Earl Taylor -- Lebenswelt and Lebensformen- Husserl and Wittgenstein on the Goal and Method of...

7/25/2019 Earl Taylor -- Lebenswelt and Lebensformen- Husserl and Wittgenstein on the Goal and Method of Philosophy

1/17

H U M A N S T U D I E S

1,184--200

1 9 7 8 )

L e b e n s w e lt a n d L e b e n s f o rm e n

Hu sserl an d W it tg en s te in o n th e G o a l

a n d M e t h o d o f P h i lo s o p h y

E A R L T A Y L O R

Harvard Universi ty

It is so difficult to find the beginning. Or,

better: it is difficult to beg in at the beg inning.

And n ot try to go further back.

--WlTTGENSTEIN On Certainty, par, 471)

In r e cen t d i scussi ons o f t he fo un da t i o ns o f the soc i a l s c i ences , l i tt le a t t e n t i o n

h a s b e e n giv en t o th e c o n c e p t i o n o f g r o u n d i n g i ts e lf . A p p e a l s f r e q u e n t l y

h a v e b e e n m a d e t o p h i lo s o p h y , n o t a b l y t o t h e p h e n o m e n o l o g y o f H u ss e rl a n d

t h e a n a l y ti c p h i l o s o p h y o f W i tt ge n s te in . S o m e a p p r o a c h e s , e .g ., e t h n o m e t h o d -

e l e g y , c la i m b o t h a s i n t e ll e c tu a l p r o g e n i t o r s . P r o b l e m s a ri se , h o w e v e r , in t h e

a t t e m p t s t o s y n t h e s i z e t w o s u c h d i v e r s e p r o g r a m s . N o t t h e l e a s t o f t h e s e i s t h e

d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e t w o t h i n k e r s ' v i e w s o n l a n g u a g e a n d c e r t a i n t y . O n t h e s e

a n d o t h e r i s su e s, H u s s e r l' s g o a l o f p h i l o s o p h y as r ig o r o u s s c i e n c e a n d W i tt g e n -

s t e i n 's t h e r a p e u t i c p r a c t i c e a r e w i d e l y a t o d d s . H e r e w e c a n o n l y b e g i n t h e

c o m p a r i s o n t h a t is a n e c e s s a ry s t e p in e v a l u a t in g t h e p o t e n t i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n o f

e a c h a p p r o a c h t o t h e i ss u e o f g r o u n d i n g t h e s o c i al s ci en c e s.

T h e e s s e n t ia l f e a t u r e s o f t h e t h e o r y o f la n g u a g e t h a t H u s s e d w a s t o r e ta i n

t h r o u g h o u t h is w o r k c a n b e f o u n d in th e Log i ca l I nves t i ga t i ons ( H u s s e r l , 1 9 7 0 a )

Reprints o f this article m ay be obtained from the author at Departmen t of Sociology,

Harvard University, Cam bridge, Mass.


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LEBENSWELT AND LEBENSFORMEN 185

(o r ig i na ll y pub l i shed i n 1900) . 1 Th e re he d i s ti ngu i shes t he l ingu i s ti c exp re s s i on

p e r s e f r o m t h e c o n s c i o u s a c t t h a t c o n f e r s m e a n i n g o n i t b y r e f e r r i n g t o s o m e -

t h ing t h ro ugh i t. U l t i m a t e l y , t h is d i s t i nc t ion i s roo t ed in H u sse r l ' s co nc ep t i on

o f t h e i n t e n t i o n a l i t y o f c o n s c io u s n e s s . B e c au s e c o n s c i o u s n e s s is a l w a y s c o n -

sciousness o som e t h i ng , i t i s poss i b l e t o d i r ec t r e f l ec t i on e i t he r t o t he ob j ec t s

i n t e n d e d i n c o n s c i o u s n e s s ( t h e n o e m a ) o r t h e a c t s o f i n t e n d i n g t h e m s e l v e s

( th e n o e s e s) . N o r e f e r e n c e t o a n o b j e c t o u t s id e c o n s c i o u s n e s s n e e d b e m a d e in

e i th e r c a se . R a t h e r , t h e p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l e p o c h 6 o r r e d u c t i o n s u s p e n d s a ll f a c -

t ua l is sues a bo u t t he (non )ex i s t en ce o f ob j ec t s i n f avo r o f an i nves t iga t i on o f the

t ra n s c e n d ef it a l c o n d i t io n s o f t h e a p p e a r a n c e t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f a n y e x p e r i e n c e

w ha t soeve r .

T h e p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l e p o c h ~ h a s b e e n l ik e n e d t o D e s c a r t es ' m e t h o d o f

rad i ca l doub t , bu t t he re i s an e s sen t i a l d i f f e rence . Whereas D esca r t e s em pl oyed

a s y s t e m a t i c v e rs io n o f m u n d a n e d o u b t as t o th e e x i s te n c e o f o b j e c ts in t h e w o r l d

(a rr iv i ng f i na l l y a t t he ce r t i t ud e o f t he e go cog i t o ) , H usse r l r ad ica l ize s t he m un -

dane ab i l i ty t o r ev ise an t i c i pa t i ons o f even t s i n t he l igh t o f subse que n t expe r i enc e .

B o t h t h e e v e n t a s a n t i c i p a t e d a n d a s i t r e a l l y i s ( a n d w a s a ll a l o n g ) a r e t a k e n

p u r e ly a s i n t e n d e d , i .e ., i n t e r m s o f t h e a c ts o f c o n sc i ou s n e s s t h a t c o n f e r o n t h e

e v e n t it s d i f f e r e n t m o d e s o f a p p r e h e n s i o n a s a n t i c i p a te d , a s d i r e c tl y e x p e r i e n c e d ,

as r e m e m b e r e d , e t c . T h e g o al o f H u s s e r l's m e t h o d is t o s h o w h o w a ll s u c h m o d e s

a re f o u n d e d o n t h e o r i g in a r y m o d e o f a p o d i c t i c c e r t a i n t y o f t h e t h in g p r e s e n t e d

c l ea r l y and d i s t i n c t l y t o consc i ousness ( t hus r e j o i n ing D esc a r t e s a t t h i s po i n t ) .

W e sh all b e c o n c e r n e d t h r o u g h o u t w h a t f o l l o w s w i t h t h is c o n c e p t i o n o f c e r t a i n t y

and i ts e f f e c t o n H u sse r l ' s v i ew o f language .

H usse r l ' s e a r l y i nves t i ga t i ons r evea l ed t ha t any ob j ec t neces sa r i l y appea r s a s

a f igu re aga i ns t t he g ro un d o f t he w or l d . While t he g i ven ob j e c t i s i n t end ed

exp l i c it ly i n t e rm s o f i ts r e levance t o p rac t i ca l ac t i v it ie s , t he w o r l d is u sua l l y

i n t e n d e d i m p l i c i t l y a s t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d . U n e x p e c t e d e x i g e n c i e s c a n c a u s e t h e

m u n d a n e e x p e r i e n c e r t o r e f le c t o n h is p l a n s a n d e v e n o n t h e w o r l d as s u c h , b u t

on l y fo r t he p rac t i ca l l y l i m i t ed pu rpo se o f r evi si ng h i s p l ans and r e t u rn i ng t o h i s

m u n d a n e i n v o l v e m e n t in t h e w o r l d . H u s s e r l' s m e t h o d a t t e m p t s t o s u s ta i n t h e

m o m e n t a r y s u s p e n s i o n o f p r a c ti c a l i n v o l v e m e n t t h a t is p o s s ib l e w i t h in t h e

n a t u r a l a t t i t u d e , a n d i t t h e r e b y b e a r s a c u r i o u s r e l at io n t o t h e n a t u r a l a t ti t u d e .

While o r i g ina t i ng f ro m w i t h i n i t and p re se rv i ng i t a s t he ob j ec t o f i nqu i ry , t he

1The present analysis was arrived at independently of Derrida's (1973)incisive critique,

but is substantially supported by it. In h is preface to Derrida, New ton Garver suggests tha t

W ittgenstein's philosophical development, with respect to the foundations of language, s

in m any ways parallel to the m ovem ent in Continental philosophy from Husserl to Heidegger

to Derrida (xix). This parallel pro vid es for the possibility o f extending W ittgenstein's

critique of his own earlier vie w of language to Husserl 's view. The interesting sim ilarities

between Derrida and Wittgenstein thus revealed cannot be explored here. For a reply to

Derrida, see Mo hanty (1 974 ).


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186 TAYLOR

p h en o men o lo g ica l ep o ch e n ev er th e less r ep resen t s a b r e a k f ro m th e n a tu ra l a t t i -

tu d e in so fa r a s th e p rac t i ca l l i v e d in v o lv em en t th a t

i s

t h e n a tu ra l a t t i t u d e i s

rep laced b y a

t h e o r e t i c a l

i n t e res t i n th i s in v o lv em en t co n s id e red

a s

a n a t t i t i d e .

I n d e e d , p a r t o f t h e p a r a d o x o f th e e p o c h 6 ( w h i c h H u s se r l a c k n o w l e d g e d ) f o l lo w s

f ro m th e f ac t th a t to ch arac te r i ze u n re f l ec t iv e ly l iv ed ex p e r i en ce as an a t t i t u d e

is t o r e n d e r i t a m e r e t h e si s w h i c h l ik e t h a t c o n c e r n i n g th e ( n o n ) e x i s t e n c e o f a n y

g iv en o b jec t i s t o b e su sp en d ed in o rd er to d esc r ib e th e way in wh ich i t ap p ears .

I t i s imp o r tan t to n o te th a t Hu sse r l ' s c l a ims fo r h i s me th o d req u i re th a t th e

e p o c h ~ b e c a r d e d o u t o n n o th i n g le ss t h a n t h e e n t ir e w o r ld a n d a l l a t o n c e .

M u n d a n e d o u b t d e ri ve s f r o m t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f e r r o r , i ll us io n , e t c ., w h e r e p r e -

v io u s ly p e rce iv ed th in g s a re seen d i f f e ren t ly in th e lig h t o f su b seq u en t ex p e r i en ce .

I t i s a lway s p o ss ib le th a t an y g iv en th in g co u ld b e o th e r th an i t ap p ear s . Th e

m u n d a n e e x p e r i e n c e r , h o w e v e r , n e v e r d o u b t s t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e e n t i re w o r l d ,

b u t r a th e r in h i s v e ry d o u b t in g n ecessa r i ly p rese rv es th e mean s , in c lu d in g th e

c e r t a i n t y o f h is o w n e x i s t e n c e , w h e r e b y t h e d o u b t c o n c e r n i n g a g iv en o b j e c t w i ll

b e r eso lv ed . Descar t es ' m e t h o d was sy s tem at i c d o u b t o n ly in th a t h e r ed u ced h is

a s s u m p t io n s t o a m i n i m u m ( c o g i t o , e r g o su m ) a n d s y s t e m a t ic a l l y p r o c e e d e d t o

r e i n st a te o t h e r t hi n gs t h a t c o u l d n o t b e d o u b t e d i f d o u b t i t s e lf a s a n a c t iv i t y o f

th e eg o was to b e p rese rv ed .

In Hu sse r l' s (1 9 7 0 b ) v iew , su ch a p iecemea l ap p ro ach fa ils to e scap e th e n a tu ra l

a t t i t u d e b y p r e se r vi n g t h o s e a s p ec ts t h a t a r e n o t b e i n g d o u b t e d a t a n y m o m e n t .

Thu s , th e fa i lu re o f De scar tes to suspend the las t ves tiges o f a substan t ia l i s t

s u b j e c t / o b j e c t d i c h o t o m y i n h e r i t e d f r o m G a l il e an s c ie n c e le d h i m t o p o s i t m i n d

as a th ink ing su bstance ( res cog i tans) se t over agains t the m ath em at ic a l ly speci-

f iab le un iverse o f physica l ob jects ( res ex tensa) . Husser l shares wi th Descar tes

a co n cep t io n o f a u n / -v e r se , a u n i f i ed wo r ld o f p o ss ib le ex p er i en ce , b u t ch arg es

th a t r a th e r th an re tu rn in g to th e th in gs th em se lv es as ex p er i en ced , Desca r t es

su b s t i tu t ed a th eo re t i ca l v i s io n, th e wo r ld as co n ce iv e d b y sc ien ce . Hu ssed ' s

p ro g ram is an a t t em p t to e lu c id a te th e way s in wh ich su ch ab s t r ac t id eal s a re

f o u n d e d o n a p r e t h e o r e t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e w o r l d , a n d h i s m e t h o d t h e r e f o r e

c o n s i s t s o f s u s p e n d i n g b o t h n a i v e a n d t h e o r e t i c a l p r e c o n c e p t i o n s a b o u t o u t e x -

p er i en ce o f th e wo r ld . W h ereas n e i th e r co m m o n sen se n o r sci en ce h as a p e r sp ec-

t iv e o n i t s e l f ' (N a t a n s o n , 1 9 7 3 , p . 6 1 ) , i t is t h e t a s k o f p h e n o m e n o l o g y to

p r o v i d e s u c h a pe r s p e c ti v e o n - a n d t h e r e b y a g r o u n d i n g f o r - b o t h c o m m o n

sen se an d sc ien ce . Id ea l ly , i t p ro v id es a p e r sp ec t iv e o n i ts o w n m eth o d s an d g o a l s

as well.

I t i s t hi s r e f l ex iv e ch a rac te r o f p h en o m en o lo g y th a t p ro v id es th e o ccas io n fo r

th e p ro b lems ra i sed in th e

r i s i s

( H u s s e rl , 1 9 7 0 b ) . A l t h o u g h m a n y o f t h e s e

p r o b l e m s d e r iv e f r o m a c o n t i n u o u s d e v e l o p m e n t o f H u s se rl 's t h o u g h t , t h e n o t i o n s

o f t h e

L e b e n s w e l t

a n d t h e h i s to r i c a l r e d u c t i o n r e p r e s e n t s o m e t h i n g o f a b r e a k

f ro m th e to p ic an d meth o d ( resp ec t iv e ly ) o f h i s ea r l i e r wo rk . Hu sse r l ' s c r i t i c i sm

in the

r i s i s

o f K an t ' s f a i lu re to r e tu rn to th e p r e th e o re t i c a l l i f e -wo r ld is , a s Car r

(1 9 7 4 ) n o tes , eq u a l ly a c ri t ic i sm o f h is o wn ea r li e r p reo ccu p a t io n w i th g ro u n d in g


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LEBENSWELTAND LEBENSFORMEN 187

the var ious on to log ies o f the empir ica l sc iences o f h is day . He now seeks , by

mean s o f th e n ew ly co n ce iv ed h i s to r i ca l r ed u c t io n , to av o id Ka n t ' s mis t ak e o f

t akin g New to n ' s m a te r i a li s t ic o n to lo g y as th e b asis fo r th e ex p l i ca t io n o f th e

co n d i t io n s o f m u n d an e ex p er i en ce . Th e q u es t io n fo r Husse rl is n o lo n g er m ere ly

h o w to r e tu rn to th e wo r ld o f th in g s th emse lv es , b u t r a th e r th e v e ry n a tu re

o f su ch a wo r ld ex p er i en ced p r io r to ( an d as th e b as i s o f ) an y ab s t r ac t co n -

cep tu a l i za t io n . H e ex p l i c i t ly fo rm u la tes h is p ro g ram as an o n to lo g y o f th is l if e -

w o r ld a n d a d d s t o h is a r r a y o f m e t h o d s t h e n e c e s s i ty o f u n c o v e r i n g t h e v e r y

t rad i t io n w i th in wh ich t r an scen d en ta l q u es t io n s th emse lv es a re ad d ressed to a

g iv en co n ce p t io n o f th e w o r ld .

T h e n e w m e t h o d o l o g i ca l e l e m e n t o f th e Crisisis w ha t Husserl calls h is cr i t ic al-

h i s to r ica l r e f l ec t io n o n th e t r ad i t io n o f W es te rn p h i lo so p h y . S t ress in g th e an a lo g y

to o th e r a sp ec ts o f H u sse rl 's m e th o d , C ar r (1 9 7 4 ) r e fe r s to th is a s h is h i s to ri ca l

r ed u c t io n , s in ce i t s eek s to c l ea r away th e p re ju d ices th a t th e p h i lo so p h e r in -

h e r i ts in ap p ro p r i a t in g h is tr ad i t io n . Su ch a t r ad i t io n is n o t co n s id e red in i t s e l f '

as o b jec t iv e h i s to ry , b u t r a th e r as th e to t a l u n i ty o f h i s to ry , o u r h i s to ry inso -

fa r as we p a r t ak e o f i t . Th u s , wh i l e h i s to ry is r en d ered amen ab le to an a ly s is

w i t hi n H u s s e r r s s u b j e c t i v e p h e n o m e n o l o g y , h e d o e s n o t c o n f r o n t t h is i ss ue

a s o n e i m p o s e d f r o m w i t h o u t a n d t o w h i c h h i s m e t h o d m u s t a d a p t . R a t h e r , h i s

o wn s tu d ies o f th e co n s t i tu t io n o f o b jec t s fo r co n sc io u sn ess h ad p o in ted to th e

h is to r ic i ty o f consciousness i t se l f . With the Crisis Husser l beg ins to fu l ly rea l ize

th e r ad ica l imp l i ca t io n s o f h i s d i sco v ery . Th e re tu rn zu d en Sach en se lb s t i s

n o w s e e n t o b e h a m p e r e d n o t m e r e l y b y t h e n a t u r a l p re j u di c e s o f co n s c io u s n es s

bu t by h is to r ica l ly accumulated theore t ica l p re jud ices as wel l . Husser l was aware

o f m a n y o f t h e d i f fi c u lt ie s t h a t h i s n e w m e t h o d c r e a t e d f o r his o l d c o n c e p t i o n o f

p h en o m en o lo g y as a r ig o ro u s sc i en ce , an d h e r e fe r red to i t s r e su lt s a s D ich -

tu n g - p o e t i c in v en t io n . I t is n o t c l ea r w h e th er h e r ea l ized th a t h is o rig in a l g o a l

o f ex p l i ca t in g a u n i t a ry l i fe -wo r ld m ay i t se l f h av e b ee n a r e f l ec t io n o f th e

t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e w o r l d t h a t h e w i s h e d t o s u s p e n d a n d u l t i m a t e l y

g r o u n d .

On e o f th e ad d i t io n a l d i f f i cu l t i e s in in t e rp re t in g Hu sse r r s l a t e wo rk s i s , a s

Car t (1 9 7 4 ) h as d em o n s t ra t ed , th a t h e u ses th e c ru c ia l t e rm L e b e n s w e l t in several

d i f fe r e n t ( a n d o f t e n s e e m i n gl y c o n t r a d i c t o r y ) w a y s . G e n e r a l l y , h e u s es t h e t e r m

t o r e f e r t o b o t h t h e w o r l d o f p h y s ic a l o b je c t s a n d t h a t o f c u l tu r a l m e a n in g s

created by m an . He argues tha t the tw o levels are analy t ica l ly d is t ingu ishab le

in t h a t t h e l a t t e r i s f o u n d e d o n t h e ( o n t o l o g ic a l l y p r i o r ) f o r m e r , t h o u g h h e

s o m e t im e s s e e m s t o f u r t h e r su gg es t t h a t t h e r e i s a p r e c u l t u r a r ' w o r l d o f p e r c e p -

t io n wh ich cu l tu re so meh o w (mere ly ? ) o v er l ay s . In th e Cartesian M editat ions

Hu sse rl ( I 9 6 0 ) p ro c eed s f ro m th e me th o d o lo g ica l so lip si sm o f th e t r an ce n d en ta l ly

red u ced sp h ere o f o w n n ess to th e l i f e -wo r ld an d sc ience as m o re o r le ss eq u a l ly

in te r su b jec t iv e sp h eres o f ex p er i en ce . On ly in th e Crisis does he suggest tha t the

l i f e -wo r ld i s o n to lo g icaUy p r io r an d th a t co n seq u en t ly h i s me th o d mu s t b eg in

wi th a d esc r ip t iv e o n to lo g y o f th e l i f e -wo r ld . Th a t h e h as n o t y e t c l a r i f i ed th i s


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188 TAYLOR

n e w c o n c e p t i o n , h o w e v e r , is s h o w n b y t h e f a c t t h a t h e e q u a t e s ( o r c on f u s e s )

t h e c u l tu r a l a n d p e r c e p t u a l le ve ls o f t h e l if e - w o r ld i n t e r m s o f t h e i r c o m m o n

n o n t h e o r e t i c a l s t a t u s

vis-a-vis

s c ie n c e . Ir o n i ca l l y t h e n , h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f th e

l if e -wo r ld r emain s d e r iv a t iv e f ro m th e u n i t a ry w o r ld -v iew o f sc i en ce (as o p p o sed

t o i t ), d e s p i te h is a v o w e d i n t e n t i o n o f g r o u n d i n g t h is v e r y c o n c e p t i o n o f s c ie n c e .

I n a n e s s a y w r i t t e n a b o u t t h e t i m e o f t h e

Crisis

(p u b l i sh ed as T h e Or ig in o f

G eo m et r y , A p p e n d ix V I to th e Eng lish e d i t io n o f th e Cris is ), Hu sser l r e li e s o n

a c o n c e p t i o n o f l a ng u ag e t h a t m a k e s t h e h i st o ri c a l r e d u c t i o n b o t h n e c e s s a r y a n d

p ro b lem at i c . In th i s v iew (wh ich w i ll b e co n s id e red in m o re d e ta i l sh o r t ly ) .

Hussef l t rea ts language as a cu l tu ra l ar t i fac t tha t a llows the geo m eter to com -

m u n ica te h i s d isco v er ies b u t w h ich in n o w ay a f fec t s h i s o rig in a l p e rc ep t io n o f

th e wo r ld an d th e co n cep tu a l i za t io n o f h is p r iv a te d i sco v eri es. Becau se l ang u ag e

is n ec essa ry as a d ep o s i to ry o f su ch d isco v eri es, h o w ev er , we a re v u ln e rab le to

th e sed u c t io n o f l an g u ag e wh ere in we fo rg e t th e o r ig in s o f i ts sed im en ta t io n s .

Th ere i s a n eed fo r th e h i s to ri ca l r ed u c t io n as an ad ju n c t to th e o r ig in a l co n ce p -

t io n o f th e ep o ch S . Th e d i f f i cu l ty fo r Hu sse f l ' s ea r l i e r p ro g ram a r i ses wh en

h e a r g u e s t h a t p r e v i o u s s e d i m e n t a t i o n s n o t o n l y d e t e r m i n e o u r

conception

o f

t h e w o r l d b u t f l o w i n t o o u r v e r y s t r u c t u r e s o f p e r c e p t i o n . T h i s a r g u m e n t is

m o s t f u l l y d e v e l o p e d i n t h e p o s t h u m o u s l y e d i t e d Experience and Jud gm ent

(Hu sse r l, 1 9 7 3 ) , b u t i t b ea r s d i r ec t ly o n th e is su es an d am b ig u it ie s o f th e

Crisis.

W e s h o u l d n o t e t h a t C a r r ( 1 9 7 4 ) w a r n s t h a t

Experience and Judgment

was

la rg e ly wr i t t en b y Hu sse r l ' s s tu d en t Lu d wig Lan d g reb e f ro m Hu sse r l ' s n o tes .

C o n s e q u e n t l y , i t i s n o t c l e a r h o w m u c h o f i t r e p re s e n t s H u ss e rl 's o w n l a s t t h o u g h t s

a n d h o w m u c h i t is L a n d g r e b e ' s r e a c t i o n t o t h e a m b i g u it ie s h e p e r c e i v e d i n t h e

Crisis. T h e t e x t e x p l i c i tl y m a k e s a d i s t i n c ti o n b e t w e e n t h e p r e g iv e n ( p r e i n te r -

p r e t e d ) l if e - w o r ld o f both s c ie n c e a n d c o m m o m s en se a n d t h e p u r e l if e -w o r l d

e x p e r i e n c e d p r i o r t o a n y s u c h c o n c e p t u a l i z a t io n s . T h e t e r m

Leb ensw el t i s

r ese rv ed

fo r th is p u re l i fe -wo r ld in

Experience and Judgment.

Hu sser l h ad co n s i s t en t ly

d i s t i n g u i s h e d b e t w e e n p s y c h o l o g y w i t h i n t h e n a t u r a l a t t i t u d e t h a t l o c a t e s c o n -

s c io u s ne s s w i t h i n t h e w o r l d a n d p h e n o m e n o l o g y f o r w h i c h c o n s c io u s n e s s i s

t h e n e c e ss a r y p o i n t o f a c ce ss t o t h e w o r l d s e e n a s t h e i n t e n t i o n a l c o r r e l a t e o f

co n sc io u sn ess. Ev en in th e Crisis h o w e v e r , h e a rg u es t h a t p s y c h o l o g y , p r o p e r l y

u n d e r s t o o d a n d p u s h e d t o i t s l i m i t s , c a n b e a w a y i n t o p h e n o m e n o l o g y .

Exper-

ience and Judgment

d ep ar t s f ro m th is l i n e , r e j ec t in g ev en a p h en o m en o lo g ica l

p sy ch o lo g y in so fa r a s i t i s b ased o n re f l ec t io n a lo n e . Th e o b jec t io n i s th a t su ch

a p s y c h o l o g y r e t u r n s u s m e r e l y t o t h e p r e g i v e n w o r l d t h a t w e s h a r e w i t h o t h e r

m e n o f o u r t i m e . R e f l e c t i o n a lo n e c a n n o t m o v e b e h i n d th e h i s to r ic a l p r e ju d i c e s

t h a t h a v e b e e n i n h e r i t e d t o t h e p r e t h e o r e t i c a l w o r l d t h a t t h e t e x t t e r m s th e l if e-

w o r l d p r o p e r . T h e a r g u m e n t , i n e f f e c t , is t h a t i n o r d e r t o r e c o v e r o u r l if e - w o r ld

w e m u s t m o v e behind o u r s u b j e c t iv i t y t o t h a t o f t h o s e m e n ( e .g ., G a l i le o )

w h o f ir s t f o u n d e d t h e t r a d i ti o n s t h a t w e h a v e in h e r i t e d . O n l y i n t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e ,

i t w o u l d s e e m , c a n w e d i sc o v e r t h e li f e -w o r l d p r i o r t o t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e p t u a li z a -

t i on . T h i s n e w v i s io n o f t h e o b j e c t o f p h e n o m e n o l o g y s e em s t o u n d e r c u t H u s s e rl 's

p r e v io u s m e t h o d o l o g y .


6/17

LEBENSWELT AND LEBENSFORMEN 18 9

T h e p a r a d o x is t h a t Experience and Judgment seem s t o a rgue t ha t t he h i s t o r i ca l

p re jud i ces enc ou n t e re d by t he h i s t o r ica l r ed uc t i on a re so deep a s t o cha l l enge

any

m e t h o d t h a t s e ek s t o el im i n a t e t h e m . A s C a r r ( 1 9 7 4 ) o b s e rv e s , o n t h e o n e h a n d ,

t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e n e c e s s i t y o f t h e h o s t o r i c a l r e d u c t i o n a r e e v e n s t r o n g e r t h a n

t hose o f f e red i n t he Crisis; o n t h e o t h e r hand, Experience and Ju dg m en t r o b s u s

o f th e v e r y m e a n s o f c a rr y i n g o u t th a t r e d u c t i o n ( p .2 2 9 ) . T h e t o n g s e c t io n o f t h e

Crisis

o n G a l i l e o 's r o le i n f o u n d i n g t h e m o d e r n t r a d i t io n o f s c ie n c e a n d p h i l o s o p h y

is m e a n t t o b e a m o d e l o f t h e h i s t o r ic a l r e d u c t i o n . H u s s e rl a s k s u s t o i m a g i n e t h e

w o r l d a s e x p e r i e n c e d p r i o r t o G a l i le o ' s a c c o m p l i s h m e n t , b u t la t e r w o r k d e n i e s th a t

w e c a n d o t h i s . I n s t e a d , Experience and Judgm ent h i n ts t h a t a m e t h o d o f d i s-

m a n t l i n g ( A b b a u ) is n e c e s s a r y , a s t h o u g h t h e G a li le a n i d e a li z a ti o n s c o u l d b e s u b -

t r a c te d f r o m o u r e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e p r e g iv e n w o r l d o f o u r tr a d i t io n t o y i e ld t h e t r u e

l i f e -w or l d a s a r e s i due . Th i s m e t hod o f A b b u a i s no t desc r i bed i n any de t a i l , and

as C a r r ( 1 9 7 4 ) r e m a r k s , t h i s is a f a r c r y f r o m t h e p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l i n si s te n c e

on g ra sp ing i n o r ig i na l i n t u i t i on t he t h i ng i t s e l f (p . 231 ) .

T h e p a r a d o x m a y b e m o r e a p p a r e n t t h a n r e al , h o w e v e r , i f w e c o n s i d er c a re -

f u ll y w h a t H u s s e r l h a s d o n e i n h is s t u d y o f G a l il e o . F a r f r o m m a r k i n g t h e f a l l

f r o m a n u n a d u l t e r a t e d e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e l if e - w o r ld , G a li le o w a s a r e v o l u t i o n a r y

figure

in the

h i s t o r y o f s c i e n c e a n d p h i l o s o p h y . T h a t i s , h e s t o o d b e t w e e n t w o

t r a d it io n s , h a v i n g h i m s e l f i n h e r i te d a n d p a r t i a ll y t ra n s c e n d e d t h e E u c l id e a n t r a d i -

t io n o f g e o m e t r y , t h e r e b y f o u n d i n g t h e t r a d i ti o n o f m o d e r n p h y si c a l s c ie n c e.

Indeed , i t i s Gal i l eo ' s c ruc ia l ro l e in th i s change o f tr a d i ti o n s t h a t m a k e s h i m

e x e m p l a r y a n d l ea d s t o H u s s e r l' s s t u d y . G a l il eo s ta n d s a s p r o o f t h a t m e n b o t h

a l w ays f i nd t hem se l ves w i t h i n a t r ad i t i on

and

a r e c a p a b l e o f a t l e a st p a r t ia l l y

f re e in g t h e m s e l v e s t o e n t e r a n o t h e r . T h i s s e e m s m o r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e e s t ab l is h -

m e n t o f s c ie n c e as d e s c ri b e d i n T h e O rig in o f G e o m e t r y ( H u s s er l, 1 9 7 0 b ,

A p p e n d i x V I ) . W e a g r ee w i t h C a r r ' s c o n c l u s i o n t h a t

'Experience and Judg m ent 's

quas i -h i s t o r i ca l s ea rch fo r som e p r i m i t i ve consc i ousness i n d i r ec t , cu l t u ra l l y

u n m e d i a t e d r e l a t io n t o th e w o r l d w ill n o t d o ( p . 23 5 ) . T h e e x t r a p o l a t io n o f th e

h is to r ic a l r e d u c t i o n t o a p r e c u l t u r a l z e r o - p o i n t r e s t s o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t

h i s to r y i s t h e o r d e r l y a c c u m u l a t i o n a n d s e d i m e n t a t i o n o f s u cc e ss iv e l a y e r s o f a

m o n o l i th i c t r a d i ti o n . T h e v e r y c o n c e p t o f t r a d it io n , h o w e v e r , p r e s u p p o s e s

b r e ak s a n d d i s c o n t i n u it ie s t h a t b o u n d a g i ve n t r a d i t i o n a s

such.

T h e a s s u m p -

t ions of

Experience and Judgment

a r e u n f o u n d e d . T h e a p p a r e n t i m p o s s i b i l i t y

o f c a r ry i n g o u t t h e h i s to r i ca l r e d u c t i o n s t e m s f r o m a n e x a g g e r a t i o n o f t h e r o le

t h at a n y o n e t r a d i ti o n h a s i n s h a p in g t h e r e c e p t a c l e o f l an g u a g e w h i c h e m -

b o d ie s i t a n d t h e r e b y d e t e r m i n e s o u r p e r c e p t i o n . A s w e s h al l s e e , t h is v e r y v i e w

o f la n g u ag e a s a r e c e p t a c l e i t s e lf t e m p t s H u s s e r l t o o v e r s t a t e h i s p o s i t i o n , t h u s

c r ea ti n g t h e p a r a d o x .

N e a r t h e e n d o f t h e

Crisis,

H u s s e rl ( 1 9 7 0 b ) w r i t e s

The life-world - th e world for us all - is identical with the world tha t can be

com mon ly talked ab ou t. Every new apperception leads essentially, through appercep-

tire transference, to a new typification of the surrounding world and in social inter-

course to a nam ing w hich immediately flows into the comm on language. Thus the


7/17

1 9 0 T A Y L O R

wo rld is always such tha t i t can b e em pirically, g enerally (intersubjectively) explicated

and, at the same time, l inguistically explicated. (pp. 209-210)

T h is m a y a p p e a r a t f ir st t o b e a n e n d o r s e m e n t o f so m e f o r m o f o r d i n a r y l an g u a g e

p h i l o s o p h y , b u t i n k e e p i n g w i t h h i s e a rl ie s t v ie w o f la n g u a g e , m e a n i n g is b e -

s t o w e d u p o n t h e c o m m o n la n gu a ge b y a c t s o f c o n s ci o u sn e s s i n ap p e r c ep t iv e

t r a n s f e r e n c e . T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s b o r n e o u t i n l a t e r p a s s a g e s i n w h i c h H u s s e r l

c l e a r ly r e je c ts a n y ( m e r e l y ) li n g u is ti c a n a ly s i s. H e a r g u e s t h a t a g e n u i n e p h e n o -

m e n o l o g i c a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l e p o c h S is n e c e s s a r y a s t h e f ir s t s t e p t o w a r d t h e k i n d

o f i n n e r p e r c e p t i o n r e q ui re d b y a s ci en c e o f p s y c h o l o g y a n d c a u t io n s t h a t

the beginner wh o is bou nd to the t radi tion . . . . s ta rt ing w i th the experience o f the

external a t t i tude (the natural, anthropological su bje ct-o bje ct a t t i tude, the psy -

chomundana at t i tude ), a t f i rst thinks that ( the ep och e) is a m atter of an obvious,

simple pu rif icat ion o f one self from on e 's load of real istic presupposit ions, whereas

the psychic experiential co nte nt is essentially already kn ow n and ev en expressible in

ordinary language. But this is a fundam ental error. If this were correct, o ne would

need only to explicate analytically the experiential co ncep t , derived from com m on

experience, o f m an as a thinking, feeling, acting subject, a subject experiencing

pleasure and pain and the l ike; but that is only the outside so to speak, the surface

of the psychic that part of it which has objectified itself in the external world.

(p.

248, emphasis added)

T h is c o n c e p t i o n o f a n e s se n t ia ll y i n t e r i o r c o n s c i o u s n e s s o b j e c t i f y i n g i ts e l f

( v ia l a n g u ag e , a m o n g o t h e r m e a n s ) i n t h e ( m e r e l y ) e x t e r n a l c o n c e p t s i n te r -

s u b j ec t iv e l y a v a il ab le h a s f a te f u l c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r H u s s e rl 's g o a l a n d m e t h o d o f

p h i l o s o p h y .

W e m a y n o w m o r e f u ll y a p p r ec i at e t h e a r g u m e n t m a d e in T h e O r ig in o f

G e o m e t r y . T h e p r o b l e m o f t h a t e s s ay is s t a te d b y H u s s er l a s f o l lo w s :

Ho w do es l inguist ic em bod im ent make o ut the merely intrasubjective structure the

objective

structure wh ich, e.g., as geometrical co nc ep t or state o f affairs, is in fact

present as understandable b y all an d is valid, already in its l inguistic expression as

geom etrical speech, as geometrical proposition, fo r all the fu ture in its geom etrical

sense? (p. 358)

H u s s er l ( 1 9 7 0 b ) is c o n c e r n e d t o s h o w h o w t h e i n t r a p s y c h i c a l l y c o n s t i t u t e d

s t r u c t u r e t h a t t h e i n d iv i d u a l g e o m e t e r f o r m u l a t e s is t r a n s f o r m e d in t o a n i n t e r -

s u b j ec t iv e b e i n g o f i ts o w n a s a n id e a l o b j e c t ( p . 3 5 9 ) o f g e o m e t r y . H i s s o l u t i o n

is t h a t m a n k i n d , a s a c o m m u n i t y o f e m p a t h y a n d l a n g u a g e is c a p a b le o f r e -

c i p r o c a l l in g u i s ti c u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h e r e i n t h e r e is a s e l f - e v id e n t c o n s c i o u s n e s s

o f t h e id e n t i t y o f t h e m e n t a l s t r u c tu r e s in t h e p r o d u c t i o n s o f b o t h t h e r e c ei v er

o f th e c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d th e c o m m u n i c a t o r ( p . 3 6 0 ) . W r it te n r e c o rd s e x t e n d

t h e s c o p e o f t h is sh a r in g o f m e n t a l s tr u c t u r e s s in c e o n c e t h e se h a v e b e e n c o m -

m i t t e d t o w r i t t e n f o r m , t h e r e a d e r c a n m a k e i t s e l f- e v i d e n t a g a i n , c a n r e a c ti v a t e

t h e s e l f - e v i d e n c e ( p . 3 6 1 ) . G e n e r a l l y , h o w e v e r , o n e m e r e l y p a ss i v e ly a n d u n -

r e f le c t iv e l y a p p r o p r i a t e s t h e m e a n i n g s s e d i m e n t e d i n a t r a d i t i o n . T h i s r e s u lt s in

t h e p o s s i b i li t y o f s ci e n c e a n d c u l t u r e a n d t h e n e e d f o r t h e h is t o r i c a l r e d u c t i o n

t o re sis t t h e s e d u c t i o n o f l a n g u a g e ( p . 3 6 2 ) . W e s ee t h e n t h a t H u s s e r l 's c o n c e p -


8/17

L E B E NS W E L T A N D L E B E N S F O R M E N 1 9 1

t i o n o f l ang u ag e cap tu res m an y essent ia l f ea tu res o f h i s p h i lo so p h y . I t is l a rg e ly

in t e rm s o f th is th a t we sh al l co m p are Hu sse rl an d Wi t tg en s te in in th e fo l lo win g

sect ion .

II

Whi le a co m par ison o f H usser l and W it tgenste in reveals m an y s imi lar i t ies as

wel l a s d i f f e ren ces , we w i l l b e co n cern ed p r imar i ly w i th th e p ro b lems th a t

Hu sse rl 's c o n c ep t io n s o f l ang u ag e an d ce r t a in ty c rea te fo r hi s p ro g ram , as seen

f ro m th e s t an d p o in t o f W i t tg en s te in 's q u i t e d i f f e re n t views. We will a rg u e th a t

Hu sse rl 's g o a l o f e lu c id a t in g th e essen ti a l s t ru c tu res o f a u n i t a ry

L e b e n s w e l t v ia

t h e r i g o r o u s s c i e n c e o f p h e n o m e n o l o g y r e f le c t s t o a g r e a te r d e g re e t h a n h e

a p p a r e n t l y r e a li z ed t h e v e r y s c i e n ti f ic c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e w o r l d t h a t h e s o u g h t t o

g ro u n d . Pu rsu in g th e co n seq u en ces o f th i s v i s io n , h e t en d s to ab so lu t i ze ce r t a in

o f h is d i sco v er ies (su ch as th e h i s to r i c i ty o f co n sc io u sn ess ). A p ic tu re ad eq u a te

to o n e asp ec t o f h i s p ro b lem i s i l leg i t ima te ly ex te n d e d ; t r ad i t io n b ec o m es a

b ar r i e r r a th e r th an a m ean s o f access to r ea l i ty . Th e ad v an tag e o f us in g W i ttg en -

s t e in ' s co n cep t io n o f l an g u ag e an d p h i lo so p h y to u n d ers t an d Hu sse r l ' s v i ews i s

th a t W i t tg en s te in , wh i le r esp ec t in g th e d ee p - ro o ted n eed to em p lo y su ch u n iv e rsa l

v is ions , was acu te ly aware o f the p rob lem s th at th is cou ld create . His goal, l ike

Husser l 's , was the exp l ica t io n and c lar i f ica t ion o f bas ic ph i loso phical p rob le m s.

His meth o d , h o wev er , wh i l e a l so d esc r ip t iv e , was a lmo s t d i amet r i ca l ly o p p o sed

to Hu sse rl 's an d m o re su i t ed to h i s o w n task o f d i s so lv in g ra th e r th an so lv -

in g p h i lo so p h ica l p ro b lem s .

W h en Hu sse rl (1 9 7 0 b ) s t a t es th a t th e cen t ra l g o a l o f th e Crisis is t h e c o r r e c t

c o m p r e h e n s i o n o f t h e e s se n c e o f t h e l i f e -w o r l d a n d t h e m e t h o d o f a ' s c ie n t i fi c '

t r ea tm en t ap p ro p r i a t e to i t (p . 1 2 3 ) , h e seems to sug gest th a t th is sc i e n ce

will b e b o th l ik e an d u n lik e o th e r sc ien ces. As a sc i en ce o f th e es s en ce o f t h e

l if e -wo r ld , i t is co n t in u o u s w i th H u sse rl 's v i s io n o f p h en o m en o l o g y as a r ig o ro u s

sc ien ce , wh ere th e r ig o r is a ssu red as m u c h b y th e id ea l o f a u n i t a ry ( t r an s -

c e n d e n t a l) s t r u c t u r e o f e x p e r i e n c e a s b y t h e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n l e s s m e t h o d . T h a t

is , Hu sse r l i s i n t e res t ed in an ex p l i ca t io n o f th e essent ia l s t ru c tu res o f th e l if e -

wo r ld ( tak en as a u n i f i ed o b jec t o f in q u i ry ) i n pr inc ip le as a th eo re t i ca l t a sk

w i t h n o ne c e s s a r y p r a c t i c a l m o t i v a t i o n . I n c o n t r a s t , W i tt g e n st e in ' s ( 1 9 6 8 )

t h e r a p e u t i c c o n c e p t i o n o f p h i l o s o p h y s tr es se s t h e pl u r a li ty o f L e b e n s f o r m e n

and S p r a ch s p i e l e f o r m s o f l i fe a n d la n gu a ge ga m e s w h i c h a re m e a n t t o b r i n g

in to p ro m in en c e th e f ac t th a t th e sp eak in g o f lan g uag e is p a r t o f an ac t iv i ty , o r

a fo rm o f l i f e (# 2 3 ) . 2 Ev en in th e T r a c t a t u s L o g i c o - P h i l o s o p h i c u s w h e r e h e

p o s i ted a u n i t a ry t ru e lo g ica l fo rm fo r l ang u ag e , W i t tg en s te in a lso in s is t ed th a t

ev ery d a y l an gu ag e is in o rd e r a s i t i s an d

r eq u i r e s

an a ly s i s o n ly fo r ce r t a in

2Ci t a t i ons e m p l oy i ng # ' r e f e r t o num be r e d pa r a g r a phs i n t he w o r ks c i t e d . E l s e w he r e ,

the re fe rence is to page n um bers ,


9/17

1 9 2 T A Y L O R

r e a s o n s ( e . g ., i ts u s e i n f o r m u l a t i n g t h e o r i e s i n t h e n a t u r a l s c ie n c e s ) . H i s l a t e r

w o r k ( W i tt g e n st ei n , 1 9 6 8 ) r e sts o n t h e c o n v i c t i o n t h a t " p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r o b l e m s

a ri se w h e n l an g u a g e g o e s o n h o l i d a y " ( # 3 8 ) ; a n d t h a t , c o n s e q u e n t l y , p h i l o s o p h i c a l

a n a l y s i s i s n e i t h e r r e q u i r e d n o r p o s s i b l e " i n p r i n c i p l e " ( a s a t h e o r e t i c a l p u r s u i t

i n it s o w n r ig h t ) . L a n g u a g e g a m e s a n d f o r m s o f l if e a re t o b e u n d e r s t o o d i n t h is

c o n t e x t a s s i m p l if ie d i d e a l iz a t io n s

tai lored to

g iv e n p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r o b l e m s . T h e y

a re c o n s t r u c t e d t o r e m i n d u s o f f ea tu r e s o f o r d in a r y u s ag e , n o t t o " s e c u r e " s u c h

p r a c t i c e s b y r e v e al in g t h e i r " e s s e n c e . "

A l t h o u g h H u s s er l ( 1 9 7 0 b ) d e c la r es t h a t " t h e p o i n t is n o t t o s e c u re o b j e c t i v i ty

b u t t o u n d e r s t a n d i t " ( p . 1 8 9 ) , h e r e je c ts t h e c la i m s t o c e r t a i n t y o f m e r e o p i n i o n

w h i c h " h a s i ts g r o u n d i n th e p r eg i v e n w o r l d , " r e q u i r in g i n st e a d a m e t h o d t h a t

s ta n d s " a b o v e " t h e w o r l d in o r d e r t o r e n d e r i t a " p h e n o m e n o n " f o r s t u d y (p .

1 5 2 ). I n e f f e c t, t h e n a iv e " g r o u n d i n g " o f t h e n a t u r a l a t t it u d e is s u s p e n d e d , o n l y

t o r e tu r n a s s e cu r e d b y t h e p e r s p ic u i ty o f th e p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l m e t h o d w h i c h

s u r v ey s i t f r o m " a b o v e . " M u c h o f W i tt g e n s t e in ' s l a te r w o r k w a s i n t e n d e d t o

s h o w t h a t t h e c e r t a in t i es o f e v e r y d a y lif e a n d t h o s e o f l o g ic a n d m a t h e m a t i c s d i d

n o t i n f a c t r e q u ir e su c h " g r o u n d i n g " ( w h e t h e r f r o m " a b o v e " o r " b e l o w " ) . T h u s ,

in r e s p o n se t o t h e p h i lo s o p h e r ' s c o n v i c t i o n th a t m a t h e m a t i c s " m u s t " b e b a se d

o n l o g ic , W i t tg e n s t e i n ( 1 9 6 7 ) r e m a r k s t h a t i t is n o t l o g i c t h a t c o m p e l s u s t o

a c c e p t r e s u lt s o f a c a l c u la t io n , b u t r a t h e r t h a t s o m e t h i n g c o m p e l s u s " t o a c c e p t

s u c h a p r o p o s i t i o n a s i n a c c o r d w i t h l o g i c " ( p . 7 3 ). T o s ee w h a t t h i s " s o m e t h i n g "

is f o r W i tt g e n s te i n , w e m u s t t u r n t o s p e c i fi c e x a m p l e s o f h is t h e r a p e u t i c p r a c t ic e .

I n o n e c a se , W i tt g e n s te i n ( 1 9 6 7 ) a sk s u s t o c o n s i d e r w h a t m i g h t h a p p e n i f

o u r r u l er s w e r e m a d e o f s o m e e l as ti c m a t e r i a l:

So if yo u had measured the table with th e elastic rulers and said it measured five feet

by our usual w ay o f m easur ing, yo u wou ld be wrong; bu t i f you say tha t i t measured

five feet by yo ur way of measuring, that is correct. - "B ut surely th at isn' t m easuring

at a ll " - It is similar to ou r measuring and capable, in certain circumstances, o f ful-

fi l l ing "practical purposes". (A shop-keeper might use i t to treat different customers

differently.) (p. 4)

T h e i n t e r l o c u t o r ' s o b j e c t i o n i s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e . I t is r e p e a t e d , w i t h a s i m i la r

r e p l y , in t h e

Phi losophical Inves t igat ions

( W i t t g e n s t e i n , 1 9 6 8 ) .

"So yo u are saying that hum an agreement decides wh at is t rue and wh at is false?" -

I t is w hat hum an beings

say

that is t rue and false; and they agree in the language the y

use. Th at is no t agreement in opinions bu t in form s o f l ife . (# 24 1)

What has to be accepted, the given i s . . .

forms o f l ife

(p. 226)

A g r e e m e n t i n f o r m s o f lif e ( e. g. , m e a s u r e m e n t f o r " p r a c t ic a l p u r p o s e s " ) i s t h e

basis for

( d i s ) a g r e e m e n t s t h a t c a n i n t e l li g i b ly a ris e w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f s u c h

s h a r ed p r a c ti c es . I n t h e c as e a t h a n d , " t h e e s t a b l is h m e n t o f a m e t h o d o f m e a s u r e -

m e n t i s

an t e c e de n t

t o t h e c o r r e ct n e ss o r in c o r r e ct n e s s o f a s t a t e m e n t o f le n g t h "

( W i t t g en s t e in , 1 9 6 7 , p . 4 5 ) . F o r th e s a m e re a s o n , a n " a r it h m e t i c a l p r o p o s i t ) o n

w o u l d n o t b e

fa l se

b u t u s el es s, i f c o n f u s i o n s u p e r v e n e d " ( p . 9 8 ) . I n t h e ab se J~ ce


10/17

LEBENSWELT AND LEBENSFORMEN 193

o f s u c h c o n f u s i o n , n o o t h e r g r o u n d i n g is n e c e s s a ry . A n a l y s is m a y b e u n d e r -

t a k e n o n t h e o c c a s io n o f a n d in o r d e r t o d is p el c o n f u s i o n , b u t n o g ro u n d i n g in

principle is n e e d e d , n o r c o u l d a d d i t i o n a l c e r t a i n t y b e s e c u r e d b y s u ch m e a n s

in t hose ca ses w h e re co n fus i on does no t a r is e .

T h e d i s t in c t io n b e t w e e n W i tt g e n s te i n 's a n d H u s s e rl 's c o n c e p t i o n s o f p h i l o s o p h y

is n ic e ly e m b o d i e d i n t h e i r d i f f e r e n t u s e s o f g e o lo g i ca l m e t a p h o r s . W e h a v e se e n

t h a t t h e e x t r e m e v e r s io n o f H u s s e r I 's v i ew o f t r a d it i o n e m p l o y s t h e n o t i o n t h a t

l a y er s o f t r a d i t i o n a r e d e p o s i t e d v i a a p r e s u m e d u n i f o r m p r o c e s s o f s e d i m e n t a t io n .

P r o b l em s a r is e i n t h e e f f o r t t o f i n d a n e q u a l l y u n i f o r m m e t h o d t o r e v e r se ( a n d

t h e r e b y e s c a p e ) t h is p r o ce s s . W i tt g e n s t e in ' s ( 1 9 6 9 ) m e t a p h o r a ls o m a k e s

r e f er e n c e t o t h e i n f lu e n c e o f t r a d i ti o n o n p e r c e p t i o n , b u t w i t h a n i m p o r t a n t

d i f f e rence :

The river-bed of thoughts may shift. But I distinguish between the m ovem ent of the

waters on the river-bed and the shift of the bed itself: though there is not a sharp

division o f the on e from the o ther. (# 97 )

The r i ve rbed i s a m e t a ph or fo r t he fo r m o f l if e t ha t de f i nes t he scope o f , e. g .,

d o u b t o r b e l i e f a p p r o p r i a t e t o a n y g i v en l an g u a g e g a m e . A s s u c h, t h is b e d r o c k

is i ts e l f b e y o n d d o u b t ( s e e b e l o w ) . I t s e ts t h e c o u r s e f o r o u r m o v e s i n a

l anguage gam e a s t he r i ve rbe d de t e rm i nes t he co u r se o f t he r i ve r. In b o t h ca ses ,

h o w e v e r , t h e b o u n d a r i e s a r e i n d e t e r m i n a t e , t h o u g h a s t h e e x a m p l e o f t h e e l as ti c

ru le r i ll u s t ra t e s , t hey can be u se fu l fo r p rac t i ca l pu rpo ses . Changes occ u r i n

b o t h k i n d s o f b e d r o c k , o f t e n w i t h u n f o r s e e n c o n s e q u e n c e s . Su~ h e x t e n s i o n s

r es u lt i n e v e r y d a y u s ag e s l o o s e l y r e l a te d in te r m s o f f a m i l y r e s e m b l a n c e s ( a s

in th e c a s e o f th e t e r m g a m e ) ( W i t tg e n s t ei n , 1 9 6 8 , # 6 7 ) . L i n e s c a n b e d r a w n ,

bounda r i e s m ade a r t i f i ca l l y c l ea r fo r l imi t ed p u r p o s e s , b u t t h e s e d e f i n i t e b o u n d a -

r i e s a r e no m ore general ly u s e f u l o r c e r t a i n t h a n a r e t h e i n d e f i n i t e o n e s w h i c h

p re c ed e t h e m . A s W i ttg e n ste in o b se rv e s, ' i n e x a c t ' . . . d o e s n o t m e a n ' u n u s a b l e '

( 8 8 ) .

C e n t r al t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e t w o c o n c e p t i o n s o f p h i l o s o p h y is t h e

is su e o f c e r t a i n t y h i n t e d a t i n t h e e x a m p l e a b o v e . H u s s e r l 's r e t u r n t o t h e

t h in g s t h e m s e l v e s h a s a s i ts i d e al t h e u n m e d i a t e d i n t u i t i o n o f c l e a r a n d

d i s t in c t e n t i ti e s p r e s e n t t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s ) W i tt g e n s t e in ' s d i sc u s si o n o f c e r t a i n t y

c o n s t i tu t e s a s u s t a in e d c h a ll en g e t o th e n o t i o n t h a t t h e o b j e c t s o f e x p e r i e n c e

are or n e e d b e c l e a r a n d d i s t i n c t a n d p r e s e n t t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n o r d e r t o b e

e x p e r i e n c e d . I n

On Certainty

h e ta k e s u p G . E . M o o r e ' s d ef e n se o f t h e c o m m o n -

s en se c e r t a i n t y e x p r e s s e d b y p r o p o s i t i o n s s u c h as I k n o w t ha t t h i s i s m y r i gh t

h a n d . A c c o r d i n g t o M o o r e , i f w e c a l l i n t o q u e s t i o n s u c h b a s ic c e r t a in t i e s , t h e n

n o t h i n g c a n b e s a fe f r o m s k e p t ic i s m . W i tt g e n st e in w o u l d h a r d l y d is a g re e t h a t w e

e x p e r i e n c e s u c h c e r t a i n t y - a n d t h a t i t is e s s e n ti a l t o o u r n o r m a l w a y o f l if e , b u t

h e w i s h e s t o s h o w t h a t t h e r e a r e g o o d r e a s o n s f o r n o t c o n s i d e r i n g t h i s t o b e a

3Derrida's (1973) critique dwells at some length on this

conception


11/17

194 TA Y LO R

f u n c t io n o f w h a t M o o r e ( o r a n y o n e e ls e ) s a ys h e k n o w s o r b e l ie v e s . R a t h e r ,

t h e c e r t a i n t y t h a t M o o r e e x p re s s e s r e f le c t s t h e g r a m m a r o f a l an g u a g e g a m e

t h a t s i m p l y e x c l u d e s t h e i n te l li g ib i li ty o f d o u b t i n t h e a b s e n c e o f e x t r a o r d i n a r y

c i r c u m s t a n c e s . S u c h c e r t a i n t y is n o t k n o w l e d g e ( a n d , h e n c e , i t d o e s n o t b e -

l o n g t o M o o r e o r a n y o n e e ls e ), n o r w o u l d t o c ha l le n g e s u c h c e r t a i n t y b e m e r e l y

d o u b t ( a s M o o r e r e a li ze s ). T h i s c e r t a i n t y c o n s t i t u t e s t h e g a m e w i t h in w h i c h

k n o w l e d g e a n d d o u b t a r e m o v e s ( W i t tg e n s te i n , 1 9 6 9 ) :

A dou bt abou t existence only w orks in a language-game. (#2 4)

The child learns by believing h e adult. D oubt com es af ter belief. (#160).

Moore does no t

k n ow

what h e asserts he knows, but i t stands fast for him, as also for

me; regarding it as

absolutely

solid is part of o ur

methods

of doubt and certainty,

( # l S l )

T h i s is m o r e t h a n a t e r m i n o l o g i c a l q u i b b l e , f o r i f w e d e c i d e w i t h M o o r e t h a t

h i s c e r t a i n t y i s a f o r m o f k n o w l e d g e , t h e n w e h a v e s t a n d a r d s o f e v i d e n c e w h i c h

a r e a p p li c a b le . I f w e c a n im a g i n e t h a t h e f ail s t o m e e t t h e se s t a n d a r d s , t h e n h e

c o u l d b e w r o n g , t h e s u b j e c ti v e f e e li n g o f h i s c e r t a i n t y n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g . T h e w a y

is in d e e d o p e n t o s k e p t ic i s m . A l t er n a ti v e ly , w e m a y d e m a n d t h a t c e r t a i n ty b e

t h e g ro u n d i n g o f a ll k n o w l e d g e in th e i n t u i t io n o f ' cl e ar a n d d i s t i n c t o b j e c t s .

B u t i n W i tt g e n s t e in ' s ( 1 9 6 9 ) v i e w , W h a t s ta n d s f a s t d o e s s o , n o t b e c a u s e i t i s

i n t r in s i ca l ly o bv i ou s o r conv i nc i ng : i t is r a t he r he l d f a s t b y w ha t l ie s a ro un d i t

( # 1 4 4 ) . T h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n t p r o p o s i t io n s ( w h e t h e r f o r m a l o r e m p i r ic a l ) t h a t

c o n s t i tu t e t h e g r a m m a r o f o u r l an g u a ge g a m e s a re f u n d a m e n t a l p r e c is e ly i n

t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e y d e t e r m i n e w h a t w e a c c e p t a s e v i d en c e a n d n e e d no t g i ve

w a y b e f o r e a n y c o n t r a r y e v i d e n c e ( # 6 5 7 ) . T h a t t h e y s o f u n c t io n is t h e re s u lt

o f o u r s o u s in g t h e m :

w e could do ubt every single one o f these facts, bu t w e could not dou bt

t h ema l l .

W ouldn't i t be m ore correct to say: w e do no t doub t them all . Our not doubting

them all is simply ou r m anne r o f judging , and the refore o f acting. (~i~232)

N e i t h e r M o o r e ' s p e r s o n a l c o n v i c t i o n n o r H u s s e r l 's i n p r i n c ip l e e x p l i c a t i o n o f

g e n e r a l e s s e n c e s c a n s e c u r e a n y c e r t a i n t y o v e r a n d a b o v e t h a t e m b o d i e d i n o u r

v e r y m e t h o d s o f ju d g in g a n d a c ti ng .

F o r W i tt g e n s te i n , g r a m m a r is a s c e n t r a l a c o n c e p t a s e s s e n c e is f o r H u s s e r l ,

a n d t h e i r r e s p e c t iv e ro l e s i n th e t w o c o n c e p t i o n s o f p h i l o s o p h y a r e i n s o m e w a y s

a n a l o g o u s . I n d e e d , a c c o r d i n g t o W i t t g e n s t e i n ( 1 9 6 8 ) ,

' E ssence

i s e x p r e s s e d b y

g r a m m a r ( # 3 7 1 ) . I t is i m p o r t a n t t o se e h o w t h is r e l a te s t o h is d i s ti n c t io n b e -

t w e e n c e r t a in t y a n d k n o w l ed g e . T o b e g in w i th , e x p e r i e n c e d o e s n o t d i re c t u s t o

d e r iv e a n y t h i n g f r o m e x p e r i e n c e ( W i tt g e n s te i n , 1 9 6 9 , # 1 3 0 ) , o r , a s H a c k e r

( 1 9 7 3 ) e x p l ai n s , i t is g r a m m a r w h i c h e x c lu d e s d o u b t , n o t e x p e r i e n c e ( p . 2 4 5 ) .

A g r e e m e n t i n f o r m s o f l if e is n o t d e r i v ed f r o m e x p e r i e n c e , b u t r a t h e r d e t e r m i n e s

w h a t c o u n t s a s e x p e r i e n c e w i t h in a g iv e n l a n g u a g e g a m e . E l u c i d a ti n g t h e p a r a m -

e t e rs o f a l an g u a g e g a m e r e ve a ls i ts g r a m m a r . O u r c o n v i c t i o n s a n d d o u b t s

f o r m s y s t e m s t h a t a r e n o t t h e m s e l v e s t h e r e s u lt o f o u r in d i v id u a l e x p e r i e n c e s . I t


12/17


is in t h is s e n se t h a t g r a m m a r e x p r e s s e s ' e s se n c e , t h a t i s, t h e p r e s u p p o s e d c o n -

d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h a n y o n e w h a t s o e v e r c a n l a y c l a i m t o k n o w l e d g e , e x p e r i e n c e

doub t s , e t c . , i n te l li g ib l y . M oor e ' s f ee li ng o f ce r t a i n t y i s t he c onse que nce , n o t

t he b a s is , o f t h e l o g i c o f d o u b t a n d b e l i e f t h a t t h e g r a m m a r r e ve a ls . T h e c e r -

t a i n ty e x p r e s s e d b y M o o r e i s a l o g i c a l a n d n o t a p s y c h o l o g i c a l o n e ( W i t tg e n -

s t e i n , 1 9 6 9 , # 4 4 7 ) .

W i tt g e n s te i n 's c o n c e p t i o n o f c e r t a i n t y t h r o w s i n to r e l i e f t h e p r o b l e m s c r e a t e d

b y H u s s e r l 's e p o c h ~ a n d t h e c la i m s t h a t h e m a k e s f o r i ts a b i l it y t o g r o u n d

n a i v e e x p e r i e n c e . A l t h o u g h m o d e l e d o n t h e d i s t a n c i n g f r o m n a i v e e x p e r i e n c e

a c h ie v e d i n m u n d a n e d o u b t , H u s s e r l c o n s id e r s t h e e p o c h ~ a su s p e n s i o n o f b o t h

d o u b t a n d c e r t a i n t y . T h a t s u c h a s u s p e n s i o n c a n b e e f f e c t e d re s t s o n t h e e x p l i c i t

a s s u m p ti o n t h a t b o t h d o u b t a n d c e r t a i n t y a re ( o r c a n b e m a d e t o b e ) t h e s e s

pos i t i ng t he w or l d a s c e r t a in o r d o u b t e d . W i tt g e n s t e in ' s r e m a r k s c h a ll e n ge t h e

i n te ll ig i bi li ty o f th i s a s s u m p t i o n . W e h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n w h y a d o u b t t h a t d o u b t e d

e v e r y t h in g w o u l d n o t b e a d o u b t ( W i tt g e n s te i n , 1 9 6 9 , # 4 5 0 ) . T h i s is b e c a u s e

the ques t ions that w e raise and ou r d o u b t s depend o n the fa ct tha t som e propositions

are exem pt from doubt, are as it were like hinges on which those turn. B ut it isn't

that the situation is like this: We ju st c a n t investigate everything, and for tha t reason

we are forced to rest content with assump tion. If we want the d oo r to t urn , the hinges

must stay put. My l i fe consists in m y being content to accept many things. (#34 1,

343 -44 )

One cannot m ake certain experiments i f there are no t some things that o ne does no t

dou bt. Bu t th at does no t m ean tha t one takes certain p resu ppositions on trust. (:/~i/Y337)

H ere Wi t t gens t e i n i s po i n t i ng t o a c ruc i a l a s y m m e t r y b e t w e e n c e r t a i n t y a n d

d o u b t t h a t H u s s e r t' s a s s u m p t i o n o b s c u re s . K n o w i n g a n d d o u b t i n g a r e m o v e s

w i th in t h e p r e s u p p o s e d c e r t a i n t y o f a la n g u a g e g a m e w h i c h g iv es t h e m t h e i r i n-

t e l l i g i b i l i t y . Th i s ce r t a i n t y i t s e l f , how eve r , i s ne i t he r know l edge no r t he absence

o f d o u b t . W e m a y k n o w h o w t o p l a y c h es s w i t h o u t c o n s t a n tl y t h in k in g a b o u t

it , b u t d o u b t i n g m e a n s t h i n k i n g ( # 4 8 0 ) . H u s s er l is p e r h a p s c o r r e c t t o c o n ce i v e

o f d o u b t i n g a s a c o n s c i o u s n e g a t iv e j u d g m e n t m a d e o f a n e x p l i c it t he s is . T h e

d i f f ic u l ty a ri se s f r o m h is c o n c e p t i o n o f a p o d i c t i c c e r t a i n t y a s a k i n d o f c l e a r

a n d d i s t i n c t s e e in g f r o m w h i c h e m p i r i c a l d o u b t , b e li e f , k n o w l e d g e , e t c . , ar e

de r ived a s m od es o f th i s o r ig i na l i n t u i ti ve g i venness . I f c e r t a i n t y is t he g rou nd

r a th e r t h a n t h e o p p o s i t e o f d o u b t , t h e n H u s s e r l 's b r a c k e t i n g o f b o t h is n o t

n e u t r a l a s i t w o u l d b e w e r e t h e y o p p o s i n g t h e se s .

T h e a s y m m e t r y b e t w e e n c e r t a i n t y a n d d o u b t a ls o c alls i n t o q u e s t io n t h e c la i m

t h at a m e t h o d s u rv e y in g t h e n a t u r al a t t it u d e f r o m a b o v e c a n s e c u r e t h e naive

c e r t a i n ty o f n o r m a l e x p e r i e n c e . C o n s i d e r t h e ca s e o f t h e n a t iv e s p e a k e r w h o s a y s

T h i s is r e d a n d t h e l in g u i s t w h o r e p o r t s t h a t I n la n g u a g e X , o b j e c t b is c a ll ed

' r e d . ' A s W i tt g e n s te i n ( 1 9 6 9 ) o b s e r v e s , a n E n g l is h m a n w h o c a lls t h is c o l o r ' re d

is no t ' su re i t is c a l led r e d ' in En g l i sh (# 52 7) . Th e l anguage gam e o f r ep o r t i ng

t ha t an ob j ec t i s ca l l ed a ce r t a i n co l o r i n a g i ven l anguage i s pa ra s i t i c on t he

m o r e b a s ic la n g u a g e g a m e o f k n o w i n g h o w t o u s e c o l o r n a m e s i n t h e l a n g u a g e .


13/17

196 TAYLOR

A ch i ld f i rs t l ea rn s a p e r so n ' s o r th in g 's n ame an d o n ly l a t e r th a t i t i s ca l l ed

su ch -an d -su ch . I f t h e p r io r g ame can ex i s t p e r fec t ly we l l w i th o u t th e o th e r , t h e n

n o th in g in th e wa y o f ce r t a in ty is secu red fo r th e f o rm er b y an an a ly s i s a lo n g

th e l in es o f th e l a t t e r . Th e l in gu i st , o f co u rse , h as h is r easo n s fo r so s tu d y in g th e

nat ives ' language, and the nat ives may in tu rn appropr ia te h is resu l t s fo r p ract ica l

ac t iv i t ies such as develop ing a wr i t ten language. In t ime, the nat ives may agree

tha t th is co lo r i s spel led ' r ' 'e ' 'd ' , hav ing ass imi la ted the wr i t te n language. B ut

onc e again , t he y wi ll no t be say ing tha t the y are su re i t i s spel led ' r ' ' e ' 'd ' .

Th e sp e l l in g , l i k e th e n amin g b e fo re i t , w i l l b e g ro u n d ed in th e u n ch a l l en g ed

cer t a in ty o f ev e ry d a y p rac t i ce fo r wh ich n o f u r th e r g ro u n d in g is p o ssib le o r n ec -

essary .

In Wi t tg en s te in ' s co n cep t io n o f p h i lo so p h y , an ex p l i ca t io n o f th e

L e b e n s w e l t

su ch as H u sser l p ro p o ses is u n n ecessa ry ex ce p t fo r l im i t ed , th e rap eu t i c p u rp o ses .

T h a n d a n g e r . . , is o n e o f g iv in g a j u s ti f ic a t io n o f o u r p r o c e d u r e w h e re t h e re is

n o su ch th in g as a ju s t i f i ca t io n an d we o u g h t s imp ly to h av e sa id :

t h a t' s h o w w e

d o i t ( 1 9 6 7 , p . 9 8 ). L a n g u a ge ga m e s ar e t o b e r e g a rd e d a s p r o t o - p h e n o m e n a

( 1 9 6 8 , # 6 5 4 ) f o r w h i c h c e r t a i n t y is n o t s e c u r ed , b u t r a t h e r r e v e a le d b y a n al y si s:

T h e q u e s t i o n i s n o t o n e o f e x p la i n in g a l a ng u ag e -g a m e b y m e a n s o f o u r e x p e r -

i e nc e s , b u t o f n o t i n g a l an g u a ge - ga m e ( 1 9 6 8 , # 6 5 5 ) . A l an g ua g e g a m e i s o n l y

p o ss ib le i f o n e t r u s t s s o m e t h i n g ( I d i d n o t s a y c a n t r u s t s o m e t h i n g ) ( 1 9 6 9 ,

# 5 0 9 ) . W e c a n h a v e n o f u r t h e r g r o u n d s f o r t h e v e r y t h i n g s t h a t a r e t h e m s e l v e s

o u r g ro u n d s . A l an g uag e g ame 'is n o t b ased o n g ro u n d s . I t is n o t r easo n ab le (o r

u n reaso n ab le ) . I t is t h e re - l ik e o u r l i f e (1 9 6 9 , # 5 5 9 ) . W i t tg en s te in (1 9 6 9 ) say s

th a t h e w an t s to co n ce iv e i t a s so m eth in g th a t li es b e y o n d b e in g ju s t i f i ed o r

u n j u s t i f i e d ( # 3 5 3 ) . A s s u c h , n o t h i n g I c o u l d p r o d u c e i n s u p p o r t o f m y c e r t a i n t y

wo u ld a d d to it : m y h avin g two h an d s is , i n n o rm al c ir cu mstan ce s , a s ce r t a in

as an y th in g th a t I co u ld p ro d u ce in ev id en ce fo r i t. Th a t is w h y I am n o t in a

p o s i t io n t o t a k e t h e s ig h t o f m y h a n d a s e v i de n c e f o r i t ( # 2 5 0 ) . O n l y i f t h is

c e r t a i n t y w e r e m y c e r t a i n t y , s o m e t h i n g I k n o w , w o u l d i t b e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r

o t h e r s t o c o n s i d e r m y e v id e n c e f o r k n o w i n g i t. T h i s c e r t a i n t y i s n o t m y c e r t a i n t y ,

h o w e v e r . I t n e e d s n o e v i d en c e b e c a u se i t is t h e g r o u n d o f w h a t c o u l d c o u n t a s

m y ev id en ce . In d i r ec t co n t ras t t o Hu sse r l' s emp h as i s o n see in g c l ea r ly in

d i rec t in tu i t io n , W i t tg en s te in (1 9 6 9 ) a rg ues th a t

giving grounds . . . justifying the evidence, co m es to an end; - bu t the end is not

certain prop ositions' striking us im me diately as true, i.e., it is no t a k ind

o f see in g

on

our part; it is our acting, wh ich lies at the bo tto m o f th e language-game. (:/~204)

Ph i lo so p h y , l an g u age , an d ce r t a in ty a re c lo se ly r e l a t ed , in st r ik in g ly d i f f e r en t

way s , fo r bo th W it tgenste in and Husserl . In the la t ter ' s case , ce r ta in ty is the un-

m e d i a t e d i n t u i t i o n o f e s s en c e th a t p h i l o s o p h y y i e ld s b y s u s p e n d in g t h e n a t u r a l

a t t i t u d e . Lan g u ag e , l i k e t r ad i t io n , i s a b a r r i e r to p h i lo so p h ica l in q u i ry r a th e r

t h a n i ts m e d i u m a n d o b j e c t . F o r W i tt g e ns t ei n , c e r t a i n t y i s t h e u n g r o u n d e d g r o u n d

th a t co n s t i tu t es ev e ry lang uage g ame, an d p h i lo so p h y d i s so lv es i t s o w n p ro b -

l ems b y re tu rn in g u s to th e d e ta il s o f ev ery d ay p rac t i ce . Ph i lo so p h ica l co n fu s io n


14/17


a rise s w h e n w e e x t r a p o l a t e p i c t u r e s o f o u r e v e r y d a y p r a c t ic e b e y o n d t h e l i m i t e d

a re a s o f t h e i r a p p l i c a ti o n : w e a re i n c li n e d to ta k e t h e m e a s u r e m e n t o f l e n g t h

w i th a f o o t r u l e a s a m o d e l e v e n f o r th e m e a s u r e m e n t o f th e d i s ta n c e b e t w e e n

t w o s t a r s ( 1 9 6 7 , p . 6 7 ) . I n H u s s e r l 's c a s e, t h e c e r t a i n t y o f u n m e d i a t e d i n t u i t i o n

i s t a k e n t o b e c e r t a i n t y

t o u t c o u r t

a n d h e d e m a n d s o f h is m e t h o d t h a t t h i s ty p e

o f c e r t a i n ty b e t h e g r o u n d a n d t h e g o al o f a p r e s u p p o s i t io n l e s s p h i l o s o p h y .

T h e d a n g e r w i t h s u c h a p r o g r a m o f t h e s y s t e m a t i c e x p l i c a t i o n o f t h e e s se n t ia l

f e a t u r e s o f a u n i t a r y

L e b e n s w e l t

i s t ha t on e w i ll t h i nk one i s i n posses s i on o f

t he c o m p l e t e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e i n d i v id u a l c a s e s w h e n o n e h a s th i s g e n e ra l w a y

of t a l k i ng (W i t tgens t e i n , 1967 , p . 153 ) .

W i t tgens t e i n ' s (19 70 ) a l t e rna t i ve , o f cou r se , is t o

d e s c r i b e

our eve rday usages.

The d if fi cu l ty . . , is not that o f finding the solution but rather that of recognizing as

the solution som ething that looks as if i t were o nly a preliminary to it . Th is is con-

nected, I believe, with our wrongly expecting an explanation, w hereas the solution o f

the difficulty is a description, if we give it the right pla ce in our c onsiderations. I f

we d w ell upon it, and do no t try to get beyond it . The difficulty here is: to stop.

(#413)

W i tt g e n s te i n 's l a n g u a g e g a m e s a r e n o t f ir s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n s t o a r e f o r m o f l an -

g u ag e , n o r a r e t h e y m e a n t t o i n v e n t o r y a ll p o s s ib l e f o r m s o f e x p e r i e n c e . R a t h e r ,

t h e w o r k o f t h e p h i l o s o p h e r c o n s i s ts i n a s s e m b l in g r e m i n d e r s f o r a p a r t i c u l a r

p u r p o s e ( 1 9 6 8 , # 1 2 7 ) . S o lu t io n , o r r a th e r , d i s s o l u t io n , o f p h i lo s o p h i c a l

p r o b l e m s is l ik e c u r in g a d is e as e : I n p h i l o s o p h i z i n g w e m a y n o t

t e r m i n a t e a

d i sease o f t hough t . I t m us t run i t s na t u ra l cou r se , and s l o w cu re i s a ll i m po r t an t .

( T h a t is w h y m a t h e m a t i c ia n s a r e s u c h b a d p h i l o s o p h e r s .) ( 1 9 7 0 , # 3 8 2 ) . I t

is p e r h a p s n o a c c i d e n t t h a t H u s s e r l, w i t h h i s p e n c h a n t f o r a r ig o r o u s m e t h o d o f

s o lv in g p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r o b l e m s in t e r m s o f t h e i n t u i ti o n o f ( f o r m a l ) e ss e n c es , w a s

a m a t h e m a t i c i a n . T o f u ll y a p p r e c i a t e W i tt g e n s te i n 's o w n r i g o ro u s m e t h o d o f

p i ec e m e a l d i s s o l u t i o n o f p r o b l e m s , h o w e v e r , w e n e e d t o c la r if y t h e r o le o f

g r a m m a r i n h is d e s c r i p ti o n s .

T h e p r o b l e m s t h a t c o n f r o n t H u s s e rl i n th e

Cr i s i s

s t e m f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t t h e

p h e n o m e n o t o g i c a l e p o c h e w a s t o b e c a r r i e d o u t a s t h e p h i l o s o p h e r ' s r e d u c t i o n

o f t h e w o r l d t o a s p h e r e o f o w r m e s s ( c f . H u s s e r l, 1 9 6 0 ) . T h e h i s t o r i c a l

r e d u c t i o n w a s a r e s p o n s e t o t h e th r e a t t h a t t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f a m o n o l i t h i c

t ra d i ti o n p o s e d t o H u s s e r l ' s p r o g r a m . I n c o n t r a s t , W i t tg e n s t e i n ' s e x p l i c a t i o n o f

t h e g r a m m a r o f l a n g u a g e g a m e s is f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g a d d r e s s ed t o i n t e r s u b je c t i v e

c o n v e n t i o n s r o o t e d i n f o r m s o f l if e . T o t h e e x t e n t t h a t H u s s e f l a l lo w s s u c h a n

i n te r s u b je c t iv e s t a tu s o f la n g u a g e , h e r e d u c e s i t t o a n e x t e r n a l r e c e p t a c l e t o b e

a n i m a te d b y i n d iv id u a l a c ts o f m e a n i n g - e n d o w m e n t . T h e d i r e c t i n t u it i o n o f

ob j ec t s apa r t f ro m l anguage is s a id t o y i e l d the i r e s sences . Fo r W i t tgens t e i n

( 1 9 6 7 ) , h o w e v e r , i t i s n o t t h e p r o p e r t y o f a n o b j e c t t h a t i t is e v e r ' e s s e n t i a l ,'

b u t r a th e r t h e m a r k o f a c o n c e p t ( p . 2 3 ), a n d c o n c e p t s a r e a lw a y s g r o u n d e d i n

f o r m s o f li fe a n d e x p r e s s e d b y g r a m m a r ,

W i tt g e n s te i n 's f a m o u s a r g u m e n t a g a i n st th e p o s s i b i li ty o f a p r iv a t e la n g u a g e is

r e levan t he re . The w o u l d -be p r i va t e li ngu i st i n s is t s t ha t h e can i d en t i fy a s ensa t i on


15/17

1 9 8 T A Y L O R

S a n d c a ll it S ' i n h i s l a n g u a g e in o r d e r t o b e ab l e t o s u b s e q u e n t l y r e c o g n i z e i t

as

S . B u t W i tt g e n s t e in p o i n t s o u t t h a t i f i n f a c t th i s p r i v a te l an g u a g e is t o b e

r e g u l a r i n t h i s s e n s e , t h a t i s , t o b e r u l e . g o v e r n e d , t h e n t h e p r i v a t e l i n g u i s t m u s t

b e c a p a b l e b o t h o f f o l lo w i n g h is o w n r u le s c o r r e c t l y a n d o f m a k i n g m i s ta k e s . I n

n o r m a l u s a g e , h o w e v e r , w h e t h e r o r n o t a p e r s o n i s c o r r e c t l y f o l l o w i n g a r u le

d e p e n d s n o t o n h i s s u b j e c t i v e c e r t a i n t y , b u t r a t h e r o n i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e s t a n d a r d s

a n d h i s a b i l i t y t o

ac t

c o r r e c t l y . E x h y p o t h e s i , t h e p r i v a t e li n g u i s t l a c k s th i s in t e r -

s u b j ec t iv e c h e c k : h e c a n n e v e r b e s u r e t h a t h e is c o r r e c t l y f o l l o w i n g h i s o w n

r u le s , s in c e h is m e m o r y m a y d e c e iv e h i m . W h a t t h e p r i v a te l i n g u is t n e e d s is n o t

t h e p r i v a t e exper ience ( i n t u i t i o n ) o f an o b j e c t s u c h a s a s e n s a t i o n S , b u t r a th e r

t h e i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e

co n c ep t

S . I n f a c t, i t is o n l y b e c a u s e t h e p h i l o s o p h e r a lr e a d y

s p e a k s a p u b l i c l a n g u a g e a n d h a s th e c o n c e p t S t h a t h e is t e m p t e d t o p o s i t

a g h o s t l y s e n s a t i o n S a s t h e b a s i s f o r a p r i v a te l a n g u a g e .

W e c a n i m a g i n e a t t h is p o i n t t h a t H u s s e rl m i g h t o b j e c t t h a t w h a t h e m e a n s

b y es se n ce is s o m e t h i n g d e e p e r , m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l t h a n m e r e h u m a n c o n v e n -

t i o n . W i t t g en s t e in ( 1 9 6 7 ) r e p li es s p e c if i ca l ly t o s u c h a n o b j e c t i o n t h a t t o t h e

dep th

t h a t w e s ee i n t h e e ss e n c e t h e r e c o r r e s p o n d s t h e

deep

n e e d f o r c o n v e n t i o n

( p . 2 3 ) . H u s s e rl a ls o r e je c ts a p h i l o s o p h y t h a t c o n s is ts m e r e l y o f a n a l y z i n g w o r d s ,

b u t w e c a n n o t c h a r g e W i tt g e n s te i n w i t h t h is i n t e n t i o n .

One ou gh t to ask, no t wh at images are or wh at happens wh en on e imagines anything,

bu t how the w ord imagina t ion is used. But tha t does no t mean tha t I want to ta lk

only abo ut words. Fo r the ques t ion as to th e na ture of the imagina tion i s as m uch

abou t the w ord imagina t ion as m y quest ion is . An d I am only saying tha t th is

que st ion is no t to be decided - neither fo r the perso n w ho does the imagining, no r

for any on e else - by point ing; no r ye t b y a descript ion o f any process. Th e fi rst

question also asks fo r a word to b e explained; b ut i t makes us expect a wro ng kind o f

answer . (1968, #3 70 )

H u s s e r l' s d e v a l u a t i o n o f l an g u a g e a s a t o o l a n d o b j e c t o f p h i lo s o p h i c a l i n q u i r y

m a d e h i m s u s c ep t ib l e t o l in g u is ti c c o n f u s i o n s o f t h e k i n d t h a t , a c c o r d i n g t o

W i t tg e n s t e i n , a r e t h e s o u r c e o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r o b l e m s in t h e f i r s t p l a c e . H u s s e r l ,

l ik e M o o r e , s o u g h t a n a p o d i c ti e c e r t a in t y i n u n m e d i a t e d i n t u i t i o n s u c h th a t o n e

c o u l d s a y w i t h c o n f i d e n c e I c a n ' t b e m a k i n g a m i s t a k e h e r e . B u t as w e h a v e

s e e n , t h i s s u b j e c t i v e

f ee l ing

o f c e r t a i n t y is i rr e le v a n t t o t h e i n t e rs u b j e c t iv e c o n -

s t it u t io n o f la n g u a g e g a m e s g r o u n d e d i n f o r m s o f l if e t h a t d e t e r m i n e t h e c o n -

d i t io n s f o r m a k i n g s u c h a s se r ti o n s.

I ca n' t etc . shows m y assertion its place in the game. Bu t i t relates essentially to

me

no t to the game in general . If I am wrong in m y assertion th at doe sn ' t detrac t from

th

usefulness o f the language game. (1969, #6 37 )

I I I

W e h a v e s e en t h a t c o n c e p t i o n s o f l an g u a g e, c e r t a i n ty , a n d t h e g o al a n d m e t h o d

o f p h i l o s o p h y a r e cl o s e l y r e la t ed f o r b o t h H u s s e rl a n d W i tt g e n s te i n . H u s s e rl t r e a ts

c e r t a i n ty a s a k in d o f se ein g p r i o r t o a n d o u t s id e o f l an g u a g e. I f t h e E u r o p e a n


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LEBENSWELTAND LEBENSFORMEN 19 9

sc iences a re to secu re th e g ro u n d in g th e y req u i re , an eq u a l ly

s c i e n t i f i c

exp l ica-

t i o n o f t h e e s s en ti al st r u c t u r e s o f t h e u n i t a r y

L e b e n s w e l t i s

n ecessa ry in p r in c ip le .

Th e re tu rn to th e thin g s th em se lv es in vo lv es a su sp en s io n o f th e h i s to r i ca l ly

accu mu la ted p re ju d ices o f co mmo n sen se an d sc ien ce a l ik e . In o rd e r to su sp en d

o u r t r ad i t io n , h o we v er , w e mu s t su sp en d i t s m ed iu m , l an g u age . He re Hu sse rl

reveals a deep ambivalence . The ideal o f sc ience , which Husser l t races as the

t e l o s

o f W e s te r n m a n f r o m t h e G r e e k s t o t h e p r e s e n t c r i si s , is p o s s ib l e o n l y

i f lang uage ac t s a s a d ep o s i to ry o f th e f in d ing s o f in d iv id u a l sc i en ti s ts . A t th e

same t ime , i t i s j u s t t h i s p o w er o f l ang u ag e th a t t em p ts m o d ern sc i en ce to fo rg e t

i ts o r ig in s, b o t h i n W e s te r n h i s t o r y a n d a s t h e f o r m a l i z a t i o n o f a n o n t o lo g i c a l l y

p r io r l i v e d e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e

L e b e n s w e l t .

F o r H u s s er l ( 1 9 7 0 ) , u l t im a t e l y , t h e

l i fe o f b o t h l an g ua g e a n d c e r t a i n t y l ie s

o u t s i d e

t h e m :

the originally intuitive life wh ich creates its originally serf-evidentstructures through

activities on the basis o f sense-experiencevery quick ly and in increasing m easure falls

victim to th e seduct ion o f language. (p. 362)

W i ttg en ste in , t o o , is awa re o f th e ro le o f l ang u ag e in th e c re a t io n o f p h i lo -

so p hical p ro b lems . Bu t a s in th e case o f th e g eo log ica l m e tap h o rs , t h e tw o co n -

c e p t io n s o f p h i l o s o p h y d i v e rg e m o s t s h a r p ly w h e r e t h e y f ir s t a p p e a r t o c o n v e r g e.

Lang uage can se d u ce u s o n ly i f i t s t an d s o v er ag a in s t u s a s so m eth in g n o t

p r o p e r l y o u r o w n a n d y e t a s s o m e t h i n g w e d e s i re . F o r H u s s er l, o f c o u r s e , t h i s

d esire i s f o r t h e G r e e k i d e a l o f k n o w l e d g e a t t u n e d t o t h e c o s m o s , la n g u a g e o f f e r s

b o th th e o n ly h o p e o f an d th e m o s t in sid io u s th re a t to th i s go a l. Fo r W i t tg en s te in ,

t h e d a n g er is d i f f e r e n t . O u r e x p e r i e n c e o f c e r t a i n t y is th e c o n s e q u e n c e , n o t t h e

cau se , o f o u r lan g u age g ames w h ich a re g ro u n d ed in u n g ro u n d ed fo rm s o f l i fe .

T h e l i f e o f la n g ua g e a n d c e r t a i n t y is c o n s t i t u t e d f r o m w i t h i n , o r r a t h e r , o u r

liv es co n s i st o f th i s ce r t a in ty w i th in l an g u ag e (Wi t tg en s te in , 1 9 6 9 , # 3 4 4 ) . Lan -

g ua ge d o e s n o t s e d u c e u s i n t o t a k in g t h is c e r t a i n t y f o r g r a n te d . R a t h e r , as o u r

v ery m ed iu m , i t ' b ewi tch e s u s , a l i en a tes u s f ro m o u rselv es , an d sen d s u s o f f o n

q u i x o ti c a t t e m p t s t o s u p p l y e x t e r n a l g r o u n d s f o r t h e v e r y t hi ng s t h a t a r e o u r

g ro un d s . I f lan g u age is a b a r r i e r s t an d in g b e tw ee n u s an d a r ig o ro u s u n m ed ia ted

i n t u it i o n o f ' th e t h in g s t h e m s e l v e s , t h e n B a c o n h a s t a u g h t u s t h a t w e m u s t

d ispo se o f th is id o l an d Hu sse r l h as sh o w n u s h o w . I f , h o w ev er , we a re u n d e r

t he sp ell n o t o f a n a l ie n p o w e r b u t o f o u r o w n d e v is in g , t h e n p h i l o s o p h y m u s t

b e a f o r m o f t h e r a p y . H u s s e rl lo c a t e s t h e c r is i s o f E u r o p e a n s c i e n c e s i n t h e

fa ilu re to a t t a in a sc i en t i f i c g ro u n d in g fo r th e m . Th e t r ad i t io n o f W es te rn m an i s

t he s o u r c e o f t h is c ri si s b e c a u s e i t b o t h e m b o d i e s t h e t e l o s i n h e r e n t i n th e G r e e k

id ea l o f sc ien ce an d rep resen t s a fo rg e t fu ln ess o f th a t id ea l. Fo r W i t tg en s te in ,

th e c r i s i s a rises wh en th a t id ea l i s ex ten d e d b e y o n d i t s l eg i t ima te ap p l i ca t io n ;

lang uage g o e s o n a h o l i d a y . I t t e m p t s us t o l o o k fo r g r o u n d s b e y o n d o r

b e h in d t h e v e r y t h in g s t h a t a r e o u r g r o u n d s . H e r e t h e r e c a n b e n o q u e s t i o n o f a

science:

We mu st do aw ay with all

explanat ion

and d escription alone must take its place. And

this description get s its light, th at is to say its purpose, from the philosop hical prob-


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2 T A Y L O R

l em s . T h e s e a r e, o f c o u r s e , n o t e m p i r i c a l p r o b l e m s ; t h e y a r e so l ve d , r a t h e r , b y l o o k i n g

i n t o t h e w o r k i n g s o f o u r l a n g u ag e , a n d t h a t i n s u c h a w a y a s t o m a k e u s r e c o g n i z e

t h o s e w o r k i n g s : in despite o an u r g e t o m i s u n d e r s t a n d th e m . T h e p r o b l e m s a r e so l v ed ,

n o t b y g iv in g n ew i n f o r m a t i o n , b u t b y a r ra n g in g w h a t w e h av e a lw a y s k n o w n . P h i l o -

s o p h y i s a b a t t l e a g a i n s t t h e b e w i t c h m e n t o f o u r i n te l li g e n c e b y m e a n s o f l a n gu a g e.

( 1 9 6 8 , 1 0 9 )

A C K N O W L E D G M E N T

I w i s h t o e x p r e s s m y t h a n k s t o J e f f C o u l t e r f o r c o m m e n t s o n a n e a rl ie r v e r si o n o f t h i s p a p er .

R E F E R E N C E S

Car r , D . Phenomenology and theproblem of history. E v a n s t o n , I lL : N o r t h w e s t e r n U n i v e r s it y

Pre s s , 1974 .

Der r ida , J .

Speech and phenomena and other essays on Husserl s theory o f signs.

E v a n s t o n ,

I I1 .: N o r t h w e s t e r n U n i v e r s i t y P r es s , 1 9 7 3 .

G a r v e r , N . P r e f a c e t o D e r r i d a , J . Speech and phenomena and other essays on Husserl s

theory of signs. E v a n s t o n , I lL : N o r t h w e s t e r n U n i v e r s i t y P r es s, 1 9 7 3 .

Ha cke r , P . M. S . Insight and illusion: Wittgenstein on philosophy and the metaphysics of

experience. N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r es s, 1 9 7 2 .

H u s s e r l , E . Cartesian meditations: An introduction to phenomenology. A t l a n t i c H i g h l a n d s ,

N . J . : H u m a n i t i e s P r e s s , 1 9 6 0 .

Husse r l , E . Logieal investigations, 2 v o l s. A t l a n t i c H i g h l a n d s , N . J . : H u m a n i t i e s P r e s s ,

1970 . ( a )

Husse r t , E . The crisis of European sciences and transcendental pheno

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