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1ncThe afrmative operates against the backdrop o acartographic politics designed to map the world as anexploitable, calculable resource or U domination!

"arle# J.B (John Brian Harley (24 July 1932 – 20 December 1991) was ageograher! car"ograher! an# ma his"orian a" "he uni$ersi"ies o% Birmingham!&i$erool! 'e"er an# isconsin–*ilwau+ee. He hele# %oun# "he His"ory o%,ar"ograhy -roec" an# is "he %oun#ing co/e#i"or o% "he resul"ing he His"ory o%,ar"ograhy. n recen" years! Harleys wor+ has gaine# broa# rominence amonggeograhers an# social "heoris"s! an# i" has con"ribu"e# grea"ly "o "he emerging#isciline o% cri"ical car"ograhyh""5uo#.lib.umich.e#uassages4671830.0003.00//#econs"ruc"ing/"he/ma:rgn;mainor "he ?nal s"age in "he argumen" re"urn "o >oucaul". n #oing so am min#%ul o% >oucaul"s cri"icism o% Derri#a "ha" he a""em"e#@"o res"ric" in"erre"a"ion "o a urely syn"ac"ic an# "e"ual le$el!@ A61 a worl# where oli"ical reali"ies no longer eis". >oucaul"! on

"he o"her han#! sough" "o unco$er @"he social rac"ices "ha" "he "e" i"sel% bo"h reCec"s an# emloys@ an# "o @recons"ruc" "he"echnical an# ma"erial %ramewor+ in which i" arose.@ A62 hough #econs"ruc"ion is use%ul in heling "o change "he eis"emological

clima"e! an# in encouraging a rhe"orical rea#ing o% car"ograhy! m# &nal concern is with its social andpolitical dimensions, and with understanding how the map works insociet# as a orm o power'knowledge. his closes "he circle "o a con"e"/#een#en" %orm o%car"ograhic his"ory. (e have alread# seen how it is possible to view cartograph#as a discourse)a s#stem which provides a set o rules or therepresentation o knowledge embodied in the images we de&ne as mapsand atlases. " is no" #icul" "o ?n# %or masEesecially "hose ro#uce# an# maniula"e# by "he s"a"eEa niche in "he@ower+nowle#ge ma"ri o% "he mo#ern or#er.@ A63 'secially where mas are or#ere# by go$ernmen" (or are #eri$e# %rom such

mas) it can be seen how the# extend and reinorce the legal statutes,territorial imperatives, and values stemming rom the exercise o political

power! Fe" "o un#ers"an# how ower wor+s "hrough car"ograhic #iscourse an# "he eGec"s o% "ha" ower in socie"y %ur"her#issec"ion is nee#e#. = simle mo#el o% #omina"ion an# sub$ersion is ina#e5ua"e an# roose "o #raw a #is"inc"ion be"weene"ernal an# in"ernal ower in car"ograhy. his ul"ima"ely #eri$es %rom >oucaul"s i#eas abou" ower/+nowle#ge! bu" "his ar"icular%ormula"ion is owe# "o Joseh ouses recen" boo+ on Inowle#ge an# -ower A64! where a "heory o% "he in"ernal ower o% science isin "urn base# on his rea#ing o% >oucaul". he mos" %amiliar sense o% ower in car"ograhy is "ha" o% ower e"ernal "o mas an#

maing. This serves to link maps to the centers o political power. *ower isexerted on cartograph#. Behin# mos" car"ograhers "here is a a"ron< in innumerable ins"ances "he ma+ers o%car"ograhic "e"s were reson#ing "o e"ernal nee#s! *ower is also exercised with cartograph#.+onarchs, ministers, state institutions, the hurch, have all initiatedprograms o mapping or their own ends! -n modern (estern societ# maps

.uickl# became crucial to the maintenance o state powerE"o i"s boun#aries! "o i"s

commerce! "o i"s in"ernal a#minis"ra"ion! "o con"rol o% oula"ions! an# "o i"s mili"ary s"reng"h. +apping soon

became the business o the state/ cartograph# is earl# nationali0ed . Thestate guards its knowledge careull#/ maps have been universall#censored, kept secret and alsi&ed. -n all these cases maps are linked towhat oucault called the exercise o 23uridical power! A68 he ma becomes a uri#ical"erri"ory i" %acili"a"es sur$eillance an# con"rol. +aps are still used to control our lives ininnumerable wa#s. 4 mapless societ#, though we ma# take the map orgranted, would now be politicall# unimaginable. =ll "his is ower wi"h "he hel o% mas. " is ane"ernal ower! o%"en cen"ralie# an# eercise# bureaucra"ically! imose# %rom abo$e! an# mani%es" in ar"icular ac"s or hases o%

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#elibera"e olicy. come now "o "he imor"an" #is"inc"ion. (hat is also central to the e5ects omaps in societ# is what ma# be de&ned as the power internal tocartograph#! he %ocus o% in5uiry "here%ore shi%"s %rom "he lace o% car"ograhy in a uri#ical sys"em o% ower "o "heoli"ical eGec"s o% wha" car"ograhers #o when "hey ma+e mas. artographers manuacture power/the# create a spatial panopticon. -t is a power embedded in the map text.

(e can talk about the power o the map 3ust as we alread# talk about thepower o the word or about the book as a orce or change. n "his sense mas ha$eoli"ics. A67 " is a ower "ha" in"ersec"s an# is embe##e# in +nowle#ge. " is uni$ersal. >oucaul" wri"es o% he omniresence o%ower no" because i" has "he ri$ilege o% consoli#a"ing e$ery"hing un#er i"s in$incible uni"y! bu" because i" is ro#uce# %rom onemomen" "o "he ne"! a" e$ery oin"! or ra"her in e$ery rela"ion %rom one oin" "o ano"her. -ower is e$erywhere< no" because i"embraces e$ery"hing! bu" because i" comes %rom e$erywhere. A66 -ower comes %rom "he ma an# i" "ra$erses "he way mas arema#e. he +ey "o "his in"ernal ower is "hus car"ograhic rocess. By "his mean "he way mas are comile# an# "he ca"egories o%in%orma"ion selec"e#< "he way "hey are generalie#! a se" o% rules %or "he abs"rac"ion o% "he lan#scae< "he way "he elemen"s in "helan#scae are %orme# in"o hierarchies< an# "he way $arious rhe"orical s"yles "ha" also rero#uce ower are emloye# "o reresen"

"he lan#scae. To catalogue the world is to appropriate it so that all thesetechnical processes represent acts o control over its image which extendbe#ond the proessed uses o cartograph#! he worl# is #isciline#. he worl# is normalie#. (eare prisoners in its spatial matrix. >or car"ograhy as much as o"her %orms o% +nowle#ge! @=ll social ac"ionCows "hrough boun#aries #e"ermine# by classi?ca"ion schemes.@ A69 =n analogy is "o wha" haens "o #a"a in "he car"ograherswor+sho an# wha" haens "o eole in "he #iscilinary ins"i"u"ionsErisons! schools! armies! %ac"oriesE#escribe# by >oucaul"

A0 in bo"h cases a rocess o% normalia"ion occurs. Kr similarly! us" as in %ac"ories we s"an#ar#ie our manu%ac"ure# goo#s so inour car"ograhic wor+shos we s"an#ar#ie our images o% "he worl#. Jus" as in "he labora"ory we crea"e %ormulaic un#ers"an#ings o%"he rocesses o% "he hysical worl# so "oo! in "he ma! na"ure is re#uce# "o a grahic %ormula. A1 he ower o% "he ma/ma+er was

no" generally eercise# o$er in#i$i#uals bu" o$er "he +nowle#ge o% "he worl# ma#e a$ailable "o eole in general. 6et this isnot consciousl# done and it transcends the simple categories o 2intended2and 2unintended2 altogether. am no" sugges"ing "ha" ower is #elibera"ely or cen"rally eercise#. " is a local+nowle#ge which a" "he same "ime is uni$ersal. -t usuall# passes unnoticed. The map is a silentarbiter o power. ha" ha$e been "he eGec"s o% "his logic o% "he ma uon human consciousness! i% may a#a"*arshall *c&uhans hrase (@logic o% rin"@): A2 &i+e him belie$e we ha$e "o consi#er %or mas "he eGec"s o% abs"rac"ion!

uni%ormi"y! reea"abili"y! an# $isuali"y in shaing men"al s"ruc"ures! an# in imar"ing a sense o% "he laces o% "he worl#! -t isthe dis3unction between those senses o place, and man# alternativevisions o what the world is, or what it might be, that has raised .uestions

about the e5ect o cartograph# in societ#! hus! heo#ore osa+ wri"es he car"ograhers are"al+ing abou" "heir mas an# no" lan#scaes. ha" is why wha" "hey say %re5uen"ly becomes so ara#oical when "ransla"e# in"oor#inary language. (hen the# orget the di5erence between map and landscape)and when the# permit or persuade us to orget that di5erence)all sorts o liabilities ensue! A3 Kne o% "hese liabili"ies is "ha" mas! by ar"icula"ing "he worl# in mass/ro#uce# an# s"ereo"ye#images! eress an embe##e# social $ision. ,onsi#er! %or eamle! "he %ac" "ha" "he or#inary roa# a"las is among "he bes" sellingaerbac+ boo+s in "he Lni"e# M"a"es A4 an# "hen "ry "o gauge how "his may ha$e aGec"e# or#inary =mericans erce"ion o% "heir

coun"ry. (hat sort o an image o 4merica do these atlases promote: Kn "he onehan#! "here is a a"ina o% gross simlici"y. Knce oG "he in"ers"a"e highways "he lan#scae #issol$es in"o a generic worl# o% bareessen"ials "ha" in$i"es no elora"ion. ,on"e" is s"rie# away an# lace is no longer imor"an". Kn "he o"her han#! "he mas re$eal

"he ambi$alence o% all s"ereo"yes. Their silences are also inscribed on the page/ where,on the page, is the variet# o nature, where is the histor# o thelandscape, and where is the space'time o human experience in such

anon#mi0ed maps: A8 he 5ues"ion has now become #o such em"y images ha$e "heir conse5uences in "he way we"hin+ abou" "he worl#: Because all "he worl# is #esigne# "o loo+ "he same! is i" easier "o ac" uon i" wi"hou" realiing "he socialeGec"s: " is in "he osing o% such 5ues"ions "ha" "he s"ra"egies o% Derri#a an# >oucaul" aear "o clash. >or Derri#a! i% meaning isun#eci#able so mus" be! ari assu! "he measuremen" o% "he %orce o% "he ma as a #iscourse o% symbolic ac"ion. n en#ing! re%er"o align mysel% wi"h >oucaul" in seeing all +nowle#ge A7Ean# hence car"ograhyEas "horoughly enmeshe# wi"h "he larger ba""les

which cons"i"u"e our worl#. +aps are not external to these struggles to alter powerrelations. The histor# o map use suggests that this ma# be so and thatmaps embod# speci&c orms o power and authorit#! Mince "he enaissance "hey ha$echange# "he way in which ower was eercise#. -n colonial North 4merica, or example, it waseas# or Europeans to draw lines across the territories o -ndian nations


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without sensing the realit# o their political identit#! 789: The map allowedthem to sa#, ;This is mine< these are the boundaries.@ A Mimilarly! in innumerable warssince "he si"een"h cen"ury i" has been e5ually easy %or "he generals "o ?gh" ba""les wi"h colore# ins an# #i$i#ers ra"her "hansensing "he slaugh"er o% "he ba""le?el#. A9 Kr again! in our own socie"y! i" is s"ill easy %or bureaucra"s! #e$eloers an# lanners "ooera"e on "he bo#ies o% uni5ue laces wi"hou" measuring "he social #isloca"ions o% rogress. hile "he ma is ne$er "he reali"y! insuch ways i" hels "o crea"e a #iGeren" reali"y. Knce embe##e# in "he ublishe# "e" "he lines on "he ma ac5uire an au"hori"y "ha"

may be har# "o #islo#ge. +aps are authoritarian images! (ithout our being aware o

it maps can reinorce and legitimate the status .uo! ometimes agents ochange, the# can e.uall# become conservative documents! =ut in eithercase the map is never neutral! (here it seems to be neutral it is the sl#;rhetoric o neutralit#; 7$>: that is tr#ing to persuade us!

?-nsert peci&c @inkAsBC

These cartographies calculate the useulness o politicalknowledge in terms o its 3usti&cations or violence D the otherorms o knowledge are orced to the peripher#undberg, Universit# o "elsinki political science proessor, $

(Jan! -ublishe# 2009! N'urocen"rismO! n"erna"ional 'ncycloe#ia o% HumanPeograhy! Qolume 3! -g. 73! JB)

Eurocentrism has been $ariously de&ned as an a""i"u#e! conce"ual apparatus!or se" o% emirical belie%s that rame Europe as the primar# engine andarchitect o world histor#! the bearer o universal values and reason! an#"he innacle an# "here%ore mo#el o% rogress an# #e$elomen". n 'urocen"ricnarra"i$es! "he sueriori"y o% 'uroe is e$i#en" in i"s achie$emen"s in economic an#oli"ical sys"ems! "echnologies! an# "he high 5uali"y o% li%e enoye# by i"s socie"ies.Eurocentrism is more than banal ethnocentric pre3udice! howe$er, as it isintimatel# tied to and indeed constituted in the violence and as#mmetr# o colonial and imperial encounters! Eurocentrism is what makes this

violence not onl# possible, but also acceptable or 3usti&able. =s such!'urocen"rism is "he con#i"ion o% ossibili"y %or Krien"alism! "he #iscursi$e an#ins"i"u"ional gri# o% ower+nowle#ge in"egral "o "he ro#uc"ion an# #omina"ion o%"he Krien" as K"her. Migni?can" cri"i5ues o% 'urocen"rism emerge# in "he con"e" o%os"/orl# ar shi%"s in geooli"ical ower! inclu#ing an"icolonial an# an"i/imerialre$olu"ionary mo$emen"s. '$en so! Eurocentric epistemologies continue tohaunt the production o knowledge in geograph# in signi&cant anddisturbing wa#s! -n con$en"ional Eurocentric tellings, Europe is the engineerand architect o modern agricultural, cultural, economic, political, andscienti&c innovations, including capitalism, democrac#, and industrial,medical, and green revolutions! ,once"s li+e R"he rise o% 'uroeS an# R"he

'uroean miracleS eemli%y 'urocen"ric mo#els o% his"ory an# #e$elomen".'uroeSs so/calle# rise is elaine# in "erms o% suerior social an# en$ironmen"al5uali"ies #eeme# in"ernal "o i" in$en"i$eness! ra"ionali"y! caaci"y %or abs"rac""hough"! ou"war# loo+ing! %ree#om lo$ing! along wi"h a#$an"ageous clima"e an#geograhies. +an# o these cultural traits are said to be inherited rom the=ible lands and ancient Greece and ome D ramed as EuropeFs ancestralhearths D though their highest development is said to have been achieved&rst in imperial England and then the United tates o 4merica – hence "he


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"erm R'uro/=mericanismS. n "hese narra"i$es! rogress an# #e$elomen" ri#e wha" James Blau" calls R"he wes"boun# Krien" 'ressS. =s a conse5uence o% "heercei$e# his"orical mo$emen" o% "he wes"boun# eress! REuropeF has morphedinto the (estF and now the Global NorthF! These Huid geographicimaginaries ma# reer to not onl# Europe and white settler societies like

the United tates, anada, and 4ustralia! bu" also Jaan an# any o"her regionor grou "ha" en$isions i"sel% as "he ossessor or inheri"or o% 'uroean cul"ure!$alues! an# aca#emic! oli"ical! an# economic sys"ems. =" "he same "ime! howe$er!particular places within the (est such as the United tates are privilegedas the source o universal theor#, while others like New Iealand areramed as limited b# their particularities ! @atin 4merica and the aribbeanwere coloni0ed b# Europeans, but are rarel# included in the (est! n shor"!i" may no" always be clear "o wha" eac"ly "hese geograhical imaginaries re%er! bu""hey are use# as "hough "hey correson# "o a commonsensical e"ernal reali"y.Through their repetition in ever#da# speech and academic and

institutional narratives, that realit# is continuousl# brought into being .

Jeconstruct cartograph#/ revealing and afrming theambiguities o mapping creates a space which scrambles thecoordinates o cartographic calculation"arle# J.B (John Brian Harley (24 July 1932 – 20 December 1991) was ageograher! car"ograher! an# ma his"orian a" "he uni$ersi"ies o% Birmingham!&i$erool! 'e"er an# isconsin–*ilwau+ee. He hele# %oun# "he His"ory o%,ar"ograhy -roec" an# is "he %oun#ing co/e#i"or o% "he resul"ing he His"ory o%,ar"ograhy. n recen" years! Harleys wor+ has gaine# broa# rominence amonggeograhers an# social "heoris"s! an# i" has con"ribu"e# grea"ly "o "he emerging#isciline o% cri"ical car"ograhy

h""5uo#.lib.umich.e#uassages4671830.0003.00//#econs"ruc"ing/"he/ma:rgn;main


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intentions rather than the literal ace o representation, and as we beginto accept the social conse.uences o cartographic practices. am no" sugges"ing"ha" "he #irec"ion o% "e"ual en5uiry oGers a simle se" o% "echni5ues %or rea#ing ei"her con"emorary or his"oricalmas. n some cases we will ha$e "o conclu#e "ha" "here are many asec"s o% "heir meaning "ha" are un#eci#able.A47 Decons"ruc"ion! as #iscourse analysis in general! #eman#s a closer an# #eeer rea#ing o% "he car"ograhic "e""han has been "he general rac"ice in ei"her car"ograhy or "he his"ory o% car"ograhy. " may be regar#e# as a

search %or al"erna"i$e meanings. ;To deconstruct,; it is argued, is to reinscribe andresituate meanings, events and ob3ects within broader movements andstructures


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"his #ay a ar"icular blessing as we "a+e "he wheel o% our car ... @). Kn "he o"her si#e! Tor"h ,arolina! hemme# in by"he margins o% ale yellow Mou"h ,arolinas an# Qirginias! Peorgias an# ennessees! an# washe# by a ale blue="lan"ic! is reresen"e# as a meshwor+ o% re#! blac+! blue! green an# yellow lines on a whi"e bac+groun#! "hic+ene#a" "he in"ersec"ions by roun#els o% blac+ or blo"ches o% in+. o "he le%" o% . .. A"he "i"le is a s+e"ch o% "he Cu""erings"a"e Cag. o "he righ" is a s+e"ch o% a car#inal (s"a"e bir#) on a branch o% Cowering #ogwoo# (s"a"e Cower)surmoun"ing a buing honey bee arres"e# in mi#Cigh" (s"a"e insec"). A88 ha" is "he meaning o% "hese emblems:=re "hey merely a leasan" ornamen" %or "he "ra$eler or can "hey in%orm us abou" "he social ro#uc"ion o% such s"a"ehighway mas: = #econs"ruc"ionis" migh" claim "ha" such meanings are un#eci#able! bu" i" is also clear "ha" "heM"a"e Highway *a o% Tor"h ,arolina is ma+ing o"her #ialogical asser"ions behin# i"s mas+ o% innocence an#"ransarence. am no" sugges"ing "ha" "hese elemen"s hin#er "he "ra$eler ge""ing %rom oin" = "o B! bu" "ha" "hereis a secon# "e" wi"hin "he ma.


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Topic D @inks


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@ D Kapan D LkinawaThe afrmative misunderstands the histor# behind U'inHuenced Kapanese mapping which allows them to overlookthe colonial violence resulting rom the cartographic practices<

mapping was not 3ust a tool o the coloni0er, itFs the liebloodo da#'to'da# operations o the stateredman 1% ADr. Da$i# >e#man! ns"ruc"or o% Jaanese! Iorean! an# worl#his"ory a" "he Lni$ersi"y o% ,ali%ornia! r$ine. esearch in"eres"s inclu#e 'as" =siancar"ograhy! Jaanese moun"aineering his"ory! an# "he his"ory o% "he ear"h sciencesin =sia. NJaanese ,olonial ,ar"ograhy *as! *ama+ing! an# "he &an# Mur$ey in,olonial Iorea!O he =sia/-aci?c Journal! Qol 10! ssue 82! To. 4! December 24!2012.

&i+e railroa#s! "elegrahs! an# guns! maps were tools o empire (=#as 1990< Bayly 2000< Hea#ric+191< *i"chell 2002< D. Fang 2011). -ndispensable to governance, surveillance,

resource extraction, and coun"less other imperial initiatives, maps ormed thelieblood o the da#'to'da# operations o the colonial state! Bu" the impetusbehind colonial cartograph# was more than simpl# utilitarian, %or! as a growingnumber o% scholars ha$e shown! "he rocess o% sur$eying was as imor"an" as "he ro#uc" (="+ins 2010< Burne""

2000< '#ney 1990< Harley an# &a"on 199< -ra"" 1992). he sur$ey! a%"er all! ma#e %or goo# science. 4ndscience! regnan" as it was with notions o civili0ation, development, andmaterial progress, sat s.uarel# at the heart o the imperial pro3ect! M"a"is"ics!bluerin"s! e"hnograhies all %orme# buil#ing bloc+s uon which JaanSs ci$iliing mission in Iorea woul# be

cons"ruc"e# (Henry 2007< Kh 200). +aps were no di5erent! loaked in "he man"le o%scienti&c precision! "he "riangula"ion sur$ey showcase# JaanSs suerior me"ho#s. he obser$a"ions o%Torber" eber! a Bene#ic"ine mon+ who "ra$ele# "o Iorea in 1911! "es"i%y "o "his oin" N=" each ins"rumen" s"an#!Ohe wro"e! N"hree "o %our assis"an"s an# a crow# o% won#ering sec"a"ors! who ga"her in won#er a" "he un#reame# o% science no less "han a" "he ins"rumen" wi"h i"s ies an# glasses an# siri" le$els. ha" a grea" leasure i" mus" be

%or "he local Jaanese sur$eyors "o be able "o u" "heir science on show li+e "hisO (L#en 2003! 8B! 4s someo the &rst government'general emplo#ees to set oot in remote towns,moreover, land surve#ors)who were sometimes accompanied b# localpolice and ofcials)became %or many Ioreans the ace o Kapanese ofcialdom.U "is no" hyerbole "o s"a"e "ha" the histor# o Kapanese colonial cartograph# is terraincognita or English'language scholarship!3 (hile scholars writing inEnglish have become attentive to the wa#s in which Kapan immersed itselin "he con$en"ions o% international law (Du##en 2004)! criminal roce#ure (Bo"sman 2008)! an# o"herhallmar+s o% "he mo#ern na"ion/s"a"e ('ricson 1997< >rVhs"Vc+ 2003< al+er 2008)! ew have exploredthe wa#s in which it sought out and appropriated internationalcartographic norms! ewer still have attended to the wa#s in which mapsand mapmakers &gured into KapanFs administration o its colonies. n "he caseo% Iorea! only "he ca#as"ral sur$ey (o% which more la"er) has garnere# signi?can" scholarly a""en"ion! an# eis"ings"u#ies main"ain a laser/li+e %ocus on issues rela"ing "o "he eroria"ion o% Iorean lan# by "he go$ernmen"/generalan# se""ler colonialis"s. he geo#e"ic asec"s o% JaanSs lan# sur$ey o% Iorea! as a resul"! ha$e recei$e# reciousli""le scholarly a""en"ion! #esi"e a growing bo#y o% li"era"ure a##ressing mama+ing an# imerialism in o"hercolonial con"e"s (Basse"" 1994< '#ney 1990< B. Harley 199< *i"chell 2002< *un#y 2000< Mco"" 1999< hongchai1994) an# subs"an"ial li"era"ure on "he subec" in Jaanese an# Iorean (in Jaanese! Iobayashi 2009! 2011<*iyaima 1991< a+agi 1977< in Iorean! HanSgu+ Fo+sa FonSguhoe 2010< Iim 1996).


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tarting rom the earl# 1$>>s with the triangulation surve#pro3ect, the U!! and other imperial orces have usedcartograph# as a means o expanding their authorit# over thesovereign territor# o Kapan to implement their colonial pro3ectredman 1% ADr. Da$i# >e#man! ns"ruc"or o% Jaanese! Iorean! an# worl#his"ory a" "he Lni$ersi"y o% ,ali%ornia! r$ine. esearch in"eres"s inclu#e 'as" =siancar"ograhy! Jaanese moun"aineering his"ory! an# "he his"ory o% "he ear"h sciencesin =sia. NJaanese ,olonial ,ar"ograhy *as! *ama+ing! an# "he &an# Mur$ey in,olonial Iorea!O he =sia/-aci?c Journal! Qol 10! ssue 82! To. 4! December 24!2012.

hough erhas o$ersie#! Helmer"Ss con?#ence was no" un%oun#e#! %or "he geo#e"ic sciencesE"hose concerne#wi"h "he measuremen" an# maing o% "he ear"hEwere "hen in "he mi#s" o% a $eri"able boom brough" abou" by ahos" o% scien"i?c a#$ancemen"s. Tone o% "hese a#$ancemen"s insire# more eci"emen" or comman#e# more

in"erna"ional a""en"ion "han the triangulation surve#/ a mapmaking techni.ue that!"hough ol# by "he "ime o% "he 1909 con%erence! o5ered a level o precision previousl#unimaginable when coupled with the cutting'edge surve#ing instruments

o the time! To" surrisingly! "he P= was a" "he $anguar# o% "he in"erna"ional "riangula"ion roec". >oun#e#in 17 %or "he urose o% N%orming an associa"ion "hrough which "he geo#e"ic wor+ carrie# on by $arious

go$ernmen"s coul# be comare#! harmonie#! an# ren#ere# more ecien"!O this bod# .uickl#established itsel as the international hothouse or scienti&call# rigorouscartograph#.1 =l"hough standardi0ing the methods o mapmaking was no" anelici" goal o% "he P=! b# Mvirtue o the active interchange o ideas, commen"e# onecon"emorary eer"! "he bo#y Neer"Ae# a s"rong inCuence in ma+ing "he me"ho#s use# in $arious coun"ries morenearly uni%orm an# rogressi$eO (einsch 1911! 7). his is esecially "rue o% "he "ools an# "echni5ues o% "he"riangula"ion sur$ey! which #omina"e# "he 1909 agen#a.U % "riangula"ion #omina"e# "he con"en" o% "he 1909

con%erence, the worldFs colonial powers (namely Prea" Bri"ain! >rance! Permany! ussia! andthe United tates) dominated its composition! This is in no small part

because! as "his aer will show! colonialism and cartograph# were deepl#

intertwined undertakings! cienti&call# rigorous maps! a%"er all! were thelingua ranca o international sovereignt#, making them a sine .ua non orthe ac.uisition o and authorit# over colonial territories. n#ee#! whatever thedi5erences in the colonial policies and ambitions o the so/calle# Great*owers, all o these nations shared an awareness o the instrumental rolethat cartographic knowledge pla#ed in the imperial pro3ect! =s such! thesenations oten dispatched their brightest cartographic minds to theircolonies, where the# oversaw the production o cutting'edge maps, mosto which were reali0ed through the triangulation surve#! Lne need onl#inspect the list o delegates to the 1$>$ conerence to gain a sense o theclose ties between the geodetic sciences and colonialism! =mong "hose resen"were ,olonel Mir . *orris! chie% sur$eyor o% Prea" Bri"ainSs Peo#e"ic Mur$ey o% Mou"h =%rica< *aor &eno/,onyngham! "hen #irec"or o% "he Prea" riangula"ion Mur$ey o% n#ia< Peneral Basso" o% >rance! "hen resi#en" o% "heassocia"ion an# %ormerly a chie% sur$eyor %or "he >rench Peo#e"ic Mur$ey in =lgeria< an# many o"hers (Helmer"1909! 368).


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The U mapping con.uest in Kapan set the backbone ormodern statist development and acilitated the exercise ostate controlredman 1% ADr. Da$i# >e#man! ns"ruc"or o% Jaanese! Iorean! an# worl#his"ory a" "he Lni$ersi"y o% ,ali%ornia! r$ine. esearch in"eres"s inclu#e 'as" =siancar"ograhy! Jaanese moun"aineering his"ory! an# "he his"ory o% "he ear"h sciencesin =sia. NJaanese ,olonial ,ar"ograhy *as! *ama+ing! an# "he &an# Mur$ey in,olonial Iorea!O he =sia/-aci?c Journal! Qol 10! ssue 82! To. 4! December 24!2012.

>rom a "echnical s"an#oin"! the surve# process a#umbra"e# abo$e no" only met thecartographic standards and expectations o the international communit#, bu" surasse# "hem.8 n#ee#! #esi"e JaanSs la"e arri$al "o "he s"u#y o% geo#e"ic "riangula"ion! i" swi%"ly an# ?rmly

es"ablishe# i"sel% as a +ey in"erna"ional layer in "he geo#e"ic sciences. The %ollowing exchangebetween U!! ecretar# o ommerce illiam e#?el# and illiam Bowie! "hen chie ogeodes# in the United tates, at a 1$19 hearing o the "ouse

ongressional 4ppropriations ommittee regarding 4mericaFs owntriangulation surve# plans, "hrows "his oin" in"o shar relie%U *r. Bowie " will "a+e abou" W37!000%or "he "riangula"ion an# W140!000 %or "he recise le$eling Ao% "he Lni"e# M"a"es. shoul# hoe "ha" we may be able"o ge" "his wor+ #one $ery much more 5uic+ly "han "ha"! an# "his is wha" we %eel is absolu"ely necessary. Tow! canshow you by way o% comarison some mas o% 'uroe an# o% n#ia.U Mecre"ary e#?el# his ma shows Jaan:U Bowie Fes< "ha" is Jaan! which is on "he same scale as "he Lni"e# M"a"es.U e#?el# s Jaan more a#$ance# "hanwe are in "ha" regar#:U Bowie Fes! sir< you can see "ha" "he areas in which "hey ha$e no recise le$eling are $erymuch smaller "han ours< in %ac"! we ha$e some areas 5ui"e as large as Jaan wi"hou" a single recise le$el benchmar+ in i".U e#?el# =re we e5ual "o o"her na"ions in "his wor+ or behin# "hem:U Bowie n accuracy we are "hee5ual o% "he o"her na"ions.X =s "o "he amoun" o% wor+ #one we are $ery %ar behin#.X Jaan s"ar"e# i"s geo#e"icwor+ la"er "han we #i#! bu" "hey saw "he economic a#$an"age o% i" an# ushe# i" "o a rai# comle"ion< "ha" is! "he%ramewor+. woul# call i" "he bac+bone. " correson#s "o "he s"eelwor+ o% a s+yscraer an# you ha$e "o u" u yours"eelwor+ ?rs" in buil#ing a s+yscraer. (Lni"e# M"a"es ,ongress House ,ommi""ee on =roria"ions 1916! 1100–

1101)U BowieSs wor#s no" only attest to the keen interest the internationalcommunit# had in KapanFs cartographic endeavors but also to the vitalimportance these surve#s held or statist development! 4 Mbackbone oreconomic planning, these surve#s provided the blueprints with which thestate would draw up its moderni0ing agenda! " is unsurrising "ha" "he go$ernmen"/general in Iorea has"ene# "o ro#uce a se" o% such mas. n a##i"ion "o clari%ying cai"al asse"s! lan#hol#ing

a""erns! an# a#minis"ra"i$e uris#ic"ions! these surve#s acilitated a wide range o state'led planning pro3ects that were central to KapanFs vision or reorms andprogress! =l"hough lanners an# a#minis"ra"ors also emloye# "heir own se"s o% secialie# mas! thecoherent and comprehensive spatial s#stem provided b# the triangulationsurve# doubtless served to expedite the planning and implementation oman# such pro3ects! -n the #ears ollowing the surve#, state planners,bureaucrats, militar# ofcials, and police repeatedl# turned their ga0e to

the maps and registers produced b# the surve# as the# conronted thechallenges o da#'to'da# governance and state'driven enterprise! -n thiswa#, the map, like the host o other ethnographic surve#s conducted b#the government'general (Henry 2007)! inormed a wide range o decisionsabout the application o resources, governance, and the exercise o statepower!


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4ttempting to inscribe a sub3ectivit# onto the Lkinawan bod#onl# reinorces cartographic essentialism o being linked to the

KapanPlenn D "ook O ichar# iddle (-ro%essor a" Ho++ai#o Lni$ersi"y since =ril 2011! re$iously&ec"urer in "he Mchool o% 'as" =sian M"u#ies! Lni$ersi"y o% Mheel#! LI %rom 1996. esearch in"eres"s inclu#e race

an# e"hnici"y! na"ionalism! minori"y eoles in Jaan! mul"icul"uralism! an# mos" recen"ly e"hnic an# moun"ain"ourism! aroache# %rom "he ersec"i$es o% mo#ern his"ory an# social an"hroology. -ublica"ions inclu#e "woboo+s! ano"her %or"hcoming! an# numerous ar"icles an# boo+ cha"ers.Plenn Hoo+Ss research in"eres"s are in "hearea o% "he in"erna"ional rela"ions o% con"emorary Jaan! ar"icular in rela"ion "o 'as" =sia! as well as in securi"yan# ris+ in 'as" =sia. His wor+ elores JaanSs role in "he res"ruc"uring o% "he 'as" =sian oli"ical economy an#sa"ial scales o% or#er a" "he regional! subregional an# microregional le$els. His wor+ #e"ails "he role o% bo"h s"a"ean# nons"a"e ac"ors in "he oli"ical! economic an# securi"y #imensions o% regional rela"ions an# how new or#ers an#si"es o% go$ernance emerge in "he rocess o% global an# regional "rans%orma"ions. NJaan an# K+inawa M"ruc"ure

an# Mubec"i$i"yO =ccesse# 622018 -ublishe# To$ember 2! %>>%

" is imor"an"! "here%ore! "ha" "hese K+inawan $oices are hear#. n o"her wor#s! "he s"ruc"ural in"egra"ion o%K+inawa wi"hin "his LM–Jaan rela"ionshi shoul# no" be un#ers"oo# "o mean "ha" "he role o% human agency – "ha"

is! K+inawans as $oli"ional ac"ors – has no lace. Even a brie glance back through thehistor# o #uk#uP Lkinawa provides a wealth o examples o how

Lkinawans, both elites and commoners, have attempted to generate andthen impose their own understandings upon the structural realitiesencountered. >rom Mai KnSs eigh"een"h/cen"ury R$ision o% yu+yuS (Mmi"s 1999) "hrough "o "he imassione#resis"ance "o Jaanese annea"ion by K+inawans in sel%/imose# eile a" "he ,hinese imerial cour"< %rom "hecamaign %or ci$il an# oli"ical righ"s le# by Jahana Toboru in "he 190s "o "he islan#/wi#e mo$emen" agains" LMaroria"ion o% lan# in "he 1980s< %rom "he mo$emen" %or re$ersion "o Jaan "o "he curren" an"i/base s"ruggles< a"$arious "imes! in a mul"i"u#e o% %orms an# in$ol$ing a wi#e an# #isara"e range o% in#i$i#uals or grous!

Lkinawans have reused to accept predetermined structural prescriptionso who the# are or how the# should behave! This continues withcontemporar# struggles not onl# against the U bases but, e.uall#importantl#, over the contested terrain o Lkinawan histor# and memor#,

and against the cultural industries o the mainland and their attempts to

inscribe their versions o authenticF Lkinawan identit# and culture! (eneed! "here%ore! "o balance a consi#era"ion o% K+inawaSs s"ruc"ural subor#ina"ion wi"h an investigationinto K+inawan subec"i$i"y D how Lkinawan identities are constructed and howthese inorm both the understandings and actions o ordinar# Lkinawansthemselves. he ower%ul s"ruc"ural cons"rain"s #iscusse# abo$e ha$e "heir symbolic coun"erar"s ini#eological an# #iscursi$e %orma"ions wi"hin which RK+inawansS are ro#uce# as subec"s! bu" which "hey can also

aroria"e or con"es". 4ttempts b# outsiders to de&ne an authenticF Lkinawanidentit# have alread# been mentioned. Lther historic examples include notonl# discourses o Lkinawan ineriorit# and backwardness, but also the

rhetoric o assimilation to an ideali0ed and homogeneous Kapanese

identit# . hese osi"ions ha$e been ar"icula"e# no" only by mainlan#ers bu" e$en by eli"e K+inawans

"hemsel$es in "heir #esire "o share in "he mo#erni"y an# rogress "hey i#en"i?e# wi"h Jaan (Mi##le 199).ecent discussions o the suppression o the anti'base movement in

Lkinawa, or instance, have largel# ignored the sub3ectivit# and volition D

i!e! agenc#, o ordinar# Lkinawans. n "o"al 1.3 million men an# women li$e in K+inawa an# caremus" be "a+en no" "o simly ignore "heir role an# "o rush hea#long in"o a s"ri#en" con#emna"ion o% "he hea$y/han#e# "ac"ics emloye# by "he Jaanese an# LM au"hori"ies! as i% all woul# be well ece" %or K+inawaSs s"ruc"ural

subor#ina"ion. K% course! "his is no" mean" "o be "a+en as our suor" o% such "ac"ics! The point is ratherthat an overemphasis on the subversion o the democratic process


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through deception, coercion and economic blackmail, while undeniabl# aactor in the structural wedding o Lkinawa to Kapan and the U, cannevertheless impl# that Lkinawans are weak, passive and naive! " is %ar %romunusual %or "hem "o be regar#e# no" as agen"s in charge o% "heir own #es"iny! bu" as cihers who seem no" "o +now

wha" is bes" %or "hemsel$es. -nvidiousl#, outsiders sometimes seem to eel better 3udges o what Lkinawans need and deserve (an accusa"ion "ha" "his $olume! "oo! canno"en"irely a$oi#). Kr! e.uall# unhelpull#, Lkinawans are portra#ed and evenideali0ed, in an atavistic return to ormer da#s, as a peaceloving, id#llicand harmonious communit#! n#ee#! one recen" bes"/seller on bo"h si#es o% "he ="lan"ic resen"sK+inawa as R"he real Mhangri/laS wi"h K+inawans as "he heal"hies" an# longes"/li$e# oula"ion in "he worl#! #uerimarily "o "heir hay an# s"ress/%ree eis"ence (illco e" al. 2001). Much gross s"ereo"yes #isguise realroblems o% home/grown ya+ua an# bosoo+u $iolence! high #i$orce an# alcoholism ra"es! school bullying an#o"her social ills "ha" simly canno" be lai# a" "he #oor o% "he LM barrac+s. " is "here%ore high "ime "o shi%" "he %ocus"owar#s "he comle ways in which K+inawan erce"ions o% "hemsel$es an# "heir rela"ionshis in"ersec" wi"h "heower%ul economic an# oli"ical s"ruc"ures wi"hin which "heir li$es are enmeshe#. his is no" simly Rblaming "he$ic"imS. *any K+inawans may in#ee# be comlici" in "heir own subor#ina"ion! bu" we nee# also "o see+ "he causeso% "ha" in "heir own un#ers"an#ings an# choices! ra"her "han merely in "he na+e# eercise o% ower. hisac+nowle#gemen" o% a rimacy o% lace %or agency in any #iscussion o% K+inawa lea#s ineluc"ably "o a %ur"her +ey5ues"ion – can we e$en sea+ abou" RK+inawansS a" all: s "he "erm merely an em"y ca"egorical $essel %or in"erring"he inhabi"an"s o% K+inawa re%ec"ure! which woul# "hen inclu#e "he numerous >iliinos! n#ians an# e$en e/LM

ser$icemen who ha$e se""le# in K+inawa! an# eclu#e "hose born in RK+inawanS communi"ies in Iansai an#elsewhere: Kr! is i" %reigh"e# ins"ea# wi"h "he recogni"ion o% a collec"i$e i#en"i"y! a sense o% belonging "o a largercommuni"y o% K+inawans #e?ne# by ci$ic an#or e"hnic bon#s: =n# are we "o acce" "ha"! i% in#ee# "his i#en"i"y#oes eis"! i" is in some way uncon"es"e#! monoli"hic an# caable o% incorora"ing or #isguising "he #i$ersi"y an#comlei"y wi"hin "his o$er/#e"ermine# sace! K+inawa: =c"ors on "he s"age o% K+inawan oli"ics! %rom %ormergo$ernor KY "a *asahi#e "o local ac"i$is"s li+e a+ara Ben! argue us" "his! an# shae "he con"en" o% "ha" i#en"i"y or"he narra"i$e o% i"s %orma"ion in "he ser$ice o% "heir own! imme#ia"e agen#as. " is recisely %or "his reason "ha" "heoli"ics o% i#en"i"y an# i"s analysis "ha" is core "o "hese cha"ers is no" a mere an#ering "o "he curren" aca#emic%ashions< i" is ra"her a blun" recogni"ion o% how cen"ral "hese 5ues"ions are "o an un#ers"an#ing o% K+inawa "o#ay.

ha" "he ma""er is comle is no" "o be #enie#. (hat makes it so is that boundaries are notset in stone but are contested and remain in a constant state o Hux! *utanother wa#, the dislocation between the ormall# inscribed legalboundaries o the Kapanese state, which identi# cartographic Lkinawa,

and inormall# inscribed cultural boundaries, which help mark LkinawansFsel'inscribed identit# as Lkinawans, is one actor that uels identit#politics in the #uk#us! The other ma3or actor is the discontent over

LkinawaFs subordinate incorporation into Kapan, which has cr#stalli0ed

around the issue o the overwhelming U militar# presence! his combina"ion o%Rcul"ural s"uGS wi"h resen" grie$ance ro#uces a rich amalgam o% o"en"ial i#en"i"ies %or K+inawa an# "heK+inawans "ha" can be lin+e# "o oli"ical osi"ions. =" one e"reme! wri"ers an# ac"i$is"s such as a+ara Ben or IinaMhoY+ichi s"ill hol# "o "he oli"ical goal o% comle"e in#een#ence %rom Jaan. By eca$a"ing "he his"orical symbolso% "he ol# yu+yu +ing#om! which besea+ a $ibran" in#een#en" cul"ure! wi#e/ranging "ra#e rela"ions "hroughou"Mou"heas" =sia an# a high #egree o% oli"ical in#een#ence! "hese mo#ern/#ay %ree#om ?gh"ers use "he en orgui"ar (or more usually "he K+inawan s"ringe# ins"rumen"! "he sanshin)! bu" no" "he swor#! "o "ry "o sub$er" or"rans%orm "hese s"ruc"ures. =" "he o"her e"reme are "he all/ou" suor"ers o% "he s"a"us 5uo! who $iew "he bene?"saccruing %rom ha$ing re"urne# "o "he R%a"herlan#S in 1962 an# "he emloymen" oor"uni"ies genera"e# by "he

Rcons"ruc"ion s"a"eS! "ouris"s an# "he bases! as amle rewar# %or "he irri"an" o% crimes commi""e# by LM mili"aryersonnel. =s RJaaneseS "hey remain con"en" wi"h "heir $es"e# in"eres"s. or a ma3orit# oLkinawans, however, gradual and incremental changes in these structuralconstraints, leading to improvement in the status .uo, rather than itsabrupt or radical transormation, seems to be the order o the da#! his isar"icularly "he case in "erms o% oular suor" %or a re#uc"ion in "he number o% bases on "he islan#s an# "heirmore e5ui"able #is"ribu"ion aroun# Jaan. n a January 1998 re%ec"ural sur$ey! %or ins"ance! "hose olle# wereas+e# "o ran+ "he or#er o% re%erence as "o "he ac"ion "he re%ec"ural an# cen"ral go$ernmen"s shoul# "a+e abou"LM bases! wi"h "he highes" "hree choices %a$ouring re"urn (i.e. closure)! 43.3 er cen"! an en# "o mili"ary eercises!18.7 er cen"! an# an en# "o noise ollu"ion by "he LM mili"ary (K+inawa Ien MoYmubu 199 287). his! o% course!


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was e$en be%ore ublic anger was arouse# "o new heigh"s by "he rae o% a 12/yearol# schoolgirl by "hree LMmili"ary ersonnel. Desi"e "he wi#e consensus on re#ucing "he bases! "he s"ronges" a#$oca"e %or "heir re#uc"ion!rogressi$e go$ernor KY "a *asahi#e (1990–)! los" a "igh"ly %ough" elec"ion in 199 "o "he conser$a"i$e challenger!namine Ieiichi. his elec"oral change in "he re%ec"ural go$ernor was "he resul" o% a erce"ion! accura"e oro"herwise! "ha" "he #e"ermine# s"an# o% KY "a agains" "he bases "hrea"ene# "he economic %u"ure o% "he re%ec"ure.

he comle lin+ages an# con"ra#ic"ions be"ween economic reali"ies an# "he LM bases were eose# once more!an# many K+inawans $o"e# %or "heir li$elihoo#s ?rs". Te$er"heless! "he new go$ernor has also ushe# %or are#uc"ion! albei" by #iGeren" means! bu" has ro$e# more comlian" in his nego"ia"ions wi"h o+yo "han KY "a.

-oli"icia"ion o% "he base issue has "urne# no" us" "he resen"! bu" also "he as"! in"o a si"e o% con"es"a"ion. orman#, the bases are inextricabl# linked with a historical narrative ovictimi0ation that stretches back to the da#s o the #uk#u Qingdom! his#ominan" narra"i$e o% K+inawan $ic"imia"ion begins wi"h "he Ma"suma in$asion o% 1709 an# is unc"ua"e# wi"h+eywor#s li+e yuY+yuY shobun! so"e"su igo+u (alm/"ree hell – "he s"ar$a"ion erio# o% "he 1920s)! "e"su no arashi("he yhoon o% M"eel – Ba""le o% K+inawa) an# %u++i (re$ersion). " culmina"es in "he +ichi mon#ai (base issue) an#

K+inawaSs Run%air "rea"men"S a" "he han#s o% "he cen"ral go$ernmen". The importance o this victim'centred narrative lies not so much in its validit# or otherwise as historicaltruthF, but in its utilit# as an ideational resource or the construction andarticulation o a contemporar# Lkinawan identit# politics. he 1998 rae o% "heschoolgirl! %or ins"ance! was such a ower%ul e$en" recisely because i" resona"e# wi"hin "his narra"i$e! "he $ic"imreresen"ing ye" ano"her Rsacri?ce# #augh"erS a" "he han#s o% a mili"ary occua"ion! as e$oca"i$e a symbol as "he

ure an# innocen" s"u#en" nurses o% "he Himeyuri briga#e +ille# in 1948. n "he e$en"! "he rae was aroria"e# asa me"ahor %or "he $iola"ion o% K+inawan "erri"orial an# oli"ical au"onomy! an# "hus bo"h "he gen#ere# na"ure o%"he crime an# "he ain o% "he $ic"im were subsume# wi"hin a wi#er na"ionalis" oli"ics o% ro"es" (=ngs" 2001).


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@ D "orn o 4ricaThe afrmative has misdiagnosed the coloni0ed histor# o Uintervention in the "orn o 4rica' militar# cartographicintervention is uni.uel# responsible or the violence permitted

throughout the region=amba 1> A=bou B. Bamba! =ssis"an" -ro%essor o% His"ory a" Hobar" an# illiamMmi"h ,olleges! emhasis in =%rican his"ory (colonial an# os"colonial)! L.M./>rancohone =%rica ela"ions! De$elomen" M"u#ies! *o#ernia"ion heory!

ransna"ional His"ory! merialism! His"orical ,ar"ograhy an# PM. Nebir"h o% aM"ra"egic ,on"inen" -roblema"iing =%rica as a Peos"ra"egic Zone!O =%ricanPeograhical e$iew. 2010! Qol. 29 ssue 1 -age 93/94! -ublishe# 2010

Desi"e "he %ar%e"che# na"ure o% some o% "hese #iscourses as eemli?e#U by ennerSs Nscan#alousO roosal

(Debres 197)! the cartographicR discussions among 4merican geographers andpolic#makersR #ielded practical results on the battle&elds in 4rica! incethe northern R coastal areas o the continent served as some o% the ke#theaters o operationU #uring "he war! (est 4rica became strategicall#important or R the belligerents. -n this context, the U!! go$ernmen" signed anagreement R with @iberia in la"e December 1943 to ensure the construction o R aport and some other landing acilities to be used b# the allied orcesR AL.M.Dear"men" o% M"a"e 1944! 3< Duignan an# Pann 194! 304).U he s"ra"egic imor"ance o% &iberia was %ur"hercon?rme# when L.M.U war in#us"ries came "o rely on "he es" =%rican coun"rySs suly o% U rubber a%"er "he Jaanese

occua"ion o% Mou"heas" =sia (Qillar# 1944!U 102). % the war brought (est 4rica into thegeographic purview oR 4merican diplomats and pro3ected U!! power inthe region, this attention R resulted in the production o some ra"her broa#! an# e$ensecula"i$eU sketches and scripts o 4ricaFs geopolitical atlases which were bes"U ei"omie# by ennerSs car"ograhic Bra$e Tew orl#. Emanating R rom a group o elite men

with hegemonic aspirations #et largel# detachedR rom the human realit#o 4rica, the maps proposed b#R enner, =oggs, and their peers had littleto sa# about the peoples inhabitingR the various socio'cultural landscapesthat the cartographers R were discussing! Tes"le# in "he com%or" o% "heir oces inashing"on!U D, an# Tew For+! "he 4merican geographers rarel# understood the R anthropological complexities and the human traged# Ai!e!, militar#conscriptions,R crop re.uisitions, orced cultivation and collection! e"c.) that R the war brought onto the continent! or i% "hey #i#! "hey #eci#e# "o "urnU a blin# eye on "hem.

*aybe this is the ver# nature o militar# cartograph#! U M"ill! as recen" s"u#ies con#uc"e#

in "he ?el# o% critical geopoliticsR have suggested, reresen"a"ional rac"ices #eloye# bygeooli"iciansU are as much abou" Nrecor#ing "he Rreali"iesS o% "he ear"h (or in"erna"ionalU oli"ics)O as the# are

implicated in the Mthe legitimation o territorialR orms o reasoning andclaims to territor# and resources (Do##sU 1994! 268).U -n the speci&c case o4rica! as i" "urne# ou"! those territorial R claims to strategic spaces andresources became even more importantR in the postwar #ears when theonset o the old (ar rede&ned theR Third (orld as a new battleground torecruit converts to capitalist orU communis" modernities! Ieen his"orically/in%orme#geographic researchR is needed to unpack the modalities o thesemodernities andR their operations in 4rica (es"a# 2008< see also ,lou# 2002). >orU now!


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it is clear that both the invention o the 4rican continent as aR strategicplace and its eventual incorporation into 4merican geopoliticalR thinkingdoes con&rm the insight among critical geographers that theR crat o thegeocartographer, whether it be scienti&c or otherwise, isR alwa#s ahegemonic practice! n "his ligh"! "he maps o 4rica that R 4merican geographer'

diplomats and politicall#'minded geographersR

produced during theecond (orld (ar and shortl# thereater were arR rom being Minnocenttools "ha" simly hele# loca"e a lace. ather, R the# were ke# instruments thatreinorced the knowledge'power nexus that inormed the rise o the4merican entur# (,ram"on an# 'l#enU 2006< Mmi"h 2003< ua"hail 1997).

The mapping o 4rica is been a tool or the U!! to enorce ageographical understanding o itFs own global power=amba 1> A=bou B. Bamba! =ssis"an" -ro%essor o% His"ory a" Hobar" an# illiamMmi"h ,olleges! emhasis in =%rican his"ory (colonial an# os"colonial)! L.M./>rancohone =%rica ela"ions! De$elomen" M"u#ies! *o#ernia"ion heory!

ransna"ional His"ory! merialism! His"orical ,ar"ograhy an# PM. Nebir"h o% aM"ra"egic ,on"inen" -roblema"iing =%rica as a Peos"ra"egic Zone!O =%ricanPeograhical e$iew. 2010! Qol. 29 ssue 1 -age 93/94! -ublishe# 2010

His"orians o% L.M./=%rica rela"ions ha$e in#iscrimina"ely argue#U "ha" "he 4rican continent hasremained a backwater o U!! global strategicR thinking! hile $ali# in many regar#s!such charac"eria"ion #oesU no" always ca"ure "he ra"her long in"eres" o% "he Lni"e# M"a"es in =%ricanU s"ra"egicsaces as #uring "he 19"h cen"ury when "he L.M. go$ernmen"U s"a"ione# a Cee" oG "he coas" o% es" =%rica "oen%orce "he banU o% "he sla$e "ra#e (Duignan an# Pann 194). Much an in"eres" remaine#U ali$e in "he 20"h cen"ury!esecially as "he worl# rea#ie# i"sel% %or "heU secon# worl# war.U '$en be%ore i"s ocial en"ry in"o "he conCic"! "heLni"e# M"a"esU ha# hin"e# "ha" access "o "erri"ory woul# be a #e"erminan" in bringingU abou" "he ?nal ou"come o%"he war. hus in mi#/1940! "he Dear"men"U o% M"a"e #isaro$e# "he "erri"orial concessions "ha" "he >renchcolonialU au"hori"ies in n#ochina ha# ma#e "o imerial Jaan! which ha# ma#e i"U easier %or Jaanese "roos "oa""ac+ ,hina (Hull 1940! 197–96< LM M"a"eU Dear"men" 1940a! 283). =" "he same "ime! "he Lni"e# M"a"es was

"a+ingU geooli"ically mo"i$a"e# measures "o consoli#a"e i"s hemishericU hegemony in &a"in =merica an# "he,aribbean. i"h a $iew "owar# reaching "his goal! =merican #iloma"s signe# $arious con$en"ionsU wi"h "hearoria"e 'uroean colonial owers %or "he Nro$isionalU a#minis"ra"ionO o% "heir colonies an# ossessions in "he=mericas whileU a" "he same "ime ashing"on s"reng"hene# i"s bila"eral cooera"ionU wi"h "he neighboring na"ion/s"a"es sou"h o% "he io Pran#e (L.M. M"a"eU Dear"men" 1940b! 309< 1944b! 189< 194! 643). he cen"rali"y o%geooli"icalU an# car"ograhic concerns in "hese agreemen"s is as s"ri+ing asU i" is re$ealing. =s one erce"i$e

analys" has s+ill%ully oin"e# ou"! i"U showe# "ha" the coming o the 4merican entur# wasgraphed both on R a geographical understanding o U!! global power and anormativeR reading o the cartographic tradition that 4mericangeoscientists were R putting in place (Mmi"h 2003).U The same concerns thatmotivated 4merican ofcials to sign cartographic R treaties with Europeansand @atin 4mericans also led U!!R geographer'diplomat amuel (! =oggs (1943! 194) to argue that theR 4rican continent was as much Mcomplementar#

to the United tates R as it was to Europe. n "his con"e"! Boggs urge# his coma"rio"s "oU Nunlearn some o our old geograph# and learn some new geograph# Rrelating to 4rica.O Going even be#ond this exhortation! which migh"U o"herwise ha$eremaine# mere wish%ul "hin+ing! the hie o the Jivision R o Geograph# andartograph# at the Jepartment o tate R sketched a new map (see >igure 1) whichuror"e# to demonstrateR that 4rica would be closer to the United tates i% amama+er subs"i"u"e#U an e5ui#is"an" ma #esign %or "he oularly use# *erca"or roec"ionU (Boggs 1943! 194–

98). artographers have long known that the R representation o three'


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dimensional earth on a two'dimensional map is a R process raught withdistorting perils (*onmonier 1991< -ic+les 2004).U Bu" BoggsSs commen"s an# car"ograhic mili"ancyassume# more. nU %ac"! his reresen"a"ional s"ra"egy an# rac"ice be"raye# "he willingnessU o% "he Dear"men" o%M"a"e "o ge" closer "o a con"inen" whose s"ra"egicU imor"ance was being "es"e# on a #aily basis on "he war %ron"s o% "heU Mecon# orl# ar (Ta"ional Peograhic 1942< enner 194! 40–418).

=orders especiall# in the horn o 4rica are maintained b#elitest and excolonial powers that destabili0e the region4madie and (arhola $S ('mmanuel T. =ma#i%e associa"e ro% a" IML an# James. arhola ro% a" Lni$ersi"y o% *aine! =%ricas -oli"ical Boun#aries ,olonial,ar"ograhy! "he K=L! an# "he =#$isabili"y o% '"hno/Ta"ional =#us"men"n"erna"ional Journal o% -oli"ics! ,ul"ure! an# Mocie"y! Qol. 7! To. 4 (Mummer! 1993),rys"al

The problem o maintaining ex'colonial international borders is clari&ed b#examining the L4U2s position which reinorces geographical rather thanethno'national identit#. The legitimi0ation and enorcement o current4rican boundaries is undoubtedl# one o the ma3or purposes o the

organi0ation! 6et the ver# ramework o national boundaries, and theinternational political'economic s#stem sustaining it, was predicated onthe notion o national identit# ollowing the geographical delineation opeoples< #et that new nationalism, where it has appeared at all, is tenuousand politicall# problematical. The Lrgani0ation o 4rican Unit# has pla#eda crucial role in buttressing inherited borders in post'colonial 4rica! -n1$, or instance, the Lrgani0ation argued that the post'colonialterritorial division constituted a ;tangible realit#; that must be respectedb# its members. The L4U continues to adhere rather strictl# to thisposition even ater it had long recogni0ed and acknowledged that thecurrent 4rican borders constitute a serious and permanent cause o

instability his roosi"ion is s"a"e# mos" une5ui$ocally by Jac+son an# osberg! accor#ing "o whom "heinheri"e# "erri"orial boun#aries ha$e li""le subs"an"ial in#igenous =%rican re%eren"s ;7i:t is inappropriateto reer to the L4U as maintaining traditional 4rican national identitiesbut rather it is den#ing them!@ This neglect, the# argued, was evident inthe ruitless omalian e5ort to make the territorial border reHect thegeographical distribution o its inhabitants scattered in neighboringJ3ibouti, Ethiopia, and Qen#a.37 The L4U persistentl# re3ected territorialad3ustments either in the orm o splitting up large units Alike NigeriaB, oro bringing together divided ethnic groups like the omali! -t was Nkrumahwho warned that the ;L4U was becoming the most e5ective spokesmanor the 4rican nationalist boundar# order; because o% "he cen"ral oli"ical osi"ion i" ha#

"ra#i"ionally "a+en regar#ing %ron"ier al"era"ion.36 +aintenance o inherited borders can betraced in large measure to the institutionali0ation o 4rticle --- o theL4U2s harter. The .uestion is the wisdom o that stance in the ace omassivel# changed socio'political conditions, both within 4rica and on theglobal political and economic scene!


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+odern 4rican borders are artiacts o imperialism let romEuropean powers to weaken and control native populations

4madie and (arhola $S ('mmanuel T. =ma#i%e associa"e ro% a" IML an# James

. arhola ro% a" Lni$ersi"y o% *aine! =%ricas -oli"ical Boun#aries ,olonial,ar"ograhy! "he K=L! an# "he =#$isabili"y o% '"hno/Ta"ional =#us"men"n"erna"ional Journal o% -oli"ics! ,ul"ure! an# Mocie"y! Qol. 7! To. 4 (Mummer! 1993),rys"al

he =erlin onerence o 188'188V completed a pattern o Europeancolonial encroachment upon 4rica. 'mblema"ically! "he con%erence was con#uc"e# wi"h no=%rican ar"icia"ion or e$en representation! Topographic, demographic, andethnographic considerations, to the extent that the# mattered at all,reHected European, and not indigenous, interests. ort#'our percent othe lines limiting colonial borders were (an# "hus! largely s"ill are) straight lines,parallel to existing lines or a pro3ection o celestial lines.16 +an# o 4rica2s

current problems are directl# related to this partition o 4rica as well asto the particular mode o 4rican ;underdevelopment; (whereby "he olicies an#rograms o% mo#ernia"ion ha$e e$o+e# or re$i$e# e"hnic asser"i$eness bu" no" con"ribu"e# "oo much "o economic

a#$anceB! The European powers that established colonial borders were notinterested in keeping ethnic groups together< in man# cases the# wereintent on ractionali0ing groups! The# were interested primaril# insecuring European overlordship with minimal orce and cost tothemselves. he Berlin ,on%erence ro$i#e# a mechanism whereby conCic" migh" be a$oi#e# #uring an# a%"er"he ar"i"ion o% =%rica.1 The European powers designed a map o their colonieswithout respect or the unit# o local cultural groups or the character oindigenous political s#stems. -n some cases, under the new boundaries

large ethnic groups were put together with those with whom the# had anhistorical animosit#!19 ;4rican rontiers,; conclu#es ou$al! @were decided uponin complete disregard o local needs and circumstances.@ 20 4t the end othe twentieth centur# 4rica2s .uestion is whether or not maintenance othose rontiers serves the same purpose. Tew "yes o% @na"ions@ ha$e emerge# #esi"e "hee"hno/oli"ical a#$en"i"iousness o% "heir origins. Especiall# pertinent here are those whichanthropological studies distinguish as groups whose identit# is rooted in;primordial; attachments, and those whose existence is .uite clearl# acartographic creation! +uch o so'called postcolonial nationalism in 4ricais o the latter t#pe! -t is highl# problematic rom an ethno'historicalperspective. Howe$er! i" was no" a roblem un"il e"hno/his"orical cons"i"uency grous began asser"ing"hemsel$es un#er "he ime"us o% social changes coming %rom o"her sources. his is recisely wha" has been

haening! an# will li+ely con"inue "o haen! in =%rica. Jespite the claim that the scrambleor 4rica in the late 1$th centur# was a somewhat rational response andthe onl# possible wa# or Europeans to divide and coloni0e the continent,the consensus is that 4rica was arbitraril# and arti&ciall# divided rom thever# beginning. 1 The distribution o indigenous populations and man#nomadic or seminomadic groups complicated the task o territorialdivisions!%% 4dditionall#, local political structures and institutions werere.uentl# no more comprehensive or encompassing than a village, and


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ethnic links were ver# loose, not providing much inormation orethnographicall# rational boundar# setting even i the colonial powers hadbeen so inclined! These circumstances are hardl# compatible with themodern notion o a state governing a nationall# distinct entit#! 2 Theboundar#'making mechanism adopted was not unlike that developed in a

war situation/ it minimi0ed costs to the colonial powers and was executedon the basis o sparse inormation. -n man# cases in Europe andelsewhere, states were superimposed upon a number o ethnic groupsimperialisticall#, resulting in sel'declared ;nation'states; that subsumedone or a number o subordinated ethnic groups under a dominantleadership group. =%rica is no" uni5ue in "his mo#e o% na"ion/s"a"e %orma"ion. *articularl# in sub'aharan 4rica, however, subse.uent processes o ethnic revival orethnogenesis have worked so that the .uestion o boundar# rede&nitionhas emerged with greater, not subsiding, orce since the originaldetermination o the nation'state boundar# lines. oon ater the wave oindependence in the 1$>s it became clear that the post'colonial 4ricanstate was inherentl# ragile both internall# and in relation to the outsideworld! Externall#, orces apparentl# motivated b# material or geo'strategicgain, or or altruistic reasons, were directl# responsible or debilitatingstate authorit#, as experienced, or example, in ongo, entral 4ricanepublic, 4ngola, omalia, and Ethiopia. Domes"ically! the 4rican state haslabored under a lack o national consensus or even the absence o acohesive national identit#, the problems oten compounded b# &nancialinsolvenc# and other conditions contributing to political instabilit#. K%"en! "heresul" has been "he emergence o% a single ruling ar"y! uror"e#ly sura/e"hnic in comosi"ion! urose! an# goal.

6et even such supra'ethnic parties as Q4NU in Qen#a, the +*@4 in 4ngola,or the even the + in Tan0ania, have onl# tenuousl# served as politicalmedia or postcolonial nationalism with the specter o ethnic conHict as

potent in them as elsewhere! The arbitrar# partition o =lack 4rica servedas the geopolitical oundation or inter'ethnic conHict over much o thecontinent! This phenomenon challenges the occasionall# assertedadvantage (estern colonial rule purportedl# brought to 4rica, thetermination o ethnic conHict! Now, a generation or two ater the end othat colonialism, the conHict appears not onl# to have resumed, but alsoto have been exacerbated b#, and entangled with, an ethnographicall#spurious nationalism which demands lo#alt# but is unable to produce it!

Wiolence rom 4rican states is rooted in ine.ualities andinstabilit# rom the borders o the nation states

4madie and (arhola $S ('mmanuel T. =ma#i%e associa"e ro% a" IML an# James. arhola ro% a" Lni$ersi"y o% *aine! =%ricas -oli"ical Boun#aries ,olonial,ar"ograhy! "he K=L! an# "he =#$isabili"y o% '"hno/Ta"ional =#us"men"n"erna"ional Journal o% -oli"ics! ,ul"ure! an# Mocie"y! Qol. 7! To. 4 (Mummer! 1993),rys"al


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4rican national governments t#picall# exercise weak or tenuous controlover the peoples o their ormal 3urisdiction, and or a variet# o reasons!The more well'known cases o loss o control over ma3or territories orsigni&cant periods o time such as in udan, Iaire, Nigeria, or Ethiopiashould not obscure the problematical character o state control elsewhere

on the continent in the post'colonial era! n#ee#! *a (eber2s amousde&nition o a state, ;a corporate group that has a monopol# o legitimateviolence over a territor# and its population; merel# underscores theproblematical character o the post'colonial 4rican state . ebers #e?ni"ion was by"he la"e 190s clearly no" charac"eris"ic o% "he @s"a"es@ which uror"e#ly rule# many =%rican coun"ries. =# theterms o that de&nition, man# 4rican countries would scarcel# .uali# asbeing de acto states, because o their periodic inabilit# to suppress rivalgroups seeking to establish a monopol# o orce on all or a portion o thecountr#2s territor#. 4rican countries might be seen as doubl# arti&cial aspolitical units/ the# were established adventitiousl#, almost exclusivel# b#European coloni0ers< and the# have been maintained b# 4rican elites in amanner that has not onl# ailed in man# cases to transcend pre'colonialcommunal ties, but also to have exacerbated ethnic consciousness andgiven it an explicitl# political character! How "his e$ol$e# re5uires %ur"her elabora"ion!*olitical control or man# =lack 4rican governments has tended to becon&ned to a ew Aor, in some cases onl# oneB ma3or urban areas, withlocal enorcement and regional implementation o national laws andpolicies oten a matter o discretion! This phenomenon re.uentl# revealsits ethnic dimension when a single ethnic group is dominant nationall#.*olitical resistance to such a regime thereore re.uentl# assumes theorm o an explicitl# inter'ethnic conHict! -n the vast ma3orit# o 4ricancountries the presence o a multiplicit# o ethnic groups has made theprocess o governance ar more complex than envisioned either b# theexiting colonial powers or b# the &rst generation o post'colonial 4ricanleaders! The larger social processes energi0ing ethnic identit# and ethnicconHict in the atermath o Nigeria2s civil war, or example, have been thesub3ect o much scholarl# attention! Though a variet# o mechanisms haveevolved in attempts to contain such ethnic conHicts, as emerged in theindependence movement o =iara, some clearl# more democratic thanothers, the realit# is that none has proved capable o overcoming thepotential or ethnic conHict within the ramework o established b# 4ricanstate borders inherited rom colonialism.


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@ D *ersian GulP+iddle EastThe lines drawn in the Mmiddle east replicate colonialimperialist ideolog#' the a5 reafrms these lines to continuethe process o domination

ulcasi 1% (Iaren! Dear"men" o% Peology an# Peograhy! es" QirginiaLni$ersi"y! N*aing "he *i##le 'as" %rom i"hin (,oun"er/),ar"ograhies o% anmerialis" ,ons"ruc"ionO 999/1000 =n"io#e Qol. 44 To. 4 2012!)

n "he Lni"e#M"a"es an#much o% "heres" o% "heworl#! bo"h "he"erm an# "hei#ea o% 'as"O arerea#ilyacce"e# ar"so% geograhical#iscourses.1Howe$er!=rab s"a"es o%"he N*i##le'as"O!#iscourses o%"he N*i##le'as"Oreec"e# asNwes"ernOimerialis"cons"ruc"s.2a recen"(2010) ar"icle"i"le# N&abelsan# ca"egories!a menagerie o% moni+ersO!N*i##le 'as"ONree+sO o%imerialism.n#ee#! "helabel N*i##le'as"O an#boun#aries areun#eniablyimerialis". heac"ual"oonymorigina"e# in"wen"ie"hcen"ury inre%erence "oBri"ishgeooli"icalin"eres"s in "helan#li"erally in "heNmi##leO o%Prea" Bri"ainSsNeas"O. >ur"her!i" was Bri"ishan#a%"er orl#ar "ha" #rew"he maori"y o%"he bor#ers o%"he s"a"esgenerallyconsi#ere# "hecore o% "heN*i##le 'as"O.,onsi#ering i"simerialis"roo"s! i" iserhasunsurrising"ha" %romwi"hin "heN*i##le 'as"Os"ronghesi"a"ion "oacce" an# use"his geograhicca"egory.ns"ea#! assugges"s! "he=rab s"a"es o%"he wes"ern#e?ne#N*i##le 'as"Oha$e#iGeren"regionalgeograhic#elinea"ions"ha" s"ress i"s=rab charac"eran#uni"y.M"a"es an#much o% "heres" o% "heworl#! bo"h "he"erm an# "hei#ea o% 'as"O arerea#ilyacce"e# ar"so% geograhical#iscourses.1Howe$er!=rab s"a"es o%"he N*i##le'as"O!#iscourses o%"he N*i##le'as"Oreec"e# asNwes"ernOimerialis"cons"ruc"s.2a recen"(2010) ar"icle"i"le# N&abelsan# ca"egories!a menagerie o% moni+ersO!N*i##le 'as"ONree+sO o%imerialism.n#ee#! "helabel N*i##le'as"O an#boun#aries areun#eniablyimerialis". heac"ual"oonymorigina"e# in"wen"ie"hcen"ury inre%erence "oBri"ishgeooli"icalin"eres"s in "helan#li"erally in "heNmi##leO o%Prea" Bri"ainSsNeas"O. >ur"her!i" was Bri"ishan#a%"er orl#ar "ha" #rew"he maori"y o%"he bor#ers o%"he s"a"esgenerallyconsi#ere# "hecore o% "heN*i##le 'as"O.,onsi#ering i"simerialis"roo"s! i" iserhasunsurrising"ha" %romwi"hin "heN*i##le 'as"Os"ronghesi"a"ion "oacce" an# use"his geograhicca"egory.ns"ea#! assugges"s! "he=rab s"a"es o%"he wes"ern#e?ne#N*i##le 'as"Oha$e#iGeren"regionalgeograhic#elinea"ions"ha" s"ress i"s=rab charac"eran#uni"y.-n the United tates and much o the rest o the world, both the term andthe idea o the M+iddle East are readil# accepted parts o geographicaldiscourses!1 Howe$er! %rom within the 4rab states o the M+iddle East,discourses o the M+iddle East are oten re3ected as Mwesternimperialist constructs.2 =s #escribe# in a recen" 'conomis" (2010) ar"icle "i"le# N&abels an# ca"egories! amenagerie o% moni+ersO! "he label N*i##le 'as"O Nree+sO o% imerialism. -ndeed, the label M+iddle Eastand its vague boundaries are undeniabl# imperialist! The actual topon#moriginated in the earl# twentieth centur# in reerence to =ritishgeopolitical interests in the land that was literall# in the Mmiddle o Great=ritainFs Meast! urther, it was =ritish and rench powers ater (orld (ar- that drew the ma3orit# o the borders o the states that toda# aregenerall# considered the core o the M+iddle East! ,onsi#ering i"s #irec" imerialis" roo"s! i"is erhas unsurrising "ha" %rom wi"hin "he N*i##le 'as"O "here is a s"rong hesi"a"ion "o acce" an# use "his geograhic ca"egory.ns"ea#! as "he eigrah sugges"s! "he =rab s"a"es o% "he wes"ern #e?ne# N*i##le 'as"O ha$e crea"e# #iGeren" regional geograhic#elinea"ions "ha" s"ress i"s =rab charac"er an# uni"ye$eral his"orians an# geograhers ha$e shown "ha"! in a##i"ion "o i"s being awes"ern/imerialis" cons"ruc"! "he i#ea! "erm! #e?ni"ion! an# e$en "he loca"ion o% "he N*i##le 'as"O is $ariable an# ambiguous(=#elson 1998< Bonine 1967< ,ulcasi 2010< Da$ison 1970< >rom+in 1991< Ie##ie 1963< Kwen 2000< hi"a+er 2004). his aerro$i#es a uni5ue con"ribu"ion "o cri"i5ues o% wes"ern cons"ruc"ions o% "he N*i##le 'as"O by %ocusing on car"ograhic #iscourseswi"hin "he =rab s"a"es o% "he wes"ern/#e?ne# N*i##le 'as"O. hrough a largely emirical s"u#y! sys"emically an# cri"ically eamine#

an e"ensi$e samle o% car"ograhic ma"erials ro#uce# in eigh" #iGeren" =rab s"a"es o% "he N*i##le 'as"O. - ocus on

maps because, as - discuss in detail below, the# are powerul geopoliticaldiscourses that not onl# help to create places and identities at a variet# o scales, but the# are also used as a orm o resistance to hegemonic ordominant norms A"arris and "a0en %>>/11VD 119< *ickles %>>< (ood%>1>/111D1VVB! 4s - outline in this paper, the dominant cartographicdiscourse - ound contests the existence o the M+iddle East b# simpl#not mapping such a place, but also b# cartographicall# constructing aslightl# di5erent place called the M4rab "omelandO.3 he car"ograhic reec"ion o% "he N*i##le'as"O an# "he cons"ruc"ion o% a seci?cally =rab geograhical en"i"y is a sub"le bu" ower%ul %orm o% coun"er maing "ha" echoes"he rac"ice o% a newly in#een#en" s"a"e remo$ing i"s colonial lace names an# a#o"ing more in"ernally meaning%ul ones (,ohen

an# Ilio" 1992< Hagen 2003< Ia#mon 2004< *onmonier 1997110< 200762–9< amaswamy 2004209< un#s"rom 19919B!"owever, the construction and labeling o an# geographical entit# is a

geopolitical process that is replete with variations, alterations, andexceptions to the norm! Even though the 4rab "omeland is a commonregional categor# rom within 4rab states, a ew maps o the M+iddleEast have been produced! *y %ocus in "his aer is on "hese ece"ional mas! as oose# "o "he norma"i$ecar"ograhies o% "he =rab Homelan#! 4 critical examination o these exceptional orat#pical maps provides uni.ue insights into how the M+iddle East isconceptuali0ed cartographicall# rom within this western'constructed


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region, while also highlighting the ubi.uit# and hegemon# o westerngeographical categories and place names!

(estern powers drew imperial lines to control the productionand consumption o oil in the M+iddle East the a5 replicates

this violence when the# continue to use colonial discourse'cartograph# 3usti&es this behavior onl# a critical anal#sissolvesQanna 1S (=hme# "eaches an"hroology an# human geograhy in "he Mchool o%n"erna"ional M"u#ies! Lni$ersi"y o% "he -aci?c. His ublica"ions inclu#eDubai! he,i"y as ,orora"ion (2011! *inneso"a) an#e"hin+ing Plobal Lrbanism (2012!ou"le#ge! co/e#i"e# wi"h [iangming ,hen)! along wi"h numerous ar"icles "ha" ha$eaeare# or are %or"hcoming in,ul"ural =n"hroology! ,i"y! Journal o% Lrban =Gairs!e$iew o% *i##le 'as" M"u#ies! *'-! an#Ja#aliyya. He is curren"ly wor+ing on "he@global sou"h@ ci"y an# urbanism as obec"s o% eer"ise! N heoriing "he =rabian-eninsula oun#"able owar#s a ,ri"ical ,ar"ograhy o% "he -oli"ical in "he =rabian

-eninsulaO h""www.a#aliyya.comagesin#e11292"heoriing/"he/arabian/eninsula/roun#"able\"owar#)

- must sa# at the beginning that - will have to restrict m# comments to theGul 4rab countries, especiall# =ahrain, Quwait, and the United 4rabEmirates AU4EB, wi"h which ha$e "he mos" li$e# an# research eerience. am lease# "o no"e "ha" my colleague an#%rien# John illis is also ar"icia"ing in "he roun#"able! an# will lea$e i" "o him! wi"h his #ee +nowle#ge o% Femen! "o commen" on

"ha" coun"ry. i"h resec" "o "he Pul%! "he oil an# securi"y ara#igm is erhas "he #ominan" narra"i$e in research. Thisparadigm has tended to reinorce the naturalness o the domination o(estern oil consumer nations and o local political d#nasties, representedas Mwise stewards o the national wealth! This is underpinned b# animagined geograph# that regionali0es cultures in a particular wa#/ theMGul becomes, in e5ect, a bounded cultural 0one in which .uestions ohistor#)in the sense o contestation and struggle over how to delimitbasic political rights and goods)and .uestions o cultural politics)thoserelated to who can speak or whom in a national or cultural sense)evaporate! "hin+! by "he way! "ha" oby Jones is correc" in oening his commen"s by as+ing! ro$oca"i$ely! whe"her "heN=rabian -eninsulaO e$en eis"s. or+ in human geograhy (e.g.! "he me"ageogaher K.=! "arl#Fs writing ondeconstructing the map, as well as the work o QXren (igen and +artin@ewis on the Mm#th o continents, who based their insights on EdwardaidFs notion o imaginative geograph#B is particularl# germane here! (emust, as K!=! "arl# teaches, attend to the wa#s that concrete and evenprosaic technologies and techni.ues o representation channel our spatial

imaginations in common'sensical and clichYd directions, regionali0ing andculturali0ing diverse spatio'cultural realities in particular wa#s. *as! %or eamle!are "echnologies "ha" no" only imly "he uses "o which "hey are u" (such as na$iga"ion or "rac+ing resources). The# otensigni&cantl# distort, in wa#s be#ond the distortion intrinsic to allcartograph#, territorial and cultural realities that might be entirel# theopposite o what is being represented! Nation'state maps are a case inpoint/ the# carve up the world into seemingl# sovereign and autonomousunits that bound the cultures that inhabit those units. Bu" wha" is so$ereign"y ac"ually

http://www.jadaliyya.com/pages/index/11292/theorizing-the-arabian-peninsula-roundtable_towardhttp://www.jadaliyya.com/pages/index/11292/theorizing-the-arabian-peninsula-roundtable_towardhttp://www.jadaliyya.com/pages/index/11292/theorizing-the-arabian-peninsula-roundtable_towardhttp://www.jadaliyya.com/pages/index/11292/theorizing-the-arabian-peninsula-roundtable_towardhttp://www.jadaliyya.com/pages/index/11292/theorizing-the-arabian-peninsula-roundtable_towardhttp://www.jadaliyya.com/pages/index/11292/theorizing-the-arabian-peninsula-roundtable_toward


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when you ha$e "he worl#Ss suerower claiming ece"ional righ"s "o in"er$ene willy/nilly where$er i" wan"s "o: John illis raises"his issue in rela"ion "o Femen! an# i" also resona"es wi"h bo"h Teha QoraSs an# *a#awi =l/ashee#Ss cri"i5ues o% "he ren"ier s"a"e as

an analy"ic %rame "o which we "oo casually resor"! (hat is the Mnation and what, thereore, arepolitics when the national cartograph# departs radicall# rom themultinational populationZ 4nother common approach, it must be said, isthe Moreign workers as slaves narrative, which - &nd intellectuall# la0#

and unwittingl# depolitici0ing both o laborers and labor emplo#ers! -hasten to add that - would obviousl# not replace this with anothercommon narrative, which represents oreign workers as Mrational actors.O "hin+ bo"h are e"reme o$ersimli?ca"ions. -n short, there needs to be more emphasis onhistor# as process and contestation, and on politici0ing historical, cultural,and what "enri @eebvre would call spatial ramings vis'['vis the Gul . =s "o"he more seci?c 5ues"ion rela"ing "o #icul"ies in con#uc"ing research in some ways! "he Pul%Eor maybe "he Lni"e# =rab 'mira"esin ar"icularEis no" a #icul" lace "o #o research in! rela"i$e "o many o"her laces "ha" an"hroologis"s go. mean "his in a rosaic

sense. The inrastructures o the United 4rab Emirates, or example, aregood! -t is a comortable place Aor a (esternerB, and the Emiratis, outh4sians, (esterners, and non'Emirati 4rabs with whom - worked weregenerall# ver# decent, generous people . Lne cannot, however, orget that

or other, di5erentl# situated and bodied sub3ects)non'(esternexpatriates, especiall# non'(estern women, working'class sub3ects, etc!)movement and access to these basic inrastructures is much moredifcult, and surveillance is much more invasive! his can be seen %rom oneSs ini"ial arri$al a"Dubai airor"! %or eamle! when assor" hol#ers %rom "he Lni"e# M"a"es an# 'uroe are seara"e# %rom o"hers! an# "he "wo grous

si%"e# in"o #iGeren"ly ri$ilege#! $ariously in$asi$e assor" chec+s. +ore interestingl#, and perhapsmore importantl#, there are other, more subtle, difculties in the arena oknowledge production! >or eamle! one re$iewer o% my boo+ Dubai! he ,i"y as ,orora"ion! correc"ly an#insigh"%ully no"e# "ha" "rie# "o ma+e a $ir"ue o% wha" *a#awi =l/ ashee# in "his roun#"able re%ers "o as "he ga"e/+eeing "ha" goeson all o$er "he lace in Pul% =rab coun"ries. Dubai! where #i# mos" o% my research (bu" ha$e also %oun# Bahrain an# Iuwai"! wi"hwhich ha$e some eerience! similar) is an as"onishingly manage# an# me#ia"e# socie"y. here isE%rom my own subec"i$eeerienceEa s"iCing a"moshere o% cai"alis"consumer law an# or#er. = #isroor"iona"e number o% my mee"ings occurre# incorora"e oces. ,on$ersa"ions o%"en ble# in"o corora"e ublic rela"ions or ublic rela"ions %or "he 'mira"e o% Dubai (by eole who

were no" necessarily connec"e# "o "he ar"icular comany in which was in"eres"e#). 4s 4l'asheed sa#s,Mstud#ing countries in the 4rabian *eninsula remains mediated b#gatekeepers whose interest lies in maintaining the image o stabilit#,a\uence, and securit#! 4nother good example o how this a5ectsknowledge production can be seen in m# own sub'discipline o urbanstudies, where there has been, over the past decade or so, a consistentemphasis on a particular image o the MGul cit#.O his image! ro#uce# by a collabora"i$e%orma"ion o% Pul% an# an/=rab aca#emic eer"ise! es"ern aca#emic eer"ise! an# Pul% oil money! is cons"ruc"e# aroun# no"ionso% Pul% urbanism as mo#ern! cul"urally #i$erse an# "oleran"! an# a Nmo#elO %or global urbanism (in Dubai! i" was calle# Nmi"hal

DubaiO or N"he Dubai mo#elO). -n m# current work, - am becoming increasingl#interested in how this mediation operates! (hat is meant b# Mthe cit# indiscourses on urbanism in Gul 4rab states, what work does this discourse

do, how does it organi0e speci&c kinds o common sense about what theMcit# is, and how does this common sense relate to power d#namicswithin and without the GulZ

The +iddle East is alwa#s described in a western rameulcasi 1% (Iaren ,ulcasi ro% o% geology an# geograhy an# es" Qirginiauni$ersi"y *aing "he *i##le 'as" %rom i"hin (,oun"er/) ,ar"ograhies o% anmerialis" ,ons"ruc"ion =n"io#e Qol. 44 To. 4) ,rys"al


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-n the United tates and much o the rest o the world, both the term andthe idea o the M+iddle East are readil# accepted parts o geographicaldiscourses!1 "owever, rom within the 4rab states o the M+iddle East,discourses o the M+iddle East are oten re3ected as Mwesternimperialist constructs.2 =s #escribe# in a recen" 'conomis" (2010) ar"icle "i"le# N&abels an# ca"egories!

a menagerie o% moni+ersO! the label M+iddle East Mreeks o imperialism! -ndeed,the label M+iddle East and its vague boundaries are undeniabl#imperialist! The actual topon#m originated in the earl# twentieth centur#in reerence to =ritish geopolitical interests in the land that was literall# inthe Mmiddle o Great =ritainFs Meast! >ur"her, it was =ritish and renchpowers ater (orld (ar - that drew the ma3orit# o the borders o thestates that toda# are generall# considered the core o the M+iddle East!onsidering its direct imperialist roots, it is perhaps unsurprising thatrom within the M+iddle East there is a strong hesitation to accept anduse this geographic categor#. ns"ea#! as "he eigrah sugges"s! "he =rab s"a"es o% "he wes"ern#e?ne# N*i##le 'as"O ha$e crea"e# #iGeren" regional geograhic #elinea"ions "ha" s"ress i"s =rab charac"er an#uni"y.

e3ecting the construction o +iddle East is imperialist androoted in a colonial discourse that perpetuates the erasure oidentitiesulcasi 1% (Iaren ,ulcasi ro% o% geology an# geograhy an# es" Qirginiauni$ersi"y *aing "he *i##le 'as" %rom i"hin (,oun"er/) ,ar"ograhies o% anmerialis" ,ons"ruc"ion =n"io#e Qol. 44 To. 4) ,rys"al

Me$eral his"orians an# geograhers ha$e shown "ha"! in a##i"ion "o i"s being a wes"ern/imerialis" cons"ruc"! theidea, term, de&nition, and even the location o the M+iddle East isvariable and ambiguous (=#elson 1998< Bonine 1967< ,ulcasi 2010< Da$ison 1970< >rom+in 1991<

Ie##ie 1963< Kwen 2000< hi"a+er 2004). This paper provides a uni.ue contribution tocriti.ues o western constructions o the M+iddle East b# ocusing oncartographic discourses within the 4rab states o the western'de&nedM+iddle East! hrough a largely emirical s"u#y! s#stemicall# and criticall# examinedan extensive sample o cartographic materials produced in eight di5erent4rab states o the M+iddle EastO. %ocus on mas because! as #iscuss in #e"ail below! the#are powerul geopolitical discourses that not onl# help to create placesand identities at a variet# o scales! bu" "hey are also use# as a %orm o% resis"ance "o hegemonicor #ominan" norms (Harris an# Haen 2007118– 116< -ic+les 2004< oo# 2010111–188). 4s - outline inthis paper, the dominant cartographic discourse - ound contests theexistence o the M+iddle East b# simpl# not mapping such a place, butalso b# cartographicall# constructing a slightl# di5erent place called theM4rab "omeland!S The cartographic re3ection o the M+iddle East andthe construction o a speci&call# 4rab geographical entit# is a subtle butpowerul orm o counter mapping that echoes the practice o a newl#independent state removing its colonial place names and adopting moreinternall# meaningul ones (,ohen an# Ilio" 1992< Hagen 2003< Ia#mon 2004< *onmonier 1997110<200762–9< amaswamy 2004209< un#s"rom 19919).


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The afrmativeFs representations o the +iddle East stem roma collo.uial understanding rooted inulcasi 1% AIaren ,ulcasi! -ro%essor in "he Dear"men" o% Peology an# Peograhy! es" Qirginia Lni$ersi"y!N*aing "he *i##le 'as" %rom i"hin (,oun"er/) ,ar"ograhies o% an merialis" ,ons"ruc"ion!O Me 2012! Qol. 44ssue 4! 1099/111

-n the post (orld (ar - #ears, the location o the M+iddle East varied immenselyU depending on who was using the term or who was drawing themap! an# i"U was o%"en con%use# an# conCa"e# wi"h "he more es"ablishe# "erm NTear 'as"O.U Howe$er! b# theend o (orld (ar -- the term M+iddle East was institutionali0edU in ocialBri"ish #ocumen"s (Bilgin 19919) an# in the U Jepartment o tate (Iurman 2006). hen!during the old (ar #ears when oil exploitation and the R expansion o-srael became global issues, the M+iddle East slowl# but surel# becameR acommon cartographic and geopolitical discourse across much o% "he worl#.U houghcommonlace "o#ay! i" is vital to underscore that the political map o the R M+iddleEast is an imperialist artiact that reHects the geopolitical and economicRinterests o the European powers who created it, not the desires o the

people who R actuall# live there! =s =lis#ar Drys#ale an# Peral# Bla+e (198224) wro"e! within Rthe 4rab (orld Mthere is still a nagging sense that the political map is acapriciousR colonial artiact that reHects the interests o the outsidepowers who drew it, no"U "he asira"ions o% "hose who inheri"e# i"! an# "ha" its drating isneither &nal nor R completeO. hus! i" is erhas unsurrising "ha" man# states o theM+iddle East R re3ect this imperialist geographic categor#!R *os" o% "he >rench an#Bri"ish Nman#a"e#O s"a"es won "heir in#een#ence a%"erU "he orl# ar . =s in newly in#een#en" s"a"es across"he globe! "he bor#ers an#U ruling s"ruc"ures "ha" imerial owers crea"e# were resilien" a%"er in#een#ence an#!U o$er "ime! "hese new s"a"es #e$eloe# na"ions an# na"ional i#en"i"ies "ha" coinci#e#U wi"h "he imose# boun#aries

(=ami 196< Baram 1990< Ihali#i 200476). Howe$er!U even as new national identities, suchas Kordanian or -ra.i, were being imagined and R constructed, a broader4rab identit# was also growing! The pan'4rab movement,R which ha# i"s origins as a

reac"ion "o K""oman hegemony in "he eigh"een"h cen"ury!U became a powerul political andideological orce in the mid'twentieth centur# R (ar"icularly wi"hin 'gy"! Myria! Jor#an!-ales"ine an# ra5).V The basic goal o thisR movement was to unite all 4rabic'speaking peoples across the world< an# wi"hU 'uroean imerialism a%"er orl# ar an# sraelSs"erri"orial eansion a%"er orl#U ar ! "his mo$emen" gaine# incre#ible geooli"ical momen"um.

The geographical imperialist views o the +iddle East reinorcewestern domination and interventionulcasi 1> (Iaren ,ulcasi ro% o% geology an# geograhy an# es" Qirginiauni$ersi"y ,KTML,TP =TD T=L=&ZTP H' *DD&' '=M he Peograhicale$iew 100 (4) Kc"ober 2010) ,rys"al

The construction o the +iddle East is deepl# embedded in Lrientalistdiscourses! -n his seminal book Lrientalism, Edward aid argued that,since earl# European explorations, M(esterners have imagined theMLrient and its inhabitants as timeless, backward, violent, and inerior!These geographical imaginings o the Lrient were pivotal in constructingthe Lther as inherentl# di5erent rom Mus! Knce es"ablishe# as #iGeren" an# in%erior! (estern domination o these Lther peoples and places was not merel# 3usti&ed but also warranted! =l"hough imaginings o% "he bac+war#! $iolen"! an# in%erior K"her


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ha$e been al"ere# sligh"ly since "he early nine"een"h cen"ury! as Douglas &i""le argue# in =merican Krien"alism he

Lni"e# M"a"es an# "he *i##le 'as" since 1948 "hey have survived and are now deepl#ingrained in ever#da# 4merican lie! o#ay! howe$er! the terminolog# haschanged rom the MLrient to the M+iddle East! 4s we perceive theLrient, so too do we oten perceive the +iddle East in negative andparticularistic contexts, such as terrorism, instabilit#, violence, -slamicundamentalism, anti'4mericanism, oppression o women, or oil wealth uch manuactured and oversimpli&ed geographical imaginings have notonl# shaped man# peopleFs perceptions o the +iddle East but alsoinHuenced material practices and political decisions Mince! =merican reu#ices agains"*i##le 'as"erners! =rabs! an# *uslims ha$e increase# an# so ha$e reor"e# inci#en"s o% racialcul"ural ro?ling an#

ha"e crimes >ur"hermore! recent geographical imaginings o this Lther as a threatto 4merica have helped to rame and legitimi0e U!! hegemonic endeavorsin the +iddle East.

The afrmative representation o cartographiculcasi 1% AIaren ,ulcasi! -ro%essor in "he Dear"men" o% Peology an# Peograhy! es" Qirginia Lni$ersi"y!

N*aing "he *i##le 'as" %rom i"hin (,oun"er/) ,ar"ograhies o% an merialis" ,ons"ruc"ion!O Me 2012! Qol. 44ssue 4! 1099/111

Me$eral his"orians an# geograhers ha$e shown "ha"! in a##i"ion "o i"s being aUwes"ern/imerialis" cons"ruc"! the idea, term, de&nition, and even the locationoR the M+iddle East is variable and ambiguous (=#elson 1998< Bonine 1967<,ulcasiU 2010< Da$ison 1970< >rom+in 1991< Ie##ie 1963< Kwen 2000< hi"a+er2004).U his aer ro$i#es a uni5ue con"ribu"ion "o cri"i5ues o% wes"erncons"ruc"ions o% U "he N*i##le 'as"O b# ocusing on cartographic discourseswithin the 4rab states oR the western'de&ned M+iddle East! hrough alargely emirical s"u#y! sys"emicallyU an# cri"ically eamine# an e"ensi$e samleo% car"ograhic ma"erials ro#uce#U in eigh" #iGeren" =rab s"a"es o% "he N*i##le

'as"O. ocus on maps because! as U #iscuss in #e"ail below! "hey are powerulgeopolitical discourses that not onl# helpR to create places and identitiesat a variet# o scales, but "hey are also used as aR orm o resistance tohegemonic or dominant norms (Harris an# Haen 2007118–U 116< -ic+les 2004<oo# 2010111–188). =s ou"line in "his aer! "he #ominan"U cartographicdiscourse %oun# con"es"s "he eis"ence o% "he N*i##le 'as"O by simlyU no"maing such a lace! bu" also by car"ograhically cons"ruc"ing a sligh"lyU #iGeren"lace calle# "he N=rab Homelan#O.3 The cartographic re3ection o theR M+iddleEast and the construction o a speci&call# 4rab geographical entit# is aR sub"le bu" powerul orm o counter mapping that echoes the practice o anewl#R independent state removing its colonial place names and adopting

more internall#R meaningul ones (,ohen an# Ilio" 1992< Hagen 2003< Ia#mon2004< *onmonierU 1997110< 200762–9< amaswamy 2004209< un#s"rom19919). Howe$er! theR construction and labeling o an# geographical entit#is a geopolitical process thatR is replete with variations, alterations, andexceptions to the norm! '$en "houghU "he =rab Homelan# is a common regionalca"egory %rom wi"hin =rab s"a"es! aU %ew mas o% "he N*i##le 'as"O ha$e beenro#uce#. *y %ocus in "his aer is onU "hese ece"ional mas! as oose# "o "henorma"i$e car"ograhies o% "he =rabU Homelan#. = cri"ical eamina"ion o% "hese


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ece"ional or a"yical mas ro$i#esU uni5ue insigh"s in"o how "he N*i##le 'as"O isconce"ualie# car"ograhically %romU wi"hin "his wes"ern/cons"ruc"e# region! whilealso highligh"ing "he ubi5ui"y an#U hegemony o% wes"ern geograhical ca"egoriesan# lace names.

ocus on the idea, term, de&nition, and locations o the*ersian gul are rooted in a histor# o M+iddle Easterncartographic discourses that shape the geopolitical identit# toserve western colonial interestulcasi 1% AIaren ,ulcasi! -ro%essor in "he Dear"men" o% Peology an# Peograhy! es" Qirginia Lni$ersi"y!N*aing "he *i##le 'as" %rom i"hin (,oun"er/) ,ar"ograhies o% an merialis" ,ons"ruc"ion!O Me 2012! Qol. 44ssue 4! 1099/111

The M+iddle East and the 4rab "omeland! li+e any worl# region! are ambiguous Rgeographical entities that are created through a variet# o discursive and Rmaterial processesEranging rom cartographic practices "o "he es"ablishmen" o% U surana"ional organia"ions (Har$ey 2001224–227< &ewis an# igen 1996< -aasiU 2001). 4s geographical

constructs, the location o these places is Huid and variable! R hile i" is imor"an""o un#erscore "ha" there is no one singular spatial de&nitionR o either theM+iddle East or the 4rab "omeland! accor#ing "o rosaic wes"ernU an# =rab car"ograhic#elinea"ions these places do greatl# overlap. =s >igure 1U summaries! maps andde&nitions o the M+iddle East produced in the U4 R since the 1$V>sgenerall# consider the states o -ra., -ran, Turke#, #ria, Kordan,R @ebanon,-sraelP*alestine, audi 4rabia, the U4E AUnited 4rab EmiratesB, Lman, R 6emen, =ahrain, ]atar, and Eg#pt as Mcore states< while "he eriheral s"a"esU o% Tor"h=%rica an# Mou"hwes" =sia (*orocco! es"ern Mahara! =lgeria! unisia!U &ibya! Mu#an! -a+is"an an# =%ghanis"an) areo%"en inclu#e# as ar" o% "he region!U bu" wi"h li""le regulari"y.4 hough "he non/=rab s"a"es o% srael! ran an#

ur+eyU (an# some"imes ,yrus "oo) are commonly consi#ere# ar" o% "he N*i##le 'as"O!U according tonormative cartographic discourses within 4rab tates the# are neverRincluded as part o the 4rab "omeland (see >igure 2). By con"ras"! Tor"h =%rican s"a"es li+eMu#an an# *orocco are always inclu#e# as "he core o% "he =rab Homelan#.U ecogni0ing that boththe M+iddle East and the 4rab "omeland are ambiguousR and Huidconstructions is imor"an"! bu"! as highligh" "hroughou" "his aer! i"U is how an# why "hese laces arecons"ruc"e# "ha" is so imperative to understand R (>orsberg 2003).U n or#er "o gain a be""erun#ers"an#ing o% how car"ograhic #iscourses wi"hinU =rab s"a"es bo"h reec" an# re/crea"e "he N*i##le 'as"O! collec"e# a broa# samleU o% mas #uring 4 mon"hs o% ?el#wor+ in ,airo! 'gy" in 2008. li"erally eamine#U e$eryma coul# ?n# "ha" ha# a worl#/regional! con"inen"al! or worl# scoe! ayingU ar"icular a""en"i

Dunn - Mapping K

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