DUAL CONVERGENCE OR HYBRIDIZATION? INSTITUTIONAL...
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DUAL CONVERGENCE OR HYBRIDIZATION? INSTITUTIONAL CHANGE IN ITALY AND GREECE
FROM THE VARIETIES OF CAPITALISM PERSPECTIVE Andreas Kornelakis
London School of Economics
Abstract1
The article tracks institutional changes within two central spheres
for Varieties of Capitalism (VoC) theory: the industrial relations
system and the finance/corporate governance system. Italy and
Greece are examined in comparative perspective vis-à-vis CME
and LME paradigm cases. The review of recent developments
reveals that while industrial relations in both countries show signs
of greater coordination, the finance/corporate governance system
acquired increasingly liberal market characteristics. Thereby, this
analysis casts doubt to the dual convergence thesis, arguing that
the hybrid character of the two countries was exacerbated over
the last two decades.
Keywords: corporate governance, industrial relations,
comparative political economy, Greece, Italy.
1. Introduction
For the last two decades, scholarly work in comparative political
economy has been dominated by the Varieties of Capitalism
(VoC) literature. Among other things, this strand of literature re-
launched with vigor the debate between convergence and
divergence. The essence of the convergence thesis was that
countries will eventually get into a common trajectory following a
1 An earlier version was presented at the 5th CEU Graduate Social Sciences Conference (Budapest,
19-21 June 2009) and at the 4th LSE Hellenic Observatory PhD Symposium (London, 25-26 June 2009).
Detailed feedback from Christa van Wijnbergen (LSE), Kevin Featherstone (LSE), and two anonymous
referees has been very helpful in revising this article. I also thank Waltraud Schelkle (LSE), Marco Simoni
(LSE), and Thomas Fetzer (CEU) for their comments. Financial support from Bodossaki Foundation and LSE is
gratefully acknowledged. Any remaining errors are my own.
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single ―logic of industrialism‖2. The same thesis appeared in the
early 1990s within the context of the globalisation debate,
foreseeing convergence to the Anglo-Saxon model of capitalism.
Contributions from the VoC literature provided a counterweight to
easy arguments about globalisation and refuted the idea of an
imminent convergence to a single model3. Instead, they argued
that there are more than one ways to achieve high performance
in the global economy. The subsequent debate was largely
structured around the two successful models of capitalism:
Coordinated Market Economies (CMEs) and Liberal Market
Economies (LMEs).
A landmark publication by Hall and Soskice4 elaborated on
specific institutional complementarities that countries derive from
the tight coupling of a set of institutions. Complementarities
denote a functional interdependence between different
institutional domains including the industrial relations system and
the system of finance and corporate governance. Hall and Soskice
argued that when these institutions cluster together in specific
combinations, then they are able to produce increasing returns
and contribute to high economic performance.
As a result of the above conceptualisation, VoC effectively
replaced the (single) convergence thesis with a dual convergence
thesis allowing for two options –rather than the no alternative
type of argument. The pressures from globalisation and
liberalisation are expected to accentuate the differences between
LMEs and CMEs. The interesting question that this raises is what
will happen to cases (countries) that lie in an ambiguous position?
2 Clark Kerr, John Dunlop, Frederick Harbison and Charles Myers, Industrialism and Industrial Man
(Cambridge; Mass: Harvard University Press, 1960).
3 Colin Crouch, ―Models of Capitalism‖ New Political Economy, 10 (Dec 2005):439-456; Wolfgang
Streeck and Kathleen Thelen ―Introduction: institutional change in advanced political economies‖ in Beyond
continuity: institutional change in advanced political economies, eds idem (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2005), 1-39.
4 Peter Hall and David Soskice ―An Introduction to Varieties of Capitalism‖, in Varieties of
Capitalism: institutional foundations of comparative advantage, eds., idem (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2001), 1-68.
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Southern European countries are hard to classify as LMEs or
CMEs. Later works in the literature grouped the cases of Greece,
Italy, Portugal, Spain and France under a new ideal-type: Mixed
Market Economies (MMEs).5 The common thread linking these
cases is that they lack the institutional cohesion of LMEs or CMEs
(i.e. they are construed as hybrids) and certainly lack the crucial
complementarities which are necessary for high performance. As
will be argued below, these countries are ―hard cases‖ for
propositions of institutional change, and therefore, appropriate to
assess the plausibility of the dual convergence hypothesis.
The main research question of this article is whether institutional
change in Italy and Greece is taking place in line with the
expectations of the dual convergence hypothesis. If the
hypothesis is plausible, then we should expect to see these cases
changing unambiguously towards the LME or the CME direction.
The article shows that institutional change in the two countries is
not taking place along these expectations. Despite common
pressures from globalisation and liberalisation, industrial relations
are becoming more coordinated and corporate
governance/finance more liberal. The core insight of this paper is
that different institutions may be changing in different directions,
and this should be taken into account in the academic debate
over institutional change. The empirical part documents this
possibility with evidence from Italy and Greece, which are
examined in comparative perspective vis-à-vis Germany and
Britain. The latter pair provides two imperfect proxies of the CME
and LME ideal-types, respectively.
The rest of the article is structured as follows. The next section
discusses the main works in the convergence/divergence debate.
It also substantiates the interpretation of the VoC framework as
having the observable implication of the ―dual convergence‖
thesis. The third section examines earlier works on Southern
Europe from a VoC perspective. This section aims to delineate the
5 Bob Hancké, Martin Rhodes and Mark Thatcher, ―Introduction: Beyond Varieties of Capitalism‖ in
Beyond Varieties of Capitalism: Conflict, contradiction and complementarities in the European Economy, eds.
idem, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 3-38.
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added value of the present article compared to previous
approaches. Additionally, it justifies why Italy and Greece can be
construed as ―hard cases‖ for claims of institutional change,
especially in the spheres of industrial relations and corporate
governance. The fourth section explores changes in the industrial
relations sphere, while the fifth section tracks changes in the
realm of finance/corporate governance. The evidence examined
show that the former has moved closer to the coordinated type,
whereas the latter has become more liberalized. The final section
summarises the main argument of increased hybridization and
discusses the wider implications of this analysis.
2. Convergence, Divergence and Dual Convergence across
Varieties of Capitalism
The debate between convergence and divergence theorists is
probably as old as social science itself. Marx, for example,
predicted the inevitable self-destruction of the capitalist system
and the convergence to a socialist system, in which the state
would eventually wither away. A team of Harvard institutional
labour economists addressed that prediction in the 1960s and
argued against Marxian convergence; they claimed, instead, that
advanced capitalist countries are likely to converge to a single
model of ―pluralistic industrialism‖.6 Several years later, a team of
scholars under the auspices of John Goldthorpe challenged the
Harvard‘s team idea of convergence to pluralistic industrialism,
highlighting the corporatist responses of Western European
countries.7
The convergence argument reappeared in the 1990s within the
wider globalization debate. A series of popular and polemical
works led the discussion, putting forward the proposition that
pressures from globalization will force different countries to
6 Clark Kerr et al., Industrialism and Industrial Man (Cambridge; Mass: Harvard University Press,
1960).
7 John Goldthorpe, ed., Order and Conflict in Contemporary Capitalism (Oxford: Clarendon, 1984).
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converge to the Anglo-Saxon model of capitalism.8 This vision
was shared by International Political Economy scholars, who
recognised the potential for clash between different models of
capitalism9 and argued that global market integration pushes
countries towards convergence10. Thereby, convergence to a
single neo-liberal model gained credence in literature (Figure 1).
Figure 1. The Single Convergence Thesis
Source: Hay, "Common Trajectories, Variable Paces, Divergent Outcomes?‖, 234.
8 Michel Albert, Capitalism against Capitalism (London: Whurr, 1993), Will Hutton, The State We‘re
In (London: Jonathan Cape, 1995), Lester Thurow, Head to Head: The Coming Economic Battle among Japan,
Europe, and America (London; New York: Brealey; Morrow, 1992).
9 Robert Cox, "Global Restructuring: Making Sense of the Changing International Political
Economy," in Political Economy and the Changing Global Order, ed. Richard Stubbs and Geoffrey Underhill
(Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1994), 49.
10 Susan Strange, "The Future of Global Capitalism; or, Will Divergence Persist Forever?," in Political
Economy of Modern Capitalism, ed. Colin Crouch and Wolfgang Streeck (London: Sage, 1997), 182.
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In response to these arguments, scholars from Comparative
Political Economy developed an alternative vision of ―divergence‖.
They showed that similar pressures are mediated differently
across models of capitalism, and refuted the neo-liberal
convergence thesis.11 According to Colin Crouch, one of the main
accomplishments of this literature is that it provided an
―intellectual counterweight to easy arguments about
globalization‖.12
The landmark publication by Hall and Soskice13 put forward two
main types of political economies: CMEs and LMEs. Importantly, it
elaborated on specific ―institutional complementarities‖ that
different models derive from the tight coupling of their institutions
and argued that these complementarities give rise to comparative
advantages, which are reinforced in the context of globalization.
While Hall and Soskice do not speak explicitly of a ―dual
convergence‖ thesis, if we are to follow King et al. methodological
suggestion of testing the ―observable implications of a theory‖14,
then this thesis (Figure 2) is such an observable implication of the
VoC theory.
This interpretation is shared by other scholars in the literature.15
Most notably, Colin Hay in an article in the prestigious Review of
International Political Economy writes:
11 Suzanne Berger and Ronald Dore, eds., National Diversity and Global Capitalism (Ithaca: Cornell
University Press, 1996), Colin Crouch and Wolfgang Streeck, eds., Political Economy of Modern Capitalism
(London: Sage, 1997), Herbert Kitschelt et al., eds., Continuity and Change in Contemporary Capitalism
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), Kathleen Thelen and Christa van Wijnbergen, "The Paradox
of Globalization: Labor Relations in Germany and Beyond," Comparative Political Studies 36, no. 8 (2003).
12 Colin Crouch, "Models of Capitalism," New Political Economy 10, no. 4 (2005): 439.
13 Peter Hall and David Soskice, "An Introduction to Varieties of Capitalism," in Varieties of
Capitalism: Institutional Foundations of Comparative Advantage, ed. Peter Hall and David Soskice (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2001).
14 Gary King, Robert Keohane, and Sidney Verba, Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific Inference in
Qualitative Research (Princeton; NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), 208.
15 Marc Blyth, "Same as It Never Was: Temporality and Typology in the Varieties of Capitalism,"
Comparative European Politics 1, no. 2 (2003): 15, Waltraud Schelkle, "Collapsing Worlds and Varieties of
Welfare Capitalism: How to Step out of Weber's Long Shadow," Oxford Centre for the Study of Inequality and
Democracy Working Paper Series, no. 01 (2008): 4.
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Altogether more sophisticated theoretically, altogether more
exhaustive empirically, and increasingly influential in contemporary debates is the so-called „dual‟ or „co-convergence thesis‟ advanced by a range of prominent neo-institutionalists ... This perspective represents perhaps the most systematic attempt to date to explore, expose and detail the institutional mechanisms involved in process(es) of convergence and divergence.…16
Figure 2. The Dual Convergence Thesis
Source: Hay, "Common Trajectories, Variable Paces, Divergent
Outcomes?‖, 236.
16 Colin Hay, "Common Trajectories, Variable Paces, Divergent Outcomes? Models of European
Capitalism under Conditions of Complex Interdependence," Review of International Political Economy 11, no.
2 (2004): 235-6.
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The dual convergence thesis starts from the assumption that
there are two main political economic models (LMEs and CMEs)
capable of achieving high performance in the new global
environment. The pressures from neo-liberal globalization and
liberalization are expected to accentuate the differences between
the two models forcing mid-spectrum cases to converge to either
political-economic model.
One could reasonably wonder: what are the scope conditions of
VoC theory? In other words, should we at all expect that other
countries (be they Italy, Estonia or Uganda) will converge with
one of the models? Hall and Soskice were very clear that their
theory encompasses advanced industrialised countries defined as
―large OECD nations‖.17 As a result, it is questionable whether a
country like Estonia is within VoC scope conditions, while a
developing country like Uganda is likely out of bounds.
Still, the literature in the last decade has expanded the universe
of cases in such a way that the above demarcation is blurred. On
the one hand, Schneider and Soskice applied the VoC perspective
to Latin American countries (which are not OECD members except
for Mexico and very recently Chile) dubbing them as ―Hierarchical
Market Economies‖.18 On the other hand, several works19 applied
or challenged the VoC perspective using cases from Central and
Eastern Europe, looking at both OECD members (Czech Republic,
Hungary, Poland), and non-members (Estonia, Slovenia,
Ukraine). Nonetheless, Southern European countries like Italy
and Greece that have been OECD members since the 1960s, have
17 Hall and Soskice, "An Introduction to Varieties of Capitalism," 19.
18 Ben Ross Schneider and David Soskice, "Inequality in Developed Countries and Latin America:
Coordinated, Liberal and Hierarchical Systems," Economy and Society 38, no. 1 (2009).
19 Dorothee Bohle and Béla Greskovits, "The State, Internationalization, and Capitalist Diversity in
Eastern Europe," Competition & Change 11, no. 2 (2007), Magnus Feldmann, "The Origins of Varieties of
Capitalism: Lessons from Post-Socialist Transition in Estonia and Slovenia," in Beyond Varieties of Capitalism,
ed. Bob Hancké, Martin Rhodes, and Mark Thatcher (Oxford: OUP, 2007), Vlad Mykhnenko, "Strengths and
Weaknesses of 'Weak' Coordination: Economic Institutions, Revealed Comparative Advantages and Socio-
Economic Performance of Mixed Market Economies in Poland and Ukraine," in Beyond Varieties of Capitalism,
ed. Bob Hancké, Martin Rhodes, and Mark Thatcher (Oxford: OUP, 2007).
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been capitalist economies for decades also have a long
experience of EU membership. Therefore, they fall definitely
within VoC scope conditions. The next section reviews in more
detail earlier works on Southern European countries that shared
this VoC angle.
3. Southern Europe among Varieties of Capitalism
3.1. Southern Europe as a Distinct Variety of Capitalism
Interestingly, Hall and Soskice allowed for a third variety of
capitalism in their initial contribution, foreshadowing what would
later be dubbed as ―Mixed Market Economies‖:
‗[Six countries are left]…in more ambiguous positions (France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Greece, and Turkey). However, the latter show some signs of institutional clustering as well, indicating that they may constitute
another type of capitalism, sometimes described as „Mediterranean‘ (emphasis added). 20
While Hall and Soskice did not elaborate on this third type, other
scholars concurred with this argument. They maintained that
these countries are likely to belong to a distinct variety of
capitalism termed as Mediterranean or Southern European.21
Working within the initial Hall and Soskice framework, recent
work has elaborated more on the characteristics of this third
variety of capitalism dubbing the term ―Mixed Market Economies‖
and including the cases of Italy, Greece, Spain, Portugal and
France.22
20 Hall and Soskice, "An Introduction to Varieties of Capitalism," 21.
21 Bruno Amable, The Diversity of Modern Capitalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003),
Richard Hyman, "Varieties of Capitalism, National Industrial Relations Systems and Transnational Challenges,"
in International Human Resource Management., ed. Anne-Wil Harzing and Joris van Ruysseveldt (London:
Sage, 2004).
22 Bob Hancké, Martin Rhodes, and Mark Thatcher, "Introduction: Beyond Varieties of Capitalism," in
Beyond Varieties of Capitalism, ed. Bob Hancké, Martin Rhodes, and Mark Thatcher (Oxford: OUP, 2007), 23,
Oscar Molina and Martin Rhodes, "The Political Economy of Adjustment in Mixed Market Economies: A Study
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In Mixed Market Economies the logic of coordination is mixed
(both market and non-market), the state has a distinctive
―compensatory role‖ while the emphasis in on the ―misfit‖
between institutions. The ―misfit‖ denotes a deviation from the
institutional clustering observed in coherent cases like LMEs and
CMEs and results in an absence of ―institutional
complementarities‖. In their analysis the authors conceptualize
the new ideal-type as a ―hybrid‖ that is bound to under-
perform.23
Apart from the above works offering a grand ideal-type to
accommodate Southern European cases, there are more specific
Southern European country-studies with a VoC angle. The next
section reviews the approach, areas covered and conclusions of
those studies, establishing what the added value from the present
article is.
3.2. Southern European Country-Studies from a VoC
Perspective
One of the earliest attempts to look at Southern European
countries from a VoC perspective is Regini‘s attempt to depict the
Italian variety of capitalism.24 Regini follows a micro-level
approach; his primary focus is the production system and the
product market strategies that Italian firms utilize. He maintains
that ―flexible specialization‖ is the production strategy pursued in
the Italian industrial districts, revealing comparative advantage
―particularly in certain niche productions in clothing and
textiles‖.25 He then relates the institutional environment to the
production system and argues that the combination of ―weak
institutional regulation‖ and ―unstable voluntaristic regulation‖
of Spain and Italy," in Beyond Varieties of Capitalism, ed. Bob Hancké, Martin Rhodes, and Mark Thatcher
(Oxford: OUP, 2007), 225-27.
23 Ibid., 225-27.
24 Marino Regini, "Social Institutions and Production Structure: The Italian Variety of Capitalism in
the 1980s," in Political Economy of Modern Capitalism, ed. Colin Crouch and Wolfgang Streeck (London: Sage,
1997).
25 Ibid., 105.
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explain why this type of production strategy was the most
prosperous.26 Finally, he concludes that Italy is not an
intermediate case between Rhenish and Anglo-Saxon capitalism;
instead, it comprises a distinct model of capitalism.27
Della Sala also looks at the Italian model of capitalism but takes a
macro-level approach.28 Della Sala reviews developments in two
domains: finance/corporate governance and the industrial
relations/labour markets. He observes that Italy has adopted
elements of both LMEs and CMEs. On the one hand, reforms took
place towards the direction of liberalizing industrial policy,
increasing the importance of equity markets, and greater
diffusion of corporate ownership. On the other hand, more
concertation through social pacts has been introduced in
industrial relations. Della Sala concludes that Italy remains a
dysfunctional state capitalism model. His approach has the
advantage that it makes sporadic ,but not systematic,
comparisons with LMEs and CMEs, but it does not engage with a
discussion of the implications for the dual convergence thesis.
Zambarloukou also considers Greece from a VoC prism.29 In a
2006 article she reviews efforts of concertation at the industrial
relations system during the 1990s. She claims that Greece is
closer to what has been termed ―state capitalism‖, while her
explanation for the absence of social pacts in Greece dwells on
―the lack of trust between the social partners‖ and ―the absence
of a culture that promotes dialogue and consensus‖.30 In her
approach there are sporadic comparisons with the experience of
social pacts in other countries especially Italy. But her study
focuses on only one realm (industrial relations) and does not
attempt to look at other institutional domains as the VoC
26 Ibid., 105.
27 Ibid., 116.
28 Vincent Della Sala, "The Italian Model of Capitalism: On the Road between Globalization and
Europeanization?," Journal of European Public Policy 11, no. 6 (2004).
29 Stella Zambarloukou, "Collective Bargaining and Social Pacts: Greece in Comparative
Perspective," European Journal of Industrial Relations 12, no. 2 (2006).
30 Ibid.: 215-21.
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framework would require. Finally, Zambarloukou does not offer
any quantitative indicators on collective bargaining centralisation
or coordination.
Royo also looks only at the industrial relations realm when
examining the Spanish model of capitalism.31 He reveals some
notable cases of cooperation between firms, unions and regional
governments in Valencia, Castellon, Basque, Catalonia and
Madrid. His conclusion is that the ―trajectory of change [in Spain]
parallels developments in CMEs more closely than those in
LMEs‖.32 In contrast, Molina and Rhodes claim that in Spain
―waves of liberalization and state retrenchment, have tended to
reinforce sub-system complementarities in an LME direction‖.33
Finally, Molina and Rhodes examine Italy and Spain in
comparative perspective with a special focus on two institutional
domains: the welfare regime and the production regime. The
choice of two domains reflects more closely the VoC framework.
For Italy they conclude it has achieved greater ―autonomous
coordination‖ and less ―market colonization‖ and explain this
development on the basis of a ―more even balance of power‖
between labour and capital.34 The comparison between Italy and
Spain is supplemented with systematic indicators from CMEs and
LMEs. Thus, they provide better evidence to support their
conclusion that Spain has moved towards an LME direction.
To conclude, the value of the present article is that it combines
the strengths of previous approaches. This article shares with
Della Sala the focus areas covered: industrial relations and
corporate governance/finance system. However, the approach
reflects more the Molina and Rhodes contribution, tracing
developments in two Mixed Market Economies (Italy and Greece)
31 Sebastián Royo, "Varieties of Capitalism in Spain: Business and the Politics of Coordination,"
European Journal of Industrial Relations 13, no. 1 (2007).
32 Ibid.: 49.
33 Molina and Rhodes, "The Political Economy of Adjustment in Mixed Market Economies: A Study of
Spain and Italy," 248.
34 Ibid., 17-18.
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and pursuing a systematic comparison with LMEs and CMEs. A
final novelty of this article is that it presents new data (such as
the composite indicators from the ICTWSS database) which
reflect as closely as possible the institutional variables highlighted
by VoC theory.
3.3. Italy and Greece: “Hard Cases” for Institutional
Change
According to Hall & Thelen, Southern European countries (MMEs)
are considered as ―hard cases‖ for propositions of institutional
change.35 Mixed Market Economies like Italy and Greece lack a
coherent institutional arrangement and are construed as hybrids.
If the dual convergence thesis is theoretically plausible, then we
should expect to see hybrid cases changing towards the one
(LME) or the other (CME) direction.
VoC theory maintains that globalization reinforces the
complementarities in the institutionally coherent models (LMEs
and CMEs). In contrast, countries characterised by institutional
incoherence (MMEs) are bound to be affected by global changes:
they are likely to be less resistant to pressures from globalization
and liberalization, and we should expect them to be moving
closer to one of the two ideal-types. Therefore, they are most
appropriate for a ―plausibility probe‖ to the dual convergence
thesis. 36
The choice of industrial relations and corporate
governance/finance realms is theoretically motivated. Höpner has
pinned down the importance of those two domains for the
development of CME-type and LME-type institutional
complementarities.37 Further, Hall and Gingerich38 have used
35 Peter Hall and Kathleen Thelen, "Institutional Change in Varieties of Capitalism," Socio-Economic
Review 7, no. 1 (2009): 26.
36 King, Keohane, and Verba, Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research,
209.
37 Martin Höpner, "What Connects Industrial Relations and Corporate Governance? Explaining
Institutional Complementarity," Socio-Economic Review 3, no. 2 (2005).
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these same two exact domains to compute the overall
coordination scores for LMEs, CMEs, and MMEs. In doing so, they
support the argument that these spheres are very good proxies
for the mapping of countries along capitalist models. Thus, if
there is a move towards more institutional coherence it should be
observable in those two critical institutional spheres. The next
section begins the examination of these two spheres by turning
first to industrial relations.
4. The Industrial Relations System
In the stylized picture of LMEs, collective bargaining is
decentralized and uncoordinated, industrial relations are
adversarial, the state intervenes very little in industrial relations,
and collective bargaining coverage is low. In the stylized picture
of CMEs, collective bargaining is centralised and coordinated,
industrial relations are cooperative, the state intervenes in an
enabling manner that facilitates the coordination, collective
bargaining coverage is high and workers enjoy strong shop-floor
rights such as co-determination. This section tracks developments
in those institutional variables within Italy and Greece, seeking to
gauge the direction of change during the last two decades.
4.1. Collective Bargaining Coordination & Centralization
The turning point for the industrial relations systems of both
countries is placed in the early 1990s. Across Italy and Greece a
re-organisation of collective bargaining framework took place
under coalition governments with the agreement of the social
partners. In Italy it was the tripartite agreement of July 1993
under the technocratic government of Ciampi, whereas in Greece
it was Law No.1876 of 1990 under the ecumenical government of
Zolotas.39
38 Peter Hall and Daniel Gingerich, "Varieties of Capitalism and Institutional Complementarities in
the Political Economy: An Empirical Analysis," British Journal of Political Science 39, no. 3 (2009).
39 Giannis Kouzis, "The Consequences of E.M.U. For Industrial Relations: The Case of Greece," in The
Impact of E.M.U. On Industrial Relations in European Union, ed. Timo Kauppinen (Helsinki: Finnish Labour
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In the recent literature on social pacts, Italy has been portrayed
as an exemplary case, with the 1990s delivering a series of social
pacts that re-invigorated neo-corporatist concertation.40 However,
the nature of concertation in the 1990s has been very different
from the 1970s and was therefore dubbed ―competitive
corporatism‖.41 On the one hand, the stick and carrot of EMU
entry forced national governments to strike coalitions with
organised interests, taking measures to reduce budget deficits
and lowering inflation through wage restraint. On the other hand,
pressures from demographic change and rising unemployment
guided the content of social pacts towards reform of pension
systems and labour markets.
At first sight, Greece contrasts sharply with a poor record of only
one social pact in 1997 and several failed attempts in social
dialogue with respect to the reform of labour market and pension-
system.42 However, if one looks at developments in the collective
bargaining system, a more nuanced picture emerges. Notably,
the national biennial collective bargaining agreements ―have
operated as functional equivalents to social concertation‖.43
Indeed, this point can be justified on several grounds.
To begin with, social pacts in Italy can be construed as the
―national level‖ of bargaining, in which the three44 major trade
Relations Association, 1998), Marino Regini and Ida Regalia, "Employers, Unions and the State: The
Resurgence of Concertation in Italy?," West European Politics 20, no. 1 (1997).
40 Regini and Regalia, "Employers, Unions and the State: The Resurgence of Concertation in Italy?,"
210-30.
41 Martin Rhodes, "The Political Economy of Social Pacts: ‗Competitive Corporatism‘ and European
Welfare Reform," in The New Politics of the Welfare State, ed. Paul Pierson (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2001).
42 Kevin Featherstone and Dimitris Papadimitriou, The Limits of Europeanization: Reform Capacity
and Policy Conflict in Greece (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2008), Vassilis Monastiriotis and Andreas Antoniades,
"Reform That! Greece‘s Failing Reform Technology: Beyond ‗Vested Interests‘ and ‗Political Exchange‘," LSE
Hellenic Observatory Papers on Greece and Southeast Europe, no. 28 (2009).
43 Maria Karamessini, "Continuity and Change in the Southern European Social Model," International
Labour Review 147, no. 1 (2008): 49.
44 To be precise, some social pacts were not signed by the ex-communist/socialist CGIL.
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union federations negotiate agreements with the government
and/or the employers. In Greece the collective bargaining system
provides by design a national level of bargaining. While its main
function is to set the minimum wages, other topics have been
negotiated at this level. Importantly, these topics have been
object of social pacts negotiations elsewhere. For instance, health
and safety issues were negotiated through social pacts in Portugal
but a pact on this issue was plainly unnecessary in Greece. Health
and safety issues were negotiated through national collective
bargaining in the mid-1990s and were eventually delegated to the
corporatist venue of the Institute for Health and Safety. Another
topic of negotiations has been the tax-system reform, which was
negotiated repeatedly through social pacts in Ireland. But the
same issue was successfully negotiated in Greece through
middle-level social dialogue committees in 2002, and the
agreement resulted in a new bill rather than a social pact.
Second, there were indeed failed attempts for ad hoc social
dialogue with respect to labour market and pension system
reform in Greece, while similar attempts were successful in Italy.
But failed attempts for ad hoc social dialogue are not unlikely,
even in more corporatist countries, for instance in Germany the
failure for Bündnis für Arbeit and in Sweden the failure for Allians
för Tillväxt. Moreover, the successful reform of the Italian pension
system should not strike as a surprising accomplishment. Trade
unions hold the majority in the board of directors of the institute
that manages pensions (INPS)45 and their consent would be
absolutely necessary for any reform.
The broader point made here is that trade unions in both
countries have abandoned much of their 1980s militancy,
adopting a more consensual discourse during the 1990s. By no
means does this imply that social dialogue has been solidly
embedded in Greek or Italian industrial relations. But it does
provide a more nuanced picture of developments in the industrial
relations realm, concurring with scholars observing a
45 Regini and Regalia, "Employers, Unions and the State: The Resurgence of Concertation in Italy?,"
215.
CEU Political Science Journal. Vol. 6, No. 1
63
―transmutation‖ of state corporatism in Greece into an
increasingly ―neo-corporatist mode of interest representation‖.46
Figure 3. Coordination of Wage Bargaining 1990-2007
0,0
1,0
2,0
3,0
4,0
5,0
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Year
DE
GR
IT
UK
Source: Data retrieved from ICTWSS Database, at: http://www.uva-aias.net/208 (accessed 25 January 2010).
The proliferation of social pacts in Italy and the consistent signing
of national collective agreements in Greece are reflected on
high(er) coordination and centralization scores for both countries‘
bargaining systems. Wage coordination has clearly increased in
Italy during the 1990s matching German levels, while Greece is
also depicted as having CME-levels of wage coordination (Figure
3).
46 George Pagoulatos, Greece's New Political Economy: State, Finance, and Growth from Postwar to
E.M.U. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 185.
CEU Political Science Journal. Vol. 6, No. 1
64
Additionally, indicators of collective bargaining centralization
show a gradual increase throughout the 1990s with both Italy and
Greece moving closer to the German levels of centralisation,
moving further away from LME levels (Table 1).
Table 1. Collective bargaining Centralisation Index 1990 1995 2003
DE 0,48 0,47 0,47
GR na 0,33 0,39
IT 0,25 0,35 0,34
UK 0,12 0,13 0,13
Source: European Commission, Industrial Relations in Europe 2004, (Luxemburg: European Commission, 2004), 43. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=329&langId=en&furtherPubs=yes (accessed 25 January 2010).
4.2. Government Intervention and Industrial Conflict
Italy and Greece share a tradition of a statist and adversarial
industrial relations systems, with industrial conflict being an
endemic characteristic. Figure 4 tracks the level of industrial
conflict for the last two decades. Until 1998 the level of industrial
conflict in Italy and Greece stood at higher levels than that of
Germany or Britain. Still, if one compares these levels with data
from the 1970s-80s47, one can see that there is a trend towards
decline in strike activity and stabilisation at historically lower
levels by the late 1990s/early 2000s. This observation should be
qualified by the fact that strike statistics are unavailable for
Greece after 1998.
47 Nicos Kritsantonis, "Greece: The Maturing of the System," in Changing Industrial Relations in
Europe, ed. Anthony Ferner and Richard Hyman (Oxford: Blackwell, 1998), 525, Ida Regalia and Marino
Regini, "Italy: The Dual Character of Industrial Relations," in Changing Industrial Relations in Europe, ed.
Anthony Ferner and Richard Hyman (Oxford: Blackwell, 1998), 485.
CEU Political Science Journal. Vol. 6, No. 1
65
Figure 4. Working Days Lost per Worker 1993-2007
0,00
50,00
100,00
150,00
200,00
250,00
300,00
1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007
Year
DE
GR
IT
UK
Source: Eurostat, Labour Disputes, available at: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/ portal/eurostat/ home/ (accessed 25 January 2010).
Furthermore, the role of the state has been historically very
important in the industrial relations systems of the two countries.
The state was involved in all possible ways: as an employer in the
extensive public sector, as a public mediator during industrial
disputes and as a legislator setting the institutional framework.
Figure 5 depicts government intervention in wage bargaining over
time. The high levels of government intervention in the early
1990s document the statist tradition in Italy and Greece.
However, throughout the 1990s both countries reduced the levels
of government intervention, with Italy matching the CME levels
encountered in Germany.
CEU Political Science Journal. Vol. 6, No. 1
66
Figure 5. Government Intervention in Wage Bargaining
1990-2007
0,0
1,0
2,0
3,0
4,0
5,0
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Year
DE
GR
IT
UK
Source: Data retrieved from ICTWSS Database, at: http://www.uva-aias.net/208 (accessed 25 January 2010).
4.3. Collective Bargaining Coverage
A recurring theme in the scholarship on organized interests in
Southern Europe is the so-called ―representation problem‖ of
employees‘ and employers‘ associations. Most recently,
Matsaganis argued that Greek trade unions have acted as
―narrow interests‖ opposing reform of the (indeed) inegalitarian
pension system and contrasted them with their Italian
CEU Political Science Journal. Vol. 6, No. 1
67
counterparts‘ involvement in pension reform.48 One may read into
this argument an underlying Olsonian logic of the role of ―narrow
interests‖, as opposed to ―encompassing interests‖, in
undermining public goods provision.49 As argued above, the mere
fact that Italian unions were involved in this reform should not
strike as a surprising accomplishment: pensioners comprise most
of Italian trade unions‘ membership and hold seats in the institute
that manages pensions.
Conventionally, the representation problem has been understood
through membership rates. For example, Scandinavian unions
with union density reaching nearly 100 per cent are considered
exemplary cases of encompassing trade unions. A corrective to
this view is brought by Philippe Schmitter, who argued that trade
unions in Southern Europe are more representative than their
membership rates would indicate, because of the legal extension
of collective agreements.50 Trade union membership in Greece
and Italy followed a declining trend in line with international
developments. Italian union density stood at 38.8 per cent in
1990 and settled to 33.8 per cent in 2005, while Greek union
density dropped from 37.5 in 1990 to 23 per cent in 2005.51 Still,
if one looks at collective bargaining coverage, the Greek and
Italian rates are even higher than the German rates.
Table 2 documents that trade unions in Italy and Greece
effectively represent 70-82 per cent of the salaried wage earners.
In addition, there are other actions which strongly show that
Italian and Greek unions have tried to embrace a more
48 Manos Matsaganis, "Union Structures and Pension Outcomes in Greece," British Journal of
Industrial Relations 45, no. 3 (2007): 537-55.
49 Mancur Olson, The Rise and the Decline of Nations: Economic Growth, Stagflation, and Social
Rigidities (New Haven; London: Yale University Press, 1982).
50 Philippe Schmitter, "Organized Interests and Democratic Consolidation in Southern Europe," in
The Politics of Democratic Consolidation: Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective, ed. Richard Gunther,
Nikiforos Diamandouros, and Hans-Jurgen Puhle (Baltimore; London: The Johns Hopkins University Press,
1995), 303.
51 Data from ICTWSS Database,© Jelle Visser,(University of Amsterdam, 2009) available at:
http://www.uva-aias.net/208.
CEU Political Science Journal. Vol. 6, No. 1
68
―encompassing‖ type of behavior. Unions have tried to negotiate
non-wage issues, which do not necessarily cater the immediate
interests of their membership, but serve the interests of broader
constituencies of society. Such non-wage issues include: equal
opportunities policies and maternity leaves, training schemes and
healthcare provision for unemployed, regulation for those working
under flexible/precarious employment, and price stabilization
through wage restraint.52
Table 2. Collective bargaining Coverage (%) 2000 2006
DE 63 63
GR 70 70
IT 82 82
UK 36.3 35.3
Source: European Commission, Industrial Relations in Europe 2008,
(Luxembourg: European Commission, 2008), 75-78. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp? catId=329&langId=en&furtherPubs=yes (accessed 25 January 2010).
4.4. Concluding Remarks
This section considered changes in the industrial relations system
in Italy and Greece comparing key institutional variables with
those of Germany and the UK. The 1990s witnessed a burgeoning
activity in the realm of social pacts in Italy. In Greece the biennial
collective bargaining system is construed as the functional
equivalent of concertation. These changes are reflected in the
Italian and Greek coordination scores which match the German
ones, as well as the increased centralisation scores, which move
towards the German ones. Industrial relations in the 2000s are
characterised by reduced government intervention and lower
levels of industrial conflict, especially when compared to the
1980s. The review of the evidence provides support to the
52 Costanza Rodriguez-d'Acri, Alison Johnston, and Andreas Kornelakis, "The Role of Social Partners
in Bargaining over Non-Wage Issues across Austria, Greece and Italy," University of Edinburgh Working
Papers on the Reconciliation of Work and Welfare in Europe, no. 14/09 (2009): 17-23.
CEU Political Science Journal. Vol. 6, No. 1
69
argument that the direction of institutional change in the
industrial relations realm is towards greater coordination.
However, one has to enter a caveat at this point. The general
argument from the above analysis is that there is move towards
more coordination at the macro-level of the industrial relations
sphere. By no means does this imply that the institutional sphere
has fully become CME-like. Instead, it is prudent to note that
there many residuals of a more hybrid character. In Greece, the
state retains its interventionist role, there appear centrifugal
tendencies in ―pattern setting‖ sectors such as banking and the
role of the arbitration and mediation service is challenged.53 In
Italy the political competition among trade unions has surfaced
recently and federations find difficulties in speaking with a single
voice.54 Lastly, strong shop-floor rights (such as co-
determination) are still missing in both countries which are so
crucial for the development of CME complementarities.
5. The Finance and Corporate Governance System
In the stylized picture of LMEs firms follow short-
term/shareholder-value corporate governance and rely heavily on
stock market funding or ―impatient capital‖. This is reflected on
dispersed ownerships and few cross-shareholdings, while minority
shareholder protection is high. In the stylized picture of CMEs,
firms follow long term/stakeholder-oriented corporate governance
and rely heavily on bank-based funding or ―patient capital‖. This
arrangement is reflected on concentrated ownerships and
increased cross-shareholdings, while minority shareholder
protection is low. This section tracks developments in three
observable institutional variables - financial system liberalization,
equity market importance, and minority shareholder protection –
53 Christos Ioannou, "‗Odysseus or Sisyphus‘ Revisited: Failed Attempts to Conclude Social-Liberal
Pacts in Greece," in After the Euro and Enlargement: Social Pacts in the E.U., ed. Philippe Pochet, Maarten
Keune, and David Natali (Brussels: ETUI/OSE, 2010).
54 Marco Simoni, "Labour and Welfare Reforms: The Short Life of Labour Unity in Contemporary
Italy," in Italy Today: The Sick Man of Europe, ed. Andrea Mammone and Giuseppe Veltri (London: Routledge,
2010).
CEU Political Science Journal. Vol. 6, No. 1
70
seeking to gauge the direction of change within Italy and Greece
during the last two decades.
5.1. Liberalization of the Finance System
The traditional source of funding for firms across Italy and Greece
has been credit from the state-owned banks, as equity markets
were traditionally underdeveloped. In the course of 1980s and
1990s, the Italian and Greek financial sectors have been strongly
influenced by developments in European economic integration.
The European Commission set out to establish a Single European
Financial Area removing obstacles for the further integration of
national financial markets. As a result of the liberalizing initiatives
of the Commission, the heavy regulations of the financial sector
were removed. At the same time state-owned banks were largely
privatised during the 1990s.
In Greece liberalization of the financial market was launched later
than other OECD countries, but progressed rapidly in the second
half of the 1980s. The liberalizing initiative had five elements:
abolishment of capital movement restrictions; freeing of interest
rates; ending credit controls; allowing the merging of banking
with insurance activities; and the creation of a vast market in
government securities.55 In the next decade, the privatization of
state-owned banks accelerated and was largely completed by the
early 2000s. In Italy, privatization went hand in hand with
liberalization from the late 1980s. The implementation of the
Commissions‘ Second Banking Directive allowed the banking
system to move towards the universal bank model56, in which
deposits, loans and insurance are provided by all banks. By the
early 2000s the state has largely withdrawn from regulation and
ownership of both countries‘ banking sectors.
55 George Soumelis, "Greece: Reforming Financial Markets," OECD Observer, no. 193 (1995): 40-
41.
56 Mahmood Pradhan, "Privatization and the Development of Financial Markets in Italy," Finance and
Development 32, no. 4 (1995): 11.
CEU Political Science Journal. Vol. 6, No. 1
71
As a consequence of the ‗opening up‘ of the sectors and the
removal of barriers to entry, new players appeared in the Italian
and Greek financial sectors. In Greece one observes an
aggressive expansion strategy from foreign banks entering the
market in the early 1990s.57 Similarly, from 1992 onwards the
entry flows of foreign banks in Italy increased dramatically
compared to the previous decades.58 As the next sub-section
documents, the liberalizing impetus in the financial sector was
followed by an expansion of equity-markets importance in the
national economy.
Figure 6. Stock Market‟s Importance in the economy 1995-
2006
10%
30%
50%
70%
90%
110%
130%
150%
170%
190%
1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007
Year
Ma
rke
t C
ap
ita
lisa
tio
n a
s %
GD
P
DE
GR
IT
UK
57 Pagoulatos, Greece's New Political Economy: State, Finance, and Growth from Postwar to E.M.U.
58 Silvia Magri, Alessandra Mori, and Paola Rossi, "The Entry and the Activity Level of Foreign Banks
in Italy: An Analysis of the Determinants," Journal of Banking and Finance 29, no. 5 (2005): 1298.
CEU Political Science Journal. Vol. 6, No. 1
72
Source: World Federation of Exchanges, available at: http://www.world-exchanges.org/statistics/ annual (accessed 25 January 2010).
5.2. Stock Markets Importance in the Economy
Stock markets experienced an unprecedented expansion during
the 1990s and their importance to the national economy has
undoubtedly increased in both Italy and Greece. The available
data on stock market capitalisation document this change (Figure
6).
Admittedly, market capitalisation figures are influenced by the
stock markets bubble in the late 1990s (hence the huge spike in
1999 where Greece approached British levels). However, even in
this diagram one may observe that after the deflation of the
bubble, the levels of market capitalisation settled at a higher
plateau than the one from which they started. In 1995 market
capitalization stood at around 20 per cent of GDP across both
countries. By 2006 it has surpassed 50 per cent in Italy and was
well over 80 per cent of GDP in Greece.
Table 3. Number of Listed Firms in Stock Market 1990-
2007 1990 1998 2007 %Δ 1990-2007 %Δ 1998-
2007
DE N/A 662 866 N/A 30.82%
GR 140 229 283 102.14% 23.58%
IT 220 243 307 39.55% 26.34%
UK 2.559 2.423 3.307 29.23% 36.48%
Source: World Federation of Exchanges, available at: http://www.world-exchanges.org/statistics/ annual (accessed 25 January 2010).
A complementary statistic is the number of listed firms, showing
a very high increase (Table 3). The two exhibits warrant the
conclusion that firms‘ reliance on equity-based funding has
increased in importance across both South European countries
(especially in Greece). Moreover, they show that equity markets‘
CEU Political Science Journal. Vol. 6, No. 1
73
importance increased also for the CME paradigm Germany, which
also moved towards LME levels.
5.3. Minority Shareholder Protection
A major turning point in Italian corporate governance has been
the passage of the Draghi Law in 1998. The changes introduced
involved inter alia an increase in the regulatory protection
afforded to minority shareholders, a change in the auditing
system and also a change in takeover bidding rules.59 The
mechanism that led to this institutional change dwells on a
coalitional web between a ―transparency coalition‖ (investors and
workers), a reformist-minded bureaucratic elite and a left-party
government.60 To our interest is that this monumental legal
change moved Italy from the lowest score on the index of
minority shareholder protection to the same score as the British
LME (Table 4).
Table 4. Minority Shareholder Protection Index (anti-
director rights) 1993-2002 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
DE 2 2 2 2 2 GR 2 2 3 3 3 IT 1 1 1 1 1 UK 5 5 5 5 5
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
DE 3 3 3 3 3 GR 3 3 3 3 3
IT 4 5 5 5 5 UK 5 5 5 5 5
Source: Pagano & Volpin, Political Economy of Corporate Governance, 2005, Data Appendix, available at: http://www.csef.it/pagano/pv_aer_data_appendix.pdf
59 Pepper Culpepper, "Eppure, Non Si Muove: Legal Change, Institutional Stability and Italian
Corporate Governance," West European Politics 30, no. 4 (2007): 790.
60 Richard Deeg, "Remaking Italian Capitalism? The Politics of Corporate Governance Reform," West
European Politics 28, no. 3 (2005): 521-48.
CEU Political Science Journal. Vol. 6, No. 1
74
The above indicator documents the tendency towards
liberalization of the corporate governance system across
countries. While this change has been monumental in Italy, even
in Greece there is an increase towards British/LME levels. The
change in the level of minority shareholder protection in Greece
around 1994 and 1995 coincides with changes in the regulatory
framework. They followed from the transposition of the
Commission‘s Second Banking Directive and sought to harmonize
surveillance of securities markets, thereby promoting market
transparency and investors protection.61 Interestingly, minority
shareholder protection also increased in Germany documenting a
liberalizing tendency even within the CME paradigm case. This is
in line with other studies‘ findings on German corporate
governance system, marking the country‘s rapid move towards
the LME direction.62
5.4. Concluding Remarks
The discussion so far has provided evidence indicating that
financial and corporate governance systems in Italy and Greece
are taking on LME characteristics. On the one hand, the change
towards a liberal market model of corporate governance is more
pronounced in Italy, where legal changes have increased the
protection of minority shareholders. On the other hand, the shift
towards equity-based funding is more pronounced in Greece, with
increased reliance of firms on ―impatient capital‖. Finally, the
liberalizing initiatives of the EU had a common impact on both
countries‘ financial markets, which were also privatised.
Despite the above evidence, the conclusion on increased
liberalization needs to be qualified. The general argument from
the above analysis is there is a move towards the Liberal Market
Model in the institutional sphere of finance/corporate governance.
This does not mean that the institutional sphere has fully become
LME-like. Instead, it is prudent to note here as well, that there
61 Soumelis, "Greece: Reforming Financial Markets," 41.
62 Christel Lane, "Changes in Corporate Governance of German Corporations: Convergence to the
Anglo-American Model?," Competition & Change 7, no. 2-3 (2003).
CEU Political Science Journal. Vol. 6, No. 1
75
are many residuals of more hybrid character. In Greece corporate
ownership remains concentrated and corporate governance
family-based.63 In Italy, while change in formal (legal) institutions
was indeed geared towards the liberal market model, actual
practice remained attached to concentrated ownership.64
6. Conclusion: Hybridization and the Political Economy
The VoC strand in the broader Comparative Political Economy
literature generated interesting insights, challenged proponents of
an imminent convergence to a single model of capitalism, and
provided counterarguments to a simplistic understanding of
globalization. As evidenced above, the VoC framework also
implied a ―dual convergence‖ thesis. This article sought to assess
the plausibility of the thesis against two ―hard‖ cases: Italy and
Greece. If the dual convergence thesis was plausible, then we
would expect to see the critical institutional spheres moving
uniformly to one direction (CME or LME).
The review of changes in the relevant institutional variables
generated interesting findings. On the one hand, there are signs
of greater coordination in the industrial relations systems of both
countries. On the other hand, the systems of finance/corporate
governance has acquired increasingly liberal market
characteristics. Thereby, the above analysis casts doubt on the
dual convergence thesis, as neither case moves uniformly
towards the LME or CME direction. Admittedly, both countries‘
institutional realms there are many idiosyncratic residuals from a
more ―mixed‖ type of capitalism, but these are compatible with
the conclusion of increased hybridization.
The analysis substantiated a core insight: institutional spheres
within the same country may be changing in opposite directions.
A more general implication is that delineating the overall direction
63 Theocharis Papadopoulos, "Corporate Governance in Greece and Its Political Determinants," in 4th
Hellenic Observatory PhD Symposium (London: London School of Economics, 2009).
64 Culpepper, "Eppure, Non Si Muove: Legal Change, Institutional Stability and Italian Corporate
Governance."
CEU Political Science Journal. Vol. 6, No. 1
76
of change in a country‘s political economy is an arduous task.
This is because one cannot really quantify the extent of change
within institutional realms (i.e. how much CME or LME?).
Therefore, the only conclusion one may prudently draw is that,
for the period examined, the hybrid character of Italy and Greece
was exacerbated.
The observed divergence in those realms is less likely to confer
on the countries any comparative advantage of the CME or the
LME types. The divergence aggravates the ―non-
complementarities‖ observed in ―hybrid‖ or ―mixed‖ market
economies and is unlikely to increase their efficiency. Moreover,
these developments may even destroy previous capacities. For
example, the state ownership of the financial system was used in
the past along a ―developmental state‖ pattern to steer economic
activity. But the privatization and liberalization of the system will
deprive states of this option in the future.
The extent to which these findings challenge the very idea of
complementarities a la VoC is perhaps more debatable. It
depends largely on what kind of measure one takes for ―high
economic performance‖. If the measure of economic performance
is economic growth rates then Greece‘s performance has been
consistently among the two highest in EU15 from the mid-1990s
until the mid-2000s. This can possibly be attributed to a ―catch-
up effect‖. But it could also knock down the idea of
complementarities, because high economic growth is not
expected from an institutionally incoherent case, especially when
its hybrid character intensifies.In the same period Italy‘s
economic growth has been less impressive. But if the measure of
economic performance is ―world‘s export shares‖ then Italy has
performed exceptionally well in the last two decades, specialising
on luxury goods. On that measure Greece‘s performance is much
less impressive. But Italy‘s excellent export performance poses an
intriguing empirical puzzle for VoC theory, given that Italy lacks
CME-type and LME-type complementarities.
While only two institutional spheres were examined here, one
could also contemplate implications from wider changes for the
CEU Political Science Journal. Vol. 6, No. 1
77
whole political economy. On the welfare regime, the residual
character was traditionally complemented with a strong family
cushion that provided inter alia childcare, unemployment
insurance and elderly care. The process of de-familialization
observed in Southern Europe, without symmetrical extension of
the welfare state, is likely to be unsustainable in the future.65 In
the labour market realm, the strict employment protection
legislation was complementary with a flexible segment of informal
employment.66 The prospect of the relaxation of employment
protection strictness, without improvements in unemployment
insurance, is likely to increase precariousness and insecurity in
Southern European economies.
Finally, in terms of comparative advantage in the global economy,
Greece and Italy seem to be trapped between a rock and a hard
place. On the one hand, both Greece and Italy have relatively
high labour costs and are therefore unable to be as price-
competitive as, for example, CEE countries. Moreover, the option
of currency devaluation to improve export competitiveness is no
longer available within then EMU zone. On the other hand, Greece
– and to a much lesser extent Italy – will find it difficult to
compete on the basis of product-quality or innovation. That is
because they lack an efficient skill formation system like the
German one. Overall, the future looks rather dim for both
countries, perhaps even more so in the context of a deepening
global economic and financial crisis.
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