Earth Architcture

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EARTH ARCHITECTURE

BY

ANJALI PANDEY

IVTH YEAR

TAR1101004

SESSION 2014-2015

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

AR. KANIKA AGARWAL

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

ACADEMIC REQUIREMENTS OF THE BACHELOR DEGREE OF

ARCHITECTURE

TEERTHANKER MAHAVEER COLLEGE OF

ARCHITECTURE

TEERTHANKER MAHAVEER UNIVERSITY

MORADABAD, UP, 244001


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Before I begin I would like to express my gratitude for all those who knowinglyor unknowingly, helped in this report. Any academic assignment or venture

cannot be accomplished without the able guidance of the teachers. I Would like

to mention my special thanks to Ar. Kanika Agarwal, my guide without whomthis dissertation work would not be realized, & my Training team for their

meaningful guidance, encouragement & supervision.

My sincere gratefulness to all the participants in my work – my Parents, whoopened up their homes & lives to my numerous questions & curious

observations, without their physical & moral support, this report would not have

been a success story. I would like to thank my friends & junior for the spirit &commitment with which they helped me on this report.

I would also like to thank all the the faculty members for providing me with their

help and support for the completion of this dissertation.

ANJALI PANDEY

TAR1101004


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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Disertation entitled "EARTH ARCHITECTURE”

is the bonafide work of Ms. ANJALI PANDEY Roll No. TAR1101004 in

partial fulfillment of the academic requirements for the award of Bachelor

of Architecture. This work is carried out by him, under my guidance and

supervision.

Counter Signed - Guide

Ar. Kanika Agarwal

Ar. Akshat GargDissertation Coordinator

Ar. Manoj JainPrincipalCollege of Architecture

Countersigned byPlace: Moradabad

Date:


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DECLARATION

I declare that the Dissertation entitled "EARTH ARCHITECTURE” is the

bonafide research work carried out by me, under the guidance of

AR.KANIKA AGARWAL Further I declare that this has not been

previously formed the basis of award of any degree, diploma, associate-

ship or other similar degrees or diplomas, and has not been submitted

anywhere else.

Date: ANJALI PANDEY

TAR1101004

TMU, Moradabad


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

AKNOWLEDGMENT…………………………………………………………………………………...…..i

DECLARATION……………………………………………………………………………………… ……ii

LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………………………………………..iii

LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………………………………….iv

1 .INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………………………..1

2. EARTH AS A BUILDING MATERIAL…………………………………………………………………..1

3. HISTORY……………………………………………………………………………………………….…..2

4. EVIDENCES FROM HISTORY…………………………………………………………………………...2

5. CLIMATE………………………………………………………………………………………………...…4

6. DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOIL………………………………………………………………………….…4

6.1 Soil types………………………………………………………………………………………………..5

6.2 usability of different soil…………………………………………………………………………….....6

7. THE ESSENTIALS………………………………………………………………………………………...7

8. SYSTEMIZING ACCORDING TO EXECUTION………………………………………………...…….7

8.1 Dug Out………………………………………………………………………………………………...8

8.2 Cut Blocks……………………………………………………………………………………………...8

8.3 Formed………………………………………………………………………………………………..10

8.4 Covered……………………………………………………………………………………………….11

8.5 Extruded………………………………………………………………………………………………11

8.6 Wattle and Daub………………………………………………………………………………...……12

8.7 Poured…………………………………………………………………………………………………13

8.8 Rammed Earth Work………………………………………………………………………………….13

8.8.a. Tools…………………………………………………………………………………..…………16

8.8.b. method of construction…………………………………………………………………..…...….19

8.8.c. rammed earth in india……………………………………………………………………………20

8.8.d. rammed earth domes………………………………………………………………………..……28

8.8.e. surface treatment………………………………………………………………………….….…..29


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9. FILLED IN…………………………………………………………………………………………..………29

9.1 working with earthen blocks……………………………………………………………………………30

9.2 production of earth blocks………………………………………………………………………………31

9.3 material composition………………………………………………………………………………..…..34

9.4 laying earth block…………………………………………………………………………………….…35

9.5 surface treatment……………………………………………………………………………...……..…..35

9.5. a. fixing fasteners to walls……………………………………………………………………….…35

9.6. Special acoustic green bricks ……………………………………………………………………..…....37

10. DIRECT FORMING WITH WET LOAM……………………………………………………..……...…..39

10.1 traditional wet loam technique…………………………………………………………………..…..39

11. LOAM FILLED HOSES…………………………………………………………………………………41

11.1 earthen storage wall in earthen garden……………………………………………………………..44

11.2. loams in bathroom…………………………………………………………………………………44

11.3. built in furniture and sanitary object from loam………………………………………………...…46

12. EARHQUAKE RESISTANT BUILDING……………………………………………………………….48

12.1 structural measures………………………………………………………………………….…….…49

12.2 openings for doors and window……………………………………………………………………..52

13. STABILISERS……………………………………………………………………………………...…..…53

13.1 rural stabilizers…………………………………………………………………………………....…53

13.2 stabilization with lime and pozzolans…………………………………………………………..…...55

13.3 stabilization with biopolymers and lime………………………………………………………….....55

13.4 stabilization with mineral additives………………………………………………………...…….....56

14. LITERATURE STUDY OF BANSUR A HILL RESORT…………………………………………..…..56

15. INITIATIVE TO DEVELOP EARTH ARCHITECTURE IN INDIA…………………………...…...…59

16. WORKSHOP AT LAURIE BAKER CENTER…………………………………………………….....…60


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17.BUILT EXAMPLES………………………………………………………………………...……………61

17.1 moon dust residence, madh island………………………………………………………………….61

17.2 farmhouse, wazipur ,india…………………………………………………………………………...64

17.3 office building ,new delhi ,india…………………………………………………………..……….66

18. CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………………………..……69

19. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFRENCES……………………………………………………………….…..70


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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.1: Storage Room, Temple Of Ramses II ..................................................................................................... 2

Figure 4.1: Faortified City, Draa Valley , Morroco ................................................................................................... 3

Figure 4.2: Rammed Earth House ............................................................................................................................. 3

Figure 6.1: Section Of Soil... ................................................................................................................................... ...4

Figure 6.2: Pyramid Of Soil ..... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... . ...5

Figure 6.3: Soil Types ............................................................................................................................................. ...6

Figure 8.1: Tunisia1 Matmata………………………………………………………………………………………...8

Figure 8.2: Fairy Chimney ...................................................................................................................................... .8

Figure 8.3: Mud Brick ............................................................................................................................................. 9

Figure 8.4: Mud Brick Wall .................................................................................................................................... 9

Figure 8.5: Making Mud Brick ................................................................................................................................ 9

Figure 8.6: Clay-Slip Straw…………………………………………………………………………………………10

Figure 8.7:Green Roofs ........................................................................................................................................... 11

Figure 8.8:Extruded Bricks ..................................................................................................................................... 12

Figure 8.9: Production Of Extruded Bricks ............................................................................................................. 12

Figure 8.10: Daub Wooden Lattice Work ............................................................................................................... 13

Figure 8.11: Form Work Method ............................................................................................................................ 14

Figure 8.12: Form Work House .......... .......... ........... .......... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... ........... .. 15

Figure 8.13: Form Work Tools ................................................................................................................................ 16


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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 8.14:Two Head Ram Used In Ecuador........................................................................................................... 17

Figure 8.15: Pneumatic Rams.................................................................................................................................... 17

Figure 8.16: Vibrating Ram .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... .......... 18

Figure8.17:Shrinkage Cracks In A Rammed Earth Walll... .................................................................................... ...19

Figure 8.18: Rammed Eath In India ............ .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... .......... ... ...20
















Figure 8.34: Earth Dome ................... .......... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... .......... ... ...28

Figure 8.35: Eath Dome ........... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... . ...28


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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 8.36:Filled In Adobe ...................................................................................................................................... 30

Figure 9.1:Green Bricks ............................................................................................................................................ 31

Figure 9.2:Making Adobes ........................................................................................................................................ 31

Figure 9.3:.Making Adobe.. .................................................................................................................................... ...32

Figure 9.4: Making Adobe .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... ........ ...32

Figure 9.5: Adobe Making On Table ...................................................................................................................... ...33

Figure 9.6: Metal Moulds ....................................................................................................................................... ...34

Figure 9.7: Shrinkage Cracks .................................................................................................................................. ...34

Figure 9.8:Exposed Earth Block Wall ..................................................................................................................... ...35

Figure 9.9: Book Shelf ........... ........... .......... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... .......... ... ...36

Figure 9.10: Special Loam Brick ............................................................................................................................ ...37

Figure 9.11: Detail Of Loam Brick Dome ............................................................................................................... ...37

Figure 9.12: Loam Brick Wall .......... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... ........... .... ...38

Figure 10.1: Forming With Wet Loam ............. ........... .......... ........... .......... .......... ........... .......... .......... ........... ........ ...39

Figure 10.2: Wet Loam Technique ......................................................................................................................... ...40

Figure 10.3:Cob Building ........................................................................................................................................ ...41

Figure 10.4: Loam Profile .............. .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... .......... ..... ...41

Figure 10.5: Filling Hoses. ......... ........... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... ........ ...42

Figure 10.6: Hoses Fillig Using a Pump....... ........... ........... .......... ........... .......... .......... ........... .......... .......... ........... . ...42

Figure 10.7:Filling Of Loam By Funnel ................................................................................................................. ...43

Figure 10.8: Bathroom Wall .................................................................................................................................... ...43

Figure 11.1: Heat Storage Wall ............................................................................................................................... ...44

Figure 11.2:: Bathroom Wall .................................................................................................................................. ...45

Figure 11.3: Built-in Furniture ............................................................................................................................... 46

Figure 11.4: Bathroom Fixtures ................................................................................................................................ 47

Figure 12.1: Condominium, China ............................................................................................................................ 49

Figure 12.2:Ideal Shapes. ........................................................................................................................................ ...50

Figure 12.3: Types of Openings .............................................................................................................................. ...52


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Figure 13.1: Rural Stabilisers .................................................................................................................................. ...54

Figure 13.2: Plant Juices .......... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... . ...54

Figure 13.3: Face To Face Partical .......................................................................................................................... ...55

Figure 14.1: Resort At Dusk .................................................................................................................................... ...57

Figure 14.2: Resort View ........................................................................................................................................ ...58

Figure 14.3: Inside Resort ............. ........... .......... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... ...... ...58

Figure 14.4: Tourist Cottage.................................................................................................................................... ...58

Figure 16.1: Workshop ............................................................................................................................................ ...60

Figure 16.2: Workshop ........................................................................................................................................... ...60

Figure 17.1: Exterior detail...................................................................................................................................... ...61

Figure 17.2: Roof Detail .......................................................................................................................................... ...62

Figure 17.3: Staircase Detail ......... ........... .......... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... ...... ...62

Figure 17.4: Interior View. ..................................................................................................................................... ...62

Figure 17.5: Dining Area View ............................................................................................................................... ...63

Figure 17.6: Stone Wall .......................................................................................................................................... ...63

Figure 17.7: Exterior Detaill.................................................................................................................................... ...63

Figure 17.8:Front Facadel ....................................................................................................................................... ...64

Figure 17.9:Plan ................................................................................................................................................. ...65

Figure 17.10 Interior View .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... ........ ...65

Figure 17.11 View .................................................................................................................................................. ...66

Figure 17.12 Plan ................................................................................................................................................. ...67

Figure 17.13 View Of Building .......... ........... ........... .......... ........... .......... .......... ........... .......... ........... .......... ........ ...68


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1. INTRODUCTION

Earth Is An Ancient Building Material That Has Been Used In Many Different Ways Around The World

For Thousands Of Years. A Large Part Of The World’s Rural Population Still Lives In Earth Buildings.

The resul t of thousands of years of research th rough tr ial and err or i s Ear th Archi tecture that we see

around the globe.

May it be the method using rugby ball shaped mud bricks as we see in Zaria, Nigeria (Friedrich W.

Schwerdtfeger, 1982) or the mud tower houses using adobe that we find in Asir, Saudi Arabia (Kaizer

Talib, 1984) or the use of wattle and daub infilling to timber framed houses in Northern Europe,

everywhere there is one common material – Earth.

Man’s next invention was on how to make them water resistant, termite resistant and earth quake

resistant. He used all the indigenous materials like wood, lime, husk and straw along with earth to

overcome each of these defects.

2. EARTH AS A BUILDING MATERIAL

Earth is used as a building material in a variety of ways since ancient times. Earth is the most important

natural building material, and it is available in most region of the world. It is frequently obtained directlyfrom the building site when excavating foundations or basements. Increasingly, people when building

homes demand energy- and cost-effective buildings that emphasise a healthy, balanced indoor climate.

They are coming to realise that mud, as a natural building material, is superior to industrial building

materials such as concrete, brick and lime-sandstone. Newly developed, advanced earth building

techniques demonstrate the value of earth not only in do-it-yourself construction, but also for

industrialised construction involving contractors.

Mud is not only cheap but available in abundance. The statistics from UNCHS (UN- Habitat) says that

40% of the world population lives in earthen dwellings. Also while Indian statistics is referred majority

of the population in India are living in earthen dwellings. Earth can achieve very high quality and

durability as a building material.

In India the vernacular earth buildings were in existence since the vedic period, through medieval, feudal,

Islamic and colonial times. Owing to the heritage of the subcontinent, earth architecture of India is

diverse and unique to individual region. When we are talking of earth architecture of India, we are, in all

probability, talking about earth walls, flooring, plastering and tiled or thatched roof.


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3. HISTORY

Earth Construction Techniques Have Been Known F or Over 9000 Years . Rammed earth foundationsdating from 5000 BC have been discovered. Earth was used as the Building material in ancient cultures,

not Only for homes, but for religious buildings as Well. Figure 3.1 shows vaults in the temple of ramses

at gourna, egypt, built from Mud bricks 3200 years ago.

Many centuries ago, in dry climatic zones, Where wood is scarce, construction techniques Were

developed where buildings Were covered with mud brick vaults or Domes without formwork or support

during Construction. In china, Twenty million people live in underground houses or caves that were dug

in the silty soil.In the Medieval period (13th to 17th centuries), Earth was used throughout Central

Europe as infill in timber-framed buildings, As well as to cover straw roofs to make them fire-resistant.

In France, the rammed earth technique, called terre pisé, was widespread from the 15th to the 19th

centuries.

3.1 Storage rooms, temple of Ramses II, Gourna, Egypt

4. EVIDENCES FROM HISTORY

The 4000-year-old Great Wall of China was originally built solely of rammed earth; only

a later covering of stones and bricks gave it the appearance of a stone wall.

Figure 4.1 shows A fortified city in morocco, Which is around 250 years old.

The South Asian inhabitants of Mehrgarh constructed, and lived in mud brick houses between 7000 – 3300

BC, they were in use in the Near East during the Pre- Pottery Neolithic B period, in Minoan Crete there is

archaeological evidence that sundried bricks were used in the Neolithic period.


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4.1 Fortified city, Draa valley, Morocco

The Mesopotamians also used sun-dried bricks in their city construction. Mud bricks were used to some

extent in pre-Roman Egypt, increased at the time of Roman influence. Spread of mud construction was

affected by mainly the environmental potentials, that means widespread in places, which are relatively

dry and have mud in abundance. Raw materials found on the plot can be used as excellent components.

The tallest house with solid earth walls in Europe is at Weilburg, Germany. Completed in 1828, it still

stands (4.2). All ceilings and the entire roof structure rest on the solid rammed earth walls that are 75 cmthick at the bottom and 40 cm thick at the top floor (the compressive force at the bottom of the Walls

reaches 7,5 kg/cm2).

4.2 Rammed earth house, Weilburg, Germany, 1828


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5. CLIMATE

In dry climates, a common method of choice is to mould a mud mix into blocks, afterwards they are dried

in the sun before being stacked into walls. This is called adobe, it is used for echos, for instance in Egypt,

self-supporting arches of mud bricks were built 2000 years ago. Fried earthen blocks also have been used

in construction for thousands of years. The traditional ways were industrialized, basically we use similar

materials and technology to make the common brick and other types of pressed blocks. In wetter climates

mud mixes are often placed wet, directly by hand, either to make load-bearing and infill walls. This fact

is probably because it is more difficult to make air-dry bricks there. In european countries, many earthen

structures built from the

local soil combined with water and straw, mixed by foot, and placed by hand. This is called monolithic

adobe or cob, and it has many alternatives. Another technique, called wattle and daub is also a traditional

way of earth utilization, from which many of the Tutor-style timber frame structures were created, that

have become the stereotypical image of Medieval Europe. Rammed earth or pise earth techniques also

belong to this group. The construction of an entire wall begins with a temporary frame work, and the

damp material, made from clay, sand and gravel mixed with small amount of water, is tamped into a

depth of 10 to 25 cm of the formwork.

6. DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOIL:

The soil consists of layers, basically made of finely ground rock particles. Figure 6.1 shows the basicsection of ground soil. The upper layers, the particles are mixed with organic materials from the

decomposition of the nature (leaves, plants and vegetable matter). The other layers are used for

construction. These types can be grouped according to their sizes as stones, gravel, sand, slit and clay.

Each of them has an important role, and we can divide it into further different versions by mixing the

basic element.


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6.1 section of soil

6.2 Pyramid Of Soil


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6.1.For constructing the three main type of soil are:

Sand : is usually placed on the top of the soil layer, small pieces of stone (usually quartz), which are

small but each grain, is visible to the eye. Besides gravel it is the largest particle, which determine

aeration and drainage characteristics.Silt : almost the same as sand except that it is so fine that you cannot see individual grains. It also exists as

soil deposited at the bottom of a natural waters.

Clay : It is the finest component, it has binder role. Sort of soils that stick when it is wet, but it becomes

very hard and completely dry. Clay is usable in different ways for construction, despite of many

advantages, buildings from clay has also some disadvantages. To improve the properties it, and eliminate

the disadvantages, various binders and additives can be mixed with it.

6.3 soil types

6.2. USABILITY OF DIFFERENT SOILS

Gravel : alone is of no use for mud wall building - the tiny lumps of stone have nothing to bind them

together.

Sand : similar to gravel, it is of no use for wall making by itself - but if mixed with clay, i.e. sandy clays

or clayey sands, it is the ideal mud wall building soil.

Silt: by itself is also no good for building walls. It will hold together but is not strong. Furthermore, it

will not compact so it is also of no use for pressed blocks or rammed earthwork.

Clay : can be rammed or compressed but in drying out they often shrink. During the monsoon they get

damp and expand again and crack form.


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Laterite : is also a type of clay, which contains red iron or aluminium material. It is strong and stable and

is cut out of the ground in blocks and hardens further when stacked and exposed to the air. It is of course

a first class building material and we usually think of it as a stone. It is wise to follow local traditional

opinions about clays and laterites. There is some clay which have proved to be unsatisfactory as building

material and over many

centuries local people have learned to avoid these particular unsuitable clays.

Organic Soil s : are mainly useless for wall building. A reliable rule is that if a soil as good for growing

plants in, it is not good for building walls with.

Mixture s: Find out which soils are contained in the mixture and then the usability depends on the

proportion of the various types of soil listed above. Always look at the old buildings in your district and

see for yourself the types of soil that have been used, durability, or shortcomings of these old buildings.

Gravel - No Good

Silt alone - No Good Plus stabiliser - Good

Sand alone - No Good Plus Clay - Good

Organic Soil - No Good

Clay alone - No Good - Plus Sand Good

Different goals can be achieved by adding various additives, such as: lime, cement,

gypsum, casein and other milk proteins, resins.

Then the goals of improvement:

to increase water-resistance

to increase strength

swelling and shrinkage-reducing

to increase plasticity without water

increasing resistance to erosion and weather.

7. THE ESSENTIALS

Building with earth materials can be a way of helping with sustainable management of

The earth’s resources. They can be put in place using simple machinery and human

Energy. Earth buildings avoid deforestation and pollution, and can achieve low energy

Costs throughout their lifetime – in the initial manufacture and construction, in their use

As homes, and eventually in their recycling back to the earth.


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The policies of the administration with regard to finance, planning and control of building in earth needs

much to be introduced. Education in this area is given minimum considerations so far. The traditional

earthen wall construction that are generally practiced in India are listed as follows:

8. SYSTEMIZNIG ACCORDING TO THE EXECUTION

The Main Types Of Earth Walls By Grouping According To The Methods Of The Execution:

8.1. DUG OUT:

The oldest method is the 'dug out' method, when sharp are cut into existing pile of mud. In most cases

dwellings are dug out into soft soils, tuffs, mostly in areas with dry and hot climate. The dug out can

occur in vertical and horizontal directions.

8.1 Tunisia, Matmata


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8.2 Fairy Chimney

8.2. Cut blocks: (cut block, mud br icks)

In areas, where the quality of the soil enables, it was cut in the shape of blocks and used like stones and

bricks. In areas, where the soil is not cohesive enough, topsoil and grass were used to create blocks and

were stacked upon each other.

Figure8.3.mud brick


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Figure 8.4 mud brick wall

Figure 8.5 making mud bricks

8.3.Formed: (clay-slip straw, light earth)

In this case the clay mix contains a lot of straw or untreated woodchips into a

timber framework and then cladding both faces. It needs skeletal structure and some framework during

the construction, then the wet mix is placed between the temporary planks. These walls are not load-

bearing, it can be used as an infill wall between the wooden structure, or prefabricated blocks. The

method has high thermal insulation value, thus it combines the good insulation property of the light

additives with the advantages of earth. The construction is fireproof and very durable, because the clay

acts as a natural protection. It needs also waterproof cladding.


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Figure8.6 clay-slip straw

8.4.Covered: (green roof)

Soil is currently used to cover roofs in different ways, and nowadays this is a popular sustainable topic as

well. Waterproofing layer and thermal insulation are required, and the filtering and drainage system

should be solved, then extensive or intensive green roofs can be made depending on the thickness of the

earth layer.


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Figure 8.7 green roofs

8.5.Extruded: (extruded adobe)

Similar as the pressed technology, but there is no organic material content. The blocks are often hollow and are cut to desired shape by special machines. It has the same

water-sensitive than the traditional adobe, but as a thermal mass element is also perfect.

Due to the lack of organic material content it is disputed in name and group.

Figure8.8. Extruded bricks


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8.9. Production of extruded bricks

8.6.Wattle and daub:

It is an old and common method of building mud structures. It starts with a lattice

of brackets. A mix of earth and straw is then daubed onto this latticework, forced into the

gaps and smoothed over to fill any cracks. There are wood, bamboo and cane frame

structure that support the roof, in between webbing from reed, straw and cane frame

together like a basket. The surface can be left as a rustic finish or rendered for a smoother

finish. Its individual advantage is, that it can be built in Seismic Zones as well. A big

disadvantage, that after a heavy rain, however the mesh of reed or split bamboo remains

intact, over the mud should be plastered on again.


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8.10. daub wooden Lattice work

8.7.POURED (MONOLITHIC EARTH WALLS, CEMENT-LIME ADDEDEARTH )

The flowing soil mixed with sand, gravel and stabilized by cement or lime, then

poured into formwork in monolithic condition (like concrete). This method is not used

often, because the mixed soil has high water content, and the wall will include a lot of

shrinkage, and it might be cracked.

8.8.RAMMED EARTHWORKS

On all five continents, rammed earth has been well-known for centuries as a traditional wall construction

technique. With rammed earth techniques, moist earth is poured into a formwork in layers of to 15 cm

thick, and then compacted by ramming. The formwork usually consists of two parallel walls separated

and interconnected by spacers.


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8.11. formwork methods

Traditional rammed earth techniques are still used in many developing countries. Refined formwork

systems and electrical or pneumatic ramming reduces labour input significantly and makes rammed earth

techniques relevant in some industrialised countries as well. With traditional formworks, the boards on

both sides are held apart and kept together by spacers . These spacers pierce the wall, causing openings

that must be fille in after removal of formwork. A system with very thin tensile spacers (4 x 6 mm)

penetrating

the wall . A house build using formwork shown in figure 8.11.With a special formwork, rounded corners and curved walls can also be formed .A circular barn built in

1831 in Bollbrügge, Germany, with 90-cm-thick rammed earth walls is shown in 8.10.


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8.12. formwork house

Common formwork systems used in concrete technology can also be used for rammed earth, but usually

turn out to be too heavy and expensive. In Europe, timber panels of 19 mm thickness are commonly

used. They need to be stiffened by vertical members at approximately 75 cm intervals. If this is not done,

they will bend outwards during ramming. Therefore, it might be more economical to choose thicker

boards of 30 to 45 mm thickness, which need stiffening only at intervals of 100 to 150 cm. If the soil is

very clayey, the form should not be wrenched off, but instead slipped off the rammed earth smoothly

along the surface, thus preventing it from being spoiled by clayey particles sticking to the form.

Furthermore, it is neither desirable to have a surface that is too rough (such as saw-cut timber), nor one

that is too smooth (such as varnished and planed timber). If the formwork is not optimised for this

technique, then up to 30% of total labour input could be invested simply in erecting, adjusting, and

dismantling the formwork.

Therefore, the fol lowing points should be born i n mind:

• Boards must be stiff so that they do not bend outwards while ramming is underway.

• All parts must be light enough to be carried by two workers.

• The formwork should be easy to adjust in both vertical and horizontal directions.

• Variations in the thickness of the wall must be controllable within a specified tolerance.

• It is preferable that the edges require no special formwork. Therefore, the formwork should allow

varying lengths of wall to be cast.


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8.8.a. Tools

In former times, earth was rammed manually, using rams with conical, wedge-shaped or flat bases . If

conical or wedge-shaped rams are used, the different layers are better mixed and, provided there is

sufficient moisture, a better bond is obtained. However, this takes more time than ramming with flat-based

rams. Walls rammed with flat-based rams show less lateral shear resistance and therefore should only be

loaded vertically. The base of the ram should not be too sharp, so that the formwork, if made of timber, is

not damaged. The base should be no smaller than 60 cm2, and no larger than 200 cm2. The weight of the

ram should be between 5 and 9 kg. It is preferable to use a two-headed ram with a round head on one

side and a square one on the other. This allows the ram to be used with the round side for general work,

and with the square edge to compact corners effectively. Such a ram is used even today in Ecuador (5.8 ).

8.13. formwork tools.


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8.14 Two-head ram used in Ecuador

Electric and pneumatic rams were used as early as the second quarter of the 20th century in Germany,

France and Australia. The electrical ram built by the German firm Wacker, was often used in former

times for rammed earth work, and has been written about extensively. It has a hammer like action with a

lift of 33 mm, and a frequency of 540 strokes per minute. The ram is very effective; its only disadvantage

being difficult in handling, since it weighs 24 kg. It is no longer manufactured. In Australia in the 1950s,

a pneumatic ram was used . This acts like a jackhammer, has a frequency of 160 strokes per minute, and

weighs 11 kg.

Normally, soil compaction tools of the type used in road construction are unsuitable for

rammed earthwork, because their frequency is too high and their lift too low. Tools which only vibrate

might be suitable for sandy soils, but not for clayey ones. The pneumatic rams shown in 8.14

8.15 Pneumatic rams (Atlas-Copco)


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are extremely effective for rammed earthwork. The Ram II G, produced by the firm Atlas- Copco, is

fairly suitable because a special feature prevents its head rotating, thus ensuring that square heads can

also be conveniently used. All the rams illustrated require a pressure of 6 bar and an air flow rate of 0.4 to

0.9 m3/min. Due to their high costs and the infrastructure and energy required to run them, these rams are

used only for larger building projects. An electrical vibration

8.16.a. Vibrating ram (Heuser)

8.16.a. Vibrating ram (Heuser)

ram has been developed at the BRL and manufactured by the firm Heuser (8.15 and 8.16 ). Its engine has

a frequency of 1000 to 1200 cycles per minute. The most important part of this vibrating ram is its

specially shaped base, which allows the apparatus to move within the formwork by itself while

compacting the earth. It can compact loose soil in layers 7 cm thick.

8.8.b Method of construction


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In nearly all traditional rammed earth techniques, the formwork is removed and

re-erected horizontally step by step. This means that earth is rammed in layers from

50 to 80 cm high, forming courses of that height before the formwork is moved.

When one course is complete, the next course that is rammed is moister than the

one already in place, which is partially dried out. Therefore, there is a higher shrinkage in

the upper course than in the lower, leading to horizontal shrinkage cracks at the joint

(8.17).

8.17 Shrinkage cracks in a rammed earth wall, Ecuador

This can be dangerous, since capillary water can enter this joint and remain, causing swelling and

disintegration. As can be seen in the same figure, vertical cracks can also occur in such walls. With the

French pisé technique, this problem was solved by using a layer of lime mortar above each course before

laying a new one. A lime mortar cures over several weeks and remains plastic until the loam has stopped

shrinking; sometimes even the side joint between sections of the course is made with mortar at an incline

. Another method to avoiding horizontal shrinkage cracks is to ram in a way that the wall is produced

vertically.


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8.8.c RAMMED EARTH IN INDIA

This home was designed by Chitra Vishwanath Architects for a client at Bangalore.

8.18 Form work is made from prelaminated plywood and mild steel angle section to reinforce it.

.

18.19 The mud block are used as an end panels here instead of having any formwork at all.


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8.20 The formwork and how it support.

8.21 The walls are 9” thick.they have sufficient self weight to not need any other attachment or

reinforcement.There is a nice rich mud mortar between the plinth beam on which the bricks rest and then

the rammed earth. The brick or mud blocks can beoptionally done away with. The self weight of the wall

structure is sufficient to hold it in place.In INDIA,we always have built in bricks, stone and cement and

reinforced cement concrete.Except for the roofs ,beams and concrete columns steel is not used to

reinforce wall. Our structural engineer say it is not necessary. The load bearing capacity of the walls is

independent on their own strength and by self weight they hold well in placed .


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8.22 Tamping wall by hand.

8.23 scaffolding made of casuarinas poles.


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8.24 Stone foundation made from locally available stone and the rammed earth first course above it. One

single course of mud blocks are first laid so that the skirting of the flooring can go over it without cutting

off the rammed earth.

8.25 arch panel roof between rammed earth walls. The basement is 3 feet above the ground level to bring

ventilation. The soil that was wexcavated from the basement was used to build to build the house. It was

mixed by hand with sand and 5% cement then transported without use of machinery. The only steel

reinforcement is in the jack arch ceiling .

8.26 The rammer used on the walls.


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8.27 The formwork for the corner in the centre of the photo. Just pre laminated plywood with mild steel

angles to reinforce it. The walls here seen are of the stabilized mud blocks. They take the same mix as

the rammed earth only are passed using a manual machine.

8.28 These are the natural colours of the earth , no special pigments required.

8.29 this effect is created by ramming into a formwork of log


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8.30 These ecological homes that we make are cheaper than the conventional designer homes in the same

city.

The finished house from outside we design houses to suit their immediate climate. Its very important that

we

Rely on external sources of energy lest. Appropriate lighting and ventilation is necessary. too much light

would heat a structure quickly and too much air would be difficult to control during winters. Its important

that the design makes way for hot air (vertically up) and brings light into the right parts without using

humungous openings. Helps in controlling cost of structure too.

8.31

to the left of the door a bench upon which to sit and remove one’s shoes.cubbies beside for the shoe

storage are made of pipes put in place with mud plaster and some mud blocks which are covered in mud

plaster.


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The basement ceiling are made from 2inch thick clay tiles which are pre-cast with a little cement cement

and reinforcement and placed trusses or beam to make the ceiling . above its filled up with plastic and

such waste and with plastic and such waste and with a thin layer of concrete to give the floor above.

8.8d. RAMMED EARTH DOMES

Probably the first rammed earth dome was Built by the BRL in Kassel, Germany, in

1983 using a special technique developed By that laboratory. This consists of a rotating

Slip form in which the earth is rammed (8.34& 8.35).

8.34


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8.34 & 8.35. Constructing the rammed earth dome with a rotating formwork

The thickness of the dome was 18 cm at The bottom and 12 cm at the top. The walls,

Which form a hexagon on the inside, were Also made of rammed earth. In order to

Transfer the thrust from the dome to the Foundation, buttresses were integrated with

The walls. The shaping of the top of the buttresses As well as the windows was done

With a kitchen knife soon after the formwork Was dismantled. The formwork of the

Wall was custom-designed according to the Plan of the dome. The earth

Was rammed into the formwork using a Vibrator. The dome formwork itself was so designed

That it could be lifted not just at the centre, Course after course; it also had a guide that

Automatically adjusted the radius and inclination Of the formwork .

8.8.e. SURFACE TREATMENT

A rammed earth wall requires less labour And material inputs for surface treatment Compared to walls

made using other earth Construction techniques. As a rule, it is Neither necessary nor advisable to plaster

A rammed earth wall. If the surface is Sponged with a moist felt trowel immediately After dismantling

the formwork, Then a smooth surface is easily produced, One that may be painted or wallpapered (in

cases involving interior wall surfaces). If Exterior surfaces thus treated are sheltered From rain by roof

overhangs and against

Splashing by a plinth, a coating of paint is Sufficient to protect them against the elements.

Care should be taken that coatings Neither peel nor crack.

9. FILLED IN: (EARTH BAG CONSTRUCTION, SUPER ADOBE)


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The basic idea of the earth bag construction is developed from the bunkers made

by the military. Rows of polypropylene woven bags (or tubes) are filled with

organic/natural materials such as hemp, burlap or other natural-fiber bags (like "gunny

sacks")After the foundation is laid, each successive layer will have one or more strands

of barbed wire placed on top. The weight of this earth-filled bag pushes down on the

barbed wire strands, locking the bag in place on the row below.

“Super adobe Is An Adobe That Is Stretched From History Into The New Century. It Is

Li ke An Umbili cal Cord Connecting The Traditional Wi th The Futu r e Adobe World.”

– Nader Khalili

This concept was originally presented by architect Nader Khalili. Tubular roll of

sandbag-type material is used, which is filled with earth. A barbed wire is use to bind the

earth tube together, and it works like an Velcro. Afterward the earth tubes are plastered

with stabilized earth plaster .

8.36. filled in adobe


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9.1.WORKING WITH EARTHEN BLOCKS

Blocks of earth produced manually by throwing wet earth into a formwork are called “adobes” or “mud

bricks” or “sundried earth blocks.” When moist earth is compacted in a manual or powered press, the

compressed elements so formed are called “soil blocks.” In their unbaked state, bricks produced by anextruder in a brick plant are called “green bricks.” These three

types of blocks are usually the same size as baked bricks. Larger blocks, compacted in a

formwork by ramming, are called “rammed earth blocks.”

9.1 Industrially produced green bricks

Illustration 9.1 shows different shapes and sizes of green bricks produced industrially

by an extrusion process.

9.2. Production of earth blocks

Adobes are made either by filling moulds with a pasty loam mixture or by throwing moist lumps of earth

into them. Different types of moulds can be used.They are usually made from timber. The throwing

technique is commonly used in all developing countries( 9.2,9.3 & 9.4).

9.2Making adobes


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(9.2, 9.3 &9.4) Making adobes

Here, a sandy loam is mixed with water, and cut straw is usually added and the whole formed into a

paste that is thrown into wooden moulds. The greater the force with which the loam is thrown, the better

its compaction and dry strength. The surface is smoothed either by hand or by a timber piece, trowel or

wire . One person can produce about 300 blocks per day (including preparation of mix, trans portation

and stacking). In India, one person can produce as many as 500 blocks per day using a double mould

designed for a smaller brick. In order to facilitate work, bricks can be moulded on a table, as was

traditionally the case in Germany .


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.

9.5 Making adobes on a work table

Another easy method uses moulds with handles 80 cm in length, which enables workers to manufacture

bricks while standing (9.5).

Techniques for producing compressed soil blocks were known in Europe in the 18 th century. In 1789, the

French architect François Cointreaux developed a manually operated soil block press. Since then,

numerous manually operated presses have been devised. The best-known press worldwide is the CINVA

Ram, developed in Colombia by the Chilean engineer Ramirez. It permits simultaneous production of

three blocks. Manually operated presses of this type produce pressures up to 5 to 25 kg/cm2, and require

three to five persons for optimum operation. Despite mechanised production of soil blocks using presses,

the output per person per day is only 150 to 200 blocks, considerably less than that of the primitive

method involving throwing loam into moulds.


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9.6 Metal mould with handles

9.3. MATERIAL COMPOSITION

The loam used in common brick plants requires high clay content in order to achieve sufficient strength

after firing. Illustration 6.21 shows a typical soil grain size distribution of this type of loam, containing

24% clay, 50% silt, 23% sand and 3% gravel. When loam of this composition is used for earth blockwork, it creates swelling and shrinking problems upon wetting and drying respectively. Illustration 9.7

shows cracks occurring when these green bricks were used in a project where a wall was drenched by

sudden rain during construction.

9.7 Shrinkage cracks that occurred after rain drenched green bricks dried out

Generally, it can be stated that earth blocks should have enough coarse sand to allow them to achieve

high porosity (and therefore high frost resistance), and high compressive compressive strength with

minimum shrinkage. But at the same time, there must be enough clay to create sufficient binding force

for the block to be handled.


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9.4.LAYING EARTH BLOCKS

It is important to shelter earth blocks from rain on site. In industrialised countries, as a

rule, green bricks ordered from factories, are palletised and covered entirely in plastic.

Earth blocks are laid with either loam mortar, hydraulic lime mortar or high-hydraulic

lime mortar. While small quantities of cement may be added to these mortars, pure cement mortar is not

advisable, as it is too rigid and brittle. To avoid shrinkage cracks inside the mortar during drying, the

mortar should contain sufficient quantities of coarse sand. The clay content may vary from 4% to 10%.

The formation of shrinkage cracks can also be avoided when the mortar layer is thinner than usual. It is a

pleasure to work with loam mortar, since it is not abrasive to the skin. Lime mortar, however, attacks the

skin and may also cause allergies.

9.5. SURFACE TREATMENT

If sufficiently moistened with a tool like a Felt trowel, exposed earth block masonry

With uneven surfaces or joints can be easily Smoothened. Plastering is not advisable,

Since it interferes with the capacity of loam Walls to balance internal air humidity.

However, exposed earth Block masonry can, if not aesthetically Acceptable, be given a wash of loam

slurry Stabilized with, for example, lime, lime casein Etc.(9.8). This wash also impacts The wall’s

surface stability .

9.8. Exposed earth block wall finished with a loam-lime slurry.

9.5.a Fixing fasteners to walls

Nails can be driven into an earth block walls more easily than into those constructed of

baked bricks. The more porous and humid the material, the easier one can drive a nail

through it. Green bricks tend to split more easily than soil blocks and adobes. If very


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thick nails are used, it is advisable to drill a hole into the block. Heavy shelves or wallhung

cabinets can be fixed to the wall easily using screws and dowels. Dowel holes,

however, should be drilled large enough to prevent blocks from cracking. In 9.9, heavy

bookshelves are fixed to a green brick wall using dowels and screws.

9.9 Bookshelves fixed to an earth block wall

9.6. SPECIAL ACOUSTIC GREEN BRICKS

In order to optimize the acoustic behavior Of domed rooms, a special loam brick with


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Rounded corners was developed by the Author (9.10)

9.10 Special loam brick to improve acoustic behavior

9.11 Detail of loam brick dome

The rounded corners and the Corbelling effect of the bricks (9.11)


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yield Good sound distribution, while good sound Absorption is produced by the cut-off joints And the

holes in the brick. Illustration(9.12) .

9.12 Loam brick wall

Depicts a 6-m-high wall of unburned (green) Bricks, introduced in order to improve the Acoustic

behavior of the hall.

10. DIRECT FORMING WITH WET LOAM


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10.2. Loam wet technique house at cokinton

The surface is often beaten and compacted By hammering with a kind of wooden trowel. A technique of

building using loam clods Called “cob” was widespread in southwest England beginning in the 15th

century, and Was used at least until the 19th century, especially in Devon. Hill describes this technique

As follows: a man stands with a threepronged pitchfork on the plinth of the wall, While a second man

forms clods as large as two fists. The second man then throws The clods to the first one, who catches

them on his pitchfork and, walking backwards, Throws them onto the wall. Where necessary,he also

compacts the wall with his feet. In this way, layers 50 to 60 cm in height are built up. To give an even

finish, the surface is sliced. Wall thicknesses are generally 45 to 60 cm (McCann, 1983). Illustration 10.2.

shows a house, one still inhabited, at Cockington (Devon, England) that was built using this technique in

1410.

10.3. Cob building from 1410, Cockington, Devon, England


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10.4. Finished interior wall made of extruded loam profiles

11. LOAM-FILLED HOSES

A new technique, developed GEROT MINKE , was used in 1992 for three residences In Kassel,

Germany. Though the Outward appearance of walls made by this Technique is similar to those made with

the Technique for making stranglehm described , the production, handling and Laying is quite different.

With this technique,

An elastic cotton hose is filled with a lightweight Mineral loam mixture.


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10.5Filling hoses with lightweight mineral loam using a pump

The hose can Be filled either using a pump (see 10.5) or By hand through a funnel (see 10.6 and 10.7).

10.6Filling hoses with lightweight mineral loam using a pump

10.7. Manually filling of hoses with lightweight mineral loam using a funnel


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When the required length is reached, The hose is cut and the end is stretched and Knotted. Owing to the

reinforcement provided By the fabric, these loam-filled hoses can Then be easily handled. Before being

laid Onto a wall, they are smoothed with the

Hands so that some loam oozes and forms A thin loam cover on the fabric. When

Stacked, these loam coverings stick together . Since these hoses can be

Shaped easily without breaking, attractive Sculptural patterns can be created (see10.8) .

10.8. Making a bathroom wall from lightweight loam-filled cotton hoses

After laying and some drying, the surface Can be easily smoothed with a wet brush. In the wall shown in

10.8 hoses 70 cm In length are laid between vertical posts of 4 x 4 cm turned at 45°, or triangular

elements Fixed to the main posts of the end Of the wall.As a rule, three to five layers can be stacked Per

day, but in order to increase this number Some cement can be added to speed up The drying process.

11.1. EARTHEN STORAGE WALL IN WINTER GARDENS

In order to enhance the thermal storage And the humidity balancing effect of a winter

Garden with a floor area of 20 m2, forming Part of a residence at Kassel, Germany,

A storage wall made of wet plastic loam Loaves was built (11.1 ).

The loaves, measuring 20 x 14 cm, were Formed by hand and stacked without mortar

Or filled joints, thereby effectively doubling The surface of the loam that is active

In thermal storage and humidity absorption And desorption.


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11.1 Heat storage wall in a winter garden

11.2. LOAM IN BATHROOMS

The assertion that a loam-finished bathroom Is more hygienic than a tiled bathroom Astonishes many.

Both experiences Over several years with bathrooms having Loam walls and scientific investigations

Regarding the absorptive and desorptive Behavior of loam have, however, demonstrated This assertion.

Mirrors in a bathroom that is tiled up to the Ceiling have been observed to fog up after A normal hot

shower. With doors and windows Closed, the mirror remains fogged up To a period of 30 to 60 minutes

after the Shower. In a bathroom with loam walls, By contrast, the mirror clears under similar Conditions

in only 3 to 6 minutes. This is Because loam walls absorb humidity from The room when its relativehumidity is higher. Since humidity in bathrooms with loam Walls reduces quickly, fungus growth cannot

Occur, whereas in tiled bathrooms, the Humidity remains high over a longer period Due to the sealed

surfaces, allowing fungus Growth in the joints of the tiles, especially Joints grouted with silicone

material. While formaldehyde in the joint mixture prevents This, it should be mentioned that this

chemical Is carcinogenic. Even the wall behind the shower can be of Loam, as long as the shower curtain

wraps Around to prevent it from getting splashed, See 11.2).


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11.2. Bedroom, private residence

11.3. BUILT-IN FURNITURE AND SANITARY OBJECTS FROM LOAM

As already indicated, the plasticity of loam Allows not only for the building of exterior

Walls, ceilings and floors but also of built-in Furniture. For this, loam elements when still

Wet are particularly suitable as they can be Given a great variety of shapes; they also

Open up new aesthetic possibilities. The bedroom wall shown in 11.3. is both

An external wall and a built-in closet. It is Built from stranglehm elements.


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11.3. Bedroom, private residence in Kassel, Germany

The side partition walls of the Wardrobe also buttress the exterior wall. The bamboo rod, built in during

construction, Acts as a hanger rod, and also stiffens The side partition walls. On another external Wall ofthis bedroom, Niches and ledges for storing personal Effects were carved out of the stranglehm Wall.


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11.4. Bathroom, private residence in Kassel, Germany

shows such shelves And a mirror integrated into the wall. Illustration 11.4. shows a bathroom whose

Central shower, adjacent planter and bath Tab are covered by loam-filled hoses. Even washbasins can be

built from unbaked Loam. It is made Of a special sandy loam with high binding Force, in which

shrinkage cracks were totally Avoided. To this mixture 6% double-boiled Linseed oil was added. After

drying, the Basin was coated with a layer of linseed oil. . In both cases, trap and drain fittings were

Mounted in a small ceramic bowl, around Which the loam was arranged. It is sculpted Of unbaked loamstabilised by 6% of Casein-lime glue. Both washbasins proved To be waterproof..


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11.4. Bathroom, private residence

12. EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT BUILDING

Earth as a building material has lost its credibility chiefly because most modern houses with earth walls

cannot withstand earthquakes, and because earth is viewed a building material for the poor. In this

context, it is worth mentioning that a census conducted by the Salvadoran government after the

earthquake of January 13, 2001

(measuring 7.6 on the Richter scale), states that adobes houses were not worse affected than other types

of construction. On the other hand, many historical earth buildings have withstood several strong

earthquakes in recent centuries, for example the condominiums of the Hakas in China (12.1) and many

solid rammed earth fincas in Argentina. But also houses with lightweight roofs and flexible wattle-and-

daub can withstand earthquake shocks because of their ductility (flexibility). The quality of an

earthquake-resistant structure can be expressed in the formula structural quality = resistance x ductility. .

This means that the lower the resistance of a given structure, the higher its flexibility must be, while the

higher its flexibility, the lower the required resistance.It is not earth as a building material which is

responsible for structural failures, but instead

the structural system of a given building and the layout of its openings.


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12.1 Condominium of the Hakkas, China

Earthquakes are caused by the movements of tectonic plates or by volcanic activity.

In Asia, earthquakes with intensities of 8 on the Richter scale have been recorded; in the Andes, ones

measuring up to 8.7. Annually, nearly a hundred earthquakes are recorded with intensities above 6, and

twenty with intensities above 7 on the Richter scale. Several thousand people are affected by earthquakes

every year. Buildings are mainly struck by the horizontal acceleration created by the movement of the

earth. The vertical accelerations created by seismic activity are less then 50% of the horizontal ones.

Therefore, one of the main structural tasks when designing earthquake-resistant buildings is to insure thatwalls do not fall out.

12.1. STRUCTURAL MEASURES

When designing for earthquake-prone zones, it should be considered that the seismic

forces acting on a building are proportional to its mass, and that deflection increases significantly with

height. When designing two-storied buildings, therefore, it is advisable that the ground floor be built

solid, while the upper floor is kept light, preferably with a flexible framed structure. Heavy roofs with

slabs, slates and tiles

should be avoided in principle. Walls usually fall outwards because they lack a closed ring beam,

sufficient bending and shear strength, and because door and window openings weaken the wall structure.

Under seismic influences, forces are concentrated into the corners of these openings, creating cracks.


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12.2. ideal shapes

I n Order To Reduce The Danger Of Collapse, The Foll owing Points Should Be Kept I n M ind:

1. Houses should not be located on inclined sites .

2. The building’s resonant frequency should not match the frequency of the earth movement

during earthquakes. This means that heavy houses with solid construction should

not rest on hard rock bases, but instead on sandy or silty soils. Light houses, however,

perform better on hard rock than on soft soil.

3. The different parts of a house should not have foundations on different levels, nor

have differing heights. If they do, then they should be structurally separated. Since sections

of different heights display differing resonant frequencies, they should be

allowed to oscillate independently.

4. Plans should be as compact as possible, and should be symmetrical. Circular plans give better rigidity

than rectangular ones.


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5. Foundations have to act like stiff ring anchors, and should therefore be reinforced.

6. Foundations, walls and roofs should be well fixed to each other, the joints being

able to withstand the shear forces produced.

7. Walls must be stable against bending and shear forces. Masonry work must have

fully filled joints and strong mortar.

8. Load-bearing masonry walls should have minimum thicknesses of 30 cm; their heights

should not exceed eight times their thicknesses .

9. Masonry walls should be stiffened with piers at a minimum every 4 m (with minimum

sections of 30 x 30 cm), or with posts that are structurally fixed in the foundation

(i.e. able to take movement) .

10. Wall corners, joints between walls and across walls, as well as door openings have

to be stiffened by vertical posts of either timber or reinforced concrete, which are

structurally fixed in the foundation, or by buttresses, so that horizontal forces do not

open these elements .11. Walls have to be finished on top by a ring beam, which has to be adequately

fixed to the walls.

12. Extra lintels above doors and windows should be avoided, and should be formed

by ring beams .

13. Roofs should be as light as possible.

14. The horizontal thrusts of vaults and domes should be sufficiently contained by

ring beams, buttresses or ties.

15. Openings destabilise walls and should be carefully proportioned .

There are two basic approaches to designing For earthquake resistance.

The first and Most commonly used method is to construct Walls, roofs and their joints stiffly

Enough so that they cannot break or be Deformed under seismic loads. The second

Approach is to endow the structure with Sufficient ductility so that the kinetic energy

Of any seismic impact will be dissipated via Deformation. This is the more intelligent

Solution, especially as it entails fewer structural Problems and materials.

If, for example, a vertical wall with a framed Structure stabilised by tensile diagonals is

Impacted horizontally from the right (as Shown in 15.9), there will be a concentration

Of stress on both ends of the tie leading From lower left to upper right. Weakness,

Then, will occur first at these joints, possibly Leading to wall failure. An elastically framed

Structure without diagonals, on the other Hand – provided the corners are able to

Take some moment and that no structural Element is overloaded – usually allows

Deformation to occur without leading to Wall collapse. In the second case, obviously,

The infill of the frame must also be somewhat Flexible. Therefore, walls built with

The wattle-and-daub technique in which a Flexible network of horizontal and vertical

Components is plastered with loam, for Example, are less prone to damage than

Masonry walls. Illustration 15.1 shows a House in guatemala that was struck by a


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Heavy earthquake and was flexible enough To withstand the stress.

Di ff erent General Pr inciples For Designi ng Earthquake-Resistant Structures:

1. Walls and roof are well interconnected And rigid enough that no deformation

Occurs during earthquakes.

2. Walls are flexible (ductile) enough so that The kinetic energy of the earthquake is

Absorbed by deformation. In this case it is Necessary to install a ring beam strong

Enough to take bending forces; the joints Between wall and ring beam, and ring

Beam and roof must be strong enough.

3. The walls are designed as mentioned Under 2, but the roof is fixed to columns

that are separated from the wall, so that both structural systems can move independently,

since they have different frequencies during an earthquake.

Three research projects undertaken by the Building Research Laboratory, Universityof Kassel, Germany, analysing earthquake damage to single-story rural houses in

Guatemala, Argentina and Chile, concluded that the same errors in structural design

consistently led to collapse.

12.2. OPENINGS FOR DOORS AND WINDOWS

Wall apertures will destabilise a wall system. During earthquakes, diagonal cracks often

occur, starting at the window edges .

12.3. types of openings

In order to achieve a good bond, lintels must penetrate at least 40 cm into the wall .In this case, however, the area

above the lintel may be weak and may come off during an earthquake, so the best solution is to use the lintel as a ring

beam on which the roof structure rests. It is also recommended that the section below the window be built as a light,flexible structure, for instance from wooden panels or wattle and daub.


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The Following Rules Have To Be Taken Into Account .

a) The width of a window should not be more than 1.2 m and not more than 1/3 of

the length of the wall.

b) The length of walls between openings must be at least 1/3 of their height and not

less than 1 m.

c) Doors must open outward. Opposite the entrance door should be a large window or

another door, which acts emergency exit .

13. STABILISERS

After the decade of 1950, and mainly in the last years, the interest of earth architecture reemerges

concerning the actual environmental issues in the world. This way, new technologies appear to improve

the durability of earth architecture. New processes were developed to make earth pressed blocks and

monolithic walls with earth

using machines for static or dynamic press, as well as extrusion processes to make blocks or plates and

sprayed processes to apply earth mixtures directly in situ. In the last years studies of soil stabilization

using natural or synthetic additives have been also performed by some researchers in order to evaluate the

durability performance of earth as a construction material. These studies about soil stabilization methods

show that, with the incorporation of appropriate stabilizing agents, it is possible to obtain earth

architecture with greater

durability against water actions. This increase of earth building durability could help to change

the inappropriate and prejudiced perception still existing about the earth material.

13.1 RURAL STABILISERS

Traditional Building Has Used Many Other Stabilisers. There Is A List Of Common, Well-Tried

Ones:

Straw: There is no chemical quality about this stabiliser. In clay soils the straw seems to

minimize cracking, and in blocks the presence of straw tends to make the damp blocks

more handlable. Similar to straw, people in different areas use chaff (bhusa) and various

fibres.

Cow Dung often contains a lot of fibrous material and traditionally is often used in all

sorts of mud work.

Urine is also used. Probably this is because of the urea content and the urea acts as a

‘binder’ - a sort of glue.


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Gum Arabic and other gums and resins are used, also as binders and water proofing

agents.

Sugar and molasses is used. The crude waste jaggery is a binder and it often contains

fibrous materials, which is also useful.

Tannic Acid and its wastes, used in other rural industries has proved often to be a good

stabiliser.

Oil is used. In such places as Kerala - coconut oil was used, mainly with the intention of

water proofing the surface of mud walls. Almost any oil is useful in this way and the

modern counterpart is waste engine oil or sump oil. This works well as a waterproofing in

cement concrete as well as in mud walling.

13.1

13.2

Many plants have sticky white sap, as from poinsettias, various cactus plants, sisal, and

so on. These seem to act as both binders and water proofers. Many of the saps from trees

are also resinous and are good water proofing but Often very difficult to use as they will

not mix with water and it is not easy to get then well mixed in with the mud. Local “tricks

of the trade” often supply simple answers.

RURAL STABILISERS

For some soils 'High Tech' can't improv

on these.

PLANT JUICES

Stabilisers from

plant juices: sisal, cacti etc.


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13.2. STABILIZATION WITH LIME AND POZZOLANS

Pozzolan is a high fineness material that, when added to lime, becomes cementitious in the

Presence of water. This property can be beneficial in soil stabilization and in mortars or plasters

With lime to coat the earth walls. There is a millennial example of lime-pozzolana utilization in

Earth constructions and mortars, the “ sarooj”. This material has origin in Iran and it has been

Used to protect earth buildings from water action. The “ sarooj” is a binding durable material

And it consists in a pozzolanic mixture based on clayey soil (sand and clay), lime, ashes and

Other additives. This mixture results in a material similar to hydraulic portland cement. It was

Applied for water thanks typical from Iran , as in ice Iranian reservoirs called

“Yakhchal” .Research works realized by the authors at University of Minho reveal that the soil

stabilization With a mixture of metakaolin/lime (5% of soil mass) increases the compressive strength

Comparing to the unstabilized ones .

13.3 STABILIZATION WITH BIOPOLYMERS AND LIME

Polymers can be from natural or artificial source and from biological (vegetable or animal) or

mineral origin. At the present text the mentioned biopolymers are organic ones from natural and

biological origin, without any kind of laboratorial synthesizing.

The major influence of biopolymers addition in earth construction is the result of rheological

effects developed in clay particles of soil. The main verified action is related with the

biopolymers capability to change the electrostatic charge of the clay particles. This effect causes

dispersion and posterior attraction, that change the particles from a state of face to face

(Fig.13.3) to a state of face to edge

13.3 face to face particles

The incorporation of biopolymers on earth construction was carried out for a long time and they

were particularly used in order to improve the behaviour against water. There are numerous examples

of biopolymers that have been added as stabilizers in earth construction, some from vegetable origin,

such as flours, starches, gums, cactus, oils, waxes or resins of plants and others from animal origin, such

as animal fats, whey, casein, egg whites, blood, excrement and urine.


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13.4. STABILIZATION WITH MINERAL ADDITIVES

In addition to the known stabilizers such as lime, cement, pozzolans or gypsum, others mineral

additions have been used to improve soil characteristics, mainly its durability. Between these

additions are some salts and mineral compounds. The most used ones in earth construction are

sodium chloride and sodium hydroxide (Houben et al 1989 and Anger et al 2009). The known effect of

sodium chloride is the viscosity control of clay and its consolidation by flocculation of clay particles,

binding them again by attraction, depending on the amount of salt contained or added to the soil. This

viscosity control is important, once that has influence on the mechanical properties. Consequently, one

can reduce the water content and soil porosity, obtaining a more resistant soil mixture (Anger et al 2009).

In Egypt there is an example of a constructive technique little known, used in the building of a 12th

century fortress, and other buildings, in the oasis of Siwa that nowadays is still used. This is a masonry

performed with blocks of mud rich in salt, linked with mud mortar very rich in salt. The results obtained

in tests with this masonry technique show an increase of the mechanical

14. LITERATURE STUDY OF BANSURA HILL RESORT

The Banasura Resorts is in its kind, claimed to be the largest mud resort in Asia at Vellamunda in

backdrop of Banasura hills, 18 km away from Mananthavady in Wayanad district, Kerala. It nestling in

35 acres of greenery stacked with pepper, coffee and tea plantations and ponds. The

Earth Architcture

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