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Drain for Gain: A Rightful Role for Drainage in Meeting Future

Challenges in Agricultural Water Management

Henk Ritzema

Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands

10th International Drainage SymposiumSeptember 6−9, 2016, Minneapolis, Minnesota

Trends that affect water management

Worlds’ population: is increasingly living and working in urban areas. No indications that this tendency will change land use

Land use: from monocultures to multi-functional: agriculture, fisheries, urban, industrial, recreation and nature

Improvement in agriculture: increase in value of crops, buildings, water management facilities, infrastructure

Value of property: buildings and infrastructure has significantly increased and will further increase

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DEVELOPMENT OF RURAL POPULATION

(Schultz, 2016)

GROWTH OF URBAN POPULATION

(Schultz, 2016)

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Cities with > 5 million residents

1950

2015

(Schultz, 2016)

Deltas: 3% of the earth’s surface 60% of the world population 80% in 2050

25% of the global agricultural production

Most cities are located in deltas

Changes in agricultural production Most food is produced within a range of 150-200km from

where it is consumed only 15 percent of the global food production enters the global market.

This explains why a small country as the Netherlands can become the 2nd or 3th food exporting country in the world.

(Ritzema & Diemont,  2016)

150 – 200 km

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Challenges in water management

Inadequate water management and flood protection Insufficient pollution control Increased damage and casualties due to flooding,

especially in relation to rapid urbanisation Operation, maintenance and management problems Negative environmental impacts Technical problems due to soil conditions: peat, acid

sulphate clay, saline soils and subsidence Long term problems: subsidence and sea level rise Socio-economic problems, especially in decision-making

and initial stage of development

Worldwide agricultural areas with/without irrigation and drainage

Nijland et al., 2005; Ritzema, 2009

Salt-affected: 10-16% of the irrigated lands

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Artificial drained areas

Feick et al, 2005; Ritzema, 2009

About 190 Mha, or 13% of the world’s arable land is drained

DRAINAGE: The forgotten factor in agricultural water management

Seven reasons why drainage is needed!

Seven institutional aspects why drainage is getting less far less attention than irrigation.

Seven challenges to make drainage work!

Scheumann, 1997

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Seven reasons why drainage is needed (1)

Drainage protects the resource base for food production

Ritzema et al,, 2007

Pearce and Denecke. 2001

Seven reasons why drainage is needed (2)

Drainage sustains and increases yields and rural incomes.

IDNP, 2003

Ali, et al., 2001

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Seven reasons why drainage is needed (3)

Drainage protects irrigation investments

Salts in irrigation water: 0.2 – 0.8 mg/l  2.5 – 10 ton/ha/year

Seven reasons why drainage is needed (4)

Drainage infrastructure serves rural and urban residents as well as industry

Scheumann, 1997

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Seven reasons why drainage is needed (5)

Drainage protects human lives

Waterlogging & Salinity, Rajasthan, India(IDNP,2003)

Central Kalimantan, Indonesia

Glastonbury festival, UK

Seven reasons why drainage is needed (6)

Drainage services improve health conditions by reducing or eliminating vector-borne diseases

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0

fraction positive

controlsstart

controlsend

control measureschemicalengineeringmedical

1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995year

Ritzema and Braun, 2006

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Seven reasons why drainage is needed (7)

Drainage and the protection of water quality

Leaching requirement10 – 40 %

depending on ECiand ECe

Seven reasons why drainage is needed

SUMMARY

1. Drainage protects the resource base for food production.

2. Drainage sustains and increases yields and rural incomes.

3. Drainage protects irrigation investment.

4. Drainage infrastructure serves rural and urban residents as well as industry.

5. Drainage projects human lives.

6. Drainage services improved health conditions.

7. Drainage and the protection of water quality.

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DRAINAGE: The forgotten factor in agricultural water management

• Seven reasons why drainage is needed!

• Seven institutional aspects why drainage is getting far less attention than irrigation.

• Seven challenges to make drainage work!

Seven institutional aspects why drainage is getting less attention than irrigation (1)

Drainage is at the end of the pipeline

Madramootoo, 1997, IDNP, 2003

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Seven institutional aspects why drainage is getting less attention than irrigation (2)

With small farmers, drainage is always a joint-effort

Left: Andhrar Pradesh, India, 2003; Right: Red River Delta, 2005

Seven institutional aspects why drainage is getting less attention than irrigation (3)

Boundaries irrigation unit

≠

drainage unit

Bos, 2006

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Seven institutional aspects why drainage is getting less attention than irrigation (4)

Disposal of drainage water creates off-site externalities

Rossi et et al., 1991

250 100

0 0

500 200

750 300

volume of water

in m / ha3

nitrate loss

in kg NO / ha3

1986 1987 1988

figure 25.2

drainagenitrate loss

Annual rate of nitrate losses of 214 kg NO/ha

Seven institutional aspects why drainage is getting less attention than irrigation (5)

High initial investments versus long-term benefits

Ritzema et al., 2007

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Seven institutional aspects why drainage is getting less attention than irrigation (6)

Reuse of drainage water: only if the is a shortage of irrigation water

IDNP, 2003

Seven institutional aspects why drainage is getting less attention than irrigation (7)

Enforcement of rules and regulations is difficult

http://www.telesurtv.net/english/news/

A protester demands water and drainage services from the governmentPeru, 26 October 2015 

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Seven institutional aspects why drainage is getting less attention than irrigation

SUMMARY:

1. Drainage is at the end of the pipeline

2. With small farmers, drainage is always a joint-effort

3. Boundaries irrigation unit ≠ drainage unit

4. Disposal of drainage water creates off-site externalities

5. High investment costs & benefits are long-term

6. Reuse of drainage water only if there is shortage

7. Enforcement of rules and regulations is difficult

DRAINAGE: The forgotten factor in agricultural water management

Seven reasons why drainage is needed!

Seven institutional aspects why drainage is getting far less attention than irrigation.

Seven challenges to make drainage work!

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Land consolidation

Nature development

Recreation

Urbanization

Industrialization

Transport

Challenge 1: Land use from mono multi-functional

(1) Changes in land use – The Netherlands

Land use Changes in water

management

approaches based

on

Expected change in land usea

Agriculture Nature Recreation

Clay & Sandy areas:

High-tech agriculture Resilience ++ -- +/-

Large-scale agricultural Resilience ++ - -

Peri-urban multi-functional

agriculture

Adaptation - ++ ++

Rural multi-functional

agriculture

Adaptation -- + +

Peat lands:

Peat lands, vulnerable to

subsidence

Adaptation - ++ +/-

Peat lands, not vulnerable

to subsidence

Resilience ++ - +

a ++ = increase in importance; -- = decrease in importance; +/- = no change in land use

Ritzema, and Stuyt, 2015

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(1) Changes in land use: diversification

Anna Paulowna Polder, North Holand, The Netherlands(Lu Xiong, 2014)

(1) Change in land use - Vietnam

From Agriculture (rice) other land use

Land use 1996 2005Agriculture 74% 71%Others (nature & waste lands) 14% 7%

Non-agricultural use 12% 22%

Example Phan Dong, Red River Delta, Vietnam:

Ritzema et al. 2008

Consequences: higher drain discharges !!

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(1) Multifunctional land use: crop diversification

Second crop in paddy fields: canola Controlled drainage needed

Mehdi, et al. 2016

Example Sanru, Iran

Challenge 2: Coping with climate change

Global sea level rise of the last 15 years: 2mm/y, expected to increase to 4 mm/y

Precipitation increase in Northern Europe 10-40%, but 20% decrease in Southern Europe

The Netherlands:

- Precipitation in winter: + 8 – 10 %

- Precipitation in summer: + 1 %, but 10-15% increase in extremes

- Evaporation: +3.5%

- Average deficit during growing season: +4%

Ritzema and Stuyt, 2015

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(2) Changes in irrigation & drainage needs

In summer: controlled drainage & supplementary irrigation to enhance crop production

In winter & spring: drainage to remove excess rainfall and to control the groundwater table: accessibility for farm operation

(2) Controlled drainage: three step approach

(Ritzema and Stuyt, 2015)

Instead of increasing drainage intensity reduce discharge by controlled drainage

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(2) Retain: Use of soil moisture

Marine clay

areas

Peat land

areas

Higher sandy soil

areas

Land use (%):

Grassland 15 100 65

Arable farming 80 15

Maize 5 20

Drainage base (m below GL):

Winter 1.45 0.45 1.20

Summer 1.20 0.45 1.00

Potential water storage in soil profile for three groundwater levels (mm):

0.50 m below GL 5-25 25-45 15-35

1.00 m below GL 45-55 75-140 105-115

1.50 m below GL 80-120 150-250 180-220

(Querner, 2003)

(2) Retain in the soil: reduction in drainage rate

Simulation with SIMGROgroundwatertable (m-GL)

available soil water storage(mm)

Sand Clay Peat0.5 15-35 5-25 25-451 105-115 45-55 75-1401.5 180-220 80-120 150-250

Required drainage rate (mm/d)*

Soil type 15 x per year 1 x per year1 x per 10 years

Higher sandy soils 3.0 11.4 13.8Marine clay polders 4.0 13.8 17.2Peat areas 6.9 10.7 14.0* meteo data 1951‐2000

(Querner, 2003)

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(2) Controlled drainage: Reduction of peak discharge

Field research 2007-2011:

Reduction in peak discharge rate: 5 -28%Depending on soil & hydrological conditions

(Kselik and Stuyt, 2013)

Precipitation controlled gravity

Drain discharges in Pilot Area Rilland

(2) Nitrogen disposal in drainage discharge

(Stuyt et al 2013)

Results Rusthoeve Pilot Area (1994-1996): • 75% of the N-gifts is used by the crop• 10-15% de-nitrification• 10-15% disposed via drainage water

Controlled drainage Gravity drainageDrain discharge CD

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(2) Controlled drainage: downstream benefits

Controlled Drainage on Grassland for Flood Control in the Czech Republic: drainage retention reduces flash floods and significantly mitigates negative impacts of floods

(Ritzema et al 2016)

Challenge 3: Integration irrigation and drainage

Brouwer et al, 1989

Leaching requirement10 – 40 % depending on ECi and ECe

Ayers and Westcot, 1994

Irrigation efficiency  Leaching requirement

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(3) Integration irrigation and drainage

-100

0

100

200

300

Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Irr

iga

tio

n (

mm

)

Scenario I - Summer Scenario II - Winterr E-P

0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep

ECe (dS/m

)

ECe - Scenario I - Summer ECe - Scenario II - Winter

Van Hoorn and Van Alphen, 2006

Example Tunisia: leaching in summer (Scenario 1) or in winter (Scenario II)

I

II

Matching irrigation and drainage needs in irrigated lands

(3) Integration irrigation and drainage

Treated waste water

• Enhance soil retention• Enhance groundwater

recharge• Reduce outflow• Reduce fertilizer losses

(Ritzema & Diemont, 2016)

Controlled drainage and sub-irrigation

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Challenge 4: Drainage infrastructure in arid regions

Hydroluis, 2016

Envelopes problematic:• Shallower drains: watertable most

of the time below the drains root growth

• Gravel expensive and synthetic envelopes need match with soil texture

(4) Drainage infrastructure in humid regions

(Staarink, 2014)

How to get controlled drainage working?

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Challenge 5: Organisation of drainage

The institutional set-up is complex and enforcement of rules and regulations is difficult.

Participatory management

Schultz, 2016

(5) Participatory management

Use of mobile phone for water data exchange within a Water Users Association

Masharipova, K., 2016

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Challenge 6: Reuse of drainage water

Reuse at farm level Reuse at project level Reuse at regional level

(6) Re-use of drainage water

Conjunctive use

El-Din El-Quosy, D., 1989

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(6) Re-use of Urban storm water

• Polluted• Inflow: 1 – 2 x

year• Constructed

wetland dries out

Ritzema and Diemont, 2016

(6) Constructed wetlands need irrigation

Ritzema and Diemont, 2016

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Challenge 7: Disposal options

Back in the irrigation system Evaporation ponds Back into the river Directly to saline lakes or sea Deep-well injection

Back into the river: disposal regulations Evaporation ponds: toxicity Directly to saline lakes or sea: separate outfall drains Deep-well injection: pollution of fresh water aquifers

Tanji & Kielen, 2003, Chapter 3

(7) Disposal options

Ref: californiaagriculture.ucanr.edu

at farm level

at project level

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(7) Disposal options: Evaporation ponds

South evaporation pond, Tulare Lake Drainage District, California

(7) Disposal options: Back in to the River:

Aswan

Suez

R E D S E A

200 km150100500

SINAI

Old landsReclaimed land since 1952Land proposed for future reclamationNile River

Cairo

Alexandria Port Said

M E D I T E R R A N E A N S E A

Asyut

QATTARADEPRESSION

El FayumSiwa Oasis

Farafra Oasis

Bahariya Oasis

Dakhla OasisKharga Oasis

NEW VALLEY

Pipe drainage projectsProvincial boundaryInternational boundary

ISLAMABAD

Mardan Swabi

Sutley RiverRavi River

Chanb River

Jhel

umR

iver

Indus Riv

er

PehurPeshawar

Kushab

FourthDrainage

Lahore

Quetta

Karachi

D.G. Khan

D.I. KhanCCADP

Punjab

Baluchistan

Fordwah EasternSadiqia (South)

EastKhair pur

Sindh

Northwest FrontierProvince

Mirpurkhas INDIA

AFGHANISTAN

ARABIAN SEA

CHINA

0 200 km

Drainage effluent back to the river or to the sea ?

Nile and Indus are the main irrigation and drainage canal !!!

Ritzema & Braun, 2007

Egypt  Pakistan

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(7) Disposal: finally to the sea

IPTRID, Pakistan , FAO, 2002

IPTRID, Egypt , FAO, 2005

Seven challenges to make drainage work

SUMMARY:1. Design for multifunctional land use

2. Coping with climate change

3. Integration irrigation and drainage

4. Drainage infrastructure

5. Organisation of drainage/water management

6. Re-use of drainage water

7. Safe disposal

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The Way Forward

To give drainage its rightful role in meeting future challenges in Agricultural Water Management: 

1) Balancing top‐down against bottom‐up

2) From standardization to flexibility

3) Focus on capacity development.

Ritzema, 2009

1) Balancing Top & Bottom

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2) From standardization to flexibility

Local requirements

Theory/modelsExpert

knowledge

Local knowledge

Land and water

development: an iterative

process

3) Focus on capacity development

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The Way Forward

1) Balancing top‐down against bottom‐up

2) From standardization to flexibility3) Focus on capacity development.

Ritzema, 2009

Drain for Gain: A Rightful Role

for Drainage in Meeting Future

Challenges in Agricultural

Water Management

Thank you for your attention

Henk Ritzema

Email: henk.ritzema@wur.nl

Bapatla, Andhra Pradesh, India, 2000 (pre) & 2004 (post)