1

Name:______________________________Living Environment – Midterm Review Sheet (2nd Quarter Cumulative Exam) 2nd Marking Period

Due date 1/24 (Day of midterm). PLEASE READ:

Complete this ENTIRE packet to receive 20 points. You will NOT receive any credit if this packet has anything blank. This review packet will only summarize the key ideas of the topics covered during the 2nd marking period. In addition to this review packet, study your 1st QUARTER CUMULATIVE EXAM REVIEW PACKET, all old tests and quizzes, notes, diagrams, and NYS state labs.

• CELLULAR RESPIRATION (define) – converts energy stored in the chemical bonds of food molecules to a useable form (ATP)

• occurs in the mitochondria and cytoplasm 1) Why is cellular respiration important to ALL living things? All living things require energy 2) In which cell organelle does cellular respiration take place?

• occurs in the mitochondria and cytoplasm 3) Describe the 2 types of respiration (write the equation, label reactants & products

,amount of ATP produced, and name examples of organisms that perform each type)

1- Aerobic Cellular Respiration OXYGEN IS REQUIRED!!

• Equation: Glucose+Oxygen à Carbon Dioxide+Water+Energy (C6H12O6 + O2 ) à CO2 + H2O + 36 ATP REACTANTS PRODUCTS

• For each glucose the cell gains 36 ATP molecules • 1 Glucose= 36 ATP molecules!

Performed in organisms with mitochondria 2- Anaerobic Cellular Respiration (2 types, a.k.a. Fermentation)

• NO oxygen required • Produces only 2 ATP per glucose Ex. Prokaryotes have no mitochondria

Alcoholic Fermentation - • Produces alcohol, CO2, and 2 ATP • Performed by yeast (fungi)

Lactic Acid Fermentation - Produces lactic acid and 2 ATP

• Performed by some bacteria & by animal cells as a last resort when lacking O2 • Associated with muscle fatigue (burning pain)

SAVE this review sheet for the rest

of the year!

2

4) Draw an ATP molecule AND explain how it can be used to store and release energy.

Energy is stored in the bonds between the phosphate groups. Energy gets released when the bonds between the phosphate groups are broken. 5) Carbon dioxide is produced as a byproduct of cellular respiration. Explain how it is

recycled in nature. Carbon dioxide will get recycled through nature because it is used for photosynthesis in plants. Plants are able to use the carbon dioxide to create food in the plant. 6) Describe one main function of each of the steps of aerobic cellular respiration.

Glycolysis – Small energy output, but fast process, can occur in all organisms Kreb’s cycle – Main function is to produce CO2 and electron transporters (FADH2 AND NADH) which will get used in the electron transport chain Electron Transport Chain – Produces the most ATP (32) PHOTOSYNTHESIS (define) – Draw a chloroplast and identify its parts (thylakoid, grana, stroma).

3

1) Describe photosynthesis (write the equation, label the reactants & products), identify

the energy source): Photosynthesis is the process of turning light energy into food for the plant. Equation Reactants Products The sun + carbon dioxide + water à glucose + oxygen Energy +6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 The main source of energy is the sun 2) Name 2 types of organisms that can perform photosynthesis. Plants and Algae 3) In which cell organelle does photosynthesis take place? Chloroplast__________ 4) What is the difference between an autotroph and a heterotroph? Give examples. Autotroph are able to use light energy from the sun to produce food Ex. Plants & algae Heterotrophcannot produce their own food; obtain energy from the foods they consume Ex. animals, fungi, most bacteria 5) Oxygen is produced as a byproduct of photosynthesis. Explain how it is recycled in

nature. Oxygen gets recycled by animals who then use it to perform cellular respiration inside of

their bodies 6) Explain why plants are considered to be “self-sustaining.” Plants are considered self sustaining because they are able to produce their own food,

and do not need to rely on other things to make food. PLANTS

1. Describe at least two ways that plant cells are different from animal cells both structurally and functionally. Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplast, and one large vacuole (as opposed to several smaller ones). - Cell wall is deigned to protect the cell, chloroplast is designed to make food for the plant, and the large vacuole is designed to store food and water.

4

Draw a leaf cross-section using page 681 of your text book or the diagram we labeled in class. LABEL each section of the leaf.

1-Upper epidermis 2- cuticle 3- Palisade mesophyll 4- chloroplast 5- xylem 6-

phloem 7-guard cells 8- stomate(stoma) 9- vein (xylem and phloem) 10- lower epidermis 11- spongy mesophyll 12- mesophyll

2. Draw a stomate and its guard cells. Describe their functions & location on the leaf. Stomates function is to allow water and gas in and out of the cell HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS Describe how any two of the human body systems work together to maintain homeostasis. Circulatory system and digestive system work together in the sense that the digestive system will break down the nutrients, and the circulatory system will circulate the nutrients around the body. Circulatory and respiratory work together in the sense that respiratory system brings in oxygen that gets circulated around the body, and them CO2 gets brought to the alveoli by the circulatory system. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM is associated with this life process: _Nutrition _________.

1. Describe in detail how the digestive system helps the human body maintain homeostasis. (What is its main purpose in keeping you alive?) Digestive system is involved in taking in food and breaking it down for nutrients that can be used for life processes in the body.

5

2. Describe the process of digestion of a slice of pepperoni pizza as it passes from

mouth to anus. Be sure to indicate where mechanical digestion and chemical digestion of specific nutrients (protein, carbs, fats) found in the pepperoni pizza occurs. Also indicate where and how nutrient absorption occurs.

Mouth- In the mouth mechanical digestion occurs by the teeth, and chemical digestion starts by the use of salivary amylase. Salivary amylase digests carbohydrates in the mouth

Esophagus- Mechanical digestion occurs in the esophagus by peristalsis

Stomach-Mechanical digestion occurs when the stomach starts to churn. Hydrochloric acid and pepsin begin to digest the proteins.

Small Intestine (with help from liver, gall bladder, pancreas, villi)- The liver releases bile into the small intestine that begins to emulsify(breakdown) the fats in the pizza. The nutrients from all of the food will get absorbed by the villi in the small intestine, and then enter the blood stream.

Large Intestine- The rest of the nutrients get absorbed in the large intestine from the feces 3. Complete the following chart on the malfunctions of the digestive system

Malfunction Structure Affected

Description Treatment / Prevention

Constipation

Large intestine

Too much water gets absorbed in the large intestine and makes the feces hard to egest.

Drinking plenty of water to help make the feces easier to egest

Diarrhea

Large intestine

Not enough water gets absorbed in the large intestine and getting rid of too much water from the body

Drinking plenty of water to help balance the loss of water

Ulcer

Stomach

Mucous lining in the stomach erodes away, and the stomach acid erodes away at the stomach lining

Medicine to reduce acid production Eliminate causes

6

Gall Stones

Gall Bladder

Blocked duct, inflammation

or infection / pain.

Surgery to remove Gall Bladder

Appendicitis

Appendix

Spread of infection or death if

it bursts

Surgery to remove it antibiotics for infection

Heartburn / GERD

Esophagus

Inflammation/ wearing down of esophagus

pain

Eat smaller meals avoid trigger foods (spicy) Take antacids

4. Why don’t plants need a digestive system? What do they have/do instead? Plants to not need a digestive system because they are able to produce their own food, and transport the nutrients around the plant

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM is associated with this life process: __Transportation_________.

1. Describe in detail how the circulatory system helps the human body maintain homeostasis (What is its main function in keeping you alive?)

The circulatory system is designed to transport nutrients and wastes around the body. The circulatory system transports oxygen to be used for cellular respiration, transports CO2 to be exhaled by the lungs. The circulatory system also transports nutrients to be used in cellular respiration 2. Name and describe the functions of the 3 types of blood vessels.

Artery- thick walled vessels that carry blood away from the heart .

Vein- thinner walled vessels that carry blood towards the heart. Have valves in them to prevent blood from flowing backwards in the body. Capillaries- thin walled vessels that connect arteries and veins. Typically where diffusion occurs 3. How are the pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein different than other vessels? Pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood away from the heart and sends it to the lungs. Pulmonary vein- carries oxygenated blood back from the lungs to the heart.

7

5. Describe the structure and function of each of the 4 components of the blood:

Red Blood Cells - Red blood cells are biconcave discs that have hemoglobin on them, and the hemoglobin is a protein that carries oxygen White Blood Cells – these are the largest cells in your blood, they have a nucleus, and are designed to fight off infections in the body. Platelets – smaller fragments that are designed to help with clotting by releasing a protein called fibrin

Plasma – 90% water and other components gives the blood its liquid consistency

6. List the path of blood flow through the circulatory system beginning at the right atrium. Indicate where gas exchange and nutrient/waste exchange occur.

Right atrium (passes through a valve)à right ventricleà pulmonary artery à to the lungs where oxygen is picked up at the alveoli, and CO2 is dropped off into the alveolià then from the lungs back to the heart through the pulmonary veinà left atriumà (passes a valve) Left ventricleàto the aortaà rest of the body

7. Complete the following chart on the malfunctions of the circulatory system.

Malfunction Description Cause Treatment / Prevention

Hypertension (high blood

pressure)

Excessive force of blood against artery walls Damages arteries (heart, kidneys)

Leads to arteriosclerosis (hardening & narrowing of arteries) & stroke

• Obesity • High salt intake

Healthy diet & exercise, medication to treat

Heart Attack

Blockage of

coronary artery (serves heart muscle)

Plaque (build up) in arteries (atherosclerosis)

High cholesterol, high blood pressure, smoking, can cause plaque build up

Eat healthy diet, don’t smoke, medication/surgery may treat, may be fatal

Anemia - Iron

deficiency)

Produce fewer or smaller RBcs, difficulty transporting O2

Lack of iron in diet or poor absorption

Eat iron rich foods or take iron supplement

8

Anemia – Sickle Cell

Red blood cells shaped like moons (sickles). Get stuck in the vessels cells don’t get o2

Genetic No prevention

Hemophilia

Bleeding disorder, difficulty clotting blood due to lack of clotting factor

Genetic No prevention, transfusion to replace missing clotting factors

Leukemia

Cancer of white blood cells. Bone marrow produces non functional white blood cells

Unknown. One type may be

acquired from radiation

No prevention chemotherapy, bone marrow transplant

Stroke Blockage or rupture of blood vessel serving the brain

Blood clots, plaque up cholesterol deposits,

smoking

Increase in physical activity, don’t smoke, healthy diet

8. What structures are the equivalent of a circulatory system in plants and what materials are transported? Hint: NOT Blood! Xylem and phloem are vascular tissue that make up veins in the leaf. The xylem is responsible for transporting water within the leaf, and phloem is responsible for transporting food in the leaf.

IMMUNE SYSTEM

1. How does the immune system help the human body maintain homeostasis? The immune system is responsible for specific and non specific attacks on disease causing agents or pathogens

2. List all functions of white blood cells in the body. a. Identify foreign antigens (Helper T-cells) b. Direct /alert other white blood cells to increase production (Helper T-cells) c. Produce antibodies (B-cells à plasma cells) d. Engulf & destroy foreign invaders using phagocytosis (Macrophages /

phagocytes) e. Kill infected, damaged cells (Killer T-cells) f. Retain memory of how to fight specific pathogens (Memory T-cells)

3. Describe the immune response to a foreign substance. Use the words antigen,

antibody, and pathogen appropriately in your description.

9

A foreign substance (Pathogen) enters the body, and has antigens on the surface of it. White blood cells then detect that the pathogen is a foreign substance and will produce antibodies to fit the specific antigen on the cell. White blood cells will then come along and destroy the pathogen that has antibodies on it.

4. What is in a vaccination and how does it help the body defend against pathogens? What is the relationship between vaccinations and white blood cell activity?

Vaccinations are dead or weakened version of a virus. This causes your body to produce more white blood cells to produce antibodies against the virus.

5. Why doesn’t a vaccine make a person sick? The virus is a non active form of the disease so it does not actually make people sick.

6. Why must you get a new flu vaccine every year? The flu virus mutates every year, so the antigens on the surface changes every year

meaning that the antibodies produced last year will not work on the new flu strain Compare & contrast passive and active immunity and provide examples of each.

Passive immunity is temporary, and when antibodies are “passed on” to you ex: Breastmilk Active immunity is permanent, and is when your body is “actively” producing antibodies

against a disease ex: vaccines 8. Complete the following chart on the malfunctions of the immune system.

Malfunction Description Cause Treatment/ Prevention

Allergies

A hypersensitive response to substances (allergens) that are not normally harmful

Caused by allergens such as pollen, nuts, shell fish etc. All trigger a histamine response

Anti-histamine drugs such as zyrtec etc.

AIDS

Attacks T cells and prevents people from fighting off infection

Caused by HIV transmitted through bodily fluids

Do not have unprotected sex, do not share any kind of needle

Organ Transplant Rejection

Body starts to repel donor organ

Caused by antigens on organ being recognized as non-self

Getting closest match is good to prevent. Immunosuppressant drugs to prevent rejection.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM is associated with this life process: __Respiration________.

1. Describe in detail how the respiratory system helps the human body maintain homeostasis (what is its main function in keeping you alive)?

10

The main function of the respiratory system is to allow for gas exchange between the outside world and the surface of the lungs. Brings in oxygen, which is used for cellular respiration, and exhales co2 as a waste. 2. Describe each of the following structures (functions, alternate names, etc.):

Nasal Cavity – Lined with cilia and mucous to filter and moisten the air Pharynx – Also known as the throat contains the larynx Larynx – Vocal Cords Epiglottis – Flap that goes over the trachea to prevent food from going down it. Trachea – Held open by cartilage rings Cilia & mucus trap debris, removed by

coughing Bronchi – 2 main branches that come off the trachea, lined with mucus and ringed with cartilage Bronchioles – Branches that come off the bronchi and lead to the alveoli Alveoli – Air sacs at the end of bronchioles, gas exchange occurs here Capillaries – Surrounds the alveoli to allow for gas exchange. Diaphragm – Dome shaped muscle responsible for pressure change in chest which allows for breathing.

3. The functional unit (working part) of the lung is called the __Alveoli____. 4. The medulla of your brain regulates breathing rate by detecting the levels of_CO2 ____

(a waste gas) in the blood.

5. Describe what happens to the lungs, diaphragm, and ribs when you inhale. rib cage (intercostal) muscles contract chest cavity expands ,lower pressure in the lungs so air rushes in 6. Describe what happens to the lungs, diaphragm, and ribs when you exhale. rib cage muscles relax, chest cavity relaxes, Increased pressure in lungs forces air out 7. Complete the following chart on the malfunctions of the respiratory system.

Malfunction Description Cause Treatment / Prevention

Asthma

bronchioles constrict, airflow is reduced

Difficulty breathing, chronic cough

triggered by an allergic response, smoke, dust, or stress

Inhaler or nebulizer, anti-inflammatory drugs

11

Bronchitis

• Inflammation of the bronchial tubes cough, mild fever, tiredness, wheezing

bacterial / viral infection, lung irritants

avoid irritants, drink liquids, rest

Emphysema

breakdown of alveoli walls, loss of elasticity of lungs chronic cough, shortness of breath

• 80% of cases due to smoking, air pollution

no cure, oxygen therapy, stop smoking to slow progression

Pneumonia

Fluid develops in the alveoli of lungs fever, chills, fatigue & excessive cough with mucus

bacteria or viral infection

antibiotics & rest, wash hands often

EXCRETORY SYSTEM is associated with this life process: Excretion______________.

1. Describe in detail how the excretory system helps the human body maintain homeostasis (what is its main function in keeping you alive)? The removal of cellular waste (metabolic waste) from the human body

2. How does each of the following aid in the excretion of cellular waste products?

Skin – Skin removes waste in the form of sweat, and excretes urea, and co2 and salt from the body

Lungs – Co2 and H2O is excreted during exhalation

Liver – liver produces urea as a result of breaking down proteins Urinary System – Urinary system is responsible for filtering out waste out of the blood and creating urine.

3. List the 4 metabolic wastes removed by the excretory system.

CO2, Salts, urea, H2O

4. The functional unit (working part) of the kidney is called the ___Nephrons_____.

5. This unit is composed of several parts with specific functions. Explain the role of each. Glomerulus – cluster of capillaries where blood enters the kidneys

Bowman’s capsule – C” shaped structure surrounding each glomerulus. It is here that

materials such as urea, salts, water, glucose, & others (known as the filtrate) pass from the blood into the nephron

12

Loop of Henle – As the filtrate travels through this tubule, useful substances are reabsorbed into the surrounding capillarieS

Collecting duct – collects the metabolic wastes filtered from the blood which form

urine and transports them to urinary bladder 6. Complete the following chart on the malfunctions of the excretory system. Malfunction Description Cause Treatment / Prevention

Kidney Stones

build up of calcium, uric acid inside the kidneys (pain)

poor diet, high blood pressure, some are genetic

meds, soundwaves to break apart stone, passes when urinating

Gout

• arthritis-like pain

excess uric acid (from red & organ meats, red wine and chocolate) builds up in the joints

anti-inflammatory meds, healthy diet, less red meat

Urinary Tract Infection

inflammation and painful urination

E. coli bacteria infect the urethra

Treatment – antibiotics Prevention – good hygiene, cranberry juice

Diagram Review: Name each system represented by each diagram and label the parts. Digestive____________ System __Respiratory__________ System

Mouth

Esophagus

LIver Stomach

Gall Bladder Small

intestine

Large intestine Anus

Rectum

Nasal Cavity

Mouth

Bronchi

Trachea

Bronchi

Bronchioles

Bronchioles

Diaphragm

13

Circulatory____________ System _______Excretory (renal)_________ System

1- aorta 2- superior vena cava 3- Pulmonary artery 4- Superior vena cava 5- Right atrium 6- Valve 7- Ventricle 8- Inferior vena cava 9- Pulmonary artery 10- Pulmonary vein 11- Left atrium 12- Valve 13- Valve 14- Left ventricle 15- aorta

Kidney

Ureter

Renal artery

Renal vein

Urinary bladder

Internal sphincter

Urethra