East African Community Economic Development and Regional Integration Indiana University 2014
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Transcript of East African Community Economic Development and Regional Integration Indiana University 2014
Economic Development and Regional Integration in the East African Community
ByGrantEysterPolicy Analysis
Indiana University Spring 2014
AbstractAlthoughindustrializedeconomieshavestruggledtoachieveeconomicgrowthinthewakeoftheglobalfinancialcrisisof2007‐08,developingnationshaveinmanycasesachievedhighgrowthrates.InAfrica,thepotentialforgrowthisenormous.Despitehistoricalpoliticalconflictandwidespreadgovernmentmismanagementstandinginthewayofpovertyreductionandeconomicdevelopment,growthrateshavebeenconsistentlyhighinmanyareasanddramaticchangesaretakingplaceacrossthecontinent.InEastAfrica,fivenationshavedecidedtoseekdeepeconomicandpoliticalintegration,inthehopesofcombiningstrengthsandoperatingasaformidableeconomicunitintheglobaleconomy.Kenya,Tanzania,Rwanda,Uganda,andBurundicomprisethemoderniterationoftheEastAfricanCommunity,formedin2000.Widespreadeffortshavebeenmadesincethatyeartoaccomplishexpansiveintegrationplans,althoughprogresshasbeenpainfullyslowinsomeareas.Evenso,theEastAfricanCommunity,asawhole,iscapableofbecomingoneofAfrica’sleadingeconomicpowersifintegrationissuccessfulandhandledproperly.Thefocusofthisstudyhasbeentoevaluatethemoderneconomicsituationofthisregion,andtheimplicationsofitsplansforeconomiccooperationandpoliticalunity.Additionally,asabenchmarkfortheeconomicdevelopmentoftheEastAfricanCommunity,theeconomyofSouthAfricahasbeenanalyzedandcomparedwiththatoftheEACinordertogainabetterunderstandingofwaysinwhichtheregioncanmatchthesuccessesofAfrica’sleadingeconomy.Finally,riskstothesuccessofintegrationandtheoveralldevelopmentoftheEastAfricanCommunitywereexamined,leadingtorecommendationsregardingproperstepsforEACleadershiptoundertake.Inparticular,pressingeconomicandsocietalneedsmustbefirstaddressed,andthestepsofintegrationmustnotberushedorimplementedwithoutwidespreadsupportandgreatcare.
2
Historical,Economic,andSocialBackground
EastAfricahasexperiencedanextensiveandcomplexhistory,influencedbyvarious
groupsoflocalsaswellasglobalpowersfromaroundtheworld.Europeancontactwiththe
areacamein1498,whenPortugueseexplorerVascodaGamanavigatedaroundtheCapeof
GoodHopeandmadecontactatMombasa,inmoderndayKenya.DaGamacontinuedonto
India,discoveringanewmaritimetraderouteconnectingtheFarEasttoEurope,providinga
newalternativetothetraditionalspiceroutesacrossspanningacrossAsiatothe
Mediterranean.RealizingtheimportanceofthediscoveryofthesearoutetoAsia,Portugal
quicklymovedtosolidifyinfluenceandauthorityintheregion.Inanattempttoachievethis
aim,thePortugueseconstructedFortJesusinMombasain1593.Thisfortwouldbewonand
lostmultipletimesinsucceedingcenturies,astheBritish,Dutch,andOmaniArabsall
challengedPortuguesepowerinthearea.1ItwastheOmaniArabs,undertheleadershipofSaif
binSultan,whoeventuallyprevailedingainingpowerintheareaaroundMombasaandthe
islandofZanzibar;FortJesusfelltoOmaniforcesin1698.2
TheOmaniArabsdrovethePortuguesefromtheEastAfricancoastlineinthefollowing
decades,allowingforArabdominanceintheIndianOceantrade.AllofthemajorEastAfrican
portscontinuedtobeinOmanihandsuntilBritishandotherEuropeannationsbegantoseek
influenceintheregion.
EastAfrica,alongwithmuchoftherestofthecontinent,becamethetargetofEuropean
imperialisminthelatterhalfofthe19thCentury.InwhatcametobeknownastheScramblefor
Africa,Europeanpowerssoughttocolonizeandpartitiontheentiretyofthecontinent.Portugal
1PortugueseauthorityinEastAfricawasgenerallylimitedtocoastalregions2 Jan Knappert, “A Short History of Zanzibar,” Annales Aequatoria 13 (1992): 15‐37
3
hadbeenthefirstnationtoestablishastrongpresenceinEastAfricainthe15thCentury,while
theBritishlaterclaimedthearea’smostfertileandproductivelandsbycolonizingthelands
whichtodaymakeupthenationsofUgandaandKenya.Meanwhile,theGermanEmpire
createdastateknownasGermanEastAfrica,madeupbypresent‐dayRwanda,Burundi,and
Tanzania(withtheexceptionoftheZanzibarArchipelago).FollowingGermany’sdefeatin
WorldWarI,however,GermanEastAfricawasdismantledandtheTreatyofVersailles
dissolvedthecolony,givingparttoBelgiumasRuanda‐Urundi,asmallsegmenttoPortugal’s
Mozambiquecolony,andtherestofwhattodayisTanzaniatoBritain.3Bythispoint,theBritish
werebyandfarthemostactiveandinfluentialEuropeannationinEastAfrica,controllingthe
entiretyoftheareawhichtodaymakesuptheEastAfricanCommunity,withtheexceptionof
theZanzibarArchipelago,Rwanda,andBurundi.IndependencewasfinallygrantedtotheEast
Africanstatesintheearly1960s,withgovernmentsestablishedinthemodelofEuropean
nationsofthetimeasdemocraticrepublics.
FormationoftheEastAfricanCommunity
ThehistoryofregionalcooperationinEastAfricagoesbacktopre‐colonialtimes,with
localtribesandpoliticalstatesconductingtradeandinteractingincomplexways.Thefirst
majormovestowardscooperationbetweenmodernstatesweremadebeginningin1919,when
theBritishcoloniesofKenya,TanganyikaandUgandaformedacustomsunioninorderto
facilitatetradeandcommerce.4Economiclinkswerefurtherstrengthenedin1948,whenthe
EastAfricanHighCommissionwasfounded,creatingaunifiedincometaxaswellasacustoms
3 Sally Marks, “Mistakes and Myths: The Allies, Germany, and the Versailles Treaty, 1918‐1921,” Journal of Modern History 85 (September 2003): 632‐659 4 Joseph S. Nye Jr., “East Africa Economic Integration,” The Journal of Modern African Studies 1 (December 1963): 475‐502
4
union.5Aftertheendofthecolonialperiodintheearly1960s,twoparticularorganizations
workedtopromoteregionalintegrationinEastAfrica.TheEastAfricanCommonService
Organization(EACSO)succeededthecolonial‐eraEastAfricanHighCommission.However,for
themajorityofdecision‐makersinthe1960s,EACSOwastoocloselyassociatedwithpre‐
independencepoliticalstructures.Inaddition,attemptstoestablishacentralbankforthe
regionfounderedin1965.Further,planstointroduceacommonmarketprovedtobedifficult
toimplementwiththedisparatestatesoftheEastAfricaneconomies.Yettherewasstillstrong
interestinregionalcooperation,andsoin1967,thefirstEastAfricanCommunitywasfounded.
ThethreememberstatesofKenya,TanzaniaandUgandaagreedtocooperateonawiderange
ofeconomicandsocialissues.ThefirstEAC,andthestepstowardintegrationwhichitachieved,
washailedasuccessatthetime,buttheprojectneverthelesscollapsedin1977.Thefailureof
thefirstEastAfricanCommunitycanbeattributedtofourprimaryfactors:firstly,itslackof
steeringfunctionsandcleardirective;secondly,theunequaldistributionofbenefitstothe
respectivememberstates;thirdly,thepurelyintergovernmentalandsupranationalstructure;
and,fourthly,theirreconcilabledifferencesofopinionbetweenleadingplayers,particularly
betweentheUgandandictatorIdiAminandtheTanzanianPresidentJuliusNyerere.6Bythe
timetheoriginalEastAfricanCommunitywasdisbanded,itwasclearthatthemembernations
hadpoliticalandeconomicphilosophiesthatwereunsustainablydivergent.
IntheyearsthatfollowedthecollapseofthefirstEAC,thethreeformermemberstates
attemptedtoregulateeconomicaffairsbymeansofindividualmultilateralagreements.
5 Ibid. 6 Agrippah T. Mogumba, “Regional Organizations and African Underdevelopment: The Collapse of the East African Community,” The Journal of Modern African Studies 16 (June 1978): 261‐272
5
Importantstepstowardsestablishingacommunityweretakenin1993and1997attwo
summitsoftheheadsofstate.In1993thePermanentTripartiteCommissionforCooperation
wassetup:acoordinatinginstitutionthatin1998producedadrafttreatyforthelaterEAC.
Cooperationonsecuritymatterswasalsoinitiatedduringthisperiod.InNovember1999,the
TreatyfortheEstablishmentoftheEastAfricanCommunitywassignedbytheUgandan,
Kenyan,andTanzanianheadsofstate.ItenteredintoforceonJuly7,2000,andtwonew
members,RwandaandBurundi,joinedtheCommunityin2007.
TheEastAfricanCommunityisactivelyseekinggreatereconomiccooperationandisin
thecontinualprocessoffurtherintegration,potentiallyevenleadingtoafullpolitical
6
federationifintegrativeactivitiesaresuccessful.ThecombinedeconomiesoftheEastAfrican
Communitymemberstateshavesignificantstrengths,andtheregioncouldexperiencevery
largeamountsofgrowthinfuturedecadesifthecorrectmeasuresareundertaken.
ModernEastAfricanCommunityMemberEconomies
AlthoughtheEastAfricanCommunityisstrivingtoactasasingulareconomicunitinthe
future,thehealthofthecurrentEastAfricanCommunityeconomycanonlybeevaluatedby
firstexaminingandunderstandingthecurrentstateofeachoftheeconomiesbelongingtothe
fiveEACmembernations.
Burundi
Burundi’sstatusasalandlocked
countrywithfewnaturalresourceshas
contributedtoitsstandingasoneofthe
poorestandleastdevelopednationsin
theworld,andtheweakesteconomic
memberoftheEastAfricanCommunity.
OtherfactorscontributingtoBurundi’s
weakeconomicstandingincludethe
nation’spoorlegalsystem,lackof
economicfreedom,lowaccesstobasicandadvancededucation,andineffectivehealthcare
systemspairedwiththeproliferationofHIV/AIDS.Allthishasledtoapproximately80%of
Burundi'spopulationlivinginpoverty.7Agricultureisbyfarthedominantindustryofthenation,
7 The World Bank, “Burundi,” (September 2013)
7
although90%ofthisagricultureisforpurelysubsistencepurposes.Coffeeremainstheprimary
cashcropforexport,though,andotheragriculturalproductsincludecotton,tea,maize,
sorghum,sweetpotatoes,bananas,manioc(tapioca);beef,milk,andhides.Themanufacturing
andindustrialsectorsarevastlyunderdeveloped,andthenationisfurtherheldbackbyalack
ofaccesstofinancialandlegalservicesformostofthepopulation.Burundi’sseverelackof
developmentandendemicpovertyposelong‐termdifficulties,althoughthenationishoping
integrationwithitsneighborswillallowforfurtheraidanddevelopment.8
Kenya
Kenyapossessesthemost
advancedandlargesteconomyinEast
andCentralAfrica,althoughthe
economyremainsinefficientand
mismanagedinmanycircumstances.
Kenyaisstillapoordeveloping
countrywithaHumanDevelopment
Index(HDI)of0.519,puttingthe
countryatposition145outof186–
oneofthelowestintheworld,and
about38%ofKenyansliveinabsolutepoverty.9AprimarystrengthofKenyaisitstemperate
climateandproductivelands,buttheimportantagriculturalsectorisoneoftheleast
developedandremainslargelyinefficient,employing75%oftheworkforcecomparedtoless
8 Ibid. 9 The World Bank, “Kenya,” (October 2013)
8
than3%infoodsecuredevelopedcountries.Despite75%oftheworkforceengagedin
agriculture,asignificantamountofthepopulationoftengoeswithoutfoodandisheavily
dependentonfoodaid.Theservicesectorhasseenlargegrowthduetotelecommunications
expansionandthefinancialsector,andservicesnowmakeup62%ofKenya’sGDP.Tourismis
theprimarysourceofservicerelatedemploymentinKenya,andtourismremainsoneofthe
nation’smostsignificanteconomicandculturalstrengths.AprimaryobstacletoKenyan
economicsuccessistherelianceontheagriculturalsector,whichmakesup22%ofGDP,avery
largeamountcomparedtoafigureofaround3%formostheavilyindustrializednations.
Industryandmanufacturingmakeuptheremaining16%ofKenya’sGDP,althoughaprimary
aimofKenyandevelopmentpolicyistoinitiategrowthinthesesectorsandmoveawayfrom
theheavyrelianceonagriculturethatistypicalthroughouttheEastAfricanCommunity.10
Rwanda
Rwanda’seconomysufferedmassively
duetothe1994RwandanGenocidebutison
theroadtofullrecoverythroughthe
implementationofbusinessfriendlypolicies
andtheestablishmentofstrongnational
institutionsforgovernance.Thenation
doesn’thaveparticularlymanynatural
resources,however,andsubsistence
agricultureremainsthedominanteconomic
10 Ibid.
9
activityformostRwandancitizens.Theindustrialsectorissmallandlimited,producingmostly
domesticgoodsandproducts,althoughminingisnowstartingtobeamajorcontributorto
growth.Anotherlargepotentialareaforgrowthistourism,duetoRwanda’slocationinthe
mountainsofEastAfrica,surroundedbyraretropicalforestsandtheassociatedfauna.One
particulardrawisthemountaingorilla,asRwandaisonlyoneoftwonationsinwhichthese
animalscanbeviewedsafely.Rwandaisregionallyknownformaintainingstronginstitutions,
anditsfinancialsectorisoneofthemostvibrantintheEastAfricanCommunity.Thisis
evidencedbytheintroductionofgovernment‐issuedbonds,thefirstoftheirkindinRwanda.11
Thenationcontinuestobeplaguedbyalackofnaturalresourcesandindustry,withmost
economicdevelopmentprospectscurrentlybeingassociatedwiththemodernizationof
agriculture,tourism,andservices.
Tanzania
Economicliberalizationhasbeena
primaryaimofTanzanianleadersinrecent
years,inanefforttomoveawayfromthe
socialistcommandpoliciesofformerleader
JuliusNyerere.Marketliberalizationhas
allowedthecountrytorealizelargeeconomic
gains,althoughtheeconomyremains
underdeveloped.TheTanzanianeconomy
dependsheavilyonagriculture,which
11 The World Bank, “Rwanda,” (September 2013)
10
accountsformorethan25%ofGDP,provides85%ofexports,andemploys80%ofthework
force.12Topographyandclimaticconditions,however,limitcultivatedcropstoonly4%ofthe
landarea.Cashcrops,includingcoffee(itslargestexport),tea,cotton,cashews,sisal,cloves,
andpyrethrumaccountforthevastmajorityofexportearnings.Thevolumeofallmajorcrops
haveincreasedoverthepastfewyears,butlargeamountsofproduceneverreachthemarket
duetologisticalandinfrastructurelimitations.Inaddition,poorpricingandunreliablecashflow
tofarmerscontinuetofrustratetheagriculturalsector.OneareainwhichTanzaniahasseen
promisinggrowthisintheexpandingindustrialsector.Accountingfor22.6%ofGDP,Tanzania's
industrialsectorisoneofthefastestgrowinginAfrica.Themainindustrialactivitiesinclude
agriculturalprocessing(sugar,beer,cigarettes,sisaltwine),diamond‐,gold‐,andironmining,
oilrefining,woodproducts,salt,sodaash,cement,shoes,apparelandfertilizerproductions.
Foreignexchangeshortages,excessivebureaucracy,andcorruptioncontinuetodeprive
factoriesofmuch‐neededbusinessgoodsandsupport,however,andreduceindustrial
productivity.Sectorsexpectedtocontinueexperiencingsignificantgrowthincludetherich
miningindustryandthetourismindustry,thelatterofwhichremainslargelyuntappedin
comparisonwithKenyaandotherAfricantouristhotspots.13
12 Central Intelligence Agency, “Tanzania,” The World Factbook (March 2014) 13 Ibid.
11
Uganda
TheeconomyofUgandahasagreat
amountofpotential,anditappearedpoised
forrapideconomicgrowthanddevelopment.
IthasevenbeensaidthatUgandahasthe
capabilitytofeedtheentiretyofAfricaif
properlycommerciallyfarmed.14However,
chronicpoliticalinstabilityanderratic
economicmanagementhasproduceda
recordofpersistenteconomicdeclinethat
hasleftUgandaamongtheworld'spoorestandleast‐developedcountries.Strengthsinclude
thesubstantialnaturalresourcesofthecountry,includingfertilesoils,regularrainfall,and
sizablemineraldepositsofcopperandcobalt.Thecountryalsohaslargelyuntappedreservesof
bothcrudeoilandnaturalgas.Servicesmakeuproughly50%ofGDPearnings,withagriculture
andindustryapproximatelysplittingtheother50%.Mostindustryinthecountryisrelatedto
agriculture,however.Largeamountsofgrowtharepossibleintheindustrialandminingsectors
inparticular,ifpoliticalstabilitycanbeachievedinthelongterm.15
InordertomorefullyunderstandthestateofEastAfricanCommunitymembereconomies,
itisimportanttoalsotakealookatoveralleconomicstatisticsasabasisforcomparisonand
14 The World Bank, “Uganda,” October 2013 15 Ibid.
12
analysis.Thetablesdisplayedonthefollowingtwopagesdemonstratethedevelopingstatusof
EastAfricannations,aswellassignsofgrowthandimprovement.
ThetableaboveprovidesadditionalsummarystatisticsfortherespectiveEastAfrican
economies.16Ascanbeseen,theireconomieshavesimilarattributes.Negativecurrentaccount
balanceswerepresentforallmemberstates,withvaryingnominalamountsthattranslatedto
approximatelythesamedebt/GrossDomesticProductratioforeachcountry.Likewise,each
nationpossessednegativenetforeigndirectinvestmentfigures,andhighinflation.Burundi
experiencedthehighestrateofinflationat18.0128%,nearlythreetimesashighasthe
6.2709%inflationexperiencedinRwanda.IntermsofGDPfigures,Kenyaclearlyleadstheway
onaper‐capitabasiswithanincomeof$942.54,althoughthisstillranksamongsomeofthe
lowestintheworld.Rwanda,Uganda,andTanzaniafallslightlylowerinGDPpercapita,with
similarincomesaround$600,followedlastlybyBurundiwithananemicfigureofjust$251.01.
Despitetheextremelylowpercapitastatistics,theEastAfricanmemberstatesallexperienced
significantlypositiveGDPgrowthratesin2012,continuingatrendofcontinuousgrowthin
recentyears.Clearly,theEACstatesremaindevelopingcountriespossessingenormous
challengesaheadnecessarytoeraseaccountdebts,growinasustainableandhealthymanner,
andelevatetheirpopulationsoutofpoverty.
16 The World Bank
!"#$%&'()*+&,- .-"/& 01)1"#$ 23&"#& 45&"#& 6&"7&"$&
81))-"'*&%%(1"'*9&:&"%-*;0(<=*%1))-"'*4>?@ A?B=CDC=DEF=GHIJHI A?CDD=EIB=KCEJDD A?ICE=ICD=HHGJIC A?C=CCG=FCH=BLCJKL A?L=KLH=ILB=LDGJCE
81))-"'*&%%(1"'*9&:&"%-*;M*(N*OP<@ AGEJBBHG AGEJLGFB AGGJDDKE AGGJGFBH AGCJIIFI
Q()-$5"*#$)-%'*$"R-S',-"'=*"-'*;0(<=*%1))-"'*4>?@ A?CBC=DBH=DIFJED A?KEB=HGHJKD A?GDH=IGB=HEBJIB A?G=FCG=GKH=EHDJCC A?G=FEK=HBK=GLFJBL
!"N:&'$("=*%("S1,-)*T)$%-S*;&""1&:*M@ HJLFILHDIDG GIJEGCIGKEK KJCFEHELEG GBJEGKEDKDK GKJEEGEHLID
OP<*T-)*%&T$'&*;%1))-"'*4>?@ ?HBCJDB ?CDGJEG ?KGHJHL ?DBFJEG ?KEIJFC
OP<*5)(3'U*;&""1&:*M@ BJDHIE BJEGHB FJHIGG LJBCDB KJIDIF
CEGC*V&S'*WN)$%&"*V%("(,$%*>'&'$S'$%S
13
Thesocialstatisticslistedbelowalsodemonstratetheneedforextensiveattentiontothe
socialneedsoftheEastAfricanCommunity,aseconomicdevelopmentoftencannottakeplace
ifunderlyingissuesarenotaddressed.Lowlifeexpectancies,poorliteracyrates,andgrinding
povertyformanymakessimplysurvivingadifficulttask,althoughtechnologicaladvances,
economicgrowth,andpoliticalstabilityhavegenerallyimprovedqualityoflifeinrecentyears.
SouthAfricaasaPointofComparison
InordertoallowsomeconclusionstobedrawnregardingwhatstepstheEastAfrican
CommunitycanandshouldtaketoelevateitselftobeaneconomicpowerbothinAfricaand
aroundtheworld,thecompetitivenessoftheEastAfricanCommunityasawholecanbe
comparedwithanotherregionalpowerthatalreadyhasseensignificanteconomicsuccess:
SouthAfrica.
HistoricalandEconomicBackground
FollowingcenturiesofPortuguesecontactandDutchcolonization,theareanowknown
asSouthAfricacameunderBritishinfluencestartinginthelate18thcentury.Asthatcentury
drewtoaclose,DutchmercantilepowerbegantofadeandtheBritishmovedintofillthe
vacuum.TheyseizedtheCapein1795topreventitfromfallingintoFrenchhands,andthen
!"#$%&'()*+&,- ./)/"#$ 0-"1& 23&"#& 4&"5&"$& 67&"#&
8$9-*-:;-%'&"%1*&'*<$)'=>*'('&?*@1-&)AB CDEFD CGECC FDEDH CGEHI CJEKL
M()'&?$'1*)&'->*$"9&"'*@;-)*H>LLL*?$N-*<$)'=AB FFEG OIEJ KIEI KJEJ OCEO
P(;/?&'$("*@4('&?B G>IOG>CFG*********** OK>HJI>HOH*********** HH>OCJ>ILH*********** OJ>JIK>HLJ*********** KF>KOC>IFL***********
8$'-)&%1*)&'->*&#/?'*'('&?*@Q*(9*;-(;?-*&7-A*HC*&"#*&<(N-B FJELL JDEDL FCEIC FJEIL JKEDH
DLHD*R&A'*S9)$%&"*T(,,/"$'1*U(%$&?*U'&'$A'$%A
14
brieflyrelinquisheditbacktotheDutchin1803,beforedefinitivelyconqueringitin1806.17
PoweratthetimeresidedsolelywithawhiteéliteinCapeTown,anddifferentiationonthe
basisofracewasdeeplyentrenched.OutsideCapeTownandtheimmediatesurroundingland,
isolatedblackandwhitepastoralistspopulatedthecountry.
Britishsettlersbegantopourintothearea,sometimesduetoincentivesorduetoa
desiretoseekanewlifeinAfrica.ThisinfluxofsettlerssolidifiedtheBritishpresenceinthe
area,therebyfracturingtherelativeunityofwhiteSouthAfrica.WheretheBoersandtheir
ideashadbeforegonelargelyunchallenged,whiteSouthAfricanowhadtwodistinctlanguage
groupsandtwodistinctcultures.ApatternsoonemergedwherebyEnglish‐speakersbecame
highlyurbanized,anddominatedpolitics,trade,finance,mining,andmanufacturing,whilethe
largelyuneducatedBoerswererelegatedtotheirfarms.ThegapbetweentheBritishsettlers
andtheBoersfurtherwidenedwiththeabolitionofslaveryin1833,amovetheBoersstrongly
opposed.ThewideningriftbetweenBritishandBoersettlersledtotheso‐calledGreatTrek,an
eastwardandnorth‐eastwardBoermigrationawayfromBritishcontrolduringthe1830sand
1840s,followedbyconflictswiththenativeZulusandthelaterBoerWarsfoughtbetweenthe
BritishEmpireandadjacentBoerrepublics.18
TheUnionofSouthAfricacameintobeingin1910,andlasteduntilindependencein
1961,althoughtensionwasstillhighbetweenthedifferentethnicgroupsintheregion.
Gradually,whitesbeganexertingalmostcompletepoliticalcontrolinthenation.Onlywhites
werepermittedtovoteingeneralelectionsfrom1958until1994,whenthevotewasgranted
17 Eric A. Walker and Hugh A. Wyndham, “A History of South Africa,” Journal of the Royal African Society 40 (January 1941): 11‐18 18 Joye Bowman, “Reconstructing the Past Using the British Parliamentary Papers: The Anglo‐Zulu War of 1879,” History in Africa 31 (2004): 117‐132
15
toallSouthAfricansoverage18.StartingfromJune4,1948,SouthAfricawasruledbythe
nationalistright‐wingNationalParty.Upontakingpowerduringthe1948generalelection,the
NationalPartybegantoimplementaprogramofapartheid–thelegalsystemofpoliticaland
socialseparationoftheraces–apolicyintendedtomaintainandextendpoliticalandeconomic
controlofSouthAfricabythewhiteminority.Apartheidwasfinallydismantledinthelate1980s
andearly1990sbyNationalPartyleaderFWDeKlerkandAfricanNationalCongressfigure
NelsonMandela.TheANCsecuredits4thelectionvictory(startingin1994),andthenationhas
eversinceoperatedunderaconstitutionalparliamentaryrepublic.
PriortothearrivalofEuropeansettlersinthe15thcenturytheeconomyofwhatwasto
becomeSouthAfricawasdominatedbysubsistenceagricultureandhunting.Apermanent
Europeansettlementwasfoundedin1652inmodernCapeTown.Europeansettlementgreatly
changedtheregion,pushingethnicgroupsawayandutilizingotherasworkers.Indigenous
peoplesandsettlersdevelopedacommercialrelationshipthough,andsalesofproduceand
stocksawthedevelopmentofablack,landedpeasantry.Tosupplementfurtherlaborneeds,
slavesandindenturedservantswerebroughtinfromAsiaandIndia
Bythemid‐1800s,theBritishprovinces,CapeColonyandNatal,werebothfairly
prosperouscolonies,withthemajorityofblackandwhitesettlerslivinginruralareasand
employedinsharecroppingortheproductionofcashcrops.Tothenorth,thetwoAfrikaner
statesofOrangeFreeStateandTransvaalwerelessdenselypopulatedandinastateof
constanteconomicrivalrywiththewealthierBritishprovinces.Theoverallpopulationofthe
SouthAfricaregionwaspredominantlyemployedinagriculturaloccupations,eithertending
cattle,orasintheBritishcolonies,cultivatingcashcropssuchassugarandcoffee.Urbanareas
16
weresmallinnumberandsize,andprovidedonlyasmallcontributiontotheAfrikanerand
Britisheconomies,mainlyviatheproductionofconsumergoodsandwine.
Thelate1800sbroughtgreatchangestotheeconomy.TheMineralRevolutionisaterm
usedtorefertotherapidindustrializationandeconomicchangeswhichoccurredinSouth
Africafromthe1870sonwards.TheMineralRevolutionwaslargelydrivenbytheneedto
createapermanentworkforcetoworkintheminingindustry,andsawSouthAfrica
transformedfromapatchworkofagrarianstatestoaunified,industrialnation.Theprofound
economicchangesbeganwiththediscoveryofdiamondsatthetownofKimberleyin1867.The
diamondindustryquicklyflourished,andtheneedtodigbelowthegroundafterexhausting
surfacediamondsbroughttheMineralRevolutiontoanewphase.Goldwasalsodiscoveredat
theWitwatersrandorefieldsin1886,triggeringagoldrushandafurtherfocusonmining19.
Nationalizedindustrieswereestablishedbeginninginthe1920s,suchassteeland
railways,whichreservedevenlowskilledjobsforwhites.The1930sand1940ssawtherapid
industrializationofthecountryasitsuppliedtheminingindustryandthegovernmentinvested
inmajorprojectstoprotectwhiteemployment.SouthAfricanotonlyhadgoldanddiamonds
butvastquantitiesofiron,coalandmanyotherminerals.Agriculturediminishedinimportance
asminingandthenindustrygrew.
InthetwodecadesfollowingtherisetopoweroftheNationalParty,whites(particularly
Afrikaners)weregivenanadvantageoverallotherethnicgroupsinSouthAfricathroughthe
manipulationofthelabormarketunderthesystemofapartheid.Duringthe1950s,theincome
hierarchyinSouthAfricawasessentiallyaracialone,withwell‐paidemploymentmonopolized
19 Peter Scott, “The Witwatersrand Gold Field,” Geographical Review 41 (October 1951): 561‐589
17
bywhites.Repercussionsofapartheidarestillgreatlyfelttoday,withmanyblacksremaining
unskilled,illiterate,andpossessinglowlivingstandards.
Theimpositionofinternationalsanctionsonthecountrybeganeconomicpressurethat
sawtheunravelingofapartheid.Theflowofforeigncapitalstopped,andapartheidlooked
increasinglyunsustainable.In1990thewhitepresidentFrederikWillem(F.W.)deKlerk
recognizedtheeconomicunsustainabilityoftheapartheidsystemandreleasedNelson
MandelaandunbannedtheAfricanNationalCongress(ANC)thatMandelaled.Despitesocialist
rhetoricandsupportfromsocialistcountriesinitsearlyyearstheANCmaintainedthemixed
economyandencouragedthemarketeconomyincludingrelaxingforeignexchangecontrols.
SouthAfricahassinceworkedtomakeupfordecadesofapartheidwithpositive
discrimination(affirmativeaction).Althoughthishashaditsbenefits,affirmativeaction,
specificallythequotasystemthatseekstoachieveworkplacediversitytargets,drivesskilled
laboraway,resultinginpooreconomicgrowthandforeigninvestment.Amajorsourceofstress
remainstheredistributionofland.Underapartheid73%oflandwasinsocalled"whiteareas"
andmanyblackshadbeenforciblyuprootedandremovedtotribalareas.20Theslowlegaland
bureaucraticprocessofrestitutioniscausingimpatienceamongblacksandconcernamong
whitefarmersthatSouthAfricamaygodowntherouteofneighboringZimbabweandZambia,
wherethegovernmentanditssupportershaveunilaterallyseizedlandinmisguidedeffortsto
increaseblackownershipandwrestcontrolfromthetraditionalrulingminorityofwhites.
20 David Simon, “Crisis and Change in South Africa: Implications for the Apartheid City,” Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 14 (1989): 189‐206
18
SouthAfricanEconomicEvaluation ModernSouthAfricapossessesacomplexandadvancedeconomy,andthestatehas
maintaineditspositionastheleadingeconomyofAfricatothepresentday.Thecurrent
economycombinesadevelopedfirst‐worldinfrastructurewithavibrantemergingmarket
economytodrivegrowthandcreatelargeinvestmentpotential.Thenation’seconomic
strengthisalargelyalegacyoftheEuropeaninvolvementintheareaduringcolonialtimesand
thewealthofnaturalresourcespresentinwhatcomprisesthelandsofmodernSouthAfrica.
Theminingindustry,inparticular,washeavilydevelopedandexploited,andthemassive
revenuesfromthemineralexportswereavailabletobeusedforinfrastructureandfurther
economicdevelopment.AgriculturehasconsistentlybeenanotherstrengthoftheSouth
Africaneconomy,andthenationholdsacomparativeadvantageintheproductionof
agriculture,mining,andthemanufacturingprocessesrelatedtothosesectors.ModernSouth
Africahaslargelymovedtowardshavingaservice‐driveneconomy,however,indicatingthe
advancednatureofitseconomyandthegradualmovetowardsbeingadevelopedcountry.The
nationisoftenconsideredtobeaNewlyIndustrializedCountry(NIC),alongwithcountriessuch
asBrazil,China,andMexico,assignificantsocietalandeconomicissuesarepresentinSouth
Africadespitepossessingthecontinent’swealthiestandmostproductiveeconomy.
TheSouthAfricaneconomyhasanumberofstrengthsthatcontributetoitsstandingas
Africa’slargestandmostadvancedeconomy.Thestatepossessesrelativelystablepoliticaland
financialinstitutions,withaprogressiveconstitutionandstronglegalprotectionsforitscitizens.
Thestabilityofthenationsincetheendofapartheidin1994hasallowedSouthAfricato
capitalizeonitseconomicadvantages.Thesolidresourcebasepresentinthecountrypropelled
19
theeconomytonewheightsincolonialtimes,andremainsthestablecoreoftheSouthAfrican
economy.Inadditiontohavingawell‐organizedcommercialagriculturesystemwhichexportsa
varietyofproducts,SouthAfricaisendowedwithoneoftherichestandmostdiverse
concentrationsofmineralresourcesintheworld.SouthAfricaisoneoftheworldleadersin
diamondandcoalmining,andoccupiesadominantpositionintermsofreservesand
productionofavarietyofmetalandmineralresources.Additionally,itisbelievedthatthereis
stillalargepotentialforthediscoveryofevenmoremineralreserves.21
AprimarydifferencethatsetsSouthAfrica’seconomyapartfromthatofotherAfrican
nationsisthediversifiednatureofitseconomy.Althoughnaturalresourceswerewhatmade
SouthAfricainitiallywealthy,miningandagriculturenowmakeupjustasmallportionofthe
totaleconomy.Instead,servicesnowcomprisethemajorityofeconomicactivity.Examiningthe
economybysector,servicesmakeup65.9%oftotalGDP,followedbyindustrywith31.6%,and
agriculturewithjust2.5%.22Lookingfurther,themaineconomicsectorsinSouthAfricaare:
mining,agricultureandfishing,vehiclemanufacturingandassembly,foodprocessing,clothing
andtextiles,energy,financialandbusinessservices,tourism,andtransportation.
Anumberofotherfactorscontributetotherelativeeconomicdominanceexperienced
bythecountrywithinAfrica,manyofwhichowetheirexistencetoSouthAfrica’shistorically
closetieswithprivatebusiness,trade,andtheinternationalcommunity.Withthecountry'sre‐
integrationintotheglobalspherein1994,corporategovernancerules,disclosure,transparency
andaccountabilityhavebecomeanintegralpartofdoingbusinessinSouthAfrica.
21 Industrial Development Corporation, “Sectoral Trends: Performance of the Primary and Secondary Sectors of the South African Economy,” (1st Quarter 2012) 22 Central Intelligence Agency, “South Africa,” The World Factbook (March 2014)
20
Regulationsgoverningthefinancialsector,andparticularlyriskmanagement,haveundergone
considerablerefinementtoalignthemtointernationallyrecognizedstandardsandbest
practices.DuetothestabilityandsophisticationofSouthAfrica’sfinancialsector,aswellas
legalsector,thecountryprovidesanenvironmentconducivetoprivatesectorinvestmentfrom
bothinternalandexternalsources.Additionally,thereexistsarelativelylargedomesticmarket
forgoodandservicesinSouthAfrica,andthereiseasyaccesstointernationalmarketsthrough
first‐worldlogisticalinfrastructureforland,water,orairtransport.
Ascanbeviewedinthetableofsummarystatisticsabove,SouthAfricapossessesa
numberofstrengthsandweaknessesregardingitscurrenteconomicstate.AlthoughSouth
Africa’spopulationdoesnotfarexceedthatofKenyaorTanzania,itsGrossDomesticProduct
remainsmorethanthatofallEastAfricanCommunitymembernationscombined.Likewise,per
capitaGDPisoverroughly7timesashighasinKenya,andnearly30timesashighasin
Burundi,themostpoverty‐strickennationwithintheEAC.
DespitethepositivegeneralstateoftheSouthAfricaneconomy,significanteconomic
andsocialissuesexistwhichthreatentoderailprogressandgrowth.Twoofthemostvisible
andchallengingproblemsfacingthenationincludesocietalinequalityandahigh
unemploymentrate.PovertyremainswidespreadamongmanyinSouthAfrica,despitethehigh
qualityoflifeforsomesegmentsofthepopulation.In2008,forexample,thewealthiest10%of
!"#$%&'()*+&,- .(/'0*12)$%&
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BC3*D)(E'0*6&""/&5*F8 GA9H<9
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21
thepopulationearned58%ofthetotalincome,andthetop5%earned43%ofthetotal
income.Meanwhile,62%ofBlackAfricans,29%ofColoreds,11%ofAsians,andjust4%of
Whiteslivedinpoverty,clearlyindicatingtheeconomiclegacyoftheapartheideralivesonin
someregards.Intermsofunemployment,SouthAfricahasacriticallyhighrateofcitizens
unabletofindwork.Althoughlistedofficiallyaround25%,theunemploymentraterisesto
nearly35%ifthosewhohavegivenupseekingworkandleftthejobmarketareincluded.Other
significantsocialissuesincludepooreducationandhealthcaresystems(bothofwhicharealso
susceptibletoinequalityissues)andhighcrime.Corruptionalsoremainsaverytroublesome
topic,withaccusationsofcronyismandcorruptionthroughoutthepublicservice.Theseissues,
pairedwithotheradditionalfactors,leadexcellingSouthAfricanstooftenconsidermigratingto
amorepromisingopportunityelsewhereintheworld.AccordingtotheSouthAfricanBureauof
Statistics,itisestimatedthatbetween1‐1.6millionpeopleinskilled,professional,and
managerialoccupationshaveemigratedsince1994andthat,foreveryemigrant,10unskilled
peoplelosetheirjobs.
TheEastAfricanCommunityisfacedwithmanyofthesameopportunitiesandthreats
asSouthAfrica,andcanutilizelessonslearnedthroughthedevelopmentofthatnation’s
economytoplanforsuccessfulandsustainablegrowth.Nowthatanunderstandinghasbeen
createdregardingthecurrentstateoftheEastAfricanCommunityandSouthAfrican
economies,focusmustbegiventoexaminingthespecificplanstheEAChasdevelopedfor
economicdevelopmentandregionalintegrationaswellasdeterminingtheprimaryadvantages
andweaknessespresentfortheEastAfricanCommunitymovingforwardintime.
22
FutureoftheEastAfricanCommunityEvaluationofFutureIntegrationPlans
TheEastAfricanCommunityhasdevelopedthoroughandextensiveplansforfurther
regionalintegration.AccordingtotheTreatyfortheEstablishmentoftheEastAfrican
Community:
ThePartnerStatesundertaketoestablishamongthemselvesandinaccordancewiththe
provisionsofthisTreaty,aCustomsUnion,aCommonMarket,subsequentlya
MonetaryUnionandultimatelyaPoliticalFederationinordertostrengthenand
regulatetheindustrial,commercial,infrastructural,cultural,social,politicalandother
relationsofthePartnerStatestotheendthatthereshallbeaccelerated,harmonious
andbalanceddevelopmentandsustainedexpansionofeconomicactivities,thebenefit
ofwhichshallbeequitablyshared.23
Initialestimatesforthetimelineofintegrationwerequiteambitious,andthemajorityofthe
largeraimsoftheEAChavebeenpushedbackfromtheiroriginaltargetdates.Evenso,
significantstrideshavebeenmade,andCommunityleadersarehopefultostillaccomplishall
thatwassetoutininitialmeetingsandsubsequentDevelopmentStrategies.
Oneoftheprimarynear‐termaimsoftheEastAfricanCommunityistosuccessfully
establishacustomsunionandcommonmarket.Asingleunifiedmarketwithabout120million
consumerswillbeacatalystfortheeconomicgrowthofEastAfrica,allowingforrecordlevels
oftradeandeconomiccooperation.Theoverallgoalforthecommonmarket,signedin2010,is
toallowforfreemovementofgoods,people,capital,labor,servicesandrightofestablishment
23 Treaty for the Establishment of the East African Community
23
ofresidencewithintheEACinsupportoftheintegrationprocess.24Customsprocessesandfees
havebeenstreamlinedandharmonizedbetweenmemberstates,althoughtheCommunityis
stillworkingtowardsfullimplementationofboththecustomsunionandcommonmarket.
Commonmarketinitiativeshavelargelybeenslowedbytheindifferenceofmemberstatesto
taketheinitiativeandseekoutreformsnecessarytocomplywithEACmarketgoals.Apartfrom
Rwandaforthemostpart,memberstateshavebeenslowtoimplementthemarketreform
protocol,mainlyduetoalackofpoliticalwilltomakemeetingnationalreformguidelinesa
priority.Politicianshavebeenslowedbyfearsamonglocalconstituentsthatreformsleadingto
acommonmarketwillcreatejoblosses,underminelocalcompetitiveness,andleadtosocietal
problemsduetothepotentialmigrationofpeopleswithintheEastAfricanCommunity.
Anotherofthemorevisibleandtransformativepolicyaimsofthememberstatesofthe
EACistoenterintoamonetaryunion,withtheEastAfricanSchillingasthenewcurrency.The
successoftheMUundernegotiationwillcallforconcertedinterventionstoharmonizethe
policyandregulatoryframeworksbenchmarkedtobestpractice,undertakeregionwidecivic
education,strengthenandempowertheinstitutionsthatimplementandmonitormonetary
andfiscalaffairsattheregionalandnationallevels.TheMonetaryUnionProtocolwassigned
bycommunityheadsofstateinKampala,Uganda,onNovember30,2013,outliningaten‐year
roadmaptowardsmonetaryunion.Guidelinesforfurtherharmonizationandcooperationare
given,andtheroleandresponsibilitiesoftherespectivemembernationsandtheEastAfrican
CentralBankarediscussed.25ThiscamejustdaysaftertheformalstartoftheEastAfrican
24 EAC 4th Development Strategy 25 East African Community, “Protocol on the Establishment of the East African Monetary Union,” (November 2013)
24
Cross‐BorderPaymentSystem,asignificantoperationalstepincreasingmonetaryandeconomic
integration.Withtheagreementaimingtoestablishamonetaryuniontakingplaceasrecently
as2013,theroadtofullimplementationofamonetaryunionandcommoncurrencywillbea
longone,withdelayslikelytopushthetimeframepastthestatedtenyearmark.
Finally,theultimategoaloftheEastAfricanCommunity,beyondtradeliberalizationand
economicunity,istopursuefullpoliticalfederation.Themovetowardsthepoliticalfederation
isintendedtobeanchoredonestablishingregionalstructuresandbuildinginstitutional
capacitythroughdevelopmentofregionalpolicies,promotionofgoodneighborliness,and
cooperationintheareasofinternationalrelationsandstrategicinterventions.26Asoutlinedin
theEastAfricanCommunity’s4thDevelopmentStrategy,themovetowardspoliticalfederation
canonlybefulfilledthroughestablishingcertain‘KeyPillarsofEACIntegration.’Theseinclude,
inorder,toconsolidatethebenefitsofafullyfledgedcustomsunion,tofullyimplementthe
EACCommonMarketProtocol,toestablishtheEACMonetaryUnionandbegintheprocessof
implementationofasinglecurrency,andfinallytolaythefoundationforeventualpolitical
federation.Currently,however,ithasbeenKenya,Rwanda,andUgandaleadingthechargein
seekingpoliticalfederation,anditisunclearwhetherTanzaniaorBurundiwouldwantorbe
invitedtojoin.Nevertheless,thetalksforeventualpoliticalfederationarequiteyoung,andthe
processcouldbealteredordisruptedbyanynumberofeventsorcircumstances.
AdvantagesPresentfortheEastAfricanCommunity TheEastAfricanCommunityispoisedforcontinuedeconomicgrowth,andcertain
advantagesmayallowtheregiontogreatlyadvanceineconomic,political,andsocialways.
26 East African Community,”4th Development Strategy, 2011/12‐2015/16,” (August 2011)
25
Representingapopulationofnearly150millionpeople,secondtoonlyNigeriainpopulationin
Africa,theCommunityretainsmanystrategicadvantagesthatcanbeutilizedtobringeconomic
developmentandraisequalityoflifeintheregion.Fosteringthesuccessfulmanagementof
theseadvantageswillbecriticaltothehealthoftheEastAfricanCommunityasawhole,andis
necessarytoelevatemanyareasoftheregionoutofimpoverishment.
OneoftheEastAfricanCommunity’sprimaryenduringstrengthsastimeprogresseswill
beitsstrategicallycentrallocation,facilitatingthemovementofgoods,services,andpeople.In
particular,theportsoftheEACmayallowtheregiontobecomeacentralshippinglocation
linkingSub‐SaharanAfricatotheMiddleEast,SoutheastAsia,andEuropethroughtheuseof
theSuezCanal.Anumberofportsaredevelopedthusfar,althoughsignificantupgradeswillbe
necessaryforsometocompeteonaglobalscale.Thelargestportfacilitiesarecurrentlylocated
inMombasa,Mtwara,DaresSalaam,andTanga.Mombasapossessesanaturaldeep‐water
harbor,andtheportfacilityhasbeenrecentlyexpanded.OnAugust29,2013,expansionofthe
portenabledittohandlePanamaxVessels.TheprojectwaslaunchedinJuly2011atacostof
$82.15millionbytheKenyanGovernmentandwascarriedoutbyChinaRoadsandBridge
Corporation.Anewberth,Berth19,with15acresofstackingyard,hasprovidedadditional
annualcapacityof200,000TEU.Theprojectistoincreasetheportthroughputby33percent,
consolidatingtheleadingstatusofMombasaaswellasKenyainEastAfrica.27Further,Kenya’s
portsystemsmaybeadaptedtotransportcrudeoilfromSouthSudan,ifpoliticalwilland
initiativeisstrongenoughtofacilitatetheconstructionofanoilpipelinelinkingthatcountryto
EastAfricanports.
27 XinhuaNewsAgency,“NewlyExpandedPortBerthReopensinKenya’sMombasa,”(Aug.29,2013)
26
TheEastAfricanCommunitymaybepoisedtobecomearegionalorevencontinental
hubforgoodsandpeopletobetransportedbyair,aswell.ToreachLagos,Nigeria,for
example,thedistanceis2,368milesfromNairobi,Kenya,whilethetripis2,800milesfrom
Johannesburg,SouthAfrica,thecurrenthubformanybusinessesandfinancialservicesin
Africa.Similarly,itrequires5,428milesbyairtotravelfromJohannesburgtoParis,France,
whilethedistanceisreducedto4,032fromNairobi.Lastly,the3,992milesitrequirestotravel
betweenJohannesburgandDubai,UAE,isnearlytwicethe2,210milesneededtoflytoDubai
fromNairobi.
AnotherlastingadvantagefortheEastAfricanCommunity,ifmanagedcorrectly,isthe
highdemandfortourismintheregion.TheEAChasallofthe‘BigFive’game:lion,leopard,
elephant,buffaloandrhino.TheWildebeestMigrationiswidelyconsideredasthe7thNatural
wonderoftheworld,andanimalsconstantlytraversetheSerengetiNationalPark(Tanzania)
andMaasaiMara(Kenya).ThediversityofEastAfrica'swildlifehasgarneredinternationalfame,
especiallyforitspopulationsoflargemammals,particularlyrarespeciessuchastheMountain
GorillaofRwanda.Itisalsofamousforitsdiversepopulationofbirds,includingFlamingosand
Maasaiostriches.TheEastAfricanCommunityishometosomeofthemostdiverseflorainthe
world.ThisextremediversityowesitselftoEastAfrica'svaryingclimate,witharidandsemi‐arid
areasinNorthernKenyaandUganda,forestsinWesternKenyaandUganda,andtheAfrican
savannathatstretchesacrosstheTanzanianandKenyanplains.Furtherdiversitycanbefound
withglaciersonmountainsinCentralKenyaandNorthernTanzania,andmangroveforestson
theEACcoast.
27
TheEastAfricanCommunityisfurtheraidedbytheabundanceofnaturalresourcesin
someareas,aswellasthesheerpotentialforgrowthinaregionthathasbeenmismanagedfor
decades,ifnotcenturies.
RisksandHindrancestoRegionalIntegrationandDevelopment
AlthoughtheEastAfricanCommunityhasbeenconsistentlyworkingtoachieveits
statedaimsofgreatereconomicintegrationandcooperation,thereremainsignificantissuesto
overcomeinordertoachievethemoredramaticandloftygoalsoftheCommunity.
Additionally,somethreatstoeconomicdevelopmentmaypersistevenifEACplansarefulfilled,
andfurtherconcernsmayariseasintegrationpoliciesbeingenactedproduceunintended
consequences.Issuesthatmayhinderprogressincludepoorinfrastructure,widespread
corruption,lowlevelsofeducationandunderdevelopedhealthcaresystems,politicalinstability
andsecurity,difficultyofdoingbusinessintheEAC,andthelackofapositiveinvestment
climate.
Oneoftheissuesmostdifficulttosolveisthatofthequestionofsovereignty,asmoving
towardfullpoliticalfederationwillinevitablycreatetensionwithintheEastAfricanCommunity
inregardstopowersharingandtheauthorityandenforcementpoweroftheEACoverthe
individualmemberstates.
Anotherissuethatislikelytoappearincreasinglyoftenisonethathelpedleadtothe
demiseoftheoriginalEastAfricanCommunity:incompatiblepoliticalandeconomicstatuses
andbeliefs.Additionally,thepeopleoftheEastAfricanCommunitymaybewaryofintegration
leadingtopoliticalfederation,withthoseinpoorerareasfearingthattheirlandswillbetaken
overbywealthiermigrants,andthoseinmoreaffluentareasfearingthattheywillhavetofoot
28
thebillfordevelopmentinstrugglingregions.WorrieshavealreadysurfacedamongEast
AfricanCommunitycitizensregardingthepotentialfordetrimentaleffectstotheircommunities
throughtheimplementationofintegrationplans.Creatingconsensusamongmemberstatesto
formeconomicpolicyandenactmeaningfulchangewillbeasignificantchallenge,asnational
politicscanoftentakecenterstageandovershadowregionalefforts.Additionally,whilethe
EACmemberstatesaregovernedbyrelativelysimilargovernmenteconomicpolicies,
differencesinwealthanddevelopmentmaycreatetensionandissuesinthefuture.
Corruptionandpoorgovernanceremainperhapsthelargestandmostdauntingissues
toEastAfricandevelopment,problemssowidespreadandseverethattheycanderailother
initiativesandhindergrowth.Asthetablebelowshows,EACmemberstatesgenerallyrankvery
poorlyintermsofcorruption.AsrankedbyTransparencyInternational,theonlyEACstateto
placeinthetophundredincorruption(orlackthereof)isRwanda.Nationsareratedonascale
ofzerotoonehundred,withzerobeingextremelycorruptandonehundredrepresentinga
corruption‐freesociety.AsidefromRwanda,whichperformsrelativelywellinfighting
corruption,theEACmembersareratedaslowas21(Burundi)toashighas33(Tanzania).
Clearly,corruptionisalargeissueinthesestates,andtheGDPpercapitareflectsthestrain
corruptionplacesonacountry.Burundi,withoneofthehighestcorruptionratesintheworld,
alsohasoneofthelowestpercapitaGDPratesaswell.
!"#$%&'()*+&,- .-"/& 01)1"#$ 23&"#& 45&"#& 6&"7&"$& 8(1'9*:;)$%&
<())1='$("*>-)%-='$("?*!"#-@A*BCDE BF BD GE BH EE IB
<())1='$("*>-)%-='$("?*!"#-@*2&"J* DEH DGF IK DIC DDD FB
LM>*=-)*%&=$'&*N%1))-"'*48OP OKIBQGI OBGDQCD OHDKQKE OGIFQCD OHCRQFB OFAGCFQFC
<())1='$("*S?Q*LM>*>-)*<&=$'&A*T:<*?'&'-?*&"#*8(1'9*:;)$%&
29
DespitemarketreformsinEastAfrica,businesssurveysrevealthatbusinesscorruption
isstillwidespreadandthatcompaniesfrequentlyencounterdemandsforbribesandinformal
paymentsto'getthingsdone.’ThepublicprocurementsectorintheEastAfricanCommunity
sufferswidespreadcorruption.Theuseofagentstofacilitatebusinessoperationsand
transactionsiswidespreadandposesariskforcompanies,particularlyatthemarketentryand
businessstart‐upstage.
Theeffectofcorruptionhasmanydimensionsrelatedtopolitical,economic,socialand
environmentaleffects.Inpoliticalsphere,corruptionimpedesdemocracyandtheruleoflaw.
Inademocraticsystem,publicinstitutionsandofficesmaylosetheirlegitimacywhenthey
misusetheirpowerforprivateinterest.Corruptionmayalsoresultinnegativeconsequences
suchasencouragingcynicismandreducinginterestofpoliticalparticipation,politicalinstability,
reducingpoliticalcompetition,reducingthetransparencyofpoliticaldecisionmaking,distorting
politicaldevelopmentandsustainingpoliticalactivitybasedonpatronage,clientelismand
money,andmore.
Theeconomiceffectsofcorruptioncanbecategorizedasminorandmajor.However,
bothinonewayortheotherhaveseriousimpactontheindividualcommunityandcountry.
Firstandforemost,corruptionleadstothedepletionofnationalwealth.Itisoftenresponsible
forincreasedcostsofgoodsandservices,thefunnelingofscarcepublicresourcesto
uneconomichighprofileprojectsattheexpenseofthemuchneededprojectssuchasschools,
hospitalsandroads,orthesupplyofpotablewater,diversionandmisallocationofresources,
conversionofpublicwealthtoprivateandpersonalproperty,inflation,imbalancedeconomic
development,weaklingworkethicsandprofessionalism,hindranceofthedevelopmentoffair
30
marketstructuresandunhealthycompetitiontherebydeterringcompetition.Large‐scale
corruptionhurtstheeconomyandimpoverishestheentirepopulation.
AstothecurrentinvestmentclimateintheEAC,interestratesintheregionhave
remainedalmostconstantandaboveinflationrates,confirmingthatsecuringcreditfor
investmentislargelyprohibitiveintheregion.Further,noneofthePartnerStateshadachieved
asingledigitinterestrateasenvisionedbyguidelineslaidoutinthe3rdDevelopmentStrategy,
anissuethatisstillunresolvedasidefromKenyaandRwanda.Itishopedthatwithconsistent
developmentofthefinancialsector,theinterestratescanfurtherbeloweredtolevelsthatcan,
inpart,increaseinvestmentsthroughaccesstoaffordablecredit.28Furthercontributingtothe
investmentclimateintheEACistheeaseofconductingbusinessintheregion.Accordingtothe
DoingBusinessorganization,aserviceoftheWorldBankandtheInternationalFinance
Corporation,EastAfricannationslargelypossesspoliciesdetrimentaltotheconductof
business.Economiesarerankedfrom1‐189basedontheeaseofdoingbusiness,madeupof
factorssuchasdealingwithconstructionpermits,accesstoelectricityandcredit,legal
protections,tradingacrossborders,andmore.Rwandaisthesolenationtobreakintothetop
100ofnationsintheEAC,withasurprisingjumptorank32intheworldin2013,reflectingthe
strongworkRwandahasundertakentoallowbusinesstoprosper.Ontheothersideofthe
spectrum,Tanzaniacomesinatrank145,withwidespreadissuesinbeingabletostarta
businessandoneoftheverylowestranksindealingwithconstructionpermitsandregistering
property.TheremainingEACnationsrankinthemiddleofthesetwonations,withBurundiat
28EastAfricanCommunity,“4thDevelopmentStrategy,2011/12‐2015/16,”(August2011)
31
rank140,Ugandaatrank132,andKenyaplacingatrank129intheworld.29Clearly,businesses
willnotseektorelocatetoorinvestintheEastAfricanCommunityinlargenumbersifthecost
anddifficultyofdoingbusinessintheregionremainssohigh.Rwanda,however,hasbeena
successstory,andtherestoftheEastAfricannationswouldbewisetousetheexampleof
Rwandatomakereformsaswell.
Anissuethatwillcreatenumerousproblemsifnotpartiallyresolvedisthatofthe
underdevelopedandcrumblinginfrastructurenetworksofEACnations.Withoutadequate
infrastructure,theloftygoalsofeconomicdevelopmentandintegrationwilllargelybefor
naught,asgoodsandpeopleremaindifficulttotransportandbusinessesareleftwithoutvital
services.Thedevelopmentofportfacilitieshasbeenongoingandsuccessful,butinland
transportroutesareoutdatedandinefficient.RoadsystemsareviablesurroundingtheEAC’s
largestmetropolitanareas,butdirtpathsaboundinthemoreruralareasoftheregion.Further,
railsystemshavenotbeenupgradedfordecades,andareinsoreneedofrehabilitation.A
seriesofimprovementsunderthenameoftheEastAfricanRailwayMasterPlanhasbeeninthe
worksinthelastseveralyears,withtheprimaryaimoflayingastandardgaugerailsotofurther
boosttradewithsurroundingregions.Oneofthemostpressingaspectsofinfrastructure
developmentisensuringthatelectricityisubiquitousandconsistentlyavailable.Theneedof
businessesandhomeownerstopurchaseandmaintainpersonalgeneratorsisenormously
costly,andelectricityshortagescanbeextremelydamagingforbusinessesororganizations
requiringasteadysupply.Themostpromisingwaytoensureconsistentelectricityaccessmay
bethroughthedevelopmentofnewhydroelectricgeneratingstationstotakeadvantageofthe
29 DoingBusiness,“EconomyRankings,”(2013)
32
naturalpoweroftheregion’swater,asiscurrentlybeingdoneinEthiopiathroughamassive
damontheRiverNile.
AfinalhindrancetothesuccessofEastAfricanintegrationmaybethevolatilenatureof
politicalstabilityintheregion.EACmemberstatesarenostrangertoconflict,withcasessuch
astheRwandanGenocidethathighlighttheneedforregionalsecuritystructures.Conflict
continuestoknockatthestepsoftheEACaswell,withalawlessSomalia,activemilitiasinthe
junglessurroundingtheAfricanGreatLakesregion,andethnicstrifecurrentlyoccurringin
SouthSudan.WhilethegovernmentsoftheEACaregenerallystable,concernsarepresentfor
themethodsthroughwhichstabilityisachieved.InBurundi,forinstance,therehavebeen
recentconcernsaboutthearrestofoppositiondemonstratorsandthequellingofdissent.With
thatinmind,therehasbeentalkofthepotentialsuspensionofBurundifromtheEAC,although
thereappearstobelittlechanceofthatoccurringbarringadditionaldevelopments.
ConclusionandPolicyRecommendations
WithathoroughunderstandingoftheEastAfricanCommunityanditsplansforfuture
integration,itisimportanttoconsiderstepswhichmayhelpaidtheCommunityreachitsgoals
ofbecomingaformidableeconomicunion.
Firstandforemost,itiscriticalthattheEACdoesnotrushstepsinintegrationsimplyfor
thesakeofappearingtomakeprogress.Integrativestepstakenwithoutcaremaydomore
harmthangoodinthelongrun,andcouldrisksplinteringtheEACifnegativeconsequences
follow.Itisvitaltothesuccessofintegrationplansthatstepsintheprocessaretakenin
succession,asthelaterstepscannotbeviablyaccomplishedwithoutasolidbaseofinitial
reforms.Inasimilarvein,thelargerstepstowardintegrationsuchasamonetaryunionand
33
politicalfederationshouldbeviewedinacautiouslightandonlytentativelyconsideredwhile
earlierstepsinintegrationcontinuetoprogress.Thecaseoftheimplementationoftheeuro
currencyinEuropeshouldserveassomedegreeofwarningtotheEastAfricanCommunity,
demonstratingthatnationswithdifferingeconomicstatusescannotbeeasilyabsorbedintoa
singlemonetaryunionwithoutextremecare.Politicalfederationshouldnotbeseriously
considereduntilEACmemberstateshaveprovenawillingnesstocooperatefullyandworkasa
singleunit,whichthusfarhasnotbeenevident.
EveniftheloftiestgoalsofintegrationareaccomplishedintheEAC,theregionmay
continuetostruggleifcareisnotfirstgiventothesevereissuesplaguingEastAfricansocieties.
Educationsystemsmustbeoverhauledandexpanded,withafocusonliteracyandthe
establishmentofareliableeducatortrainingsystem.Medicalcaremustbegreatlyimproved,
andfertilityratesmustbekeptincheck.Butperhapsthetwomostimportantstepsthatcould
contributetosignificantgrowthinthenearandlongtermsaretomakeinfrastructure
improvementsapriorityandtocrackdownheavilyoncorruption.Futureregionalsuccesson
theglobalscalemayhingeontheabilitytoserveasatransporthubandmovepeopleand
goodsonroadsandrailroads,andbyairandseatoregionsaroundtheworld.Infrastructure
healthwillalsoencouragetheinvestmentofbusinesses,whichtypicallyseektolocateinwell‐
connectedareasoftheglobe.Inregardtocorruption,allmeaningfulreformsinitiatedbythe
EACmayservelittlepurposeifcorruptgovernancecontinuesunabated.Corruptionisamassive
drainontheresourcesofacountry,andnegativelyimpactsnearlyallpartsofsociety.
Frameworksfortheprosecutionofcorruptionshouldbefurtherestablished,withstiffpenalties
forthosefoundguiltyofcorruptpractices.Inaddition,publicawarenessaboutwaystoreport
34
andstopcorruptionshouldbepromoted,andadvisoryinstitutionsshouldbecreatedto
monitortheactivitiesofgovernmentagenciesandindividuals.
InlookingtowardsemulatingthesuccessofAfrica’slargesteconomy,SouthAfrica,the
EastAfricanCommunityshouldapplyseverallessonsfromthatnation’seconomicexperience
toitsowninitiatives.ThenotableaspectoftheSouthAfricaneconomyisthepresenceand
activityofinternationalcorporationsandorganizations,whichutilizeSouthAfricaasthe
continentalhubforbusiness.TheEastAfricanCommunitymustefforttoachieveasimilar
situation,becominganotherhubforeconomicactivityinCentralandEasternAfrica.As
demonstratedthroughSouthAfrica’simpressiveinfrastructurenetwork,theprioritizationof
infrastructureimprovementsintheEACwillsimilarlyspurgrowthanddevelopment.
Additionally,theEACshouldstrivetoachievethesamekindofeconomicdiversificationthat
hasallowedSouthAfricatoprosper,andreduceheavyrelianceonthevolatileagriculture
sector.TheEACcanalsolearnfromsomeofthemistakesofSouthAfrica,aswell.Inequalityin
SouthAfricaremainsextremelyhigh,particularlyamongraces,andspawnsfrustrationand
economicinefficiency.TheEastAfricanCommunityshouldembraceitsdiversepeoplesandaim
foreconomicbenefitstobedistributedequally,givingallcitizensoftheEACagreaterchance
forabetterlife.
TheEastAfricanCommunityleadershiphassetoutanimpressiveandvisionaryplanfor
thefuture,yetthesimplecreationofplansdoesnottranslateintoeconomicdevelopmentor
regionalintegration.HardworkandtoughchoicesmustbemadebyeachoftheEACmember
states,orelseintegrationprocesseswillsputteranddieout,muchasinthewaytheoriginal
iterationoftheEACcouldnotachieveitsgoals.Caremustbegiventoimprovingthebasic
35
essentialsofEastAfricaneconomiesandsocietiesbeforeloftygoalsofintegrationare
considered,andlargestepsinintegrationcannotberushed.IftheEastAfricanCommunityis
abletoresponsiblypursueregionalintegrationandeconomicdevelopment,however,the
regionispoisedtobecomeaneconomicforcenotonlyinAfricabutaroundtheworldincoming
decades.
36
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Economist–EastAfricanFederation(2009)http://www.eac.int/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=650&Itemid=163EastAfricanCommunityDevelopmentStrategy(2011/12‐2015/16)http://www.irgamag.com/regions/africa/item/4663‐the‐difficulties‐of‐creating‐an‐east‐african‐federationDifficultiesofcreatinganEastAfricanFederationhttp://blogs.worldbank.org/psd/coordinated‐reform‐efforts‐are‐key‐develop‐east‐african‐communityWorldBank–ReformsneededtodevelopEAChttp://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/countries‐and‐regions/regions/eac/EuropeanCommissioninfoandlinksaboutEAChttp://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Publications/Economic%20Brief%20‐%20State%20of%20Infrastructure%20in%20East%20Africa.pdfAfricaDevelopmentBank–InfrastructureinEastAfricahttp://www.grailresearch.com/pdf/ContenPodsPdf/Grail‐Research‐The‐East‐African‐Community.pdfGrailResearch–TimeforbusinesstotakenoticeofEAChttp://www.ft.com/cms/96cb2e42‐1a53‐11e1‐ae14‐00144feabdc0.pdfFinancialTimes–DoingBusinessinEastAfricanCommunityhttp://unctad.org/en/Pages/Statistics/About‐UNCTAD‐Statistics.aspxUNConferenceonTradeandDevelopment(UNCTAD)Statisticshttp://www.uneca.org/UnitedNationsEconomicCommissionforAfricahttp://www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/reports/2012/1/intra%20african%20trade/01_kenya_trade.pdfBrookingsInstitute–InstitutionalandRegulatoryBarrierstoEACTradeforKenyahttp://nmc.rw/IMG/pdf/reshaping_eac_econimic_integration1.pdfWorldBank‐EastAfricanCommunity:ReshapingEconomicGeographyofEastAfrica:FromRegionaltoGlobalIntegrationhttp://www.csae.ox.ac.uk/workingpapers/pdfs/csae‐wps‐2012‐01.pdfCSAE–MarketIntegrationandBorderEffectsinEasternAfricahttp://www.uneca.org/sites/default/files/document_files/assessment‐of‐progress‐on‐regional‐integration_en_0.pdfAssessmentofProgressonEACintegration–UNEconomicCommissionforAfrica