-55), and Kakaminarminaret (1855) are other examples of fine architectur-al heritage of the city.

Modern ArchitectureIntegration with the world community has served

as the main impetus for the development of thecity's building structures, as well as modernization ofhighways, markets, and construction of sportingcomplexes and the restoration of historical monu-ments is one of the country's main policies.

Residential architecture of an ordinary Uzbek houseat the end of the 19th and the beginning of 20thcenturies is very interesting. This type of architectureis well representative of the experience of living indifficult climatic conditions for centuries whilereflecting the local characteristics of individual dis-tricts and cities of the republic.

Bukhara's houses are located in crowded areas withsmall greenery and made isolated from the streets'noise and dust. The rooms are built round a yardcovered with beautiful tile works where there isfavorably cool air even during hot seasons.

Houses in Khiva use another method to create suchpleasant ambience. Here a portico is built a bit abovethe ground and leads the wind inside. However, slid-ing walls and shutters, decorative niches and stuccoscalled ganch, painted ceilings, etc. are used inFerghana houses. The interior of Uzbekistan nationalhouses is very simple, yet arranged nobly in a ration-al order. Architects have been passing their know-how, experience and expertise from one generationto the next. In the second half of the 19th century,principles of European architecture gradually enteredUzbekistan's urban architecture. New, modern build-ings were constructed for banks, schools and highschools, universities, large department stores, etc.These modern buildings, burnt brick were used toerect earthquake-resistant, impenetrable walls andeclectic architecture was most popular at this time.

Using traditional architectural motives and ele-ments (such as arches, portals and domes) in thedesign and planning of houses is completely evident.The Opera and Ballet Theatre named after AlisherNavoi, and Hotel Tashkent (Lotte City Hotel Tashkent

Palace) could be considered the most significantachievements of Uzbekistan architecture which aredistinctive in color and design.

The principles of modern urban developmentrequire construction works made in larger scales withmore number of apartment floors while rendering allkinds of public services to the residents. Such princi-ple has been well-observed in new cities such asAlmalik, Angren, Zarafshan and especially Navoi.With their world famous, unique architectural monu-ments, Samarkand, Bukhara, Khiva historic townshave been significantly restored.

Since independence, the country has commencedcreating new infrastructure for the development ofnational, urban architecture; consistent developmentof the capital Tashkent started and Uzbekistan's facebegan to change completely to better. Built on mod-ern architectural principles like many other areas ofthe city, the main square of the capital named"Mustakillik" (Independence) is where grand militaryparades are organized nowadays. It has metal towerswith domes at the top and a mobile amphitheaterpresenting a picturesque panorama of Uzbekistanmade with color lamps. On the last night of summer,

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glorious Independence Day celebrations are heldhere where many different programs are providedfor the residents.

On this day, magnificent celebrations are heldwidely across the country. In the capital city, this nor-mally takes place in "Alisher Navoi" National Parkwhere the "Peoples Friendship Palace" is located. ThePalace is Uzbekistan's largest cinema/concert hallwith a large round pond and cascade of fountains.The massive structure has domed-columns decorat-ed with traditional local motifs; a bridge over thecanal and a pavilion with Alisher Navoi's statueplaced under a domed structure on the hilltop. Oneither side of the central amphitheater are restaurant"Nowruz" (1995, R. Yakubov, B. Astroverkhoi, N.Batarin) and Oliy Majlis building (1997, W.Akapjanian). This four-sided plan is the national, tra-ditional gardening plan.

The concert hall is built to the north of theIndependence Square along Ankhor canal. The archi-tectural style of which is reminiscent of stalactitemonumental portals and main facades of oldmosque and madrassas. The interiors are decoratedwith rich tradition stucco works "ganch", paintingsand ceramic works and in front of the building, thereis a statue depicting the legendary bird of happiness- Humo (built by Bahodir Jalolov).

The whole Republic honors his great ancestor -Amir Temur, during whose reign all types of art, and,above all, architecture widely flourished and devel-oped. In Tashkent, Samarkand and Shakhrisabz, mon-uments and statues have been raised to honor toAmir Temur. In Tashkent, Amir Temur's sculptor (F.Ashrafi, B. Usmanov) is installed in the park namedafter him. On the statue pedestal, these words couldbe seen "Power is in justice". Built in 1995 by archi-tect A. Turdiev to the northwest of Amir Temursquare, Temurids Museum is one of the ideologicallyimportant public buildings of the country. The GurEmir dome is ornamented with delicate artworks.With its 20-columned portico, the dome is 30 m inheight and 24 m x 2 in diameter. A gigantic chande-lier is hung from inside the dome with the interior'sbuilding painted with images of the Garden of Eden.Body of the dome in the interior is made in ganch inengineering "kundal." On a blue background withgold leaf accents highlighted that continues the tra-dition of Tilla Kari in Samarkand. Golden lines on theblue background are in fact in the style of gold worksof Registan square in Samarkand.

The main focus of the interior is an exhibition ofAmir Temur's triptych images. Architecturally speak-ing, both the interior and exterior of TemuridsMuseum are very similar to the national folk architec-

ture. New buildings of Tashkent's Mayor Office (1996,architect. F. Tursunov) and the Oliy Majlis are exam-ples of the classical style of architecture of thisregion. Both the buildings have snow-white facadesand refined columns, capitals of which are decoratedwith foliage patterns. Both have widespread domeswith a dome flagpole in the middle. Interiors arerichly decorated with wood carvings and stucco aswell as oil paintings. Natural yet very costly materialssuch as granite, marble, special types of wood, gildedbronze, ceramics, etc. have been used on the build-

ings' exteriors.Lately, many buildings, such as the Intercontinental

hotel and National Bank of Uzbekistan (1995, arch. A.Tokhtaev), have been constructed in corporate style.The National Bank Tower is one of the highest andmost spectacular structures of the capital city. Builton a rectangular plan, it has four tall, concretecolumns and the building's whole exterior facadesand roof are covered with glass.

Much work is now being carried out for the restora-tion of old buildings. Today, postmodernism style ofarchitecture is widely popular round the globe, and


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therefore, the imitation of the architectural style ofthe old buildings of the early 20th century seemsjustified. Thanks to the successful organization ofinternational competition for tennis in Tashkentcalled "the President's Cup", tennis has become morepopular in Tashkent, Andijan, Namangan, Karshi andin other provinces of the Republic and modern com-plexes with tennis courts are being developed every-where. Yunusobod tennis court in the eastern part ofAmir Temur square stands next to the complex ofother huge constructions, such as Aqua-park and themain Business Center. Just next to the main open

court, there is also a closed tennis court with thecapacity of seating for 3,000 people (1996, V.Akopjanyan). Surrounded by arches with vaultedsheets, ceramics, and other coverings, the structure iscomparable with the world's best sports complexes.

Celebration of the 1225th birth anniversary of thegreat theologian Imam Al-Bukhary, as well as the1200th birthday of Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kasiral Farghani were among the greatest events held inthe country in 1998. Through the efforts of the peo-ple, the memorial monument of Imam Al-Bukharyand Ahmad Farghani had been already constructed

in Khartang village (in Samarkand) in a short while atthe beginning of 1998. The complex courtyard is laidout in traditional rectangular, Charbagh (The quadri-lateral garden) covered with four types of lawns.Surrounded with porticos, here is a mosque con-structed by 30x20 meters Steel Trusses that has thecapacity of seating 800 persons. On the other side ofthe courtyard, there is a reception area for 100-150persons, a library and a restaurant. The courtyard isthat reach the part summer at both sides.

Architecture of Early19th CenturyKhivaSince the beginning of the XIX century, many

Central Asian states that had fell into ruins as aresult of consistent wars among the Khanates, weregradually restored. The construction started at Khiva:buildings such as Allah Kuli Khan Caravanserai andthe unfinished Rakhmankul Inak Palace with its hugeminaret which, according to the architects, couldhave become the tallest minaret in Central Asia. Asthe biggest medieval madrassa of Khiva,Muhammad Aminkhan madrassa was built withinIchan-Qala complex facing Kunya Ark and adjacentto Ata-Darvaza during this era. Muhammad RakhimKhan madrassa was also erected in front of KunyaArk in 1871 at the order of Muhammad RakhimKhan (1863-1910 AD) known as Feerouzshah whowas himself a poet. This rectangular-plannedmadrassa has four porticos and a small tower.KokandThe main feature of Kokand buildings of this peri-

od is the exquisiteness and splendor of the architec-ture as well as the use of bright, contrast coloredtiles in the decoration of buildings. This is especiallycharacteristic of Amir Khudoyar Khan Palace which isa fine example of the architecture of the XIX century.With more than 100 rooms, the construction of thePalace began in 1863 and completed in 1870 withthe name of the architect - Ustod Mir Ubaidulla -carved. In 1862, construction of madrassa and HazratKalon Sahib Mosque was completed and in 1870 and1872, Oyum Hakim and Sultan Muradbek madrassas,the latter named after Khudoyar Khan's son. Jamimadrassah in Andijan was also construction in 1874-1977.

BukharaArchitecture of buildings of Bukhara In this period is

very similar with each other with works of calligra-phy, made in the styles of Kufic, Suls, Rayhan, Naskh

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72Uzbekistan

and Nasta'liq, as one of the architectural ornamentalelements. Simple adobe or clay mixed with choppedstraw were uses for the construction of houses whileburnt bricks were the main material to erect historicalor some other special buildings. Bukhara houseswhich are easily distinguishable from the houses ofother regions through their architectural features anddecorative patterns. For example, the Fergana houseshave shutters on the windows, decorative niches, fineworks of stucco and bright ceiling murals while themain feature of Samarkand and Bukhara houses isthe use of porticos with carved columns, wall paint-ings and stucco and in Khiva, the houses have closedcourtyards with several porticos with carved columnsdecorated with complex patterns.

The walls are single-layered but in the mountainousareas, they are double-layered stuffed with mud andclay in the middle, to add to the strength and stabili-ty. House roofs are covered first with timber and thena thick layer of clay. Gates and doors are decoratedwith carvings of complex patterns. Burning sandal-wood in a hole on the floor with a brazier, or chim-ney were means of heating with the bricked orwooden floor covered with mats or carpets.

The interiors were almost not furnished at all.Niches were created to keep bedspreads, pillows,household utensils and other daily utilities out ofsight. Clothes were usually stored in chests.

The spiritual culture, customs and art of the Uzbekpeople of the XIX century is very similar to the cul-tures of other Central Asian nations. Humane anddemocratic traditions are deeply rooted in this cul-ture the foundations of which has been laid by greatscientists, educators and government officials of thissuch as Alisher Navoi. Common fate became thebasis of the close friendship of the peoples of CentralAsia. They have composed thousands of poems,songs and stories to praise the courage of the mythi-cal brave men and warriors and have nurtured inthemselves, the spirits of loyalty, friendship and purelove of Tahir and Zuhra, Farhad and Shirin, Layla andMajnun.Uzbekistan is a relatively young country buthas deep historical roots.

Long history of Uzbek land, situated at the cross-roads of the Silk Road, as well as its rich religious andcultural traditions, have left a legacy of unique archi-tectural style for the future generations. Thanks tothe efforts of architects of the past centuries, todaywe can examine and study the ancient architecturalmonuments, restored after the end of devastatingwars. Modern cities are being established just next tothe ancient towns with their glorious mosques andmagnificent Arks richly immersed in greenery withfoliage and floral patterns. Large-scale construction

activities initiated in Uzbekistan in the eleventh cen-tury, yet it was in the 15th century that it flourishedthen the most beautiful and luxurious palaces (Ak-Saray palace in Shakhrisabz) and majestic mosques(Bibi Khanum - the most beautiful mosque), wererestored.

In the 16th - 18th centuries, major cities such asSamarkand, Bukhara, Tashkent started to emergearound the greatest architectural and historical sitesthe world-renowned architectural monuments ofwhich are: Ark citadel, Kalyan Minaret and the Labi-Hauz ensemble in Bukhara; Kaffal-ChaChi andKukeldash madrassa in Tashkent and Shahi Zindaarchitectural ensemble in Samarkand. According tomany specialists, Khiva is the most valuable architec-tural heritage of the eighteenth century that couldbe considered a museum itself due to the number ofhistorical monuments. Ancient Architecture ofUzbekistan is characterized its specific arrangementof bricks, the use of hexagonal tiles, building domedstructures, applying a variety of geometric patternsfor decoration, the rich ornamental designs withgolden patterns, carvings and complex stucco works,the development and improvement of landscape artand clever use of water reflect in stunning gardenfountains. Those structures related with the cultureand religious faiths of the people are erected in thebest manner. Islamic beliefs are best represented inthe construction mosques, mausoleums and madras-sas (e.g. Miri-Arab mosque which is an architecturalmasterpiece of the Muslim world).

Outstanding examples of Uzbek architecture aregorgeous palaces of rulers such as Sitorai-KhosaPalace in Bukhara which is a fine synthesis of Easternand European styles. In Uzbekistan's modern archi-tecture, traditional oriental style is often used alongwith the European principles of urban developmentthat came here in the XIX century and became com-mon through the construction of schools, banks,hotels, sports centers and other public buildings aswell as residential houses. The new cities of Navoi,Almalik, Zarafshan and others are best examples ofthis style of architecture. Prefabricated and metalstructures as well as varied types of lighting arewidely used in modern constructions. In addition, anational school of restoration of national assets hasbeen established. Modern architects and professionalrestorers are busy restoring the architectural master-pieces to provide the ground for the current andfuture generation get a glimpse of the sublime cul-ture and traditionally rich history of the Uzbek land.

............................................................................................Courtesy of the Embassy of the Republic of Uzbekistan, TehranRussian-Persian Translation: Mohsen HajjarianPersian-English Translation: Parisa Firouzkouhi

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