University of Bari

Italy

European Society of Agricultural Engineers

www.eurageng.net

Accademia dei Georgofili Firenze

www.georgofili.it

Italian Horticultural Society

www.soihs.it

Italian Association of Agricultural Engineering

www.aiia.info

The International Commission of Agricultural Engineering

www.ucd.ie/cigr

Italian Committee for Greenhouse Cultivation

International Society for Horticultural Science

www.ishs.org

University of Naples Federico II

Italy

Under the aegis of

Regione Campania

Provincia di Napoli

Under the patronage of

Official sponsor magazine

With the contribution of

ITALIA

Organizing secretariat

w w w.studioesse.net

Convenors

Stefania De Pascale

Crop ScienceDIAAT - University of Naples Giacomo Scarascia-Mugnozza

Greenhouse Engineering PROGESA - University of Bari

Scientifi c Secretariat

Albino Maggio

Crop Science University of Naples - IT Evelia Schettini

Greenhouse Engineering University of Bari - IT

Organizing committee

Giancarlo Barbieri

University of Naples - IT Lorenzo Boccia

University of Naples - IT Gene Giacomelli

University of Arizona - USA Cherubino Leonardi

University of Catania - IT Silvana Nicola

University of Turin - IT Alberto Pardossi

University of Pisa - IT Giovanni Russo

University of Bari - IT Cecilia Stanghellini

Wageningen UR - NL Giuliano Vox

University of Bari - IT

Scientifi c committeeAyuga F. (ES), Bailey B. (UK), Bakker J.C. (NL), Bot G.P.A. (NL), Boulard T. (FR), Briassoulis D. (GR), Castilla N. (ES), Connellan G. (AU), Day W. (UK), Farkas I. (HU), Gieling T.H. (NL), Gosselin A. (CA), Hanafi A. (MA), Hemming S. (NL), Heuvelink E. (NL), Kittas C. (GR), La Malfa G. (IT), Ling P. (USA), Lopez Cruz I. L. (MX), Lorenzo P. (ES), Malinconico M. (IT), Marcelis L. (NL), Meneses J. (PT), Montero J. I. (ES), Papadakis G. (GR), Pieters J. G. (BE), Sase S. (JP), Schrevens E. (BE), Schwarz D. (DE), Son Jung-Eek (KR), Tantau H.J. (DE), Teitel M. (IL), Ting K.C. (USA), Tognoni F. (IT), Tuzel Y. (TR), Weihong L. (CN)

COMMITTEES

PROGRAM SUMMARY

Room A AULA MAGNA Room B

Registration

Thursday October 4, 2007

GreenSys2007 Plenary Opening Session

Key Note Address: Innovation in greenhouse engineering

Crop systems Greenhouse system integration and design

Greenhouse microclimate

Poster A Greenhouse design

Poster B Information systems

Poster C Greenhouse management

Stress control Information systems Greenhouse microclimate

Stress control Information systems Greenhouse microclimate

ISHS Commission Horticultural Engineering

Friday October 5, 2007

Key Note Address: Innovation on crop management and plant-greenhouse interactions

Covering materials Production scheduling and plant growth

Computational Fluid Dynamics

Covering materials Production scheduling and plant growth

Computational Fluid Dynamics

Poster D Covering materials Environment Landscape

Poster E Greenhouse management Sensors, monitoring and

control

Poster F Computational Fluid

Dynamics

Covering materials Product quality Computational Fluid Dynamics

Environment Sensors, monitoring and control

Equipment design and management

The CIGR Working Group “Greenhouse” discussion

Saturday October 6, 2007

Key Note Address: Innovative technologies for an effi cient use of energy

Robotics Energy Pest management

Greenhouse design for extreme environments and urban areas

Energy Resource use effi ciency and renewable sources

Presentation of GreenSys 2009

Poster G Greenhouse control Pest management

Poster H Energy

Poster I Resource use effi ciency and

renewable sources

Greenhouse design Energy Education and training

Closure Ceremony

DETAILED PROGRAM

8:30 Registration

PLENARY 9:00 GreenSys2007 Plenary Opening Session Chairperson: G. Scarascia Mugnozza

10:00 Key Note Address - Innovation in greenhouse engineering G. Giacomelli, University of ArizonaCoffee break

ROOM A Crop systems Chairperson: G. Connellan11:15 Moisture prediction of growing media and irrigation control in closed seedling production

systems under artificial light Son Jung Eek, Sung Bong Oh, Nguyen Huy Tai, Hyun Jun Park, Yong Kyo Jung

11:30 Recursive parameter estimation as a monitoring system for water shortage Dekock J., Aerts J.-M., Vermeulen K., Steppe K., Bleyaert P., Westra J., Lemeur R., Berckmans D.

11:45 SIMUL-HYDRO, an simple tool for predicting the water use and water efficiency in tomato soilless closed-loop cultivationsIncrocci L., Massa D., Carmassi G., Maggini R., Bibbiani C., Pardossi A.

12:00 Irrigation control for greenhouse tomato plants grown in organic soilless substrates using frequency domain reflectometryMi-Young Roh, Nam-Jun Kang, Sung-Chan Lee, Tae-Cheol Seo, Young-Hah Choi

12:15 Pattern of nitrogen stable isotope ratio in sweet pepper plants affected by the cultivation methoddel Amor F. M., Ortuño G., Navarro P., Navarro J., Cámara J. M., Aparicio P. M.

AULA MAGNA Greenhouse system integration and design Chairperson: D. Briassoulis11:15 The combined effect of cover design parameters on production of a passive greenhouse

Vanthoor B., Stanghellini C., van Henten E., Baeza Romero E.

11:30 Effect of vent configuration and wind speed on three dimensional temperature distributions in a naturally ventilated multi-span greenhouse by wind tunnel experimentsKacira M., Sase S., Ikeguchi A., Masahisa Ishii, Giacomelli G., Sabeh N.

11:45 Modeling of greenhouse climate using evolutionary algorithmsLópez-Cruz I. L., Ramírez-Arias A., Rojano-Aguilar A., Ruiz-García A.

12:00 Measurement and simulation of the microclimate inside Azrum type greenhouses in a sub-tropical climate using a dynamic greenhouse climate modelMashonjowa E., Pieters J., Ronsse F., Lemeur R.

12:15 Characterizing cooling equipment for closed greenhousesde Zwart F., Kempkes F.

ROOM B Greenhouse microclimate Chairperson: N. Castilla11:15 Incorporation of a model to predict crop transpiration in a commercial irrigation equipment

as a control strategy for water supply to soilless horticultural cropsMedrano E., Alonso F. J., Cruz Sánchez-Guerrero Mª, Lorenzo P.

11:30 Model-based control of CO2 concentration in greenhouses at ambient levels increases cucumber yieldKläring H-P., Hauschild C., Heißner A., Bar-Yosef. B.

11:45 The GESKAS project, closed greenhouse as energy source and optimal growing environmentHoes H., Goen K., Wittemans L.

THURSDAY OCTOBER 4, 2007MORNING

THURSDAY OCTOBER 4, 2007MORNING

12:00 Solar energy delivering greenhouse with an integrated NIR filterSonneveld P., Henk J. H., Bot G.

12:15 Economic gain for cucumber production from greenhouse coolingKaukoranta Timo, Huttunen JukkaLunch

13:30 Poster sessionsSee detailed program

GREENHOUSE DESIGNDesign consideration of energy efficiency greenhouse for tomato production in humid tropical regionBuntoon Chunnasit, Darkwa Jo.

The PULSA growing system: a human food production unit for remote and isolated environmentsCampiotti C. A., Di Bonito R., Dondi F., Alonzo G., Incrocci L., Bibbiani C.

Greenhouse cooling strategies for mediterranean climate areasGázquez J.C., López J.C., Pérez-Parra J.J., Baeza E.J., Saéz M., Parra A.

Possibility of using climatic compatibility as a criterion to evaluate efficiency of greenhouses under several types of Iranian climatesMansour Matloobi

Designs and specifications of cost effective green houses for extreme environmental conditions in South AsiaNegi Ajit Kumar, Chauhan Suresh

Microclimate evaluation of a greenhouse in north-east ItalySambo P., Gianquinto G.

Evaluation of greenhouse structures for spring tomato crop in Northwestern PortugalAbreu M. J., Bastos C., Vargues A. C.

INFORMATION SYSTEMSQuadratic forms in agriculture Rojano A., Roomzar R., Schmidt U., López I.

Greenhouse temperature distribution: a geostatistical approachBojacá C., Rodrigo G.

Development of a natural ventilation model for a tall, gutter-vented, multi-span double-polyethylene greenhouseMd. Saidul Borhan, Xiuming Hao

Optimization of reduced model two order of a greenhouse using genetic algorithmsHassane Moughli, Belkacem Draoui, Fateh Bounaama

Prediction the spatial air temperature distribution of an experimental greenhouse using geostatistical methodsSapounas A. A., Spyridis A., Chrysoulla N.-M.

Development and Application of a Web-Based Telemonitor for Greenhouse EnvironmentSun Z. F., Du K. M., Han H. F., Wang Y.C.

GREENHOUSE MANAGEMENTComparison of humidity conditions in unheated tomato greenhouses with different natural ventilation management and implications for climate and Botrytis cinerea controlBaptista Fátima, Bailey B., Meneses J.

Effect of greenhouse roof opening system on internal climate and on Gypsophila yield and quality controlFascella G., Agnello S., Sciortino B., Zizzo G.

Effects of root-zone heating in early-morning on celery growth and electricity costKinoshita Takafumi, Tadahisa Higashide, Masatake Fujino, Toshihiko Ibuki, Yoshiaki Kasahara

Simulated response of greenhouse climate and cucumber crop production to black and white mulching in unheated Mediterranean greenhousesvan’t Ooster B., Stanghellini C., Sánchez-Guerrero MC. Mediano E., Lorenzo P.

THURSDAY OCTOBER 4, 2007POSTER SESSIONS

A

B

C

THURSDAY OCTOBER 4, 2007POSTER SESSIONS

Photosynthesis Modelling: diagnostic tools for greenhouse climate managementSciortino M., Mimmo T., Vitali G., Gianquinto G., Jesper A. M.

Simulated effects of canopy size, relative humidity and light management levels, CO2 dosing, and minimum ventilation rates on water consumption in open and confined greenhouse systemsYildiz Ilhami, Stombaugh Dennis P.

Improvement of water use efficiency and yield of greenhouse tomato using matric potential sensorsCaron J., Lemay I., Dorais M., Pepin S.

Influence of supplementary lighting on autumn-winter yield of four cultivars of Gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii)Cristiano G., Cocozza Talia M. A., La Viola A. M. F., Sancilio A.

Effects of root-zone nutrient concentration on cucumber grown in rockwoolGiuffrida F., Heuvelink E., Stanghellini C.

CO2 concentration in the root zone of vegetables, cultivated in organic substratesGruda Nazim, Thorsten Rocksch, Uwe Schmidt

Study and assessment of different seed bed preparation for cucumber planting in greenhouseMomeni D.

Modelling visual quality of Kalanchoe blossfeldiana: influence of cultivar and pot sizeCarvalho S. M.P., Almeida J., Eveleens-Clark B., Bakker1 M. J., Heuvelink E

Heating strategies for an eggplant crop on Mediterranean greenhousesLópez J.C.; Pérez C.; Pérez-Parra J.J; Baeza E.J.; Gázquez J.C.; Parra, A.

Climate and yield in a closed greenhouseHeuvelink E., Marcelis L., Bakker M., Raaphorst M.

THURSDAY OCTOBER 4, 2007AFTERNOON

ROOM A Stress control Chairperson: C. Stanghellini14:30 Sensitivity of stem diameter variations for detecting water stress in tomato transplants

Abdelaziz M. E., Paschold P.-J., Pokluda R.

14:45 Model validation of greenhouse crop transpiration Elings A., Voogt W.

15:00 Estimating stomatal conductance of greenhouse grown plants subjected to water stress anddifferent humidity regimes Andersson N.E., Koefoed Petersen Karen

15:15 Designing a greenhouse plant: novel approaches to improve resource use efficiency incontrolled environmentsMaggio A., De Pascale S., Barbieri G.Coffee break

Stress control Chairperson: A. Maggio16:15 Effect of salinity on tomato plant architecture

Najla S., Vercambre G., Gautier H., Pagès L., Bertin N., Grasselly D., Rosso L.

16:30 Effects of EC levels of nutrient solution on tomato crop in closed systemsTüzel Y., Öztekin G.B., Tüzel İ.H., Meriç K.M.

16:45 Technical solutions to prevent heat stress induced crop growth reduction for three climaticregions of Mexico van ’t Ooster B., Heuvelink E., Loaiza M., Manuel V.

17:00 Simultaneous response of stem diameter, sap flow rate and leaf temperature of tomato plants to drought stress Vermeulen K., Steppe K., Sy Linh Nguyen, Pollet B., De Backer L., Bleyaert P., Dekock J., Aerts J.-M., Berckmans D., Lemeur R.

17:15 Mixture of saline and non-saline irrigation water influences growth and yield of lettucecultivars under greenhouse conditionsAlsadon Abdullah A., Mahmoud A. Wahb-allah, Safwat O. Khalil

AULA MAGNA Information systems Chairperson: T. Takakura14:30 IntelliGrow 2.0 – A greenhouse component-based climate control system

Markvart Jakob, Jesper Mazanti Aaslyng, Kalita Sebastian, Nørregaard Jørgensen Bo, Carl-Otto Ottosen

14:45 Method to predict energy consumption of an individual greenhouseDe Voogd J. C., Dekock J., Vranken E., Jancsok P., Schrevens E., Berckmans D.

15:00 Fitting MBM-A model of plant growth to the data of TOMGRO: implication for greenhouseoptimal controlIoslovich Ilya, Per-Olof Gutman

15:15 A low-cost multihop wireless sensor network, enabling real-time management of data for thegreenhouse and nursery industryLea-Cox J. D., Ristvey A. G., Arguedas Rodriguez F., Anhalt J., Kantor G.

15:30 Improvement of greenhouse management through optimization of a data acquisition andprocessing subsystemKychkin A., Plaksina O., Palensky P.Coffee break

THURSDAY OCTOBER 4, 2007AFTERNOON

Information systems Chairperson: J. Lea-Cox16:15 Promoting energy efficient production in horticulture - Exchange of knowledge between

research and practice through the internetBuwalda F., Jan Swinkels G., de Zwart F., Kipp J., Kempkes Frank, van Gastel T., van Bokhoven H.

16:30 A system to monitoring temperature and humidity in greenhouses using a micro networkIsidro-Pioquinto E., López-Cruz I., Vázquez-Peña M.

16:45 A neural network model to predict temperature and relative humidity in a greenhouseSalazar R., López I., Rojano A.

17:00 Comparison of artificial neural network and regression models for estimating greenhouseclimate modelHasni A., Draoui B., Boulard T., Bounaama F., Tamali M.

17:15 Wireless sensor networks: state of the art and future perspectivevan Tuijl B., van Os E., van Henten E.

17:30 ISHS Commission Horticultural Engineering Business Meeting - The future symposia and activities of the Commission will be discussed.Everyone who is interested in will be welcome!

ROOM B Greenhouse microclimate Chairperson: E. Schrevens14:30 An empirical approach to the delineation of growing conditions within cool-dry and

cool-moist cooled conservatories in SingaporeBoon Hwee Er Kenneth, Kishnani Nirmal, Kessling Wolfgang, Vincent Koo Yong Bian

14:45 Screenhouse microclimate effects on Cucumber grown with hydroponics systemYaseen A. Al-Mulla, Muther Al-Rawahy, Fatma Al-Raseesi and Mohammed Al-Balushi

15:00 Greenhouse tunnel ventilation dependence on tomato crop height and leaf area indexFatnassi Hicham, Leyronas C., Boulard T., Bardin M.

15:15 The effect of diffuse light on cropsHemming S., Dueck T., Janse J., van Noort F.

15:30 Simulated effects of canopy size, relative humidity and light management levels, CO2 dosing,and minimum ventilation rates on energy consumption in open and confined greenhouse systemsYildiz I., Stombaugh D. P.Coffee break

Greenhouse microclimate Chairperson: L. Weihong16:15 Increased cucumber production by greenhouse cooling

Särkkä L., Luomala E.-M., Kaukoranta T.

16:30 Evaluation of combined use of fog systems and CO2 enrichment in greenhouses by usingphytomonitoring dataSchmidt U., Huber C.

16:45 Uncertainty on estimated predictions of energy demand for dehumidification in a closed tomato greenhouseSchrevens E., Jancsok P., Dieussaert K.

17:00 Photosynthesis canopy model validation for greenhouse climate managementSciortino M., Wulfsohn D., Andreassen A., Gianquinto G., Aaslyng J. M.

PLENARY 9:00 GreenSys2007 Plenary session 2 Chairperson: S. De Pascale

Key Note Address - Innovation on crop management and plant-greenhouse interactionsE. Heuvelink, Wageningen UR

ROOM A Covering materials Chairperson: B. von Elsner 9:45 Mechanical characterization of plastic nets for protected cultivation

Picuno P., Tortora A., Sica C.

10:00 Fruit yield and quality in kiwifruit vines protected by photo-selective anti-hail netsBasile B., Giaccone M., Romano R., Graziani G., Ritieni A., Shahak Y., Forlani M.

10:15 Flow through inclined and concertina-shape screensTeitel M., Liron O., Haim Y., Seginer I.

10:30 Photoselective shade netting for improved production of ornamental, fruit and vegetablecrops. An overviewShahak Y.

10:45 The effect of screenhouse height on microclimateTanny Josef, Meir Teitel, Moti Barak, Yitzhak Esquira, Roni AmirCoffee break

Covering materials Chairperson: M. Malinconico11:30 Innovative photoselective and photoluminescent plastic films for protected cultivation

De Salvador F. R., Scarascia-Mugnozza G., Vox G., Schettini E., Mastrorilli M., Maher Bou J.

11:45 Ageing characterization to determine the life duration of different PEbd based devices usedfor greenhouse roofYoussef B., Benzohra M., Hamou A., Dehbi A. Saiter J.M.

12:00 Reduction of the environmental impact of plastic films for greenhouse covering by using fluoropolymeric materialsStefani L., Zanon M., Modesti M., Ugel E., Vox G., Schettini E.

12:15 Effects of a dynamic liquid foam technology on energy consumption, microclimate, leaf gasexchanges and fruit yield in greenhouse vegetable productionKamal Aberkani, Xiuming Hao, Gosselin Andre, De Halleux Damien, Shalin Khosla

12:30 Glass microspheres covering film: agronomic evaluations on the production of cut flowersMagnani G., Cascone M., Filippi F., Ferraresi A.

AULA MAGNA Production scheduling and plant growth Chairperson: S. Nicola 9:45 Nitrogen concentration and module volume effects on the growth characters and yield

potentials of eggplant seedlings Balliu Astrit, Sallaku Glenda Kuçi, Sherif

10:00 Touch probes and sensing techniques for assessing crop water status and growth rate in greenhouses Ton Y.

10:15 Effects of anti-transpirants on transpiration and energy use in greenhouse cultivationMarcelis L.F.M., Kempkes F., Stanghellini C., Grashoff C.

10:30 Quantifying the effects of leaf nitrogen content on leaf photosynthesis rate of greenhousecucumber under different PAR and temperature conditions Weihong Luo, Jianfeng Dai, Yongshan Chen, Li Han, Xiang Tai, Shengfei Zhang

10:45 Growth response of Hedera helix to temperature integration Pollet B., Steppe K., Dambre P., Van Labeke M.-C., Lemeur R.Coffee break

FRIDAY OCTOBER 5, 2007MORNING

FRIDAY OCTOBER 5, 2007MORNING

Production scheduling and plant growth Chairperson: L. Marcelis11:30 Effects of blue-light photon flux density on nitrogen and carbohydrate content and the

growth of spinach Matsuda Ryo, Keiko Ohashi-Kaneko, Kazuhiro Fujiwara, Kenji Kurata

11:45 Effect of solar radiation before anthesis on yield fluctuations in tomatoHigashide Tadahisa, Heuvelink E., Kinoshita Takafumi

12:00 Thermal and light requirements for flower differentiation of Snapdragon Paradiso R., Aronne G., De Pascale S.

12:15 The application of LED’s as assimilation light source in greenhouse horticulture: a simulation study van Ieperen W., Trouwborst G., Bakker M., Schapendonk A.H.C.M.

12:30 A method to detect plant-damage-induced volatiles in a greenhouseJansen Roel, Willem Hofstee Jan, Verstappen Francel, Bouwmeester Harro, Posthumus Maarten, van Henten Eldert

ROOM B Computational Fluid Dynamics Chairperson: J. I. Montero 9:45 Welcome address to CFD Workshop T. Boulard 9:50 Airflow and microclimate patterns in a one-hectare Canary type greenhouse: an experimental

and CFD assisted studyBoulard T., Fatnassi H., Majdoubi H., Bouirden L.

10:00 Numerical Simulations of Temperatures in Greenhouses covered with NIR-ReflectingPhotoselective Films García-Alonso Y., Espí E., Salmerón A., Fontecha A., Baeza E. J., Pérez Parra J. J., López J.C., Gázquez J.C.

10:15 Predicted effects of roof vent combinations on the climate distribution in a glasshouseconsidering radiative and convective heat transfersBournet P.E., Ould Khaoua S.A.

10:30 Thermal behaviour of a tunnel arc greenhouse during a solar day Fidaros D., Baxevanou C., Bartzanas T., Kittas C.

10:45 Numerical modelling and experimental measurements of pesticides dispersion in a naturally ventilated greenhouse Kittas C., Bartzanas T., Sapounas A., Katsoulas N., Tsiropoulos N.

Computational Fluid Dynamics Chairperson: C. Kittas11:30 Numerical simulation of the flow through screens

Arbel A., Shklyar A.

11:45 Ventilation performance of net covered arched structures Castellano S., Mistriotis A.

12:00 Simulation of Microclimate in a Sloping Greenhouse using CFD Takeshi Kuroyanagi, Toshihiko Ibuki, Yuji Nagasaki, Yoichi Nakamoto, Hiroaki Tanaka

12:15 Vapor removal from the greenhouse using forced ventilation when applying a thermal screenJouke Campen

12:30 DiscussionLunch

13:45 Poster sessionsSee detailed program

COVERING MATERIALSEffects of chemicals on the mechanical properties of plastic films for greenhouse coveringVox G., Schettini E., Stefani L., Modesti M., Ugel E.

Impact of sunlight spectrum modification on yield and quality of ready-to-use lettuce and rocket Roomd grown on floating systemMagnani G., Filippi F., Vitale M., Borghesi E.

Biodegradable covering film for small tunnels: first evaluations on melon (Cucumis melo L.)Filippi F., Magnani G., Guerrini S.

Starch-based films and spray coatings as biodegradable alternatives to LDPE mulching filmsSchettini E., Vox G., Candura A., Malinconico M., Immirzi B., Santagata G.

Use of cool plastic films for greenhouse covering in southern SpainLópez J.,González A., García-Alonso Y., Espí E, Salmerón A, Fontecha A, Real A.I.

Effects of a shading and an insulating foam injected between double polythylene films on light transmission, growth and productivity of greenhouse tomatoKamal Aberkani, Villeneuve J, de Halleux Damien, Dorais Martine, Xiuming Hao and Gosselin A.

Characterization of cellulose fibres and galactomannans based composites for new mulching spray technologyImmirzi B, Malinconico M, Santagata G, Trautz D.

Preparation and characterization of biodegradable paper coated with blends based on PHASalemi F., Lamagna G., Coco V., Barone L. G.

An experimental demonstration of enhancing the soil temperatures by combining an anti-drip solarizing film with a biodegradable sprayable mulchMormile P., Petti L., Rippa M., Immirzi B., Malinconico M.

Influence of greenhouse volume ratio on soil solarization efficiencyMiceli A., Moncada A., Camerata Scovazzo G., D’Anna F.

The optimization of the management of agricultural plastic waste in Italy using a Geographical Information SystemScarascia-Mugnozza G., Picuno P., Sica C.

Testing the ability of OptiNet™ screens to protect crops against pests infestationsHadar D., Ben-Yakir D., Chen M.

The influence of colour on radiometric performances of agricultural nets Castellano S., Hemming S., Russo G.

Effect of insect screen configuration on natural ventilation in a single-span greenhouseSase S., Suzuki M.,. Okushima L.

Spectro-radiometrical characterization of plastic nets for protected cultivationSica C., Picuno P.

Experimental tests for the evaluation of the shading effect of agricultural netsCandura A., Castellano S., Scarascia Mugnozza G.

Intra-canopy variability of fruit quality in kiwifruit vines protected by anti-hail netsBasile B., Romano R., Giaccone M., Forlani M.

Photoselective shade nets improve productivity of bell peppersShahak Y., Ben-Yakir D., Matan E., Yehezkel H., Posalski I., Messika Y., Zohar H., Ratner K., Gal E., Offir Y.

FRIDAY OCTOBER 5, 2007POSTER SESSIONS

D

ENVIRONMENTEnvironmental assessment of improved technology in Mediterranean greenhouse systemsAssumpció A., Soriano T., Montero J. I., Muñoz P., Escobar I., Hernandez J., Castilla N.

Protected crop system viability in a sustainable agriculture contextBrajeul E., Boulard T., Robert F., Le Quillec S.

Environmental improvements of greenhouse flower cultivation by means of LCA methodologyRusso G., De Lucia Zeller B., Scarascia Mugnozza G.

Compost substrate for greenhouse sustainable cultivationPellegrino A., Doronzo G., De Falco A.

LANDSCAPEImage processing for the classification of crop sheltersArcidiacono C., Porto S. M.C.

The use of rural shapes and materials in the environmental architectureDal Sasso P., Ruggiero G., Marinelli G.

Grennhouses and rural landscape: proposals for the control of territory modificationsDal Sasso P., Ruggiero G., Marinelli G.

Analysis of the effect on rural turf and landscape of wide coverings for crop protectionTortora A., Picuno P.

GREENHOUSE MANAGEMENTQuality characteristics of potato transplants grown under controlled environmentYong Hyeon Kim

Growth response and nitrogen use efficiency of two Dieffenbachia cultivars grown in soilless cultureColla G., Rouphael Y., Cardarelli M.

Growth of ornamental plants in two composts prepared from agroindustrial wastes De Lucia B., Rea E., Ventrelli A., Pierandrei F., Vecchietti L., Delicato M. A.

Using growth functions for modelling crop growth in soilless sweet pepperdel Amor F. M., Gómez-López M. D.

Effect of environmental conditions on shoot/root ratio of cucumberKläring H-P., Dimova M.A.

The effect of climatic factors on the morphology of forest woody plantsMeyer J., Kahl M.

Evaluation of strawberry cultivars in soilless cultivation in SicilyMoncada A., Miceli A., D’Anna F.

Short-term nitrate uptake rates for soilless culture: Seasonal empirical relations for rose crop productionRoca D., Belda R. M., Calatayud A., Gorbe E., Martínez P.-F.

Comparing mineral uptake efficiencies in rose plant flowering flushes under two climate conditionsRoca D., Belda R. M., Calatayud A., Gorbe E., Martínez Pedro-F.

The influence of substrates and irrigation on soil air composition and its effect on growth and development of three horticultural plantsRocksch Thorsten, Gruda Nazim, Schmidt Uwe

Predicting leaf number of hydroponically zucchini squash based on the thermal time approachRouphael Y., Fanasca S., Fallovo C., Cardarelli M., Marucci A., Salerno A., Rea E., Colla G.

D

D

FRIDAY OCTOBER 5, 2007POSTER SESSIONS

E

FRIDAY OCTOBER 5, 2007POSTER SESSIONS

The effects of greenhouse conditions on the containerized seedling propagation of scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L. var. hamata) and oriental spruce (Picea orientalis (L.) Link)Sezgin Ayan

Light requirements for flowering of lisianthusParadiso R., Fiorenza S., De Pascale S.

Supplementary lighting screens and their effects on greenhouse climate and return on investment characteristicsvan ’t Ooster B., van Henten E. J., Janssen E., Bongaerts E.

Grafting effects on tomato growth rate, yield and fruit quality under saline irrigation waterBalliu A., Vuksani G., Nasto T., Haxhinasto L., Kaçiu S.

Determining soil moisture thresholds for the responses of gas exchange and leaf water potential in different tomato crop systemsDorais M., Pepin S., Ménard C.

Reduction of nutrient solution concentration on leafy vegetables quality grown in floating systemAlberici , Quattrini E., Penati M., Schiavi M., Martinetti L., Marino Gallina P., Ferrante A.

Effect of a biofertiliser on the growth of poinsettiaMartinetti L, Sparacino A, Ferrante A, Allievi L.

Effects of salinity on fruit quality in relation to plant development and water statusNajla S., Vercambre G.,Gautier H., Bertin N., Navez B., Rosso L., Grasselly D.

The influence of shading level to foliage plant acclimatizationScuderi D., Li Rosi A., Cassaniti C., Paratore A., Romano D.

Variation in some fruit quality parameters of greenhouse-grown nectarine affected by different canopy positionKong Yun, Ma Hun-pu, Ma Cheng-Wei, Yao Yun-Cong

Comparison between conventional and vacuum storage system in cut foliage and flowersPacifici S., Mensuali-Sodi A., Ferrante A., Serra G.

SENSORS, MONITORING AND CONTROLInvestigations about the usage of laser light beams for weed control in greenhousesWöltjen Christian, Herzog Dirk, Rath Thomas

An innovative system to control the ambient parameters inside the greenhousePiraino S., Salvia M., Paolino C.

A proposal of a methodology for functional inspection of sprayers used in glasshouseBalsari P., Oggero G.

Improvement in pesticide application on greenhouse crops: results of a survey about greenhouse structures in ItalyBaldoin C., Balsari P., Cerruto E., Pascuzzi S., Raffaelli M.

COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICSSolar radiation distribution in a tunnel greenhouseBaxevanou C., Bartzanas T., Fidaros D., Kittas C.

CFD Simulation of Natural Ventilation of a Parral Greenhouse with a Baffle Device below the Greenhouse VentsBaeza E.J., Perez-Parra J.J., Lopez J.C., Gazquez J. C, Montero J.I.

Advanced Control Systems for Small-Scale Space-Based GreenhousesFortezza R., Minei G., Boccia L., De Stefano M., Savino R.

E

F

FRIDAY OCTOBER 5, 2007POSTER SESSIONS

Criteria to improve leeward ventilation of large multispan greenhouses Montero J. I., Antón A., Melé M.,. Cid M.C, Muñoz P., Raya V., Pérez-Parra J.J.

A comparison between experimental and CFD results with regard to flow patterns and ventilation rate of a naturally ventilated greenhouse O. Liran, M. Teitel, G. Ziskind, R. Letan

Numerical and experimental study of fan and pad evaporative cooling system in a greenhouse with tomato crop Sapounas A. A., Nikita-Martzopoulou C., Martzopoulos G.

Development and Validation of a Global CFD Model of Heat, Water Vapour and Fungal Spores Transfers in a Greenhouse Boulard T., Fatnassi H., Kichah A., Roy J.C., Lee I.B.

Wind loads on net covered structures for protected cultivationsMistriotis A., Briassoulis D.

Monitoring and mapping temperature and humidity in greenhouses Suay R., Gutiérrez T., Moltó E.

Numerical and experimental analysis of convective heat transfer in a greenhouse Bartzanas T., Nacima Tadj, Belkacem Draoui, Kittas. C.

Predicting crop transpiration heterogeneity in a glasshouse using Computational Fluid DynamicsBournet P.E., Kichah A., Chassériaux G.

ROOM A Covering materials Chairperson: X. Hao14:45 Cooling naturally ventilated greenhouses in the tropics by near-infra red reflection

Mutwiwa U. M., von Elsner B., Max J., Tantau H. J.

15:00 Effect of anti-drip greenhouse cover materials on microclimate and production of a hydroponic cucumber cropKatsoulas N., Bartzanas T., Chrysoula M., Kittas C.

15:15 Properties of new biodegradable plastics for mulching and characterization of its degradation under laboratory and field conditionsMartin-Closas L., Picuno P., Rodríguez D., Pelacho A. M.

15:30 New biodegradable materials for greenhouse soil mulchingCascone G., D’Emilio A., Buccellato E., Mazzarella R.

Environment Chairperson: A. Mistriotis16:15 Correlation of key agricultural plastic waste parameters with the quality of the resulting

waste streamBriassoulis D., Babou E., Hiskakis M.

16:30 Life cycle assessment of common used plastic products in the EUSeidel Bos U., Makishi C., Fischer M.

16:45 Agricultural plastic waste mapping in GreeceM. Hiskakis, Briassoulis D., E. Babou, Liantzas K.

17:00 LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) of roses and cyclamens production in greenhouse cultivationRusso G., Buttol P., Tarantini M.

17:15 Biodegradable irrigation systems for protected cultivationBriassoulis D., Hiskakis M., Babou E.

17:30 Use of compostable pots for potted ornamental plants productionMinuto G., Guerrini S., Versari M., Minuto A., Pisi L., Tinivella F., Pini S., Capurro M.

AULA MAGNA Product quality Chairperson: C. Leonardi14:45 A photo-thermal model for predicting development and quality of standard cut

chrysanthemum in greenhouses Jianfeng Dai, Weihong Luo, Zaiqiang Yang, Xiaojie Mi, Qifeng Ding, Xiangmao Li

15:00 Production of high quality vegetable by applying low temperature stress to rootsDaisuke Yasutake, Yuki Sago, Katsumi Ishikawa, Toshio Kawano

15:15 High quality tomato production by suitable application of concentrated deep seawaterKitano Masaharu, Takahiro Wajima, Kota Hidaka, Yuki Sago, Daisuke Yasutake, Katsumi Ishikawa, Takahisa Matsuoka, Kazuhumi Zushi, Naotaka Matsuzoe

Sensors, monitoring and control Chairperson: H.-J. Tantau16:15 Plant solarimeter for energy balance

Takakura T.

16:30 New thermal dissipation moisture sensors for soil and growth mediaMcburney T., Fali Minocher Dadachanji, Chavrier N., Arias D.

16:45 A Prototype Sensor for Light Interception by Plants in a GreenhouseJanssen H.J.J., Sarlikioti V., Gieling T..H. Meurs E.J.J, Ruijsch van Dugteren J.

17:00 A soft-sensor for on-line estimation of ventilation of a greenhouseStanghellini C., Bontsema J.

FRIDAY OCTOBER 5, 2007AFTERNOON

FRIDAY OCTOBER 5, 2007AFTERNOON

17:15 Open-loop optimal temperature control in greenhouses: choosing the length of the sampleinterval in a control parameterization solutionvan Henten Eldert J., Bontsema J.

17:30 In-vivo measurement of tomato firmnessZsom-Muha V., Zsom T., Felföldi J.

17:45 The CIGR Working Group “Greenhouse” discussionEveryone who is interested in will be welcome!

ROOM B Computational Fluid Dynamics Chairperson: S. Sase14:45 Comparison of field measurement and CFD simulation in a naturally ventilated multi-span

greenhouse in summer Masahisa Ishii, Makio Hayashi, Yasutaka Yamamoto, Sase S., Limi Okushima, Hideki Moriyama

15:00 Development of an efficient ventilation system for a high-rise mushroom cultivation houseusing CFD technology In-Bok Lee, Hyun-sub Hwang, Se-woon Hong, Il-hwan Seo

15:15 Numerical simulation of natural ventilation in greenhouses: a comparison between Finite Volume Method and Finite Element Method Molina-Aiz F. D., Fatnassi H., Boulard T., Roy J. C., Valera D. L.

15:30 Discussion, concluding remarks and future perspectives M. Teitel

Equipment design and management Chairperson: T. Rath16:15 A prototype for mechanical distribution of beneficials

Blandini G., Emma G., Failla S., Manetto G.

16:30 Design of a strawberry factory using a movable bench Shigehiko Hayashi, Hirotaka Yoshida, Satoshi Yamamoto, Yasunaga Iwasaki, Yoshinobu Urushiyama

16:45 Innovative cultivation of vegetable on vertically moving beds controlled by double seesawmechanics Kota Hidaka, Eiji Ito, Shunji Imai, Masaharu Kitano, Daisuke Yasutake

17:00 Pesticide application techniques to strawberry crops inside protection tunnel Guarella P., Pascuzzi S., Guarella A.

17:15 Pesticide application in glasshouse in Italy: first results obtained by a national research group Balsari P., Oggero G., Cerruto E., Friso D., Guarella P., Raffaelli M.

17:30 Operator contamination during pesticide application in tomato greenhouses Cerruto E., Emma G., Manetto G.

PLENARY 9:00 GreenSys2007 Plenary session 3

Key Note Address - Innovative technologies for an efficient use of energy J.C. Bakker, Wageningen UR

ROOM A Robotics Chairperson: I. Seginer and I. Farkas 9:45 Robotic harvest of cut flowers based on image processing by using Gerbera jamesonii as

model plantKawollek M., Rath T.

10:00 Plant wilt detection by image processingFont L., Farkas I.

10:15 Development of an end-effecter for a strawberry harvesting robotSatoshi Yamamoto, Shigehiko Hayashi, Hirotaka Yoshida, Ken Kobayashi

10:30 Horticultural robotics: seven years of experimentationBelforte G., Deboli R., Gay P., Piccarolo P., Ricauda Aimonino D.

10:45 Collision-free inverse kinematics of a 7 link cucumber picking robotvan Henten E.J, Schenk E.J., van Willigenburg L.G., Meuleman J., Barreiro P.

Greenhouse design for extreme environments and urban areas Chairperson: O. Körner11:00 Bio-regenerative life support systems and planetary greenhouses: the CAB Italian initiative

Lobascio C., Lamantea M., Cotronei V., Negri B., De Pascale S., Maggio A., Maffei M., Palumberi S.

11:15 The Controlled Environment Systems Research Facility (CESRF) at the University ofGuelph: taking the Canadian greenhouse industry to Mars and backWaters G. C.R., Dixon M. A.

11:30 Sustainable controlled environment agriculture for urban areasNelkin J., Caplow T.

11:45 Cropping in arid area greenhouseSharan G., Kamlesh Jethava

12:00 Effects of temperature integration regimes with low pre-night temperatures on energyconsumption, microclimate, and fruit yield in early greenhouse tomato productionHao X., Md. Saidul Borhan, Shalin Khosla

AULA MAGNA Energy Chairperson: G. Papadakis 9:45 Improved heating technique for greenhouses using low energy from reject heat sources

von Elsner B.

10:00 Use of reject heat from biogas powerplants for greenhouse heatingMeyer J., Pietzsch M.

10:15 Development of a concept for a zero fossil energy greenhousevan ’t Ooster B., van Henten E., Janssen E., Bot G., Dekker E.

10:30 An underground water pipe system for energy-saving control of greenhouse temperatureby exchange of sensible and latent heatsDaisuke Yasutake, Masaharu Kitano, Kiyoshi Miyauchi, Shinzo Yamane, Yoshinori Yamamoto, Kota Hidaka, Mohammad Affan F. F., Motoyasu Ochi, Katsumi Ishikawa

10:45 Heat buffers improve capacity and exploitation degree of geothermal energy sourcesvan ’t Ooster B., Janssen E., de Wit J., Ruigrok J.

SATURDAY OCTOBER 6, 2007MORNING

Energy Chairperson: F. de Zwart11:00 Investigation of the potential of infrared-radiation (IR) to reduce energy consumption in

greenhouse heatingKavga A., Bontozoglou V., Panidis T., Pantelakis S.

11:15 Use of solar thermal collectors for water disinfectionTripanagnostopoulos Y., Rocamora Osorio M. C.

11:30 Simulation of a greenhouse solar heating system with seasonal storage in GreeceVoulgaraki S., Papadakis G.

11:45 The living rainforest sustainable greenhousesBot G., Hansen K., Logan A., de Zwart F.

12:00 Experiences in cultivation inside the Watergy prototype of a closed greenhouse for semi-arid regionsZaragoza G., Buendía D., Meca D., Buchholz M.

ROOM B Pest management Chairperson: Y. Tuzel 9:45 Greenhouse production of vegetable crops grown with a recycled fertigation system in a

pesticide-free environmentCantliffe D. J., Shaw N. L., Jovicich E., Osborne L. S., Stoffella P. J.

10:00 Integrated production of tomato, cucumber and sweet pepper under greenhouse conditions in northern plaines of IndiaSingh Balraj, Sirohi N.P.S.

10:15 Spatio-temporal distribution of plant bioaggressors in greenhouses: towards a better knowledge of disease and pest dynamicsPoncet C., Vaglio J., Bout A., Mailleret L., Boll R.

10:30 Effect of Rhizobacteria on plant growth of different vegetablesKidoglu Funda, Gul Ayse, Ozaktan Hatice, Tuzel Yuksel

10:45 Effect of nitrogen source and concentration in recirculated solution on incidence of cucumber mortality by Pythium and Fusarium crown rotBar-Yosef B., Kritzman G., Levkovitch I., Klaering P.

Resource use effi ciency and renewable sources Chairperson: A. Gosselin11:00 Environments, energy consumption and plant growth in containerized plant production

system using local heating and nutrient-wick culture systemSon Jung Eek, Sung Bong Oh, Nguyen Huy Tai, Sung Kyu Kim, Yin Ji Lu

11:15 Carbon dioxide concentration in Mediterranean greenhouses: how much lost production?Stanghellini C., Incrocci L., Gazquez J.C., Dimauro B.

11:30 Water and fertilizers use efficiency in grafted and non grafted tomato plants on soilless cultureLykas Ch., Zambeka A., Kittas C.

11:45 Effects of solarization and biofumigation on tomato greenhouse production in the Southern coast of SicilyIapichino G., Puleo L., Vetrano F., Sciortino A.

12:00 Weed control with biodegradable mulching in vegetable productionMinuto G., Guerrini S., Versari M., Minuto A., Pisi L., Tinivella F., Pini S., Capurro M.Brunch

PLENARY 13:45 Presentation of GreenSys 200914:00 Poster sessions

See detailed program

SATURDAY OCTOBER 6, 2007MORNING

GREENHOUSE CONTROLDeveloping software to support controlled stress as a strategy to improve product quality of ornamentals in greenhouses Nørregaard Jørgensen Bo, Carl-Otto Ottosen

Radiation-integrator curve for irrigation scheduling of hydroponic tomato in central MexicoOjeda-Bustamante W., Ramírez A., López I. L., Rojano A.

Partition of the leaf CO2 exchange measurements for assessing photosynthesis, photorespiration, and dark respiration in growing plantsBalaur N., Kleiman E., Ton Y.

Early detection of water stress in tomato plant leaf with PRI measurementTakayama Kotaro, Hiroshige Nishina, Yoshiaki Sakai

Round-the-clock measurement of the leaf CO2 exchange and transpiration in greenhouse cropsTon Y, Kleiman E.

Operator safety during pesticide application in greenhouses: a survey on Italian situationCerruto E., Oggero G., Friso D., Guarella A., Raffaelli M.

PEST MANAGEMENTEvaluation of concentrated releases of parasitoids for whiteflies control on poinsettia Amoroso G., Frangi P., Piatti R.

Effect of substrate solarization on tomato soilless cultivationMoncada A., Caracciolo G., D’Anna F.

Efficiency of Neoseiulus cucumeris and Franklinothrips vespiformis for controlling the thrips on greenhouse rosesPizzol J., Nammour Doummar, Ziegler J. P., Voisin S., Olivier N., Paris B.

ENERGYA research project to optimise the energy use in ornamental plant production and distributionBisaglia C., Fedrizzi M., Menesatti P., Cutini M., Romano E., Frangi P., Minuto G., Tinivella F., Miccolis V., Candido V., Santoro G.

Decision support for optimising energy consumption in European greenhousesKörner O., Warner Doug, Tzilivakis J., Eveleens B., Heuvelink E.

Overall energy analysis of (semi) closed greenhousesde Zwart F.

Reversible climatisation of greenhouses in France using aquifer thermal energy storage : a pre-feasibility studyCourtois N., Petit V., Thiery D., Grisey A., Grasselly D.

Integrative use of solar thermic energy for greenhouse temperature regulationGrassotti A.,Cacini S., Taibi E.

RESOURCE USE EFFICIENCY AND RENEWABLE SOURCESPoinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima) cultivation in biodegradable pots: mechanical and agronomical behaviour of pots and plant traitsCandido V., Castronuovo D., Manera C., Miccolis V.

Growth of ornamental shrubs in wood fibre-based growing mediaFrangi P., Amoroso G., Ferrini F., Fini A.

Substrate reuse in tomato soilless cultivationGiuffrida F., Marfà O., Leonardi C.

G

G

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I

SATURDAY OCTOBER 6, 2007POSTER SESSIONS

The environmental impact of greenhouse vegetable crop production under Mediterranean climateMarucci A., Campiglia E. , Colla G., Pagniello B., Rouphael Y.

Comparing environmental impacts of greenhouse versus open-field tomato production in the Mediterranean regionMuñoz P., Antón A., Nuñez M., Paranjpe A., Ariño J., Castells X., Montero J. I., Rieradevall J.

Mineralization rate and CO2 release from organic greenhouse soils incubated under two different cultural conditionsPepin S., Dorais M., Ménard C.

Environmental evaluation by means of LCA regarding the ornamental nursery production in rose and sowbread greenhouse cultivationRusso G., De Lucia Zeller B.

SATURDAY OCTOBER 6, 2007POSTER SESSIONS

ROOM A Greenhouse design Chairperson: G. P. A. Bot15:00 Electronic spreadsheet tools for layout design of greenhouses

Moshe Eben-Chaime, Avital Bechar, Baron A.

15:15 Retractable roof greenhouse systems for sloped areas: comparison of two systemsBerruto R., Busato P., Debenedetti A.

15:30 Natural ventilation performance of a greenhouse for Indian climateGanguly A., Ghosh S.

AULA MAGNA Energy Chairperson: G. Zaragoza15:00 The introduction of Ventilated Latent Heat Converters (VLHC) dehumidifiers in tomatoes

and pot plant greenhouses Assaf G., Kapiluto Y., Tubiana D.

15:15 Energy consumption for different greenhouse constructions Djevic M., Dimitrijevic A.

15:30 Solar thermal collectors for greenhouse heatingVox G., Schettini E., Lisi Cervone A., Anifantis A.

ROOM B Education and training Chairperson: J. Meneses15:00 Globalizing higher education through ICT – chance & challenge

Tietze J., Schmidt U.

15:15 An on-line knowledge center for water and nutrient management for the nursery and greenhouse industry Lea-Cox J. D., Zhao C.,. Ross D. S., Bilderback T. E, Harris J. R., Hong C., Yeager T. H., Bauerle W. L., Day S. D., Ristvey A. G., Beeson R. C. Jr., J. Ruter.

15:30 ‘Virtual’ greenhouse for technology and science education, K-12Wicks A., Jerzy N. A.

PLENARY16:00 Closure Ceremony Chairperson: G. Barbieri

SATURDAY OCTOBER 6, 2007AFTERNOON

INVITED SPEAKERS

DR. GENE A. GIACOMELLI

Department of Agricultural and Biosystems EngineeringThe University of Arizona CEAC 1951 East Roger Road - Tucson, Arizona 85721-0038giacomel@ag.arizona.edu - webpage:http://ag.arizona.edu/ceac

Doctor Gene A. Giacomelli is the Director of the Controlled Environment Agriculture Center [CEAC] at the University of Arizona in Tucson, Arizona, and he is a professor in the Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering Department.Dr. Giacomelli has B.S [Rutgers University] and M.S. [University of California-Davis] with degrees in engineering, and a PhD in Horticultural Engineering [Rutgers University], with advanced study in plant science and controlled environment production horticulture. This mix of technical expertise with crop production experience, provides an application of engineering design to the horticultural production problems within intensive controlled environment plant production systems. He developed the Horticultural Engineering degree program at Rutgers University, the fi rst of its kind in the US. Dr. Giacomelli has designed, constructed, instrumented and operated various types of environmentally controlled greenhouses utilizing hydroponic-based crop production systems, including NFT, Ebb and Flood and aeroponic systems for greenhouse lettuce, tomato, strawberry, and numerous other crops. His professional activities have focused on Controlled environment plant production systems [greenhouse and growth chamber] research, design, development and applications, with emphases on: crop production systems, nutrient delivery systems, environmental control, mechanization, and labor productivity. He has developed and taught a 1-day greenhouse hydroponic crop production short course for 10 years, and has taught a greenhouse environmental control short course for nearly 25 years.Dr. Giacomelli has lectured and studied in numerous countries around the world, including Canada, Chile, England, France, Germany, Israel, Italy, Japan, Mexico, New Zealand, the Netherlands, Spain and Taiwan. He has chaired or organized international symposia or workshops in the U.S., Japan, Taiwan and the Netherlands. He is an active member of numerous scientifi c and professional societies, serving as an offi cer and on technical committees for the American Society for Horticultural Science (ASHS), International Society for Horticultural Science (ISHS), American Society for Plasticulture (ASP), and American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers (ASABE). He is the co-developer of two patented devices. He is currently developing a Controlled Environment Agriculture program at the University of Arizona, Tucson, which includes: educating undergraduates and graduate students in engineering, Plant Sciences and Ag. Education; researching controlled environment plant production systems; outreach through cooperative extension to the citizens of Arizona; and collaborating with programs for economic development.

INVITED SPEAKERS

INNOVATION IN GREENHOUSE ENGINEERINGGene Giacomelli1, Nicholas Castilla2, Eldert van Henten3, David R. Mears4, Sadanori

Sase5

1Gene A. Giacomelli, Controlled Environment Agriculture Center, University of Arizona, Arizona, USA giacomel@ag.arizona.edu2Nicholas Castilla, CIFA-IFAPA. Granada. Spain ncastill@arrakis.es3Eldert van Henten, Farm Technology Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands eldert.vanhenten@wur.nl4David R. Mears, Bioresource Engineering, Rutgers University, New Jersey, USA mears@aesop.rutgers.edu5Sadanori Sase, Controlled Environment Agriculture Team, National Institute for Rural Engineering, Ibaraki, Japan sase@aff rc.go.jp

KeywordsMulti-disciplinary design, sustainable design, strategic planning, operational

planning, controlled environment plant production systems

AbstractInnovations in greenhouse engineering are developments which help evolve the state-of-the-art in CEA (Controlled Environment Agriculture). They occur in response to the operational demands on the system, and to strategic changes in expectations of the production system. Infl uential operational factors include availability of labor, cost for energy, logistics of transport, etc. These are local, day-to-day concerns that have a direct infl uence on production system operations. Infl uential strategic factors result from broader, regional issues such as environmental impact, product safety and consistency, and consumer demand. These are more industry-wide concerns that have the eff ect of changing the production system in the long term. Global issues are becoming more infl uential on greenhouse production sustainability, and include less tangible issues such as social acceptance, political stability, quality of life benefi ts, and environmental stewardship. These off er much more complex challenges and are generally beyond the realm of engineering. However global issues do aff ect greenhouse engineering innovation. The most eff ective innovations in greenhouse engineering design, operations and management, will incorporate input from partnerships with the academic, private and public sectors of society. Furthermore, successful applications include, at least to some degree a multi-disciplinary approach of the sciences, engineering and economics, while for ultimate success and sustainability, societal and political support must also be attained. For this overview of innovation

INVITED SPEAKERS

in greenhouse engineering we have attempted to organize a list of infl uential factors, or “driving forces” aff ecting the development, application, evolution and acceptance of greenhouse systems within the local facility and the global society. The factors will be defi ned, example technologies will be described, and developments of application will be put into perspective. The factors are similar around the world for all greenhouse systems, as they include the plant biology of the crop, the physical components of the structure and production system hardware, the management and logistics of labor and materials, and the mechanism of marketing the crop. Each greenhouse system, wherever located, must resolve similar problems for its specifi c application. The magnitude of the factors and their relative local importance are diff erent for the specifi c sites. The design response will be introduced and related to the factors, as examples of innovation. Our goal is to review greenhouse innovations, which may range from the simplistic to highly complex. We will off er some examples of innovation of today that was a response to the infl uential factors of past. It will not be all-inclusive, but it is with great expectations that we off er our insights, and help to support the purpose of this symposium.

INVITED SPEAKERS

DR. EP HEUVELINK

Wageningen UniversityDepartment of Plant Sciences, Horticultural Production Chains Marijkeweg 22, 6709 PG Wageningen, The Netherlands ep.heuvelink@wur.nl - http://www.hpc.wur.nl/uk/

Dr. Ep Heuvelink is an associate professor at Horticultural Production Chains, Wageningen University in the Netherlands. His fi eld of expertise is ecophysiology and simulation models (process-based models and virtual plant models). Research focuses on the interactions between greenhouse climate conditions and growth, development, yield and external quality of greenhouse crops (chrysanthemum, kalanchoe, roses, sweet pepper and tomato). Sustainability in greenhouse horticulture (energy saving, closed systems) is an important research theme. He teaches in courses on Crop Ecology and Greenhouse Technology and supervises MSc and PhD students. Short intensive courses on greenhouse horticulture and/or crop modelling have been taught in many countries. He is a (co)author of over 40 papers in international refereed journals and associate editor of Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology. He is chairman of the ISHS working group for Modelling Plant Growth, Environmental Control and Greenhouse Environment, workpackage leader in EU-Greenergy and Guest Professor of Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, P.R. China.

INVITED SPEAKERS

INVITED SPEAKERS

INNOVATION IN CROP MANAGEMENT AND PLANT-GREENHOUSE INTERACTIONS Ep Heuvelink1, Maria M. Gonzalez-Real2

1Wageningen University, Horticultural Production Chains, Marijkeweg 22, 6709 PG Wageningen, The Netherlands ep.heuvelink@wur.nl 2Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería Agronómica, Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena, Paseo Alfonso XIII, 30203, Cartagena, Spain mayla.gonreal@upct.es

KeywordsAssimilation light, (semi-)closed greenhouse, source-sink equilibrium,

photoselective fi lms, leaf removal

Abstract In greenhouse horticulture there is a constant need for production improvements, both in yield and quality, and for reduced production costs per unit of produce (e.g. kg or stem). Furthermore, the high fossil fuel energy input in north-European greenhouses has to be reduced, both for environmental and economic reasons. In this paper we present and discuss several recent developments in these fi elds, although the topic is too broad to give a complete overview. There is presently a tendency towards (semi)-closed greenhouses, which allow for better control of climate conditions compared to conventional greenhouses. To make the high investments for such greenhouses economically feasible, substantial yield increases are necessary. This can be achieved by maintaining high CO2 concentration through minimizing ventilation requirements during the warm season. Under these new conditions (high CO2 at high light levels), other genotypes than the present cultivars may be superior. However, the possible eff ect of breeding especially for these new conditions is still little investigated. Cultivars that respond favourably to high CO2 in summer and preferable have a broad temperature optimum are needed for optimal production in (semi-) closed greenhouses. In north-Europe supplementary assimilation light in greenhouse horticulture is increasingly used to improve yield and product quality. To meet market demands for year-round production and to obtain a more regular labour demand throughout the year. Optimal use of assimilation light involves adaptations in the crop management, e.g. often a higher planting density, CO2 level and temperature. In particular, it is important to maintain a good balance between demand and supply of assimilates (sink:source balance). Using inter-lighting instead of lights only on top of the crop, and Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs), could increase substantially light and energy effi ciency. LEDs off er better possibilities for inter-lighting (no radiation heat),

INVITED SPEAKERS

have a long life time, are available in many colours (make use of spectral diff erences) and give less problems with light emission (pollution). As soon as LEDs will reach a high enough effi ciency and feasible price, they will replace high pressure sodium lamps in greenhouse horticulture. Another important issue still to be cleared is the choice of the greenhouse cover, usually glass or standard PE, which should be optimised from the crop point of view. A cover with high transmission of light, but low transmission of NIR, results in a better climate during the warm season (reduced temperatures, less crop transpiration, higher CO2-concentration possible because of reduced ventilation demand). Increasing the diff usive power of the cover material could result in a better distribution of the radiation over the crop canopy, therefore leading to substantial increase in absorbed radiation (up to 20% for highly diff usive covers) and improving radiation use effi ciency. In conclusion, there are a lot of possibilities, already applied occasionally or available in the near future, to further improve yield and quality of greenhouse produce, and meanwhile reduce the input of fossil fuel energy.

DR. J.C. (SJAAK) BAKKERINVITED SPEAKERS

Wageningen UR Greenhouse Horticulture Violierenweg 1 2665 ZG Bleiswijk - The Netherlandssjaak.bakker@wur.nl - www.glastuinbouw.wur.nl/uk/

Sjaak Bakker received his M.S. Horticulture at the University of Wageningen in 1982 with degrees in greenhouse engineering and systems technology and control. He started his career as researcher with the Glasshouse Crops Research Station in Naaldwijk with focus on energy saving environmental control and crop production and quality in energy conservative horticultural production systems. In 1991 he received a PhD (with honours) in Greenhouse Horticulture for his thesis: Analysis of humidity eff ects on growth and production of greenhouse vegetable crops. In 1994 he became head of the climate technology department of the IMAG (Institute of Agricultural Engineering). From 1999 until 2002 he was manager of the Research & Development department of Priva Hortimation, a leading company in greenhouse environmental control. In 2002 he returned to Wageningen to the Science Group Agrotechnology and Food Science as head of the Greenhouse Technolgy Group where he was responsible for a wide range of research projects and programmes with a focus on energy and greenhouse environment, material development and greenhouse constructions, control technology and mechatronics/ robotics. Since 2006 he is manager of the new formed Business Unit Wageningen UR Greenhouse Horticulture. Within this new unit, the Greenhouse Technolgy Group, the former PPO Greenhouse Horticulture and the cropping systems department of Plant Research International are brought together in one new Business Unit with research facilities in both Wageningen and Bleiswijk.He has published almost 175 reports and papers in national and international journals and gave numerous lectures in the Netherlands, Europe, USA, Canada, Japan and China on designing and developing energy conservative greenhouses and greenhouse environment - crop response interactions. In 1995 he was the fi nal editor of the book: “Greenhouse climate control, an integrated approach”. As member of ISHS he has contributed in organizing- and scientifi c committees and editorial boards of several symposia and workshops on e.g. sustainable greenhouse systems, greenhouse cooling, modelling and sensor technology.Recently he has been leading a wide range of projects related to closed- and “energy producing” greenhouse concepts and application of energy saving technology in commercial horticulture and become a member of the Dutch Energy Transition Group for Greenhouse Horticulture. Currently he is involved in the development of a new demonstration centre for energy conservative and energy producing greenhouses which will be located next to the new greenhouse research facilities in Bleiswijk.

INVITED SPEAKERS

INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGIES FOR AN EFFICIENT USE OF ENERGYJ.C. Bakker1, S. R. Adams2, T. Boulard3, J.I. Montero4

1Wageningen UR, Greenhouse Horticulture, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands sjaak.bakker@wur.nl 2Warwick HRI, University of Warwick, Wellesbourne, Warwick CV35 9EF, United Kingdom3INRA-URIH, 400 Route des Chappes, BP 167, 06 903 Sophia Antipolis Cedex, France4IRTA, Centre de Cabrils, Ctra. Cabrils s/n 08348 Barcelona, Spain

KeywordsGreenhouse, energy consumption, energy effi ciency, innovative technologies

AbstractEffi cient use of energy in greenhouses has been subject of research and development for decades. The fi nal energy effi ciency, e.g. the amount of energy used per unit of product is the overall result of improvement of energy conversion, reduction of energy use for the environmental control and the effi ciency of crop production. The new European targets on reduction of CO2 emission have resulted in a renewed interest in innovative technologies to improve the energy effi ciency in greenhouses designed for North- as well as South European regions. In this paper an overview of the recent developments is presented from both the Northwest European as well as the Mediterranean perception. The developments range from new modifi ed covering materials, innovative and energy conservative climate control equipment and plant response based control systems, to integrated energy effi cient greenhouse designs.

DAY 1 - THURSDAY OCTOBER 4, 2007

36

DAY 1 DAY 2 DAY 3

ROOM A

CROP SYSTEM

MOISTURE PREDICTION OF GROWING MEDIA AND IRRIGATION CONTROL IN CLOSED SEEDLING PRODUCTION SYSTEMS UNDER ARTIFICIAL LIGHTJung Eek Son, Sung Bong Oh, Nguyen Huy Tai, Hyun Jun Park, Yong Kyo Jung

Department of Plant Science, Seoul National University, Gwanak-gu, Silim-dong, Seoul 151-921, Korea sjeenv@snu.ac.kr

KeywordsGrowing media, moisture prediction, seedling production, irrigation control,

artifi cial light

Abstract Since moisture content of growing medium sensitively aff ects the growth of seedling, adequate moisture prediction and control is necessary. The objectives of the research were to predict the moisture content of growing media and to control irrigation frequency in closed seedling production systems under artifi cial lights Moisture contents of growing media were measured at diff erent leaf areas of pak-choi, water melon, and gourd just before and after 10-min irrigation and every 2 h afterwards. To measure the evapotranspiration from growing media and leaves, artifi cial leaves having the same size as real leaves were used. The plants were grown under 20oC, 250 μmol·m-2·s-1 PPF and 12h/12h (photoperiod). Prediction models consisting of leaf area and irrigation amount were developed. Water loss caused by evapotranspiration was expressed as leaf area and current moisture content of the media. Three parameters, including characteristics of the media, were statistically obtained. Through simulation using models, moisture contents was predicted and controlled. As results, change patterns of moisture contents were proved to be aff ected by blending rate of media. In case of gourd (leaf area = 10 cm2) grown in a 2:1:1 mixture of coir, perlite and vermiculite, the moisture content reached about 60% within 10 min after irrigation and decreased to 48% in a day. About 80% of the moisture content decreased during light period. Near-sigmoid patterns were repeated everyday.

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RECURSIVE PARAMETER ESTIMATION AS A MONITORING SYSTEM FOR WATER SHORTAGEJ. Dekock1, J.-M. Aerts1, K. Vermeulen2, K. Steppe2, P. Bleyaert3, J. Westra4, R. Lemeur2,

D. Berckmans1

1M3-BIORES, Department of Biosystems, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 30, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium publications@kuleuven.be 2Laboratory of Plant Ecology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Gent, Belgium 3Provincial Research and Advisory Centre for Agriculture and Horticulture (POVLT), Ieperseweg 87, 8800 Roeselare, Belgium4Priva b.v., Zijlweg 3, 2678 ZG De Lier, the Netherlands

KeywordsLycopersicon Esculentum Mill., phytomonitor, recursive parameter estimation, leaf

temperature

Abstract To realize more advanced climate and nutrition systems in Northern Latitudes greenhouse production systems, there is a need for additional monitoring of plant health status. Therefore additional sensors that measure plant characteristics such as leaf temperature and water uptake, become familiar in nowadays greenhouse production systems. The aim of this research was to detect water shortage stress by means of a leaf temperature measurement in combination with registered climate variables such as indoor temperature and relative humidity and to explore the advantage of dynamic mathematical models as a basis for an early warning system. Tomato plants (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. syn. Solanum esculentum L.) were cultivated inside a commercial greenhouse. Leaf temperature and water uptake in combination with the climate variables were continuously (each 20s) registered. Water shortage was initiated by suspending the irrigation for a limited time. Water uptake as an indication of water status was monitored by means a mass balance technique. The on-line recursive model of the leaf temperature as function of the indoor climate (R2 > 0.95) was used as a basis of an early warning system. It was shown that the parameters of that leaf temperature model can be used as an indication of water shortage. Leaf temperature measurement in combination with simple modeling algorithms shows to be a promising management support technique in high tech equipped greenhouse for monitoring plant health status.

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SIMUL-HYDRO, A SIMPLE TOOL FOR PREDICTING THE WATER USE AND WATER EFFICIENCY IN TOMATO SOILLESS CLOSED-LOOP CULTIVATIONSLuca Incrocci1, Daniele Massa1, Giulia Carmassi1, Rita Maggini1, Carlo Bibbiani2,

Alberto Pardossi1

1 Dipartimento di Biologia delle Piante Agrarie, University of Pisa, Viale delle Piagge 23, 56124 Pisa, Italy incrocci@agr.unipi.it 2Dipartimento di Produzioni Animali, University of Pisa, Viale delle Piagge, 56100 Pisa, Italy

KeywordsRun-off , tomato, soilless culture, water quality, plant uptake model

Abstract The paper reports the description of a simple spreadsheet able to calculate the water use, the run-off and some nutrient and water effi ciencies of tomato closed-loop soilless cultures according to the irrigation water quality used and its total evapotranspiration volume. Using some inputs such as total volume of recirculating nutrient solution (both the mixing tank and the solution retained by the substrate), the ion concentration of the water used to refi ll the culture evapotranspiration and the total evapotranspiration, the spreadsheet is able to calculate the total water use, the water and nutrient run-off of the culture. The spreadsheet is based on an aggregate model developed by Carmassi (2005) and basically consists of a combination of three simple sub-models: a) a nutrient ion uptake model, independent to the nutrient external concentration of each nutrient (N, P, K, Ca, Mg); b) a non–essential uptake model, with uptake directly correlated to the external ion concentration (for Na and Cl); c) a relationship between the total cations (or anions) concentration and the EC of the recirculating nutrient solution (formula proposed by Sonneveld et al., 1999). The paper also reports a simulation study, conducted using SIMUL-HYDRO, in order to investigate how the hydroponic system and the water quality may infl uence the water and nutrient effi ciency of a tomato soilless culture. Finally, here is also discussed how much the water and nutrient effi ciency of a tomato soilless culture could be infl uenced by some diff erent types of nutrient replenishment procedures and strategies.

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IRRIGATION CONTROL FOR GREENHOUSE TOMATO PLANTS GROWN IN ORGANIC SOILLESS SUBSTRATES USING FREQUENCY DOMAIN REFLECTOMETRY Mi-Young Roh1, Nam-Jun Kang1, Sung-Chan Lee1, Tae-Cheol Seo1, Young-Hah Choi1

1Protected Horticulture Experiment Station, National Horticultural Research Institute, RDA, Busan 618-800, Korea rohmy17@rda.go.kr

KeywordsSubstrate water content, coconut coir, expanded rice hull, container

Abstract The objective of this research was to investigate an irrigation control method using frequency domain refl ectometry (FDR) in organic substrate culture. Greenhouse tomato seedlings were planted in 16-liter containers fi lled with coconut coir or expanded rice hull. One tomato seedling was placed in each container. To monitor the horizontal distribution of the nutrient solution after an irrigation event, water contents in many locations in both organic media were measured using portable FDR probe. Irrigated nutrient solution spread more evenly through coconut coir than expanded rice hull. For continuous real-time measurement of substrate water content, FDR probes were inserted vertically into the organic substrate of each container at 2, 5 and 10 cm from a 2 L h-1 drip emitter. There were great fl uctuations in volumetric water content at the distance of 2 cm from a drip emitter. Those ranged approximately from 65% to 80% and from 40% to 90% in coconut coir and expanded rice hull, respectively. Water content continued to rise during irrigation due to the continued movement of nutrient solution from the dripper location to the probe, and then decreased rapidly due to vertical and radial redistribution. To fi nd out the water retention characteristics of both organic soilless substrates, it was necessary to obtain their moisture release curve of water content vs. water potential. At a substrate water potential of –5 kPa, volumetric water contents of coconut coir and expanded rice hull were 48.5% and 12.0%, respectively. Therefore, nutrient solution was automatically applied, whenever water contents reached below 40%, 45% and 50% in coconut coir, and 12%, 14% and 16% in expanded rice hull. Growth and yield of tomato were greatest at 45%- and 16%-irrigation treatment in coconut coir and expanded rice hull, respectively.

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PATTERN OF NITROGEN STABLE ISOTOPE RATIO IN SWEET PEPPER PLANTS AFFECTED BY THE CULTIVATION METHODFrancisco M. del Amor1, G. Ortuño1, Pablo Navarro1, Joaquín Navarro1, José M.

Cámara2, Pedro M. Aparicio3

1Instituto Murciano de Investigación y Desarrollo Agrario y Alimentario, C/Mayor s/n, 30150 Murcia, Spain franciscom.delamor@carm.es2Universidad Miguel Hernández. EPSO. Ctra Beniel, km 3,2 s/n Orihuela, Spain3Universidad Pública de Navarra. 31006 Pamplona, Spain pmapariciotejo@unavarra.es

KeywordsOrganic farming, conventional farming, certifi cation, Capsicum annuum L.,

15N/14N

Abstract Food and environmental safety are often cited reasons for the use of organic products, but increasingly, economic considerations are becoming important for farmers with a rise of demand for those organically produced foods. A premium of 12-60% is often obtained compared with conventional products. However the use of organic soil amendments could result in a signifi cant decrease in yields if adequate organic manure management is not applied. Organic soil amendments show diff erent composition that can often vary year to year. Thus, in this method of crop production, it is diffi cult to determine the N available to the crop during its cycle, which also depends on the eff ects of temperature and moisture supply on the N-cycle processes. Due to this fact, and to overcome these problems while maintaining high yields, farmers could use synthetic fertilizers to avoid suff ering lost revenue. In this way, a tool to detect this fraud could be useful for certifi cation policies. The desire to assess the contamination by chemical N-fertilizers in organic crops has prompted research eff orts relying on diff erences in natural abundance 15N levels of chemical fertilizers and NO3 mineralised by diff erent types of manures. Thus, this technique is based on the hypothesis that there is a consistent and measurable diff erence in the natural 15N concentration (δ15N) of NO3- derived from commercial fertilizers or organic manures.The objective of the research was to investigate the use of isotopic discrimination 15N/14N in sweet pepper plants. Thus, three common types of organic manures (sheep, hen or horse) with or without synthetic fertilizers amendments were studied in a controlled-environment greenhouse. Half of the plants only received water thorough

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the crop cycle whilst the other received chemical fertilizers as used in conventional cultivation. Thus, six treatments were studied corresponding to three manure types and two fertilization regimes (only water or with addition of chemical fertilizers). Each treatment had 4 rows with 78 plants each. Results indicate that use of synthetic fertilizers signifi cantly reduced 15/14N2vsN2atm compared to those treatments that only received water. With respect to the plant organs, old leaves and fruits were more sensitive to the fertilizer additions with reductions in 15/14N2vsN2atm of 24.1 and 27.8% respectively. The use of N stable isotopes ratio was a useful technique to detect non-organic practices in sweet pepper cultivation.

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GREENHOUSE SYSTEM INTEGRATION AND DESIGN

THE COMBINED EFFECT OF COVER DESIGN PARAMETERS ON PRODUCTION OF A PASSIVE GREENHOUSEBram Vanthoor1-2*, Cecilia Stanghellini1, Juan Carlos Gázquez Garrido3,

Eldert van Henten1-2

1Wageningen-UR Greenhouse Horticulture, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands2Farm Technology Group, Wageningen-UR, P.O. Box 17, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands3Estación Experimental de la Fundación Cajamar, Autovía del Mediterráneo km. 416.9, 04710 El Ejido (Almería) Spain*bram.vanthoor@wur.nl

KeywordsGreenhouse design, ventilation, spectral properties, cover material, sensitivity

analysis, tomato yield

AbstractThe objective of this paper is to demonstrate the need of a multiple design parameter approach to greenhouse design. To illustrate this need, we determined the combined eff ect of cover design parameters on production of a passive greenhouse. This is a greenhouse with only natural ventilation and seasonal whitewash for climate management. The cover design parameters investigated in this research were the transmission of the cover for photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and near infrared (NIR) radiation, the emission coeffi cient for long wave radiation of the cover and the ventilation area.First we developed a model to link the tomato production to the cover design parameters, through their eff ect on greenhouse climate. The inputs of the model were management of the ventilation windows and the whitewash, climate data and the cover design parameters. The outputs of the model were the greenhouse climate and the tomato production. The model was validated by comparing the simulated greenhouse climate and production with data obtained from fi eld studies conducted in Almería, Spain. Thereafter, the sensitivity of the production to the cover design parameters was analysed for three greenhouse confi gurations. The sensitivity analysis gave insight into the eff ect of the cover design parameters on production. Results show that the sensitivity of the production to a single design parameter depends on the absolute values of the other ones. For example, the production in a greenhouse

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with a high ventilation capacity is most sensitive to PAR transmission (0.45% more production for each 1% increase of PAR transmission) while in a greenhouse with a low ventilation capacity the crop yield is most sensitive to the ventilation area (0.63%) and NIR transmission (-0.56%). In addition, the sensitivity of the production to the design parameters also depends on time due to changing outdoor climate conditions. In conclusion, these results imply that indeed greenhouse designs can further be improved by changing the most sensitive design parameters which depend on the absolute values of the other design parameters and on the outdoor climate conditions.

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GREENHOUSE SYSTEM INTEGRATION AND DESIGN

EFFECT OF VENT CONFIGURATION AND WIND SPEED ON THREE DIMENSIONAL TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTIONS IN A NATURALLY VENTILATED MULTI-SPAN GREENHOUSE BY WIND TUNNEL EXPERIMENTSMurat Kacira1, Sadanori Sase2, Atsuo Ikeguchi2, Masahisa Ishii2, Gene Giacomelli3,

Nadia Sabeh3

1Department of Agricultural Machinery, Faculty of Agriculture, Harran University, Sanliurfa, Turkey murat_kacira@yahoo.com2Controlled Environmental Agriculture Team, Department of Agricultural Environmental Engineering, National Institute for Rural Engineering, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan sase@aff rc.go.jp3Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering, Controlled Environment Agriculture Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA giacomel@ag.arizona.edu

KeywordsGreenhouse, natural ventilation, temperature distribution, wind tunnel

Abstract This study was conducted to determine the eff ect of vent confi gurations and external wind speed on three dimensional distributions of greenhouse air temperature in a naturally ventilated multi-span greenhouse using wind tunnel experiments. In the experiments, a 0.16 ha naturally ventilated gothic type greenhouse equipped with continuous roof and side vents were modelled at 1:16 scale. Similarity conditions were applied using Archimedes and Nusselt numbers. The experiments were conducted with the scale models in a wind tunnel with four diff erent wind confi gurations at four external wind speeds from 0 to 3 m s-1 at full scale with 1 m s-1 increments. The air temperatures were measured by copper constantan thermocouples placed at 56 locations. The measurements were made at four diff erent heights at the center plane of the greenhouse and the rest were made at a single height of 2.4 m. Five commercial heating sheets, silicon rubber heaters were used to provide fl oor heating to simulate the sensible heat transfer that results from the absorption of solar energy by the soil. Each sheet was 0.4 (W) X 2.4 (L) m and had a maximum heat output of 3,6 kW. The fl oor temperature was kept constant by a temperature controller for each case with an assumption of steady state conditions. The readings of the thermocouples were

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scanned every second, averaged every minute and stored in a data logger. Three dimensional temperature distributions were analyzed and the airfl ow patterns were determined based on temperature distributions. The highest air temperatures were found to be in spans close to the leeward side vent when the side vents were closed at zero wind speeds in the case when the roof vents were fully open and side vents were closed. However, the higher temperature zone was shifted towards the middle section of the greenhouse when the wind speed was increased for the same case. This was due to the re-circulating airfl ow patterns observed in the greenhouse. The air temperatures, measured by thermocouples were higher on the windward side of the greenhouse than on the leeward side for all wind speeds when only roof vents were used. This might have been due to re-circulating airfl ow occurred in the greenhouse as well. The distributions of air temperatures were more uniform when both side and roof vents were used. As the wind speeds increased, the average internal air temperatures decreased for all cases. Contribution of side vents for greenhouse ventilation and reductions of air temperature were signifi cant for this particular greenhouse design.

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MODELING OF GREENHOUSE CLIMATE USING EVOLUTIONARY ALGORITHMSLópez-Cruz I. L., Ramírez-Arias A., Rojano-Aguilar A., Ruiz-García A.

Postgrado en Ingeniería Agrícola y Uso Integral del Agua; Universidad Autónoma Chapingo; Chapingo, México ilopez@correo.chapingo.mx

KeywordsGreenhouse climate, diff erential evolution, model calibration

Abstract Greenhouse industry in México has been growing at high annual rates for the last fi ve years. However, more than 60% of Mexican greenhouses have medium and low level technological conditions. The majority of Mexican greenhouses are characterized by the use of a single or double layer of plastic cover for the roofs, natural ventilation, burning gas heating systems, or no heating systems, small cooling systems, either soil or volcanic sand (tezontle) as substrates with drip irrigation systems with manual or automatic control, and also “high and medium tech” cultivation system. Under these operation conditions the estimated yield, for a tomato crop is between 10 and 50 kg m-2 year-1. In order to improve the productivity of Mexican greenhouses, knowledge on the indoor environmental conditions is required. The central region of Mexico is characterized by temperate weather and growers use to produce mainly tomatoes and fl owers in their greenhouses. The aim of the current research is to generate fi rst-principles mathematical models to account for the behavior of air temperature, humidity, and soil temperature under several greenhouses conditions in the central region of Mexico, and also the use of Diff erential Evolution Algorithms (DEAs) to estimate model’s parameters. The model structure contains three state variables: air temperature, air humidity, and upper-layer soil temperature. The equations are derived from energy and mass balances. Once the model structure is defi ned, a local sensitivity analysis is carried out in order to determine the eff ect of model’s parameters on the state variables. The most sensitive parameters are used to calibrate the model. Nevertheless, a weighted norm is defi ned as the criteria to be minimized in order to improve model’s predictions. As a result, the performance of DEAs is compared with that of classical local methods such as Non-linear Least Squares and Sequential Quadratic Programming (SQP). Moreover, to calibrate and validate the model, the climate inside two greenhouses is monitored. The studied greenhouses are located at the University of Chapingo, in Chapingo,

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México. Furthermore, two HOBO Weather Station data loggers are used to record the meteorological data inside and outside the greenhouses, where variables measured outside are: wind speed (ms-1) air temperature (°C), relative humidity (%) and global solar radiation (Wm-2). Variables measured inside the greenhouse were air temperature (°C), relative humidity (%) and soil temperature (°C) within 0-5 cm of the upper layer. Additionally, the sampling time for all variables is one minute, where convergence diffi culties are observed by using local search algorithms during the calibration of the model. Good agreement between predicted and measured state variables has been observed by using DEAs. Finally, these results show that the model structure proposed to study the behavior of Mexican greenhouse climate, is taking into account the most important physical processes than occurs inside greenhouses of central Mexico, and these models could be used to improve greenhouse management.

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MEASUREMENT AND SIMULATION OF THE MICROCLIMATE INSIDE AZRUM TYPE GREENHOUSES IN A SUB-TROPICAL CLIMATE USING A DYNAMIC GREENHOUSE CLIMATE MODEL Emmanuel Mashonjowa1, Jan Pieters2, Frederik Ronsse2, Raoul Lemeur3

1University of Zimbabwe, Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, P.O. Box MP167, Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe emash@science.uz.ac.zw 2Ghent University, Department of Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Gent, Belgium jan.pieters@ugent.be frederik.ronsse@ugent.be 3Ghent University, Laboratory of Plant Ecology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Gent, Belgium raoul.lemeur@ugent.be

KeywordsGreenhouse climate model, microclimate, ventilation rate, transpiration, stomatal

resistance

AbstractA dynamic greenhouse climate model; the Gembloux Dynamic Greenhouse Climate Model (GDGCM), previously validated for a tomato crop in European greenhouses; was adapted to simulate the microclimate of a rose crop in a Zimbabwean greenhouse in relation to the outside environment. Modifi cations to the original model, including calculations of the ventilation fl ux and stomatal resistance of vegetation, were introduced, based on experimental measurements and calculations. The modelling of transpiration was improved by considering the climatic dependence of the crop stomatal resistance. The ventilation rate in a 1250 m2 plastic greenhouse, equipped with roof and side vents and ventilation fans, was measured using the water balance method, based on the greenhouse water vapour balance from measurements of inside and outside air humidity and rose transpiration rates. Experimental microclimate parameters were used to validate the dynamic performance of the model. The Gembloux Dynamic Greenhouse Climate Model was found to adequately simulate the internal greenhouse microclimate from outside climate data and the simulated results showed good agreement with the observed values of all parameters for most parts of the day. For the period of observation, the standard deviations between the predicted and experimental greenhouse air temperature and relative humidity, canopy temperature and crop transpiration were 0.6 °C, 4.8 %, 0.8 °C and 21.5 W/m2, respectively. Sensitivity tests showed that the external wind speed and the opening

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angle of the vents were the most important factors infl uencing the ventilation fl ux, and that the infl uence of internal global solar radiation and inside leaf-air vapour pressure defi cit on crop transpiration was much more important than inside air and leaf temperatures. Further study is still necessary to make the model applicable throughout the season, but the study demonstrated that the model can be used for greenhouse climate control in sub-tropical climates.

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CHARACTERIZING COOLING EQUIPMENT FOR CLOSED GREENHOUSESFeije de Zwart, Frank Kempkes

Wageningen UR Greenhouse Horticulture, P.O. Box 16, Bornsesteeg 65, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands feije.dezwart@wur.nl

KeywordsHeat exchange, electricity consumption, energy requirement, climate

management

AbstractThe application of air conditioning devices for cooling greenhouses in summer is becoming increasingly popular in Dutch horticulture. Cooling reduces the ventilation requirement increasing thereby the benefi ts of carbon dioxide fertilisation. The combination of a high radiation level, high CO2-levels and a limited ambient temperature is very favourable for vegetable production, Increments in production levels to even 20% are possible. There is also a quality aspect to be considered: a better control of day- and nighttime temperature can help to steer the morphological development of ornamentals and it is known that the quality of strawberry is boosted when the night-time temperature is kept around 12 °C. However, in commercial greenhouse industry, all these benefi ts must more than balance the costs associated with the cooling equipment. An informed decision about the most apt equipment must rely on the computation of these costs, which is not a trivial issue. This because there are a lot of variables that determine the performance of an air conditioning unit in terms of the use of resources (e.g. cold water and electricity) in relation to the resulting cooling power. For instance, it is not diffi cult to double the cooling capacity of an air conditioning unit at the same resource requirement: in many cases, an increment of greenhouse air humidity and a small increment of the tolerated air temperature would do the job. Since the specifi cations of air conditioning units are commonly available for only a small number of benchmark points, usually based on quite diff erent applications from greenhouse horticulture, Wageningen UR has developed a software tool that translates arbitrary benchmark points to performance characteristics in a specifi ed horticultural context. The tool relies on a mechanistic simulation model, based on solving heat and mass balances in a counter- or cross fl ow heat exchanger. This model, and some results are presented in this paper. However, in a (semi) closed greenhouse, much more factors than the air conditioning

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devices determine the overall performance. Another paper “Overall energy analysis of (semi) closed greenhouses” deals with the infl uence of factors such as: the growth characteristics, screening policy, the characteristics of seasonal heat storage systems, the performance of chillers and heat pumps; the applicability heat surpluses on the overall costs of conditioning.

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INCORPORATION OF A MODEL TO PREDICT CROP TRANSPIRATION IN A COMMERCIAL IRRIGATION EQUIPMENT AS A CONTROL STRATEGY FOR WATER SUPPLY TO SOILLESS HORTICULTURAL CROPSEvangelina Medrano, Francisco J. Alonso, Mª Cruz Sánchez-Guerrero, Pilar Lorenzo

IFAPA Almería, Autovía del Mediterráneo, Sal. 420. 04720 La Mojonera, Almería, Spainevangelina.medrano.ext@juntadeandalucia.es

KeywordsLAI, greenhouse, water use effi ciency, radiation, vpd.

AbstractIrrigation control in protected soilless culture can be based on the use of climate parameters and crop development to predict water requirements. This estimation, generally based on the Penman-Monteith equation, could be conditioned by the availability of coeffi cient values from diff erent climatic regions and the approach to LAI evolution. In this study we propose two methods to adjust the P-M equation to the water needs of a soilless tomato crop under greenhouse conditions by means of: i) The daily drain fl ow measured with a tipping-bucket fl ow sensor and ii) the LAI prediction in function on the inside greenhouse daily thermal time. Based on these transpiration estimations resulting, the irrigation strategies were tested and compared to current irrigation practices. All irrigation strategies showed the same water use effi ciency but the method i) needed human intervention much smaller, during the 202 days of crop cycle, than the others irrigation methods. The autonomy level allows this method to be an adequate on-line instrument for horticultural irrigation practice.

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MODEL-BASED CONTROL OF CO2 CONCENTRATION IN GREENHOUSES AT AMBIENT LEVELS INCREASES CUCUMBER YIELDH-P. Kläring1*, C. Hauschild1, A. Heißner1, B. Bar-Yosef2

1Institute of Vegetable and Ornamental Crops, Theodor-Echtermeyer-Weg 1, D 14979 Grossbeeren, Germany klaring@igzev.de2Agricultural Research Organization, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel

KeywordsCO2 enrichment, CO2-supply effi ciency, Greenhouse climate control, Photosynthesis

AbstractIn the nearly airtight energy-saving greenhouses of the Northern countries, CO2 concentrations may drop to very low levels in autumn, winter and spring due to CO2 uptake by the plants, resulting in considerable yield decreases. Exhaust gas from the heating system is therefore added to the greenhouse air when natural gas is burned. In other cases, however, CO2 is quite expensive and should be applied very effi ciently. For these purposes, strategies were developed and tested to maintain the CO2 concentration inside the greenhouse at the same level as found outside. In two experiments on cucumber, CO2 was added to the greenhouse air according to the uptake by the plants, which was estimated by two simple photosynthesis models. Thus, CO2 concentration in the greenhouses was maintained at around the outside CO2 concentration of about 380 μmol mol-1, while it dropped signifi cantly in the greenhouses not supplied with CO2. The CO2 supply strategies resulted in an increase in yield of about 35 % compared to the unsupplied standard, while the CO2 input was on average 400 g per 1 kg of yield increment. The diff erences between supplied and not supplied greenhouses in CO2 concentration and photosynthesis, and thus the CO2-supply effi ciency, were maximal at moderate radiation and decreased with increasing outside air temperature due to required ventilation at high radiation and high outside air temperature.

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THE GESKAS PROJECT, CLOSED GREENHOUSE AS ENERGY SOURCE AND OPTIMAL GROWING ENVIRONMENTHans Hoes1, Kris Goen2, Lieve Wittemans3

1Flemish Institute for Technological Research, Boeretang 200, 2400 Mol, Belgium hans.hoes@vito.be2Horticulture Research Centre Hoogstraten, Voort 71, 2328 Meerle, Belgium kris.goen@proefcentrum.be 3Research Station for Vegetable Production, Duff elsesteenweg 101, 2860 Sint-Katelijne-Waver, Belgium lieve.wittemans@proefstation.be

KeywordsClosed greenhouses, tomato, energy savings, full climate control

Abstract GESKAS concerns a research project on sustainable, energy saving, integrated and innovative energy technologies in greenhouses with the goal to maximise the crop quality and quantity for each invested energy unit, obtained by closing the greenhouse. Traditionally, greenhouses are opened in order to evacuate heat or moisture. In that case, there is no control on the inside environment. By closing the greenhouse the climate can be controlled perfectly. The greenhouse temperature and moisture content can be brought to their optimal values. Further, the CO2-concentration can be raised for crop fertilisation. Closing the greenhouse implies that heat excesses need to be eliminated, this is very expensive with traditional energy technologies (compression cooling machines). By capturing and storing greenhouse heat, it can be recuperated during the heating season. For this purpose, a large scale heat storage system is necessary. Two small research greenhouses were built at the horticulture research institutes, these units were fully conditioned and operated as small closed greenhouses for tomato growing. Crop behaviour, production rates and energy needs were evaluated in comparison with two small reference open greenhouses (equipped with traditional technologies). An intensive monitoring in the units was of great value for the dynamic analysis of climate, plant and energy. Two models were set up on the climate-plant and the climate-energy interaction. These models were brought together in a TRNSYS simulation environment to an overall simulation tool. This tool allowed fast evaluation and comparison of diff erent energy confi gurations in order to select the optimal energy

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55

concept. The performance of this research work in a practical research environment was nearly impossible due to the high number of interacting parameters. A model based approach was much faster and more effi cient. The integrated model allowed to evaluate the eff ect of diff erent greenhouse climate conditions, crop growing strategies and exploitation versus investment costs. This paper describes energy technology simulation activities and crop monitoring results of this project. The measurements on tomatoes show a signifi cant higher production rate between 6 to 15% in the closed greenhouse. When using innovative energy technologies, energy savings up to 20% can be achieved. The heart of the energy installation consists of heat pumps with long term underground energy storage in aquifers or boreholes.

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SOLAR ENERGY DELIVERING GREENHOUSE WITH AN INTEGRATED NIR FILTERPiet Sonneveld, Henk Jan Holterman, Gerard Bot

Wageningen UR, Glastuinbouw B.V., P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands piet.sonneveld@wur.nl

KeywordsNIR selective covering, concentrated radiation, solar energy

Abstract The scope of this investigation is the development of a new type of greenhouse with an integrated fi lter for blocking near infrared radiation (NIR) heat load to the greenhouse and exploiting this radiation in a solar energy system. A number of NIR-refl ective and visual transparent cover materials were investigated. Due to the spectral selective properties of these materials 30-45% of the solar energy will be refl ected, which will drastically reduce the need for cooling under summer conditions. For the horticultural application a material combining high PAR (photosynthetic active radiation) transmission with optimal NIR refl ection was designed in combination with a special refl ector. A cover with parabolic or circular geometry will result in maximum power level in the focal point. With a ray tracing computer program the optimal geometry of the refl ector was designed with respect to the maximum power level. The advance of the circular geometry of the mirror is the easy integration in buildings and constructions because no movements of this mirror are required. For the stand regulation only the collector has to move to track the focal area. Conversion with Thermal Photo Voltaic (TPV) cells is compared with standard Photo Voltaic (PV) cells. The properties of diff erent PV and TPV cells, Ge, GaSb, CIS and Si cells like NIR absorbance, Voc, quantum effi ciency and fi ll factor were investigated. The cells in the focal point require cooling due to the high heat load of the concentrated radiation (concentration factor of about 30). This heat can be stored at seasonal base in an aquifer for heating the greenhouse in winter. An overview of the energy yield for the diff erent cell types is given. The typical effi ciencies, availability and economic achievement of the conversion systems are compared. All parts mentioned before are integrated in the newly designed prototype greenhouse with integrated NIR-refl ective parabolic or circular shaped cover, a PV absorber in the focal point and a liquid cooling system. In the real construction the curve of the collector is measured with laser distance equipment. The proof of principle will be performed in the prototype greenhouse with an area of 100 m2.

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References

Fraas L.M., Daniels W.E., Muhs J., 2001, Infrared photovoltaics for combined solar lighting and electricity for buildings, Proc. Of 17th European PV Solar energy conference, Munich Germany, 22-26 October 2001Tripanagnostopoulos Y., Souliotis M., Tonui J.K., Kavga A., 2004, Irradiation aspects for energy balances in greenhouses. GreenSys2004 Int conf.; Acta Horticulturae 691, p733-740

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ECONOMIC GAIN FOR CUCUMBER PRODUCTION FROM GREENHOUSE COOLING Timo Kaukoranta1, Jukka Huttunen2

1MTT Agrifood Research Finland, Horticulture, Toivonlinnantie 518, 21500 Piikkiö, Finland timo.kaukoranta@mtt.fi 2Biolan Oy, P.O. Box. 2, 27501 Kauttua, Finland jukka.huttunen@dnainternet.net

KeywordsEconomy, carbon dioxide, supplemental lighting, energy effi ciency

AbstractThis study presents the economic performance of a developmental version of the cooling and drying system of greenhouse air in the production of cucumber. The system has been described earlier in Särkkä et al. 2006 (Acta Horticulturae 719: 439-445). A model of greenhouse cooling requirement, crop growth and cooling effi ciency was calibrated for a single span greenhouse under cool and variable climate conditions where the cooling season lasts 3 to 5 months. The cooling capacity is high enough to run the greenhouse without ventilation in most days allowing constantly high carbon dioxide concentration to be maintained. A typical effi ciency of the cooling system over summer months is about 10 watts of heat extracted from greenhouse air per one watt input of electrical energy. The cooling increases total yield 25-30% in June to August as compared to a convential greenhouse where temperature and humidity can be well controlled by ventilation, fogging and shading. In both greenhouses moderate amount of supplemental lighting is applied (190 W/m2 electrical power whenever global radiation is below 150 W/m2 except during a four hour period in the night). The yield of fi rst class fruits is increased even more but it can be taken into account only empirically. The eff ect of cooling on the total yield is mainly a result of higher carbon dioxide concentration in the cooled greenhouse (1000 ppm) than in the conventional greenhouse (400 ppm). If supplemental lighting is used, the cooling does not reduce the total energy effi ciency (kg fruit fresh weight per unit of energy input) of the greenhouse. In fact, if the empirical eff ect of cooling on the quality of fruits is taken into account, the cooling increases the overall energy effi ciency. Assuming that cucumber production can be managed so that signifi cantly more working hours are not required for the handling of a higher yield, the variable unit cost of production (€/ kg fruit fresh weight) is not higher in the cooled greenhouse than

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in the conventional greenhouse even without supplemental lighting. If supplemental lighting is applied, the unit cost is reduced. Taking into account the eff ect on the yield quality further reduces the unit cost. The results are not very sensitive to the price of electricity.

60

DESIGN CONSIDERATION OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY GREENHOUSE FOR TOMATO PRODUCTION IN HUMID TROPICAL REGIONBuntoon Chunnasit, Professor Jo Darkwa

Applied Energy and Environmental Engineering Group, School of Architecture, Design and Built Environment, Nottingham Trent University Burton Street, Nottingham, NG1 4BU, UK buntoon2.chunnasit@ntu.ac.uk

KeywordsGreenhouse design, energy effi ciency, humid tropical region

AbstractGreenhouses can be used to cultivate plants under controlled climatic conditions in areas or periods of the year not suitable for open cultivation. Over the years, a wide variety of greenhouse systems have been developed to provide and control the microclimate conditions with varying degrees of sophistications. For instance, designs such as Saddle, Arch, Quonset, Tunnel, Chinese lean-to and Dutch Venlo have been created with several geometrical shapes to take advantage of light transmission. In addition, covering materials have been developed to enable the combination of high insulation and fl exibility of geometry designs with greater light transmission and lower transmission of long wave radiation. With regard to operational controls simulation models have been developed for internal climatic factors such as temperature, humidity and light transmission. However these systems have resulted in increased cost in energy consumptions at operational levels for lighting and heating during the cold season and for ventilation and cooling systems during the hot season. An overview of a greenhouse design consideration for tomato production in Thailand is provided. The integration of the production system and the internal environmental condition requires an understanding of the product needs, and the climatic conditions of the region. The design includes monitoring and feed back mechanisms to minimize high air temperature, high humidity, abundant solar radiation and occasional high rainfall in order to control plant growth production. A number of past research studies in each of these areas of design considerations are also presented.

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THE PULSA GROWING SYSTEM: A HUMAN FOOD PRODUCTION UNIT FOR REMOTE AND ISOLATED ENVIRONMENTSCarlo Alberto Campiotti1, Rita Di Bonito1, Francesca Dondi1, Giuseppe Alonzo2, Luca

Incrocci3, Carlo Bibbiani4

1 Dipartimento di Biotecnologie, ENEA, Casaccia, via Anguillarese 301, 00060 Rome, Italy campiotti@casaccia.enea.it2 Dipartimento ITAF, University of Palermo Viale delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italy alonzo@unipa.it3 Dipartimento di Biologia delle Piante Agrarie, University of Pisa, Viale delle Piagge, 23, 56124 Pisa, Italy incrocci@agr.unipi.it4 Dipartimento di Produzioni Animali, University of Pisa, Viale delle Piagge, 2, 56124 Pisa, Italy carlo.bibbiani@vet.unipi.it

KeywordsAntarctica, hydroponic growing system, extreme environmental condition, grow-

chamber

Abstract In the last decade much eff ort has been addressed to develop and qualify hydroponics as sustainable technology for producing plant food in remote and isolated environments, such are Antarctica and Space. Since 1998, ENEA (Italian National Agency for New Technology, Energy and the Environment) in cooperation with the PNRA (Italian National Program for Antarctic Research) has carried on researches to develop a plant based greenhouse facility for producing plant fresh food at the Italian bases of TNB (Terra Nova Bay) and Dome C in Antarctica. The paper reports a brief overview of the main prototypes and software developed with the cooperation of the Universities of Pisa and Palermo in the last fi ve years of research activities, such as: 1) a complete automatic hydroponic system for plant cultivation in artifi cial environmental (C.H.G.S., Closed Hydroponic Greenhouse System); 2) a treating and recycling wastes unit for the purifi cation of water and for the recycling of residual biomasses obtained from the plant cultivation cycles, 3) a complete automated and remote-controlling system for the germination and the production of the plantlets ready-to-transplanting in the hydroponic cultivation system (Box-Nursery); 4) a simulator for the growth and the yield production of lettuce (SLS) in function of the temperature and the light applied to the crop. Finally, the paper describes the last prototype projected (a multilevel hydroponic growing system) with the aim to maximize the yield for growing chamber volume unit, using artifi cial and/or LED lights.

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GREENHOUSE COOLING STRATEGIES FOR MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE AREAS J.C. Gázquez, J.C. López, J.J. Pérez-Parra, E.J. Baeza, M. Saéz, A. Parra

Estación Experimental de la Fundación Cajamar, Autovía del Mediterráneo km 416,7; 04710 El Ejido (Almería) Spain jcgazquez@cajamar.es

KeywordsGreenhouse, forced ventilation, whitening, evaporative cooling and fog system

AbstractA common trend in the markets nowadays is to consume high quality fresh fruit and vegetables all year round, thus forcing to grow with these quality standards during the summer as well. Controlling the greenhouse climate during this season is a problem of increasing importance in mediterranean climate areas, such as Spanish south east. A good management of the climate control equipment (ventilation, evaporative cooling and shading), could attenuate crop physiological stress situations, thus having a positive eff ect on the fi nal yield and the product quality. During two years, diff erent cooling strategies (white washing, fogging and natural and forced ventilation) and its eff ects on the microclimate, growth and yield of a substrate grown sweet pepper crop were evaluated in three multi-tunnel experimental greenhouses. Fogging was the most effi cient method in controlling the maximum temperature and VPD values but was the least effi cient in controlling canopy temperature. Neither fogging nor forced ventilation improved the total and marketable yield in relation to white washing, despite the radiation reduction. The crop subjected to the fog system showed the highest incidence of blossom end root (B.E.R.). An economic evaluation showed that whitening was the most profi table cooling treatment. Thus, we can consider that combination of whitening of the plastic cover and natural ventilation as the most effi cient cooling system in terms of water and energy use.

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POSSIBILITY OF USING CLIMATIC COMPATIBILITY AS A CRITERION TO EVALUATE EFFICIENCY OF GREENHOUSES UNDER SEVERAL TYPES OF IRANIAN CLIMATESMansour Matloobi

Department of Horticulture, Tarbiat Modares University, Jalal Ale-Ahmad avenue, Tehran, Iran matloobi@modares.ac.ir

KeywordsGreenhouse effi ciency, climate, greenhouse selection

AbstractIn countries like Iran which are subject to diff erent kind of climates, defi ning a greenhouse for maximum effi cient return is not always a simple process. It would be even more complicated when we want to adopt a greenhouse compatible with environmental needs of a particular crop. As greenhouses diff er on their structure shape, type of covering, degree of equipping with climate control systems like heating, assimilation lighting, humidifying or dehumidifying, CO2 injector; investigating and developing a criterion to evaluate effi ciency of various type of greenhouses under diff erent climatic conditions seem very important. Describing climate-greenhouse-crop rate of compatibility by the percentage of four main environmental factors, i.e. temperature, light, humidity and CO2 concentration; could be a criterion leading us to develop a greenhouse performance model. Aiming for this, compatibility percentage for 5 Iranian cities representative of 5 main climates has been calculated by considering mutual environmental relations occurred between climate and greenhouse and between greenhouse and crop (cut roses). Calculations showed that well-equipped greenhouses with high ability in climate control are more effi cient in temperate regions than in sub-tropical areas. On the contrary, simple greenhouses appear to be more effi cient in sub-tropical areas of the country.

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DESIGNS AND SPECIFICATIONS OF COST EFFECTIVE GREEN HOUSES FOR EXTREME ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS IN SOUTH ASIANegi Ajit Kumar1, Chauhan Suresh2

1Department of Forestry, HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar Garhwal - 246174,Uttarakhand, India drajitnegi@saveer.com2Forestry and Biodiversity group, The Energy and Resources Institute, India Habitat Center, New Delhi -110003, India sureshc@teri.res.in

KeywordsSouth Asia, environment, poly houses, bamboo

AbstractSouth Asia including India is a reservoir of extreme environmental conditions, where every season achieves its peak in their respected regions. This includes cold deserts in the Himalayas, high rainfalls in the Northeast, high humidity in the Coastal and Deserts in the states of Rajasthan and Gujarat of India. Since each region has peculiarity of the climate, therefore application of the facilities would be diff erent in these regions. The present paper focuses on various designs and specifi cations of the green houses that are more suitable in these extreme environmental conditions. These green houses are cost eff ective, durable, convenient, and easy to handle. As far as the designs are concerned, in high altitudes, roof slopes are steeper than the normal greenhouses and generally of south facing. Cladding material (LDPE/ Poly Carbonate/ FRP) is in double layer for energy conservation and wall is normally made up of stones or bricks with mud plastering from out side. While in the extreme hot regions, height of the greenhouses is important that varies from 13’ (controlled green house) to 18’ (uncontrolled greenhouse) and shading over the roof to reduce the temperature is also important. Cost and quality of materials required for greenhouses varies drastically, depending upon the requirement of the user. Presently various State Governments in India are also popularizing low cost poly houses made of bamboo material on subsidy bases, which are used for the seed germination of various crops and off seasoned vegetables in the cold regions, but these poly houses do not fulfi ll all the requirements of the green houses such as longevity and durability. The present paper also focuses the issues of longevity and durability of the low cost poly houses in various extreme climatic conditions.

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MICROCLIMATE EVALUATION OF A GREENHOUSE IN NORTH-EAST ITALYPaolo Sambo1, Giorgio Gianquinto2

1Department of Environmental Agronomy and Crop Science - University of Padova, AGRIPOLIS - Via dell'Università, 16, 35020 - Legnaro (PD), Italy paolo.sambo@unipd.it2Department of Agroenvironmental Science and Technology - University of Bologna, Viale Fanin, 44, 40127 Bologna, Italy giorgio.gianquinto@unibo.it

KeywordsRadiation, soil temperature, air temperature, temperature uniformity, relative

humidity

Abstract A study has been carried out at the Experimental Farm of the University of Padova at Legnaro, Italy (45° 21' N), aimed at monitoring microclimate spatial changes inside a greenhouse in relation to the external energy inputs (outdoor temperature and solar radiation). To better understand how the geometry and the structure of the greenhouse aff ect air temperature and relative humidity, soil temperature and light distribution, measurements were carried out positioning sensors at diff erent height/depth, and distance from the walls, and maintaining the structure either completely close (winter time) or setting a specifi c temperature of 20 °C at which opening occurred (summer time). When the greenhouse was maintained completely closed (winter time) a great homogeneity of air temperature were detected both vertically and horizontally. The covering material induced a strong increase in air temperature compared with that measured outside. Moreover plastic material absorbed light reducing strongly the solar radiation available inside the structure. In “open-greenhouse” (summer time) air temperature at 2.5 meters inside the greenhouse was always about 2 °C lower than that measured at plants level. This could be probably due to the air movement through the windows. As far as global radiation inside the greenhouse is regarded, two diff erent aspects were highlighted, a quite strong shading eff ect of the greenhouse stainless structure, and a good homogeneity between the positions considered. The former was more evident around midday when sun was perpendicular to the greenhouse’ roof which shaded the inside phyranometers giving a kind of “systematic error”. Strong diff erences appeared between “closed -”or “open-greenhouse”. The

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best results in terms of air temperature homogeneity were obtained maintaining the greenhouse completely closed as usually happens in fall and winter. In summer when windows are always open a layering of air temperature occurs. Solar radiation inside the greenhouse was increased by opening windows during morning and afternoon. This aspects which could be neglected where the irradiation is very high (South Europe and/or summer) should be taken in consideration where global radiation is low and could limit crop growth. Soil temperature was not aff ected by opening the windows and strong diff erences generally appeared along soil profi le, the deeper the measurement the lower the temperature variation within the day. Relative humidity inside the greenhouse was always higher than outside.

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EVALUATION OF GREENHOUSE STRUCTURES FOR SPRING TOMATO CROP IN NORTHWESTERN PORTUGALAbreu M. J.1, Bastos C1., Vargues A. C.2

1Direcção Regional de Agricultura de Entre Douro e Minho, Estação Experimental de Hortofl oricultura,Rua da Agrária, 4485-646 Vairão, Portugal mj.abreu@sapo.pt 2Instituto Nacional de Recursos Biológicos, Estação Agronómica Nacional, Dept. de Produção Agrícola, Av. da República, Nova Oeiras, 2784-505 Oeiras, Portugal avargues@mail.telepac.pt

KeywordsGreenhouses, natural ventilation, automatic control, Integrated Pest Control,

biological control agents

Abstract In the Entre Douro e Minho region, Northwestern Portugal, greenhouses structures have evolved signifi cantly since the beginning of protected cultivation in the 1980’s, from the traditional tunnel to structures with larger heights and volume, and with some sort of environmental control. Project AGRO 846 “Demonstration and divulgation of techniques of greenhouses environmental management towards the Integrated Crop Production” has evaluated new technologies for tomato production in the region. Trials were conducted in two years (2005 and 2006) with 3 diff erent types of greenhouses: 1) plastic tunnel 2) straight wall greenhouse with 2.5 m to the gutter, and 3) straight wall greenhouse with 3.5 m to the gutter. Greenhouses were equipped with automated natural ventilation control for temperature and air relative humidity, fertirrigation system and with nets in doors and windows. Trials were conducted from March to October in grower’s greenhouses. One of the objectives was to reduce the number of pesticide applications. Although the biological control with Encarcia Formosa did not eff ectively control white fl y (Trialeurodes vaporaiorum) due to high temperatures and rapid population increase, better results were obtained with Eretmocerus eremicus.In trials conducted in the experimental station, tomato growth, fruit set and yield were evaluated. Attempts made to extend the growing season beyond October were unsuccessful due to soil born diseases (Fusarium oxysporum radicis and Pyrenochaeta lycopersici).Yields were statistically similar in the two greenhouses with larger volume (straight wall), with an average of 17.25 and 17.55 kg*m-2 and lower in the plastic tunnel (12.3 kg*m-2).

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QUADRATIC FORMS IN AGRICULTUREAbraham Rojano1, Raquel Salazar1, Uwe Schmidt2, Irineo López1

1University of Chapingo, Chapingo, Mexico 56230 abrojano@correo.chapingo.mx2Faculty of Agronomy, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany 14195

KeywordFunction, eigenvalues, symmetry, Mollier diagram

AbstractQuadratic forms are playing an important role in science and engineering, as models they are spanning from theoretical basis to numerous applications, from description to prediction, from sparse data to continuous functions, and from simple to complex geometry. Historically, Pithagorean theorem or Weierstrass forms are famous and particular examples that belong to the family of quadratic forms, however, current applications in agriculture are proposed not only in geometrical modeling but also in multi dimensional diagrams like those given by Mollier. Graphics in geometry are limited by the natural capacities of the common eye and their intrinsic tricks; however, algebra allows us to see beyond that, and to analyze more complex geometry. Quadratic forms are presented from diff erent perspectives like polynomial functions, vector, matrices and their products. Moreover, quadratic forms are an elegant way to get into the general mathematical structures to describe hipersurfaces as either open or closed fi gures that agriculture can bring into play. For instance, agriculture requires models, fi rst, to explain the plants and animals growing, the environmental variables interactions and the soil-plant relationships. Second, to describe or to predict the behaviour of independent variables is carried out. If those models belong to well known theories, thus all of their mathematical properties can also strike forward be used. Symmetry, diagonalization, positive defi niteness, homogeneity, orthogonality, eigenvalues, eigenfunctions, and eigenspaces are some of those important characteristics utilized in fi nding the existence of critical points like maximums and minimums. As a result, the aim of this article is to present applications in tomato fruit development and Mollier diagrams for environmental conditions in agriculture.

69

GREENHOUSE TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION: A GEOSTATISTICAL APPROACHCarlos Bojacá, Rodrigo Gil

Centro de Investigaciones y Asesorías Agroindustriales, Universidad de Bogotá Jorge Tadeo Lozano, P.O. Box: 140196 Chía, Colombia carlos.bojaca@utadeo.edu.co

KeywordsTemperature distribution, geostatistical analysis, kriging, microclimate

AbstractGeostatistical analysis has been used not much for the study of the climate variables under greenhouse conditions. The objective of the research was to determine the temperature variations inside diff erent types of greenhouses applying geostatistical methods. The study was conducted at the Bogota Plateau (2650 m altitude) which is the principal zone with greenhouse horticultural production in Colombia. The locally plastic greenhouse (PGH, 1100 m2), naturally ventilated through a fi xed open ridge over the complete length of the roof, and a double layer polyethylene greenhouse with automated roof ventilation (DPGH, 290 m2) were selected for the research. For PGH a horizontal grid consisting in 24 points was mounted and for DPGH a 16 sensor grid was installed across all the greenhouse area. The height of the sensor grids were 1.5 m above soil and sensors were protected from direct solar radiation with a white refl ecting shield. Two contrasting days were extracted for the period of measurements to perform the analysis. Hourly average temperatures were calculated for each position and isotropic classical semivariograms were constructed. A spherical model was selected to fi t each data set and ordinary kriging method was used to predict temperature values in not sampled positions. In PGH the calculated semivariogram for night hours showed an aleatory eff ect without any correlation between sampled points while in DPGH convergence were achieved by the proposed model. In contrast, in the day hours all data sets showed a good agreement to the spherical model. In average, for both days DPGH exhibited the lowest temperature diff erences due in part to active climate control, while inside PGH diff erences reached values over 5°C for the same measurement period. However, in DPGH temperature diff erences were higher between 14 and 17 h for the selected days. Geostatistical methods probed to be a useful tool for the study of microclimate factors inside greenhouses. Correlation analysis between temperature and other climate variables and biotic factors can be studied applying geostatical procedures in areas like greenhouses.

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DEVELOPMENT OF A NATURAL VENTILATION MODEL FOR A TALL, GUTTER-VENTED, MULTI-SPAN DOUBLE-POLYETHYLENE GREENHOUSEMd. Saidul Borhan, Xiuming Hao

Greenhouse and Processing Crops Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada,2585 County Road 20, Harrow, Ontario, Canada N0R 1G0 haox@agr.gc.ca

KeywordsNatural ventilation, wind speed, wind direction, temperature diff erence, greenhouse

climate control

Abstract The objective of the study was to develop a ventilation model for naturally ventilated double-polyethylene greenhouses to optimize greenhouse climate control such as CO2 enrichment under ventilated conditions. The ventilation and leakage rates of a one-acre commercial greenhouse (9 spans) at Leamington, Ontario, Canada were measured under various weather conditions. The commercial greenhouse was gutter-vented, double-layers, air-infl ated polyethylene (D-poly) greenhouse with a gutter height of 5.5 m. It is the dominated type of greenhouse in North America for greenhouse vegetable production. Continuous injection method with carbon dioxide (CO2) as a tracer gas was used to determine the air exchange rates at various levels of ventilation (0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 80, and 100% of ventilation). The air exchange rates were calculated based on the CO2 concentrations inside and outside the greenhouse, and the rates of CO2 injected into the greenhouse. Two meteorological stations were devised and installed inside and outside the greenhouse to monitor climate and CO2 concentrations. An air sampling system was also devised to collect well-mixed air samples from six equally spaced points inside the greenhouse. The infl uence of wind speed, wind direction, and temperature diff erence inside and outside the greenhouse on air exchange rates were analyzed for each level of ventilation. Wind speeds had a large infl uence (linear) on air exchange rates while wind direction did not aff ect the air exchanges. When the temperature diff erence inside and outside greenhouse exceeded 8 °C, it aff ected air exchange rates even if wind speed was above 3 m s-1.

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A linear regression model describing the relationship between air exchange rates and the product of two variables (wind speed and vent opening coupled with leakage rate) was developed, calibrated and validated. The average accuracy and standard error of prediction were 89.4% and 1.81 h-1, respectively. This study has demonstrated that the ventilation and leakage rates of a tall, gutter-vented, D-poly commercial greenhouse can be predicted by a model with reasonable accuracy.

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OPTIMIZATION OF REDUCED MODEL TWO ORDER OF A GREENHOUSE USING GENETIC ALGORITHMSHassane Moughli, Belkacem Draoui, Fateh Bounaama

Centre Universitaire de Béchar B.P 417, 08000 Béchar, Algerie Tel / Fax: 049 81 52 44 bdraoui@yahoo.com

KeywordsClimate, vapour pressure, optimization, genetic algorithm, greenhouse, climate

models, parameters

Abstract The cultures under greenhouse know an important development, challenge an increased competing and conditioned market by a strict quality standards. The process "greenhouses" become considerably sophisticated and so inordinately expensive. This is why, the “serrists” who want to remain competitive, must optimize their investment by a great control of the production conditions. The improvement of climatic management maybe obtained by coupling between the diff erent components of energy and the hydrous assessment wich must be taking into account. We present in this paper a new method for selecting the parameters based on the genetic algorithm which optimizes the choice of parameters by minimizing a cost function. This function is defi ned by a small-scale model of order two of a horticultural greenhouse. who could be employed to simulate and envisage the environment of hot greenhouse, as well as the methods of agreement to calculate their parameters. This study focuses on the dynamical behaviours of the inside air temperature and humidity Ventilation. Our approach is validated on some result experimental. The data used to compute the simulation models were acquired in an experimental greenhouse using a sampling time interval of 1 hour. The proposed algorithm gives a fast convergence towards the optimal solution. Genetic algorithms (GAs) are global, parallel, stochastic search methods, founded on Darwinian evolutionary principles.

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PREDICTION THE SPATIAL AIR TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION OF AN EXPERIMENTAL GREENHOUSE USING GEOSTATISTICAL METHODSAthanasios A. Sapounas1, Anthimos Spyridis2, Chrysoulla Nikita-Martzopoulou3

1Center of Agricultural Structures Control, Farm of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 57001 Thermi, Greece sapounas@agro.auth.gr 2YETOS LLP, 3 Navarinou Sq., 54622 Thessaloniki, Greece yetos@otenet.gr 3Department of Hydraulics, Soil Science and Agriculture Engineering, School of Agriculture, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 (229) Thessaloniki, Greece nikita@agro.auth.gr

KeywordsKriging, variogram, ventilation, evaporative cooling

Abstract Concerning the greenhouse environment, the ultimate goal of an investigation would be to determine the climatic parameters for all locations in the study area. Climate control is necessary for attaining high crop growth, yield and quality. Most control actions in greenhouses are based on temperature and humidity measurements made at a representative point in greenhouse environment. Even in controls systems based on temperature integration concept where fi xed temperature bandwidths and integration intervals are commonly used, signals are obtained from specifi c regions in greenhouse. However, in order these control limits to be determined the spatial distribution of climatic parameters must be known, specially when high temperature gradients are occurred such as during ventilation and cooling processes. Objective of the present study is to analyse the air temperature distribution, of an experimental greenhouse equipped with fan and pad evaporative cooling system, using geostatistical methods. The main aspects of geostatistics in terms of theoretical background for understanding spatial correlation models and kriging applications are presented. The main variogram models were fi tted to the experimental data sets obtained from the experimental commercial type greenhouse during summer period, in order to determine the most appropriate one. Experimental data sets consist of air temperature (23 points), air humidity (8 points) and PAR, recordered by a data logger system in diff erent height levels inside the tomato crop canopy for every minute. Data were obtained during four repeats of experiments under diff erent ventilation - cooling treatments, natural ventilation, forced ventilation and evaporative cooling with one fan and two fans

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respectively. Kriging approach was applied using the semivariograms corresponded to the experimental data of air temperature inside the greenhouse in order to obtain the kriging weights. Finally, the prediction maps were produced concerning the air temperature and air humidity for every experimental data set. Results show a great variability of air temperature especially inside the crop canopy. Even if the main tend of variability obtained to the direction from pad to fans, noticeable tends appeared both to the opposite and vertical direction. Geostatistic analysis proved to be a useful tool in order to investigate the microclimate in a greenhouse. Kriging approach may be applied to determine not just optimal spatial predictions but also probabilities associated with various events than may be important in risk-based analysis in order to improve the suitability and effi ciency of climatic controls systems in greenhouses.

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DEVELOPMENT AND APPLICATION OF A WEB-BASED TELEMONITOR FOR GREENHOUSE ENVIRONMENTZ. F. Sun, K. M. Du, H. F. Han, Y.C. Wang

Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture (IEDA) Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS) Beijing, 100081. P. R. of China sunzf@263.net www.sinong.com

KeywordsData acquisition, greenhouse control, telemonitoring, remote diagnosis, GPRS/

CDMA, wireless communication

Abstract Aimed at the agro-environmental data acquisition, an universal project scheme of wireless telemonitoring system was designed according to the agricultural characteristics of scattered-sites far from developed community, multiple environmental factors, mutable conditions disturbed by natural disasters, and so forth. Integrated with modern information technologies, an environmental data acquisition system, titled WITSYMOR V1.0, was developed, which could be connected with most of common sensors, such as for temperature and moisture for air and soil, CO2, air pressure, PAR, total solar radiation, soil pH and EC, etc. The kernel techniques of the system were to realize a seamless connection between wireless mobile network (GPRS/CDMA) and Internet with TCP/IP software programming, the data from the remote agricultural sites were real-timely acquired and transmitted to the central database servers, and could be browsed, applied and downloaded by authorized users at anytime and in anywhere. At present, it has been set up in some agricultural stations, horticultural greenhouses, methane-gas pools, as well as in animal shelters. The results show that the system works stably, and it is much adaptive to monitor various agricultural environmental factors-in the sites far away.

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COMPARISON OF HUMIDITY CONDITIONS IN UNHEATED TOMATO GREENHOUSES WITH DIFFERENT NATURAL VENTILATION MANAGEMENT AND IMPLICATIONS FOR CLIMATE AND BOTRYTIS CINEREA CONTROLFátima Baptista1, Bernard Bailey2, Jorge Meneses3

1Department of Rural Engineering, Évora University, Apartado 94, 7002-554 Évora, Portugal fb@uevora.pt2Silsoe Research Institute, Wrest Park, Silsoe, Bedford MK45 4HS, UK bernard.bailey@whsmithnet.co.uk3Department of Rural Engineering, High Institute of Agronomy, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal jmeneses@isa.utl.pt

KeywordsNatural ventilation, greenhouses, humidity, tomato, Botrytis cinerea

Abstract The objective of this research was to investigate the infl uence of nocturnal ventilation on the humidity conditions in unheated tomato greenhouses and the consequences for Botrytis cinerea control. Experiments were carried out at the Instituto Superior de Agronomia in Lisbon in two identical adjacent double-span greenhouses. The structural material was galvanized steel and the covering material was a three layer co-extruded fi lm. The climate was controlled by natural ventilation, using continuous apertures located on the roof and side walls over the entire length of the greenhouses. Two diff erent natural ventilation treatments were randomly assigned to the greenhouses. One treatment was permanent ventilation (PV), with the vents open during the day and night, while the other was classical ventilation (CV), in which the vents were open during the day and closed during the night.A spring tomato crop (Lycopersicon esculentum Miller), cultivar Zapata was grown directly on soil between the end of February and the end of July. The growing technique was the usual for greenhouse tomatoes in Portugal. Trickle ferti-irrigation tubes were located between each two rows of plants. Climatic data were measured with three meteorological stations, one located in the centre of each greenhouse and one outside. All data were averaged and recorded on an hourly basis using two data logger systems from Delta - T Devices. The number of leafl ets with lesions caused by B. cinerea were counted and removed from the greenhouse from the randomly selected groups of plants.

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A signifi cant reduction of air humidity occurred in the nocturnally ventilated greenhouse. Nocturnal or permanent ventilation has shown to give a great contribution to reduce disease severity on tomato leaves caused by B. cinerea. Nocturnal ventilation management is an environmental control technique which can be used as a prophylactic control measure, since it reduces the severity of B. cinerea on tomato crops grown in unheated greenhouses, enabling a reduction in chemical use and lowering both production costs and environmental impacts.

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EFFECT OF GREENHOUSE ROOF OPENING SYSTEM ON INTERNAL CLIMATE AND ON GYPSOPHILA YIELD AND QUALITY CONTROL Giancarlo Fascella*, Santo Agnello, Benedetto Sciortino, Gianvito Zizzo

C.R.A - Istituto Sperimentale per la Floricoltura, Sezione di Palermo. S.S.113, Km 245.500 - 90011 Bagheria (PA), Italy *fascella@excite.it

KeywordsMicroclimate, temperature, relative humidity, vent typology, crop response

AbstractMicroclimatic conditions in protected culture are related to the characteristics of the greenhouse and infl uence crops yield and quality. Technological and innovative solutions are constantly proposed in order to improve production of cultivated species.In this frame, a study on four double-span greenhouses with diff erent roof opening systems, with natural or forced ventilation, in the presence of a cultivation of Gypsophila paniculata, was conducted with the aim to evaluate the infl uence of vent typology on internal climate and on fl ower crop response. A one-year trial was carried out in Bagheria (Sicily, Italy), in unheated environments (544 m2 each) with metal structure and PE cover, diff ering for roof vents and for presence, number and location of ventilators. Three commercial varieties (“Dana”, “Paniculata” and “Perfecta”) were tested and grown in soilless culture. Gypsophila growing techniques and vent opening/closing set-up (24/18°C) were the same for all greenhouses. Data on internal climate were collected by a system of thermic and hygrometric sensors connected to a logger, analysed with a specifi c platform software and compared to the external values. Bio-productive parameters (growth rhythm, yield trend, number of stems m-2, stem weight) of the plants were monitored during the trial. Roof vent typology aff ected greenhouse air temperature and R.H.: during the warmest periods, the maximum values were measured in the environment with chimney top vents (Type 1), while the highest thermic reductions (-8°C) and hygrometric increases (+15%) were recorded in the structure equipped with seagull-wing vents and two head-ventilators (Type 4). Roof opening system signifi cantly infl uenced crop yield and quality: Type 4 greenhouse produced the highest amount of fl owers (92 stems m-2) and with the maximum average weight (1130 g m-2). Tested cultivars diff ered on stem

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production: cv. “Dana” gave the most numerous (110 m-2) and the heaviest (1880 g m-2) stems.Results showed that the automatic opening of the roofs combined with the use of ventilators is a simple, not expensive and effi cient tool able to improve greenhouse environment and plant response, mitigating the prohibitive internal climatic conditions typical of the protected cultivation in Mediterranean areas during the summer season.

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EFFECTS OF ROOT-ZONE HEATING IN EARLY-MORNING ON CELERY GROWTH AND ELECTRICITY COSTTakafumi Kinoshita, Tadahisa Higashide, Masatake Fujino, Toshihiko Ibuki, Yoshiaki

Kasahara

National Agricultural Research Center for Western Region, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, 1-3-1 Sen-yucho, Zentsuji, Kagawa 765-8508 Japan takino@aff rc.go.jp

KeywordsSoilless culture, hilly and mountainous area, sloped greenhouse, saving-energy,

root-zone temperature

Abstract We had extended a period of tomato harvesting in hilly and mountainous area in Japan by installing a sloped greenhouse and a soilless culture system for sloping land. To use the greenhouse and the system eff ectively during winter, we cultivated celeryçafter tomato harvesting. In hydroponics, root-zone heating may improve crop growth in winter. However, in many reports on root-zone heating, the root temperatures were kept constant in all day. In this study, we tested the eff ects of early-morning root-zone heating in celery, since this may possibly benefi t the photosynthetic activity at this time of the day. In addition, in Japan the electricity cost from midnight to early-morning is lower compared to the rest of the day. Overall, if root-zone heating in the early-morning has positive eff ects on plant growth, it should be possible to save energy and cost of heating throughout the production process. Seedlings of ‘Cornell 619’ celery plants were transplanted to the soilless culture system in a sloped greenhouse (284m2) on December 19, 2005. Polyethylene bags (30 x 90cm) fi lled with bark composts were used as a substrate in the system. “Otsuka-A” nutrient solution which was adjusted to an electrical conductivity of 2.0~3.0 dS m-1 was given to the plants. The plants were harvested on March 27, 2006. We used a heating wire for the root-zone. Four heating treatments were set and continued from transplanting to harvest; 24h constant heating; CH, early-morning (03:00~09:00) heating; MH, daytime (09:00~15:00) heating; DH, and non-heating; NH. During the heating time, the root-zones were heated to maintain the temperatures higher than 15°C.Root-zone temperatures in CH were almost the same as those from the morning to the afternoon in MH and those in the afternoon in DH. The temperatures at night in MH and those from the night to the morning in DH were lower than those in CH. The temperatures in NH were always the lowest. The mean root-zone temperatures during

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the experimental period in CH, MH, DH, NH were 15.3°C, 13.3°C, 12.4°C and 9.3°C, respectively. Root-zone heating increased fresh weights of plants and marketable part weights. The marketable part weights in CH (1613g plant-1) and MH (1783g plant-1) were signifi cantly larger than those in DH (1460g plant-1) and NH (1229g plant-1). We concluded that MH was more eff ective in celery growth than other treatments, because the plant weight vs. time of heating was the highest in this treatment. Maintaining high root-zone temperature from the morning to the evening was more eff ective than night heating for celery growth. The electricity consumption for the root-zone heating in DH was the lowest (54% of that in CH). However, the electricity cost was the lowest in MH (42% of that in CH). We consequently concluded that root-zone heating in early-morning was more eff ective to improve celery growth in winter than constant heating during the whole day.

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SIMULATED RESPONSE OF GREENHOUSE CLIMATE AND A CUCUMBER CROP TO BLACK AND WHITE MULCHING IN UNHEATED MEDITERRANEAN GREENHOUSESBert van ’t Ooster1, Cecilia Stanghellini2, Ma Cruz Sánchez-Guerrero3, Evangelina

Medrano3, Pilar Lorenzo3

1Wageningen University, Farm Technology Group, P.O.Box 17, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands bert.vantooster@wur.nl2Wageningen UR Greenhouse Horticulture, Wageningen, P.O.Box 16, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands cecilia.stanghellini@wur.nl3IFAPA. Autovía del Mediterráneo, Sal.420, Paraje San Nicolás. 04745 La Mojonera. Almería Spain pilar.lorenzo@juntadeandalucia.es

KeywordsEnergy balance, production, thermal storage, passive greenhouse, temperature

Abstract Dutch growers use white mulch with virtually all greenhouse vegetable crops. Besides the well known advantages of mulching–such as weed control and reduction of moisture loss from the soil–the white colour is known to increment light absorption and thus assimilation of the crop, particularly in the young stage. In Dutch greenhouses this coincides with the conditions where the [dearth of ] light is the factor most limiting growth. We evaluated the potential advantage of mulching in the Mediterranean growth cycle and conditions, in a trial with two cucumber crops (respectively autumn-winter and spring) in an unheated multi-tunnel greenhouse in Almeria, with white mulching and a control with no mulching. Somewhat unexpectedly, production was lower in the greenhouse with white mulching 25% and 15% for early and fi nal yields in the autumn-winter cycle and 17% in the spring cycle. In this paper we compare measured climate and production data with results of a greenhouse simulation model to evaluate the hypothesis that the loss of production was caused by the white colour, rather than by the mulching itself. It is namely the high refl ectivity of the white (rather than black) mulching that reduces the benefi cial eff ect of the diurnal storage-discharge of thermal energy in the soil, in an unheated greenhouse. Comparing simulation results with the two types of mulch, we show that the white mulch signifi cantly reduces the average night-time temperature in the greenhouse, particularly in the fi rst weeks of the crop cycle, and has only minor eff ect on daytime temperature. This implies that the average temperature in the white-

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mulched greenhouse is lower than in the black-mulched one, which negatively aff ects production. We also discuss the fact that the resulting DIF (daytime minus night-time temperature) was diff erent between the two treatments, which may have had and eff ect on crop development (length).

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PHOTOSYNTHESIS MODELLING: DIAGNOSTIC TOOLS FOR GREENHOUSE CLIMATE MANAGEMENTMarco Sciortino1*, Tanja Mimmo1, Giuliano Vitali1, Giorgio Gianquinto1, Jesper M.

Aaslyng2

1Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Agromabientali, Università Degli Studi di Bologna Alma Mater Studiorum, Via Fanin 44, 40127, Bologna, Italy m_sciortino@hotmail.it2Department of Agricultural Sciences, The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University (KVL), Højbakkegaard Allė 30, DK-2630 Taastrup, Denmark

KeywordsClimatic control, Energetic effi cency, Greenhouses, Modelling Photosynthesis

AbstractDecision-Support-Systems, integrating models having several objectives (e.g. energetic optimization), have recently been applied to environmental greenhouse control and photosynthetic simulation is seldom used.In this study a photosynthetic model is used to identify anomalous behaviours in a commercial greenhouse with a standard control system, which does not take into account photosynthesis optimization, and with CO2 enrichment (maintained to about 700 ppm).The experiment, carried out from the late winter to the early spring in Denmark, allowed the collection of a dataset which was used as input for leaf photosynthesis model to compute net and potential maximum photosynthesis.Simulation outputs of the period evidenced two separate data trends, and the data analysis showed that from January to the middle of March the temperature inside the greenhouse was constantly regulated by the environmental computer, but with the increase of light intensity (end of March- April) and of temperatures, vents opening was the main reason of the reduction of CO2 concentration inside the greenhouse and therefore of photosynthesis estimates.The present study proved how a photosynthesis model can help to diagnose greenhouse management problems in terms of choice of strategy and setting parameters, and also to quantify corresponding losses in terms of energy, CO2 and yield. In addition, the photosynthesis model proved to be extremely helpful to suggest how to increase a greenhouse system effi ciency reducing management costs.

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SIMULATED EFFECTS OF CANOPY SIZE, RELATIVE HUMIDITY, LIGHT MANAGEMENT LEVELS, CO2 DOSING, AND MINIMUM VENTILATION RATES ON WATER CONSUMPTION IN OPEN AND CONFINED GREENHOUSE SYSTEMSIlhami Yildiz1, Dennis P. Stombaugh2

1Department of BioResource and Agricultural Engineering, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, CA 93407, USA iyildiz@calpoly.edu2Department of Food, Agricultural and Biological Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA

KeywordsWater conservation, transpiration, light management, CO2 dosing, minimum

ventilation

AbstractA dynamic simulation model was developed and validated to predict energy and mass exchanges in a greenhouse as a function of dynamic environmental factors. The model has options to evaluate the eff ects of location, time of the year, orientation, single and double polyethylene glazings, conventional and heat pump heating and cooling systems, open and confi ned greenhouse systems, CO2 enrichment, variable shading, and the use of night curtains. Conventional gas furnaces and evaporative cooling, respectively, provided heating and cooling in the conventional system. In the heat pump systems, gas-fi red heat pump units provided both heating and cooling. The greenhouse with heat pump units also had an option to be operated as a completely confi ned system, using one of the heat pump units as a dehumidifi er. The objective of this study was to evaluate the eff ects of canopy size, relative humidity, light management levels, CO2 enrichment and minimum ventilation rates on water consumption in three diff erent greenhouse systems (conventional, open-loop heat pump, and confi ned heat pump) in winter, spring, and summer months. Overall, the partial canopy stands (0.4 m) had approximately 7%, 5%, and 6% higher transpiration rates than the full canopy stands (2.0 m) in the conventional, open-loop heat pump, and confi ned heat pump systems, respectively. Using diff erent relative humidity set points resulted in almost the same relative humidity regimes within the confi ned greenhouse system, resulting in similar transpiration rates. As in the confi ned system, no diff erence was observed in transpiration rates in the open-loop system in winter, because the inside relative humidity levels never reached the 70% and 80% set points.

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Some diff erences were observed in spring and summer. Up to a 5.1% reduction was observed in transpiration rates by going from a 70% set point to an 80%. Maintaining an average solar radiation level of 250 W/m2 instead of 350 W/m2 inside the greenhouse reduced the transpiration rate approximately 12.5% at both relative humidity set points (70% and 80%). Using a CO2 enrichment level of 1000 ppm compared to an enrichment level of 350 ppm resulted in transpiration rates that were predicted to be slightly lower in all three-greenhouse systems used. This decrease was 14% in the confi ned system, and about 5% in both the conventional and open loop heat pump systems. Using a minimum ventilation rate of 0.005 m3/s * m2 instead of 0.01 m3/s * m2 reduced the transpiration rates about 16%, 11%, and 3% in winter, spring, and summer, respectively. The higher decrease in winter was caused by the increase in inside relative humidity when the lower ventilation rate was used.

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IMPROVEMENT OF WATER USE EFFICIENCY AND YIELD OF GREENHOUSE TOMATO USING MATRIC POTENTIAL SENSORSJean Caron1, Isabelle Lemay1, Martine Dorais2, Steeve Pepin1

1Département des sols et de génie agroenvironnemental, Université Laval, QC, G1K 7P4, Canada jean.caron@sga.ulaval.ca - steeve.pepin@sga.ulaval.ca2Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Horticultural Research Centre, Laval University, QC, G1K 7P4, Canada doraisma@agr.gc.ca

KeywordsIrrigation management, growing media, Lycopersicon, tensiometer

AbstractFor many years, environmental and economical constraints have forced growers to look for new substrates for replacing rockwool in greenhouse tomato production. Peat sawdust mixes have been proposed as organic alternatives to rockwool since long time, although their use is associated to lower yields likely linked to irrigation and aeration problems. The development of high performing and easy to use matric potential sensors has provided an opportunity to refi ne this irrigation strategy. The objective of this study was to investigate the zone of hydric comfort of actively growing tomato plant to defi ne appropriate irrigation setups and then to use these setups to grow tomato in comparison with rockwool. Defi ning new setups appropriate to 2 :1 (v/v) sawdust:peat substrate allowed total and marketable yield increases of 10.5 % and 10.3 %, respectively, in comparison with rockwool, without tomato quality decrease. Hence, an adapted irrigation strategy could allow growers to use a sustainable growing media, cheaper than rockwool while increasing their yield and economical performances.

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INFLUENCE OF SUPPLEMENTARY LIGHTING ON AUTUMN-WINTER YIELD OF FOUR CULTIVARS OF GERBERA (GERBERA JAMESONII)G. Cristiano1, M. A. Cocozza Talia2, A. M. F. La Viola3, A. Sancilio

Dipartimento di Scienze delle Produzioni VegetaliV. G. Amendola 165/A - 70126, Bari - Italy1g.cristiano@agr.uniba.it2cocozza@agr.uniba.it3laviolafl o@yahoo.it

Keywords Greenhouse management, supplementary lighting, Gerbera

AbstractResults of a research are reported during biennial cycle, on infl uence of artifi cial high-intensity lighting during November/March period, on autumn-winter yield and qualitative characteristic of four cultivars of Gerbera.Results showed a mean increase in autumn-winter yield about 16% for plants cultivated under condition of supplementary lighting respect to control (14.5 respect 12.5 fl ower/plant).Cultivars have shown a diff erent behaviour. The highest increase of production (25%) was obtained by the cv Cornice whereas the lowest increase of production (8%) was obtained by the cv Rosalin.No signifi cant diff erences were found regarding qualitative characteristics of fl owers, between plants cultivated under artifi cial lighting and plants cultivated under natural lighting.

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EFFECTS OF ROOT-ZONE NUTRIENT CONCENTRATION ON CUCUMBER GROWN IN ROCKWOOLFrancesco Giuff rida1, Ep Heuvelink2, Cecilia Stanghellini3

1Dipartimento di OrtoFloroArboricoltura e Tecnologie Agroalimentari, University of Catania, via Valdisavoia 5, 95123 Catania, Italy francesco.giuff rida@unict.it2Horticultural Production Chains, University of Wageningen, Marijkeweg 22, 6709 PG Wageningen, The Netherlands ep.heuvelink@wur.nl3Wageningen UR Greenhouse Horticulture, Bornsesteeg 65, 6708 PD Wageningen, The Netherlands cecilia.stanghellini@wur.nl

KeywordsSoilless, substrate, salt stress, root zone salinity, transpiration

AbstractWe applied a new method to control root zone salinity, to investigate the eff ects of two constant levels of nutrient concentration in the rhizosphere (3.2 and 7.0 dSm-1) on growth, yield as well as water and nutrient uptake of cucumber.The method is based on switching between two nutrient solutions (1.7 and 3.8 dSm-1), the latter obtained adding extra nutrients at the same ionic concentration ratio as in the basic nutrient solution. In this way we managed to maintain the root-zone EC constant and around the prefi xed values in both treatments; the mean EC were 3.54±0.08 and 6.87±0.11 in low EC and high EC respectively.Extra-nutrient salinity had no eff ect on the dry matter production in cucumber plants and on its partitioning. However, the fresh biomass, particularly the marketable yield were signifi cantly reduced by salinity. This reduction was the result of a decline in mean fruit weight, fruit number and a larger incidence of unmarketable fruits. The salinity treatment determined a signifi cant decrease of leaf area and SLA, being the leaves dry biomass similar in both treatment, as well as the ratio between diff erentiated fruits and leaves. As expected, the dry matter percentage of high-concentration fruits was always higher, obviously because the lower water content.Indeed the total water uptake was 10% lower than low EC treatment. In the paper we discuss these results in the light of water and nutrient uptake and use effi ciency.

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CO2 CONCENTRATION IN THE ROOT ZONE OF VEGETABLES, CULTIVATED IN ORGANIC SUBSTRATESNazim Gruda, Thorsten Rocksch, Uwe Schmidt

Institute for Horticultural Sciences, Humboldt University of Berlin, Lentzeallee 55-57, 14195 Berlin, Germany nazim.gruda@rz.hu-berlin.de

KeywordsGas exchange, rhizosphere, aeration, irrigation, peat, wood fi ber substrate

AbstractSince the 60’s and 70’s a set of investigations on plant-physiological eff ects of changing air compositions were made for vegetables. Recently, this essential information has been included in diff erent plant model programs. However, the measurements are usually limited to aboveground plant parts. Limited information exists concerning the relationships between gas composition within the root zone and plant growth. Gas exchange within the root zone can be aff ected by diff erent factors. The activities of microorganism in the soil as well as the root respiration of the plant are the main factors. Due to the optimized temperature and moisture conditions, as well as the supply of mineralize-promoting nutrient elements, the speed of the microbiological processes is substantially faster in soils or substrates in protected cultivation than in the fi eld. Also, the root respiration of the plants will increases under these conditions. Thus the gas composition in the soil substrate is changed. This can lead to a reduction of the oxygen content in the root zone, while the CO2-content rises. The objective of this investigation is to quantify factors infl uencing soil CO2-content. This can be used later for the development of suitable monitoring systems for the optimization of air composition in the rhizosphere. The eff ect of diff erent substrates, containers, and aeration before and after the irrigation on the CO2-concentration in root zone of vegetables was investigated. Diff erent factors aff ected the CO2-concentration in the root zone. Generally higher CO2-concentrations were accomplished in wood fi ber substrates and also after irrigation applications. Wood fi ber substrates had higher CO2 than did the peat substrates. Whereas after an irrigation pulse, a temporary increase of the CO2 concentration in the root zone was observed for both substrates. However, the CO2 quickly sunk back to the earlier level. Further there were signifi cant diff erences between the level in the top and the bottom of containers. Due to aeration in root zone the CO2-concentrations was reduced. However, a negative eff ect of CO2-content in root zone on the plant growth and development was not noticeable in our cultivation systems.

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EFFECTS OF SEED-BED PREPARATION ON CUCUMBER YIELD AND QUALITY IN GREENHOUSEMomeni D.

Agricultural Research Center of Jiroft and Kahnooj, Iran

KeywordsCucumis sativus L., greenhouse, seed bed, yield, number of fruits

AbstractTo investigate how diff erent methods of seed bed preparation may aff ect yield and quality of greenhouse cucumber, an experiment was conducted as RCB design with four replications in a greenhouse at Jiroft for 2 years.Diff erent methods of seed bed preparation were compared as follow:a) Ridge with 20 cm height and 50 cm width and 2 plant rows with 40 cm distance;b) Furrow with 20 cm depth and 50 cm width and 2 plant rows inside, with 40 cm distance;c) Planting on fl at area with 40 cm distance.Irrigation and fertigation for all treatments were done uniformly. In this research some parameters such as fi rst yield, total yield, fruit weight, fruit length and diameter, number of fruits in the 1st month and total period, plant height in the 1st and 2nd month, number of leaves and photosynthetic area in the 2nd month, root length and weight were measured.Results showed that small plants cultivated inside furrow were highly infected by fungi and required a high level of management. Planting in the fl at area increased the number of fl owers compared to the two other treatments but did not cause signifi cant diff erence on yield and number of fruits picked in 1st month. Plant height, leaf area and number of leaves were diff erent between treatments in the 2nd month. Planting on the top of the ridge gave the lowest yield. There was no signifi cant diff erence between root length and weight of diff erent treatments.

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MODELLING VISUAL QUALITY OF KALANCHOE BLOSSFELDIANA: INFLUENCE OF CULTIVAR AND POT SIZESusana M.P. Carvalho1-2, Jorge Almeida1, Barbara Eveleens-Clark3, Menno J. Bakker1,

Ep Heuvelink1

1Wageningen University, Horticultural Production Chains, Marijkeweg 22, 6709 PG Wageningen, The Netherlands susana.carvalho@wur.nl2College of Biotechnology, Portuguese Catholic University, Rua Dr. António Bernadino de Almeida, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal3Wageningen UR Greenhouse Horticulture, P.O. Box 20, 2665 ZG Bleiswijk, The Netherlands

KeywordsExternal quality, models, ornamentals, plant height, time to fl ower

AbstractIn a previous study a dynamic model for plant height, number of fl owering shoots and cropping duration was developed and validated for one kalanchoe cultivar (‘Anatole’) and one pot size (10.5 cm). Such an explanatory model is an essential tool for production planning, optimal greenhouse control and scenario studies in kalanchoe. However, before it can be generally applied it must be extended to other cultivars and pot sizes. Two experiments (winter and summer) were conducted at a commercial nursery to calibrate the existing model for eight contrasting cultivars (‘Alexandra’, ‘Anatole’, ‘Debbie’, ‘Delia’, ‘Mie’, ‘Pandora’, ‘Tenorio’ and ‘Toleda’) and for two pot sizes (7 and 10.5 cm). The studied cultivars showed a strong variation in the plant height (from 10.2 to 25.6 cm), in the number of fl owering shoots (from 15 to 19) and in the reaction time (from 55 to 64 days from start of short-day period until harvest stage) when grown under the same conditions (values provided are for cultivation in summer in 10.5 cm pots). Concerning pot size most of the observed eff ects were closely related to the cultivation practices, which in turn already corresponded to standard data input into the existing model. For instance, lower initial number of internodes and reduced duration of long-day period for smaller pots, leading to shorter plants. Additionally, growing plants in smaller pots resulted in a longer reaction time (1 to 14 days, depending on cultivar), especially during winter (on average 8 days). This could refl ect the importance of the intercepted light integral in the reaction time, which was lower due to the lower initial leaf area of the plants grown in smaller pots. It was shown that the responses to temperature and light are common to all cultivars. Thus, the framework of the explanatory model previously developed for ‘Anatole’ was

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successfully adapted to other kalanchoe cultivars and pot sizes. When implementing this dynamic model to predict plant height and reaction time for diff erent cultivars in multiple growth conditions, only few parameters must be quantifi ed and compared to the reference cultivar at one light and temperature condition (i.e. average maximum vegetative internode length, internode appearance rate, generative length and reaction time).

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HEATING STRATEGIES FOR AN EGGPLANT CROP ON MEDITERRANEAN GREENHOUSESJ.C. López, C. Pérez, J.J. Pérez-Parra, E.J. Baeza, J.C. Gázquez, Parra, A.

Estación Experimental de la Fundación CajamarAutovía del Medierráneo km 416 04710 El Ejido Almería (Spain) jclh@cajamar.es

KeywordsSolanum melongena L., multispan, pipe heating, Almería

AbstractHorticulture greenhouse production in the Mediterranean area is based on the use simple low-cost structures with a very limited climate control. During the autumn-spring cycle, low temperatures reduce yield and quality of the diff erent crops. Heating systems allow an increase of both, but the fuel consumption makes diffi cult its justifi cation, thus it is necessary to evaluate them for local climate conditions. The goal of this work was to study the productivity of an eggplant crop in three multispan type greenhouses under three heating treatments, which levels were: minimum night air temperature of 12ºC, 16ºC and 20ºC, with a minimum diurnal air temperature of 20ºC for all of them. Marketable yields for the whole cycle (204 days) were 13.5, 11.8 y 11.6 kg m-2, for 12º, 16º y 20º C, respectively. Fuel consumption (propane) was 8.4 kg m-2, 11.8 kg m-2 and 18.2 kg m-2, for 12º, 16º y 20º C, respectively. Therefore, the treatment with a minimum night temperature of 12ºC, achieved the highest yield and the lowest fuel consumption for an eggplant greenhouse crop. These results can be explained in the view of the fact that higher night temperatures modify distribution of assimilates, thus stimulating a higher vegetative growth.

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CULTIVATION STRATEGIES FOR A CLOSED GREENHOUSE Ep Heuvelink1, Leo Marcelis2, Menno Bakker1, Marcel Raaphorst2

1Wageningen University, Horticultural Production Chains, Marijkeweg 22, 6709 PG Wageningen, the Netherlands ep.heuvelink@wur.nl - menno.bakker@wur.nl2Wageningen UR Greenhouse Horticulture, P.O. Box 20, 2265 ZG Bleiswijk, the Netherlands leo.marcelis@wur.nl - marcel.raaphorst@wur.nl

KeywordsHigh CO2, simulation, tomato, modelling.

Abstract The so-called closed greenhouse (closed ventilation windows) is a recent innovation in Dutch greenhouse industry. The technical concept consists of a combined heat and power unit, heat pump, underground (aquifer) seasonal energy storage as well as daytime storage, air treatment units, and air distribution ducts. Savings of up to 30% in fossil fuel and production increases by 20%, mainly because of the continuous high CO2 concentration, have been reported. Economic feasibility of this innovative greenhouse highly depends on the yield increase that can be obtained. In this simulation study eff ects of diff erent climate and cultivation strategies on tomato yield in a closed greenhouse are presented. The explanatory model INTKAM was used, which has several submodels e.g. for light interception, leaf photosynthesis, organ formation and abortion and biomass partitioning. The closed greenhouse off ers possibilities for combinations of light, temperature and CO2 concentration that are impossible in a conventional greenhouse. At high CO2 concentration and high light intensity, leaf photosynthesis shows a steeper optimum for temperature than at ambient CO2 and high light intensity. However, the response of crop photosynthesis to temperature is much fl atter than that of leaf photosynthesis. Besides photosynthesis, temperature also infl uences aspects like partitioning, leaf area development and fruit development. Yield potential reduces at temperatures above 20oC as increase in crop photosynthesis with temperature is small compared to increased maintenance respiration. In a closed greenhouse a higher stem density and a diff erent temperature regime should be maintained compared to a conventional greenhouse. Based on actual climatic conditions in a conventional and a closed greenhouse (same crop management) measured in 3 diff erent years, INTKAM predicts an increase in yield by about 17%.

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SENSITIVITY OF STEM DIAMETER VARIATIONS FOR DETECTING WATER STRESS IN TOMATO TRANSPLANTSAbdelaziz Mohamed Ewis1, Paschold Peter-Jurgen2, Pokluda Robert1

1Department of Vegetable Growing and Floriculture, Mendel University, 69144 Lednice, Valticka 337, Czech Republic hgtgtg2000@yahoo.com2Department of Vegetable plants, Research station, Geisenheim, von-Lade-Strasse 1, Germany paschold@fa-gm.de

KeywordsTomato, water stress, stems diameter variations, solar radiation.

AbstractThe eff ect of water stress on the stem diameter and derived parameters was studied in the tomato transplants Lycopersicum esculentum Mill. cv. Pannovy under the greenhouse conditions at the Vegetable Crops Department, Geisenheim, Germany. Under 2 irrigation levels, 50 hPa (well irrigated control) and 500 hPa (water stress), the data showed signifi cant decrease in daily maximum stem diameter (MXSD) and accumulative stem diameter growth rate (SGR). Maximum daily shrinkage (MDS) increased signifi cantly in the water stress transplants comparing to the control. Solar radiation aff ected positively stem growth rate and stem shrinkage in sunny days. In general, stem diameter derived indices measured by linear variable displacement transducer is a sensitive method to detect plant water status under water stress conditions.

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MIXTURE OF SALINE AND NON-SALINE IRRIGATION WATER INFLUENCES GROWTH AND YIELD OF LETTUCE CULTIVARS UNDER GREENHOUSE CONDITIONSAbdullah A. Alsadon, Mahmoud A. Wahb-allah and Safwat O. Khalil

Department of Plant Production, College of Food and Agricultural Sciences,King Saud University, P.O. Box 2460, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia alsadon@ksu.edu.sa

KeywordsLactuca sativa L., salinity, water quality, cultivars, desalinized water

Abstract With increase in demand for irrigation, underground water is becoming scarce and low in quality. The objective of this study was to evaluate the eff ect of water quality on growth and yield of lettuce cultivars. Two sources of water (well water, EC= 4.5 d.sm-1 and desalinized water, EC= 0.5 ds.m-1) were applied to three lettuce cultivars (Sahara, Sharp Shooter and Summer Time). Drip irrigation system was used for six days per week during the growing seasons of 2004/2005 under greenhouse conditions. Six mixtures of the two irrigation sources were imposed. These were: 1) irrigation with well water for the whole growing season (85 days), 2) irrigation with desalinized water for the whole growing season (85 days), 3) irrigation with desalinized water for four days then with well water for two days, 4) irrigation with desalinized water for three days then with well water for three days, 5) irrigation with desalinized water for two days then with well water for four days, 6) irrigation with desalinized water for one day then with well water for fi ve days. Results revealed that head traits (diameter, length and stalk length) and bolting percentage were not aff ected by water quality except when irrigated continuously with well water. No signifi cant diff erences were found in most of traits when lettuce was irrigated with three days or more with desalinized water. Signifi cant negative eff ect of irrigation with well water on yield and its components occurred when irrigation period was/or exceeded four days per week. Continuous irrigation with well water signifi cantly reduced gross yield by 25% and 19.8% and signifi cantly reduced net yield by 27% and 32% for the fi rst and the second seasons respectively. Signifi cant diff erences among cultivars were found in most traits. Highest values for total and net yield were recorded for Sahara followed by Sharp Shooter and Summer Time. All traits were less aff ected when lettuce was irrigated with desalinized and well water of the same period (three days each) and total yield was only reduced by 6.2%

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and 7.7% at the fi rst and second seasons compared to continuous irrigation with desalinized water respectively. It is concluded that irrigation with desalinized water for three days followed by another three days with well water is recommended for greenhouse lettuce production to reduce the high costs of water desalinization.

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ESTIMATING STOMATAL CONDUCTANCE OF GREENHOUSE GROWN PLANTS SUBJECTED TO WATER STRESS AND DIFFERENT HUMIDITY REGIMES N.E. Andersson, Karen Koefoed Petersen

University of Aarhus, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Horticulture, Kirstinebjergvej 10, DK-5792 Aarslev, Denmark niels.andersson@agrsci.dk

KeywordsDefi cit irrigation, transpiration

Abstract Since climatic computers are widely used in greenhouse operation, the possibility to detect plant stress is open and can give advantages in growth control. Chemical growth regulation is used to control plant height in pot plant production. Application is time consuming and not always environmentally friendly. Water stress introduced by defi cit irrigation in combination with low nutrient availability, especially low P, is an alternative to chemical growth regulation. However, reliable methods to monitor and avoid damaging stress levels are required. If the available water in the peat soil is near the wilting point, the stomata will close leading to an increased leaf temperature which can reach a lethal level. If stress situations can be detected, the greenhouse climate can be adjusted in order to reduce the stress. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis and Rosa hybrida (pot roses) were subjected to constant low or fl uctuating water vapour pressure defi cit (VPD) in combination with frequent irrigation or defi cit irrigation. The average VPD for the constant humidity treatment was 0.8 kPa and for the fl uctuating 1.3 kPa. Irrigation was started when the weight loss was equal to 20% of the initial weight of soil and plant for the frequent irrigated plants of Hibiscus and 45% for the defi cit irrigated plants. The defi cit irrigated plants were re-watered to 75% of the initial weight. In pot roses, the irrigation was started when the weight loss was equal to 30% of the initial weight for the frequent irrigated plants and 50% for the defi cit irrigated plants and re-watered to 70% of the initial weight. The stomatal conductance was calculated from weight loss and climatic parameters (VPD, leaf temperature). The highest stomatal conductance was found for Hibiscus rosa-sinensis and in both plant species stomatal conductance increased with increasing irradiance or net radiation. In pot roses stomatal conductance was highest in plants frequently irrigated and only slightly infl uenced by the two humidity regimes. When Hibiscus was grown

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at fl uctuating humidity and defi cit irrigation, the highest stomatal conductance was found, but also the variation in stomatal conductance was large. Hibiscus grown at constant low VPD and frequent irrigation had similar stomatal conductance as plants grown at defi cit irrigation, regardless of humidity regime.From the experiment it is concluded that stomatal conductance and sensitivity to water stress depend on the plant species. Stomatal conductance in pot roses was more sensitive to irrigation strategy than to humidity regime, whereas interaction between the two parameters was found in Hibiscus. In both plant species, stomatal conductance increased with increasing irradiance.

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WATER STRESS DETECTION OF GRAFTED AND NON-GRAFTED GREENHOUSE TOMATO PLANT BY CHLOROPHYLL FLUORESCENCE PARAMETERSMojtaba Delshad , Martine Dorais , A.K. Kashi1, M. Babalar1, A. Gosselin

1Assistant Professor, Professor and Associate Professor of Dept. of Horticulture, University College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran delshad@ut.ac.ir 2Adjunct Professor, Agriculture and Agri- Food Canada, Horticultural Research Center, Laval University, Quebec, Canada doraisma@agr.gc.ca 3Professeur, Département de phytologie, Centre de recherche en horticulture, Faculté des sciences de l'agriculture et de l'alimentation, Université Laval, Québec, Canada

KeywordsRootstock, grafting, sawdust, water potential

AbstractIn order to study the eff ect of water stress on Chl fl uorescence parameters of greenhouse tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.), three types of plants (1- cv. Trust as non grafted plants, 2- cv. Trust grafted on Eldorado, 3- cv. Trust grafted on Maxifort), and three growing systems (1- rockwool slab, 2- sawdust bucket, 3- sawdust bucket equipped with a capillary system) were compared within a greenhouse split plot design with three replicates of 180 plants. Our results showed that suboptimal water supply expressed by low matric potential and low volumetric water content (v/v) of the growing media can be detected by changes in chlorophyll fl uorescence parameters measured by dark adapted method (PEA). Increasing water stress resulted in increasing F0 and reducing of Fm for all growing systems, and then reduced Fv and Fv/Fm ratio. The capillary system was effi cient to increase the sawdust water retention, increased the plant water use, and reduced signifi cantly the water leaching, which is also benefi cial from an environmental point of view. Tomato plants grown in the capillary growing system showed less fl uctuation in Chl fl uorescence parameters such as Fv/Fm ratio than those grown in rockwool and sawdust without a capillary system. Under suboptimal water supply, grafted plants expressed better Chl fl uorescence parameters, such as higher Fv/Fm ratio, than none grafted plants. On the other hand, under moderate water stress, the use of Fv/Fm as a stress indicator is not sensitive enough. Other Chl fl uorescence parameters should be used as the PI. The possibility of using Chl fl uorescence parameters for evaluating water stress status of tomato greenhouse plants and then as an irrigation management tool will be further discussed.

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DESIGNING A GREENHOUSE PLANT: NOVEL APPROACHES TO IMPROVE RESOURCE USE EFFICIENCY IN CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENTSAlbino Maggio, Stefania De Pascale, Giancarlo Barbieri

Department of Agricultural Engineering and AgronomyUniversity of Naples Federico II - Via Università, 100 - 80055 - Portici - Naples (Italy)albino.maggio@unina.it

KeywordsBiophysical models, biotechnology, stress tolerance.

AbstractGreenhouse cultivation is among the most advanced technological systems in agricultural productions, in which the environment can be best adapted to the actual plant needs. Much progress in greenhouse technology has been achieved through the development of high-tech covering materials with an improved light transmittance, the design of effi cient cultivation units and water/nutrients delivery systems (hydroponics), the control of environmental parameters through sophisticated software. In contrast, the development of a greenhouse plant with characteristics that have been specifi cally tailored for this environment has rarely been the focus of a specifi c research. Such specifi city is required by the peculiar modifi cations, metabolic and morphological, that plants undergo in the greenhouse environment. Although greenhouse production is generally associated to high technological-input systems, rapid advances in plant biotechnology have been mainly addressed to generate fi eld- rather than greenhouse- high-tech crops. Nevertheless, the defi nition of biophysical models for predicting resource fl uxes in a confi ned/controlled environment could greatly benefi t of the possibility of changing specifi c plant parameters to test and validate these models. This would generate an unprecedented feed-back/feed-forward research system able to identify optimal plant/environment interactions for an effi cient resource use. Here we provide a practical example on how the information generated via model analysis can be tested and, more importantly, improved by implementing biotechnological tools. In a recent analysis on physiological modifi cations that may occur in tomato plants exposed to salt stress we were able to identify a specifi c EC value (9.6 dS*m−1) at which several physiological stress adaptation processes were initiated. The identifi ed EC value virtually coincided with a previously reported Salinity Stress Index threshold

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typical of tomato (Dalton et al., 2001. Plant and Soil 229: 189-195). Based on the analysis of these data it is predicted that a reduced root relatively to the shoot development may increase the tomato salinity tolerance by delaying the onset of a critical level of ion accumulation/toxicity into the shoot. This hypothesis can be tested vs. the large collections of root mutants available in model species and, to a less extent, in tomato. The possibility of integrating the output of biophysical models with biotechnological tools will be discussed in this specifi c context.

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EFFECT OF SALINITY ON TOMATO PLANT ARCHITECTURENajla Safaa1, Vercambre Gilles1, Gautier Hélène1, Pagès Loïc1, Bertin Nadia1, Grasselly

Dominique2, Rosso Laurent2

1UR1115 Plantes et systèmes de culture horticoles, INRA, F-84000 Avignon2CTIFL Centre de Ballandran, BP 32 - 30127 Bellegarde

KeywordsLycopersicon esculentum, plant development, growth rate, leaf, modelling

AbstractDry weight and fruit production of tomato plants are reduced in proportion to the increase in salinity solution, a continuous decline of the shoot biomass and a sharp increase of the root dry weight have been observed. Moreover, several studies have focussed on physiological consequences of salinity, especially on photosynthesis, transpiration, and plant water status including osmotic adjustment. However, little information is available dealing with the eff ect of salinity on the plant architecture, not exclusively on fi nal plant height, number of leaves and leaf area, but also on dynamic informations on development and growth at the leaf scale. Tomato plants have been grown under glasshouses at four salinity levels (expressed as electrical conductivity of the solution, i.e. 4, 7, 10 and 13 dS m-1). Plant development (leaf and fruit initiation, fruit abortion), growth rate (leaf and fruit growth rate) and the fi nal leaf width, length and area were measured along the stem following the phytomer rank and treatment. At the leaf scale, the terminal and a major lateral leafl et were measured (rachis length, leafl et length width, and area). At the crop and plant level, the leaf area, plant height and dry weight declined with salinity. The plant development (leaf and fruit initiation) was only marginally aff ected, with no signifi cant eff ect on phyllochron. However, salinity led to larger abortion of fruit. The leaf growth rate was estimated through periodical measurement of leaf’s length and width. The fi nal leaf area decreased according to the phytomer rank giving evidence of a season eff ect. Furthermore, salinity aff ected the fi nal leaf area, especially through reduced leaf growth rate. All these data have been used to estimate the plant development (leaf initiation with thermal time) and growth at the leafl et and leaf scale (through growth rate and duration), as well as stem elongation. These parameters are essential input of a 3-D dynamic plant architecture, leading to a complete description of the plant architecture, from the leafl et to the plant level. These plant architectures should be useful to estimate resource acquisition (photosynthesis) and radiative balance leading to estimation of plant transpiration.

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EFFECTS OF EC LEVELS OF NUTRIENT SOLUTION ON TOMATO CROP IN CLOSED SYSTEMSY. Tüzel1, G.B. Öztekin1, İ.H. Tüzel2, K.M. Meriç3

1Ege Univ. Fac. Of Agriculture Dept. Of Horticulture yuksel.tuzel@ege.edu.tr2Ege Univ. Fac. Of Agriculture Dept. Of Agric. Structures & Irrigation3Ege Univ. Bergama Vocational School

KeywordsPerlite, water and nutrient consumptions, yield, fruit quality

AbstractThe research was carried out in a polyethylene covered, non-heated high tunnel at the Faculty of Agriculture in Ege University during the autumn and spring growing seasons of 2004 and 2005. Tomato (cv. Durinta) plants were grown in closed perlite culture. Planting dates of seedlings were 03.09.2004 and 04.03.2005 for autumn and spring cycles respectively with a plant density of 3.5 plant m-2. Root volume was 5 liters per plant. Plants were fed with a complete nutrient solution at the electrical conductivity (EC) levels of 2 dS/m (control), 4 dS/m and 6 dS/m. The experimental design was randomized blocks with 3 replicates and 12 plants in each one. Salinity level of the nutrient solution was increased three weeks after planting by NaCl. Recirculated nutrient solution was removed by the two unit EC level increase of treatments namely 4.0, 6.0 and 8.0 dS/m for each one respectively. Irrigation was based on indoor solar radiation level of 1 MJ/m2.Yeld (total and marketable yield, average fruit weight, fruit number) and fruit quality (fruit grading, total dry matter content, titratable acidity, vitamin C, pH and EC of fruit juice) parameters, plant water and nutrient consumptions were determined. The marketable yields of the plants treated with nutrient solution EC levels of 2, 4 and 6 dS/m were 13.6, 11.1 and 9.2 kg/m2 respectively in autumn, whereas they were 8.3, 6.0 and 4.2 kg/m2 in spring.

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TECHNICAL SOLUTIONS TO PREVENT HEAT STRESS INDUCED CROP GROWTH REDUCTION FOR THREE CLIMATIC REGIONS OF MEXICOBert van ’t Ooster1, Ep Heuvelink2, Victor Manuel Loaiza Mejía3

1Wageningen University, Farm Technology Group, P.O.Box 17, 6700 AA Wageningen, Netherlands bert.vantooster@wur.nl2Horticultural Production Chains Group, Wageningen University, Marijkeweg 22, 6709 PG Wageningen, Netherlands ep.heuvelink@wur.nl3Master Plant Sciences Wageningen University, Priv. de los Misterios 11, Col. Calesa, 76020 Queretaro, Qro, Mexico victor.loaiza@gmail.com

KeywordsTomato, simulation, greenhouse technology, greenhouse climate, resource use

AbstractIn the last 15 years a signifi cant increase in greenhouse area has occurred in Mexico, from a modest 50 hectares in 1990 to over 2,000 hectares in 2004. The rapid increase in greenhouse area is a result of an attractive export market, USA. Mexican summer midday temperatures are well above crop optimum and cooling is needed if heat stress induced crop growth reduction is to be prevented. The objective of this study was to determine the eff ectiveness and feasibility of greenhouse cooling systems for tomato culture under desert, humid tropic and temperate Mexican weather conditions. These climate regions are represented by Mexicali, Merida and Huejutla respectively. The cooling systems included a variety of passive and active systems, which through an engineering design methodology were combined to suit the climate conditions of the 3 regions. The evaluation was conducted via simulation, taking into account the most important temperature eff ects on crop growth and yield. Based on a literature review, a temperature induced crop growth correction curve was developed setting maximum growth for tomato at 25°C and zero growth at 40°C and up. Long term eff ects of heat stress resulting from pollen germination problems, fl ower abortion or problems with fruit set are not incorporated. A production period of 11 months was simulated. Plant density was 2.5 plants per square meter. The results showed that the cooling systems were eff ective in decreasing heat stress to plants. Investment costs of greenhouse with cooling equipment were under 50 $ US m-2 and operational costs were under 10 $ US m-2 for all equipment combinations and treatments except for the humid tropic climate of Merida. Solutions for Merida were both economically and

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physically not feasible due to too high humidity levels. Eff ects of system operation on profi t and use of resources were quantifi ed. The profi tability of using the particular cooling alternatives that were selected as best solution in the diff erent regions was determined by comparing marginal yield with marginal cost. Predicted yield increased with 25 to 109% compared to non-cooled control, net profi t as a result of cooling increased with -7 to 15 $ US m-2. In conclusion, this model study clearly suggests that cooling is feasible in desert and moderate climate regions of Mexico but in humid tropic climate regions feasibility is a problem. Application of design methodology and design evaluation with help of simulation greatly contributed to pointing out eff ective and non-eff ective solutions to reduce heat stress in hot climates.

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SIMULTANEOUS RESPONSE OF STEM DIAMETER, SAP FLOW RATE AND LEAF TEMPERATURE OF TOMATO PLANTS TO DROUGHT STRESSKristof Vermeulen1*, Kathy Steppe1, Nguyen Sy Linh1, Bruno Pollet1, Lieven De

Backer2, Peter Bleyaert2, Jan Dekock3, Jean-Marie Aerts3, Daniël Berckmans3, Raoul

Lemeur1

1Laboratory of Plant Ecology, Department of Applied Ecology and Environmental Biology, Ghent University, Coupure links 653, 9000 Gent, Belgium 2Provincial Research and Advisory Centre for Agriculture and Horticulture, Ieperseweg 87, B-8800 Beitem, Belgium3M3-BIORES, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 30, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium *kristof.vermeulen@ugent.be

KeywordsSpeaking plant, drought stress, early-warning

AbstractDirect crop monitoring can off er greenhouse managers several opportunities additional to the standard greenhouse equipment. For example, sap fl ow measurements gathered directly on the crop itself can be used in a plant-based irrigation control system. In this way, resources such as water can be used in a more effi cient way. Another even more important opportunity is the ability to detect suboptimal growth conditions in a very early stage, so that both productivity and quality can still be guaranteed. In this experiment, tomato plants were grown inside a semi-practical tomato greenhouse compartment (22.5 m x 16 m x 4 m) in Beitem (lat. 51°N, long. 3°E), Belgium. Eight plants were placed in two troughs in which a standard nutrient solution circulated. In this way, the root zone could be controlled: the temperature, acidity, salinity, oxygen content and water potential of the nutrient solution were frequently monitored. On plant level, stem diameter, sap fl ow rate and leaf temperature were automatically recorded at 1-minute intervals. Additionally, stomatal resistance was measured manually on an hourly basis. Four plants were subjected to drought stress by adding PEG6000 to its nutrient solution, which resulted in a decrease in water potential from -0.2 MPa to -0.8 MPa. After 30 minutes, visual symptoms of turgidity loss were observed. The stem diameter of the treated plant clearly reacted to changes in water potential of the nutrient

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solution: the stem shrunk immediately after drought stress was induced and after 30 minutes a decrease of 0.1 mm was observed. Simultaneously, a considerable reduction in sap fl ow rate was observed, so that the plant had to use its internal water storage to support transpiration. At leaf level, the temperature gradually increased to a level above the expected leaf temperature, which indicated that the stomata were closing. The measurements of stomatal resistance confi rmed this hypothesis. The lack of transpiration and, hence, the ceased cooling of the leaves during the experiment caused permanent damage to the leaves, which was also observed by a permanent reduction in sap fl ow rate. In conclusion, stem diameter, sap fl ow rate and leaf temperature measurements detected drought stress before visual symptoms were observed. Consequently, they can be used in an early-warning system. A combination of these plant responses gives a good overall picture of the water status of a tomato plant.

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PERFORMANCE OF THE INTKAM MODEL FOR GREENHOUSE CROP TRANSPIRATIONAnne Elings1, Wim Voogt2

1Wageningen UR Greenhouse Horticulture, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands2Wageningen UR Greenhouse Horticulture, P.O. Box 20, 2265 ZG Bleiswijk, The Netherlands

KeywordsINTKAM transpiration model, water balance, water uptake, early-warning,

soft-sensor

AbstractThe management of crop transpiration in greenhouses increases in importance, being part of both the water and energy balance. A good simulation model for crop transpiration can serve as a soft-sensor in an early warning system for the grower, and is an essential component of an energy model for a greenhouse with a crop. Observations on crop transpiration rates under commercial settings are scarce. In an eff ort to develop a model-based soft-sensor for crop transpiration, continuous and instantaneous rates of crop transpiration were obtained over a large part of 2006 from 2 tomato growers using a weighing gutter. The wide variation in outdoor and associated indoor environmental conditions caused similarly wide variation in crop transpiration rates, both among and within days, and among locations. This enabled broad model validation.Validation was not fully satisfactory. Parameters that infl uence the stomatal conductance (Gs) in response to environmental conditions were calibrated on the basis of total daily transpiration. For one grower this was more successful than for the second grower. The variable quality of simulation suggests that the empirical description of Gs behaviour in response to environmental conditions is not suffi ciently robust. Further data analysis can reveal structural patterns in the relations between model parameters and simulated transpiration. Built on this, on-line sensor information on transpiration can be used to continuously optimize the transpiration model, and increase its usefulness in information and early-warning systems.

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INTELLIGROW 2.0 - A GREENHOUSE COMPONENT-BASED CLIMATE CONTROL SYSTEMJakob Markvart1, Jesper Mazanti Aaslyng1, Sebastian Kalita2, Bo Nørregaard

Jørgensen2, Carl-Otto Ottosen3

1University of Copenhagen, Faculty of Life Sciences, Department of Agricultural Sciences, Højbakkegård Alle 21, Denmark markvart@life.ku.dk / jmaa@life.ku.dk2University of Southern Denmark, The Maersk Mc-Kinney Moller Institute, Campusvej 55, Denmark skalita@mip.sdu.dk bnj@mip.sdu.dk3University of Aarhus, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Horticulture, Kirstinebjergvej 10, Denmark co.ottosen@agrsci.dk

KeywordsGreenhouse climate, decision support systems (DSS), intelligent climate control,

use of weather predictions

AbstractSince 1996 a dynamic model based climate control concept (IntelliGrow) has been developed in Denmark. The aim of the system is to adjust the greenhouse climate dynamic, so that the natural resources are used as optimal as possible. The concept has been proved to work in both experimental (climate chamber) (Hansen et al., 1996) as well as in small greenhouse experiments with many diff erent cultivars of pot plants (Aaslyng et al., 2003), resulting in energy savings up to 40%, depending on the season. Based on the concept a new system (IntelliGrow 2.0) is being developed which off ers an improved user interface and an extensible component model. The aim is to test the system in full scale productions at fi ve Danish growers. This is done in steps: 1) development of a demonstrator giving the grower advice on optimal climate control and how IntelliGrow will take control of the climate 2) testing the demonstrator at research facilities followed by tests at growers 3) development of an active climate control system that will take control of the greenhouse climate based on overall goals set by the grower 4) tests of the active climate control system at research facilities and at the growers. It will be possible to download new components from a central server and include those into the model when these are available. In the new system special

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emphasis will be on components that utilize local weather predictions for energy saving purposes and timing of production as well as components with photosynthesis based strategies for use of artifi cial light. Expected results are extended knowledge of intelligent climate control in the greenhouse industry and a better production management and utilization of the recourses. An interdisciplinary competence network for fast fl ow of knowledge from research to practice in the future will be established. Design of the concept and the fi rst result will be presented.References

Aaslyng JM, Lund JB, Ehler N, Rosenqvist E (2003) IntelliGrow: a greenhouse component-based climate control system. Environmental Modelling & Software 18: 657-666Hansen JM, Hoegh-Schmidt K (1996) A computer controlled chamber system designed for greenhouse microclimatic modelling and control. Acta Hort 440: 310-315

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METHOD TO PREDICT ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF AN INDIVIDUAL GREENHOUSE Johannes Cornelius De Voogd, Jan Dekock, Erik Vranken, Pal Jancsok, Eddie

Schrevens, Daniel Berckmans

M3-BIORES, Department of Biosystems, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 30, Heverlee, Belgium publications@kuleuven.be

KeywordsEnergy prediction, data based mechanistic model, model predictive control

Abstract Energy effi ciency is and will play a key role in the profi tability of greenhouse production. Therefore much eff ort is spent in the development of new energy-saving technologies. Besides the development of energy storage and actuator systems, an effi cient management of these systems will be needed to reduce cost and energy. An accurate on-line prediction of the energy requirement or excess of the greenhouse for the coming hours, is therefore needed. In this paper a framework was set up to quantify the energy consumption. Therefore in a fi rst step, a suitable model structure for the indoor climate as a result of outside climate, energy input and control strategy was evaluated as basis for an on-line recursive estimation. Afterwards the recursive model of the indoor climate was used for the development of the energy prediction algorithm by means of a model predictive control strategy. In total, 3 datasets of 14 days (summer - autumn - winter) where evaluated by use of an ARX model structure for the greenhouse which models the indoor temperature as function of the energy supply with disturbance variables outside temperature and solar radiation. For each period, a second order model was selected based on R2 (> 0,97) and YIC (< -12.03). These models can be split up in two parallel fi rst order transfer functions with time constants for summer (1 and 18 minutes), autumn (1 and 20 minutes) and winter (1 and 25 minutes). It was concluded that a second order model algorithm was suitable for the recursive estimation of the indoor climate. Based on that recursive model, a model predictive control algorithm was developed that minimized the mean prediction error of the energy consumption to estimate the energy consumption for the upcoming hours. The accuracy of this energy prediction was function of the estimation horizon (>10 hours) and prediction horizon (>10 hours) of the control algorithm and the forgetting factor of the recursive algorithm. The energy prediction error for the evaluated systems ranged from 0 to 20%.

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FITTING MBM-A MODEL OF PLANT GROWTH TO THE DATA OF TOMGRO: IMPLICATION FOR GREENHOUSE OPTIMAL CONTROLIlya Ioslovich, Per-Olof Gutman

Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering,Technion, 32000 Haifa, Israelagrilya, peo@tx.technion.ac.il

KeywordsCrop models, crop growth, greenhouse, optimal control

AbstractMBM-A (Modifi ed Botanical Model-Adjusted) is a two state variable, three growth stage crop model, adjusted for a greenhouse opitmal control. The investigated problem is: does the simple MBM-A model can mimic and predict the approximately optimal behaviour of the very complicated model like TOMGRO? While TOMGRO has about 50 parameters and 71 state variables, and can not be directly used for the purpose of the optimal control, MBM-A has only 5 parameters and two variables. The stage oriented process is presented, where the optimal control problem associated with MBM-A model is solved and correspondent set of co-state variables are used for optimiztion of TOMGRO, while daily data from TOMGRO during the 8 months long season are used to exctract parameters of MBM-A model. A permanently oscillating climate has been used in this study.The swithes between growth stages are determined in terms of the eff ective temperature degree days, the length of the season in days from planting (DFP) is fi xed. The optimal growth is assumed to be presumably balanced, thus the source activity (daily accumulated dry matter) is balanced with sink demand controlled by the eff ective temperature. TOMGRO model has been adopted to the system WATCOM11 in order to be able to work in WINDOWS XP environment. There has been shown that the MB-A parameters can be sucessively exctracted from the data of TOMGRO by the stage-oriented process.The approximately optimal trajectory of lamped variables of TOMGRO (dry matter of green organs, dry matter of mature fruits) practically coincide with the correspondent trajectory of MBM-A model. A very good prediction of the mature fruits value and profi t of grower are obtained. Let us recall that the TOMGRO model was carefully calibrated with the multiple experimental data. In the future work there is a good perspective to use the MBM-A model for the greenhouse optimization.

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ReferencesIoslovich I, Seginer I, 1998. Approximate seasonal optimization of the greenhouse environment for a multi-state-variable tomato model,Trans. of the ASAE, 41 (4): 1139-1149.Seginer I, Ioslovich I., 1998, Seasonal optimization of the greenhouse environment for a simple two-stage crop growth model, Journal of agic. Engn. Res., 70 (2): 145-155. Ioslovich_I., P.-O. Gutman, 2005. On the botanic model of plant growth with intermediate vegetative-reproductive stage, Theoretical Population Biology, 68: 147-156

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A LOW-COST MULTIHOP WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORK, ENABLING REAL-TIME MANAGEMENT OF DATA FOR THE GREENHOUSE AND NURSERY INDUSTRYJohn D. Lea-Cox1, Andrew G. Ristvey2, Félix Arguedas Rodriguez3, Joshua Anhalt4,

George Kantor5

1University of Maryland, Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture, 2120 Plant Sciences Building, MD 20742 USA jlc@umd.edu2University of Maryland, Wye Research and Education Centre, 124 Wye Narrows Drive, Queenstown, MD 21658 USA aristvey@umd.edu3University of Maryland, Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture, 2178 Plant Sciences Building, MD 20742 USA fargueda@umd.edu4Carnegie Mellon University, Robotics Institute, 5000 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, PA 15213 anhalt@andrew.cmu.edu 5Carnegie Mellon University, Robotics Institute, 5000 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, PA 15213 kantor@ri.cmu.edu

KeywordsIrrigation, scheduling, electrical conductivity, user-friendly, internet

Abstract We have developed, deployed and tested a low-cost multi-hop wireless sensor network that enables the capture and synthesis of real-time substrate and environmental data on a wide-area basis. For example, plant water requirements vary by day, season and microclimate, depending on any number of environmental and plant developmental factors. By using the plant to integrate these environmental and growth diff erences over time, and by accurately monitoring the real-time water use of plants with substrate moisture, temperature and electrical conductivity sensors, irrigation and nutrient applications can be more precisely scheduled. This will reduce water use, leaching of nutrients and overall runoff from these intensive growing operations. Additionally, other sensors that simultaneously measure air temperature, canopy relative humidity, leaf wetness, and photosynthetically active radiation will allow us to model and better predict plant stress and disease pressure. We can now provide this data at any time to anyone at any place with internet access, since all data is managed through a

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web-based graphic-user interface. Since these sensor networks are entirely portable, growers can rapidly deploy the sensors in specifi c areas of the operation, to maximize the utility and cost of the sensors. Also, as these networks are scaleable, additional nodes can be added, allowing for an operation to grow and/or improve their sensor network at any time. We believe that based on the current cost of technology, a small ‘starter’ sensor network should cost no more than US$5,000 to install and operate, with installation entirely by the grower with supporting documentation and easy-to-follow instructions (plug and play operation).

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IMPROVEMENT OF GREENHOUSE MANAGEMENT THROUGH OPTIMIZATION OF A DATA ACQUISITION AND PROCESSING SUBSYSTEMAlexey Kychkin1, Olga Plaksina2, Peter Palensky2

1ITAS Department, Perm State Technical University, Ak. Pozdeeva, 7/225, 614013 Perm, Russia ak@itas.pstu.ru2Institute of Computer Technology, Vienna University of Technology, Gusshausstrasse 27-29/E384, A-1040 Vienna, Austria, {plaxina, palensky}@ict.tuwien.ac.at

KeywordsGreenhouse management, data acquisition and processing, wireless networks,

distributed system

AbstractGreenhouse operation is a large branch of agriculture where highly experienced labor and technical challenge represent the essential component. In order to assure a profi table business enterprise, greenhouse management should consider both long- and short-term planning interims. Prospective policies, depending on market demands, taxes, quality of products and other criteria, have their impact on what and how should be produced, which, in its turn, defi nes the objectives, restrictions and set points for the 24-hour operation. Continuous controlling of greenhouse equipment in order to ensure optimal conditions involve processing of large amount of data: the interior and exterior environmental data are needed to provide the proper crop development, technical data determining equipment as well as greenhouse structure states help to avoid unpleasant situations and provide with well-timed actions. Other way round, the low-level data is necessary for adjustments and predictions in global management structure. This means, for the proper greenhouse operation, it is essential to obtain the objective and accurate fi eld data. Modern distributed data acquisition systems are complex objects and need to meet enhancing requirements of effi ciency and quality. Thus, the number of information fl ows transmitted via communication channels is increasing but in most cases the existing solutions for collecting and analyzing of data are not capable to provide with objective information or do not correspond with fl exibility, mobility, transparency and security criteria, which are features of distributed control systems. Wireless systems are actively used and gaining in their popularity for data collecting in military, medical and biomedical, automotive and marine fi elds, due to their fl exibility, low cost, low power usage and

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wider coverage, but are still incipient in protected cultivation. Therefore, a balanced wireless network based structure for distributed data collecting and processing would contribute to increasing the global profi tability of greenhouse operation. In spite of existing standardization for the design of distributed data acquisition systems, such complexes are being built according to their particular principles, without considering entire functional system capacities. As a goal, they set the optional target for some specifi c functionality, whereas other important criteria are being ignored. The existing fi rmware off erings for optimization of communication channels and data collecting help to fi nd a solution of the synthesis task of a distributed data acquisition system but do not solve it. In connection with greenhouse industry, the paper examines existing tools for designing of proper environmental data acquisition systems and off ers a model for synthesis of such a structure, based on a system approach, and taking into account benefi ts of wireless networks as well as specifi c restrictions and requirements of greenhouse business.

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PROMOTING ENERGY EFFICIENT PRODUCTION IN HORTICULTURE EXCHANGE OF KNOWLEDGE BETWEEN RESEARCH AND PRACTICE THROUGH THE INTERNET Fokke Buwalda1*, Gert Jan Swinkels1, Feije de Zwart1, Jop Kipp1, Frank Kempkes1,

Ton van Gastel2, Hans van Bokhoven3

1Wageningen UR Greenhouse Horticulture, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands2Reed Business Information, Benoordenhoutseweg 46, 2596 BC The Hague, The Netherlands3LetsGrow.com, Westlandseweg 190, 3131 HX Vlaardingen, the Netherlands*fokke.buwalda@wur.nl

KeywordsKnowledge exchange, horticultural research, growers, internet, energy effi cient

production

AbstractIn view of increasing fuel cost and current targets for CO2 emission reduction, there is a need to increase energy effi ciency in horticulture. Horticultural production is a complex process, the effi ciency of which is rarely attributable to a single factor. In addition, optima tend to vary with internal states and outside conditions. Hence research-based advice to growers aimed at improving performance of the production process is often too generic in nature to be useful to growers dealing with specifi c situations. The challenge is to generate advice, specifi cally addressing current conditions, without the need to frequently visit large numbers of individual nurseries. In The Netherlands, internet technology is being used to collect data at commercial example nurseries, monitor crop and climate conditions using dynamic models, and publish nearly real-time results on a generally accessible web portal, where it is linked with an information database and weblogs by growers, advisors and researchers. Five nurseries are currently acting as data sources for the project, including tomato (2), chrysanthemum (1), fi cus (1) and Freesia (1) growers. By using local 7 d weather forecasts and current climate controller settings as input for crop and climate models, the information presented in the form of time courses does not only encompass last week’s performance, but also a forecast for the coming week. Model output includes a real-time energy balance of the greenhouse/crop system, calculated daily fuel effi ciency over the period stretching from 4 days in the past to the next 4 days in the future,

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as well as time courses of the response of crop photosynthesis to variations in light, temperature and CO2 concentration, of condensation risk, and of the ratio between crop growth and development. Three aspects are being tested, which may improve knowledge exchange between practice and research: (i) experience-based knowledge of growers is treated as being diff erent from, but equally valid as, the process-based knowledge of scientists; (ii) displaying real-time model output makes it possible to deal with the context-dependency of complex dynamic systems; (iii) extending the calculations into the future enables growers visiting the site to anticipate the eff ects of changing weather conditions and adjust the settings of their climate controllers in order to increase the energy-effi ciency of their production process.

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A SYSTEM TO MONITORING TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY IN GREENHOUSES USING A MICRO NETWORKIsidro-Pioquinto E., López-Cruz I., Vázquez-Peña M.

Postgrado en Ingeniería Agrícola y Uso Integral del Agua; Universidad Autónoma Chapingo; Chapingo, Méxicoilopez@correo.chapingo.mx

KeywordsMicro network, greenhouse climate, monitoring system

AbstractMexican greenhouse industry is growing very rapidly. However, the monitoring of climatic variables inside greenhouses is still limited. In order to increase the knowledge of greenhouse climate, and also to improve the management of Mexican greenhouses, the measurement of variables such as air temperature and humidity are important. The current work focused on the development of a low cost data acquisition system for climatic variables inside a Mexican greenhouse. Basically, the proposed system is based on a combination of technologies applied in areas diff erent than agriculture, such as networks, data transmission among sensors, actuators connected directly to a PC or microcontroller and the data storage in relational databases. The design system used the MicroLand technology (1 Wire Dallas Semiconductors), which consist on the connection of several devices (sensors and actuators) on an unique wire. There, each device is identifi ed inside the network by an unique identifi er of 64 bits which is laser recorded from the factory. The PC interface used the USB port. In this way, in theory it is possible to connect approximately 200 devices to the network, inside a distance of 300 m. But still one could expand the network by using several hubs. The network architecture is as follows: the wire was RJ11 cable, the device to measure air temperature was a Honeywell digital sensor DS1820. The device to measure humidity was a Honeywell sensor HIH-3610. Also a Honeywell digital converter DS2438 was used. The system was programmed using Builder C++ for Windows together with the open software database engine FireBird, which is compatible with Borland’s InterBase. The system allows to export data in Excel format and also in CVS format to ODBC, ActiveX, and also Java a by using the TCP/IP protocol. The designed data acquisition system consists of hardware and software. The software identify each device connected to the MicroLAN and records each variable measure by the sensors inside a database in the PC. The designed system with two sensors has been tested in a small greenhouse locate at the University of Chapingo, in Chapingo, México. The

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greenhouse characteristics are 11 m width and 42 m large, volume 1617 m3, oriented north-south in which tomatoes are grown. Sensors were located at the center of the greenhouse. Real-time plots of both variables temperature and humidity are generated on the screen of the computer. Additional tests, by using up to 100 sensors are required in order to investigate robustness and accuracy of the system.

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A NEURAL NETWORK MODEL TO PREDICT TEMPERATURE AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY IN A GREENHOUSERaquel Salazar, Irineo López, Abraham Rojano

University of Chapingo. Km 38.5 Carr. México-Texcoco Chapingo, Edo. México, C.P 56230 Mexico raquels85@yahoo.com.mx - ilopez@correo.chapingo.mx - abrojano@hotmail.com

KeywordsTemperature, relative humidity, greenhouse, neural networks

Abstract Tomato is one of the most important crops in the world produced in greenhouses, because of it´s high prices in the market in some periods of the year and economic benefi ts in labor generation and exports revenue, however the crop is sensitive to temperature and relative humidity changes. In general, temperature and relative humidity conditions has great infl uence in all physiological processes in the plants and consequently on productivity. There are optimal temperatures for each phenological state of the crop, below or above these temperatures plants could have problems that aff ect productivity. The optimal day average temperatures for tomato are between 20 and 25 ºC. For night, optimum average temperatures are between 15 to 20 ºC. In addition, optimal relative humidity is between 50-60%. This research was developed in a interconnected polyethylene greenhouse with tomato, located in Chapingo State of Mexico, in which temperature and relative humidity were measured every fi ve minute from January 23 to February 02 2007 and we found in this period temperature variations between 5oC and 40oC and relative humidity oscillation between 22 -98% which is not in the optimal ranges, therefore a good environmental control tool is necessary to keep these variables inside of the optimal levels. Artifi cial Neural Network (ANN) technology was applied to predict temperature and relative humidity inside of the greenhouse because it often off ers a superior alternative to traditional physical-based models, and excel at uncovering patterns or relationships in data. It is also a powerful non-linear estimator which is recommended when the functional form between input-output is unknown or it is not well understood but it is believed could be nonlinear. Three neural network models were implemented in the Matlab Neural Networks Toolbox, all of them with the same inputs: outside temperature (°C), outside relative humidity (%), solar radiation (Wm-2) and wind speed (ms-1). The fi rst model considered only temperature as an output with a mean square error (MSE) of 3.03 between real and predicted temperature values. The second model took into account

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relative humidity as an output with a MSE of 22.41 between real and predicted relative humidity values. Finally the third model considered two outputs temperature and relative humidity at the same time and produces an MSE equal to 3.39 for temperature and MSE equal to 29.23 for relative humidity. This feasibility study demonstrates that ANN technology has the potential to serve as a highly accurate forecasting tool. Moreover, ANN technology can continuously be updated, as new data become available, increasing its forecasting ability.

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COMPARISON OF ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK AND REGRESSION MODELS FOR ESTIMATING GREENHOUSE CLIMATE MODELA. Hasni1, B. Draoui1, T. Boulard2, F. Bounaama1, M. Tamali1

1Centre Universitaire de Bechar Institut des sciences exactes B.P 417, 08000, Béchar Algeria2INRA-URIH 400, route des ChappesBP 167, 06903 Sophia Antipolis France

KeywordsArtifi cial neural network, regression models, greenhouse, climate models

AbstractGreenhouse climate and crop models and specially reduced models are essential for improving environmental management and control effi ciency. In recent years, a number of studies have used neural networks in various stages of software development. This study compares the prediction performance of multilayer perceptron and radial basis function neural networks to that of regression analysis. The results of the study indicate that when a combined third generation and fourth generation languages data set were used, the neural network produced improved performance over conventional regression analysis in terms of mean absolute percentage error.

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WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS: STATE OF THE ART AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVEBart van Tuijl1, Erik van Os1, Eldert van Henten1-2

1Wageningen UR Greenhouse Horticulture, Bornsesteeg 65, 6708 PD, Wageningen, The Netherlands bart.vantuijl@wur.nl - erik.vanos@wur.nl 2Farm Technology Group, Wageningen University, Bornsesteeg 59, 6708 PD, Wageningen, The Netherlands eldert.vanhenten@wur.nl

KeywordsGreenhouse, sensor, control, monitoring, wireless network

Abstract To reduce labour cost the span of control of fi rst line personnel- and production managers is increasing; fewer managers oversee more personnel and more production area. This makes the decision making process more complex and the need for more information from the greenhouse work fl oor is increasing. Contrary to this the production systems in greenhouses are monitored and managed at a smaller scale. There is an increasing amount of information coming from those smaller individual sub-systems. To gather this information, Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) are beginning to play an important role.In a greenhouse a WSN may consist of a network of several nodes which communicate with each other by radio. A node has several microprocessors which can handle small programs that manage the incoming and outgoing radio messages. Each node is connected to one or more sensors (temperature, relative humidity, light etc.). The measured data is sent via the node network by radio to a base station connected to a PC for storage. The electronics and software that make up the node are designed with low power consumption in mind. Usually the nodes are battery fed and the radio transmitter power is low to increase battery life. Sensor information can be sent over 100 to 1000 meters depending on the radio bandwidth used. If the distance between a node and the base station exceeds this distance, then an intermediate node will act as a relay node. This is called hopping. The US military started the technical development of WSN in the early 90’s. Recently WSN came on the industrial market. WSN is for example used to monitor temperature in art galleries and warehouses etc. A few years ago, WSN entered the agricultural and horticultural domain. Advantages of WSN over wired sensor systems are: the low installation costs, fl exibility and mobility and the possibility to use for distributed computing. This paper presents a survey of

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the state of the art of WSN. Technical requirements for use of WSN in greenhouse crop production will be discussed. So far, WSN has been used in two research projects of Wageningen UR Greenhouse Horticulture. The fi rst is a project that investigates the risks of Botrytis on Gerbera fl owers by monitoring the temperature and humidity within the crop via a WSN. In a second project, a WSN with 100 nodes is used to measure spatial temperature and humidity diff erences as a possible cause for yield and quality diff erences in diff erent crops. Preliminary results of a working WSN will be presented. In the future the results of this paper will be used as a guide line to build up a WSN suited for the demands and requirements from greenhouse practices.

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AN EMPIRICAL APPROACH TO THE DELINEATION OF GROWING CONDITIONS WITHIN COOL-DRY AND COOL-MOIST COOLED CONSERVATORIES IN SINGAPOREKenneth Boon Hwee Er1, Kishnani Nirmal2, Wolfgang Kessling3, Vincent Koo Yong

Bian1

1Gardens by the Bay Development Offi ce, National Parks Board of Singapore, Singapore Botanic Gardens, 1 Cluny Road, Singapore 259569 kenneth_er@nparks.gov.sg2CPG Consultants Pte Ltd, 238B Thomson Road, #15-00, Tower B, Novena Square, Singapore 307685 n.kishnani@cpgcorp.com.sg3TRANSSOLAR Energietechnik GmbH, Curiestraße 2D - 70563 Stuttgart kessling@transsolar.com

KeywordsGrowing conditions, conservatory, design, Singapore

AbstractThis paper presents an empirical approach that is the basis for the design of cooled conservatories in the new Gardens by the Bay (GB) development in Singapore. The conservatories, consisting of two biomes that are in total approximately 2 hectares in size, will maintain cool-dry and cool-moist environments with fl owering plants from Mediterranean and Tropical Montane regions, and a changing display of cool temperate annuals. The challenges of accomplishing this in the hot-humid climate of Singapore are (a) managing the temperature and humidity diff erentials between the indoor and outdoor environments and (b) balancing horticultural demand for natural light against the need to minimize cooling loads due to solar gains. It is critical in this context, where the diff erence between outdoor and indoor environment is signifi cant, that the conditions necessary for plant growth and fl owering are described clearly with fi ndings based on real-world observations, since these will form the basis for the design of energy-reliant systems needed to support these indoor environments.A technical study was carried out by the project team to delineate optimal growing conditions. This study adopted a two-pronged approach – which is the focus of this paper – to determine acceptable bandwidths of temperature, humidity and light. The fi rst step was a statistical analysis of climate data from weather stations across the world, situated in Mediterranean and Tropical Montane locations, which were used to defi ne upper and lower limits for temperature and relative humidity. The second was a

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review of the building skin of several conservatories across the world. This was used to benchmark natural light levels within the future GB Conservatories.These fi ndings – described as design conditions – are discussed in the specifi c context of the climate of Singapore along with available architectural and engineering technologies. Prototype Glasshouses are presently under construction, incorporating those strategies and technologies deemed appropriate to achieve design conditions. The energy impact of these technologies has been modeled to assess their cumulative impact. Following the commissioning of the Prototype Glasshouses, observations and measurements will be made – plant growth and fl owering, indoor ambient conditions and energy use – to validate initial fi ndings of the technical study.

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SCREENHOUSE MICROCLIMATE EFFECTS ON CUCUMBER PLANTED IN HYDROPONICS SYSTEMYaseen A. Al-Mulla1*, Muther Al-Rawahy2, Fatma Al-Raseesi2, Mohammed Al-

Balushi1, Salem Al-Makhmary2

1Department of Soils, Water and Agricultural Engineering, College of Agricultural and Marine Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, P.O.Box 34, Al-Khod 123, Sultanate of Oman2Directorate General of Agricultural Research and Live Stock, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, P.O. Box 50, Seeb 121, Sultanate of Oman*yalmula@squ.edu.om

KeywordsScreenhouse, microclimate, hydroponics, cucumber, substrates

AbstractNumber of screenhouses has increased in recent years in many areas of the world especially the arid and semi-arid regions including the Arabian Peninsula countries like the Sultanate of Oman. That is due to benefi ts and advantages of screenhouses over the greenhouses especially in the period between October and April of the year as it is the case in Oman where two types of screenhouses are commonly used; Quonset type and rectangular shaped type. Both covered with 80 micron insect proof screen opening size. As very few information was found that deals with screenhouses microclimate and its eff ect on crop production, this paper presents the results of an experimental work aimed to evaluate the eff ects of Oman fi rst type screenhouse microclimate on cucumber planted in hydroponics system and to evaluate the eff ects of two types of substrate growing systems, Wood Straw (WS) and Date palm Straw (DS), on the cucumber production in terms of yield in kilograms and number of fruits/cucumbers. Cucumbers planted in WS gave better and statistically signifi cant yield than those planted in DS system. The number of fruits/cucumbers produced was also larger with WS but not signifi cant than with DS system. The average inside temperature was warmer than outside by 0.4-3 °C during January and February but it was colder than outside by 0.2-0.8 °C during March and April. The inside vapor pressure defi cit (VPD) was always lower than outside by 0.2-1 kPa during the whole period of the study. The average transmissivity of the screenhouse was 0.53. Average temperature at the middle section of the screenhouse was always, but slightly, lower than both the front

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and back sections. Relative humidity, on other hand, was always higher (max. by 5.8%) than both sections which explain the lower values of VPD at that section than the other two sections at all times of the study. That gave better climate for cucumber to grow and produce better yield in the middle section than in the front and back sections of the screenhouse.

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GREENHOUSE TUNNEL VENTILATION DEPENDENCE ON TOMATO CROP HEIGHT AND LEAF AREA INDEX Hicham Fatnassi1, Christel Leyronas2, Thierry Boulard1, Marc Bardin2

1INRA URIH, 400, route des Chappes, BP 167, 06903 Sophia Antipolis, Francefatnassi@sophia.inra.fr 2INRA, Unité de Pathologie Végétale, Domaine St Maurice, 84143 Montfavet cedex, France christel.leyronas@avignon.inra.fr

KeywordsGreenhouse tunnel, tomato crop, height, leaf area index, ventilation

AbstractGreenhouse ventilation depends on a large number of parameters such as inside and outside climate and greenhouse and vents designs. They have been intensively studied and incorporated in various global ventilation models. However it depends also strongly on the crop occupying the greenhouse space, mostly for tall crops such as tomato crops. This dependence is particularly important for greenhouse tunnels which lateral openings can be partially obstructed by tomato rows but only very few studies were devoted in the past to this crucial question. Motivated by this important issue, we have systematically studied the eff ect of tomato crop rows on the ventilation rate of a tunnel type greenhouse. The greenhouse tunnel natural ventilation was studied experimentally by means of a tracer gas method for three stages of tomato crop height: a case (i) without any crop; a case (ii) with a young 1m height tomato crop and; (iii) a last case with a mature 2.13 m high tomato crop. The ventilation effi ciency dependence of the greenhouse tunnel on crop height, leaf area index and wind direction has been assessed and a numerical relation has been deduced by means of a polynomial correlation.

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THE EFFECT OF DIFFUSE LIGHT ON CROPSSilke Hemming, Tom Dueck, Jan Janse, Filip van Noort

Wageningen UR Greenhouse Horticulture, P.O. Box 16, Bornsesteeg 65, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands silke.hemming@wur.nl

KeywordsCovering material, cucumbers, pot plants, photosynthesis, morphology,

AbstractIn Dutch glass greenhouses light is not distributed equally in the greenhouse. Fruit vege¬tables like cucumbers with a high leaf area index intercept a high quantity of light with the upper leaves, the lower leaves receive much less light and hardly contribute to photosynthesis and therefore to growth and production. If we it is possible to shift light from the upper crop layer to the lower crop layer the photosynthetic effi ciency of the whole plant will be increased. This can be realised by making all incoming light into the greenhouse diff use. From earlier investigations in ecosystems it is known that diff use light is able to penetrate deeper into a plant canopy in comparison to direct light. In young plants and plants with a low plant canopy like pot plants also the horizontal light distribution is not optimal. Cast shadows from the greenhouse construction have a negative infl uence on the plant production. To get a uniform production the light distribution has to be uniform over the whole canopy. This can also be achieved by diff use light. Wageningen UR Greenhouse Horticulture studies the eff ect of diff use light on crops since several years. Model and experimental studies showed that crops as well fruit vegetables with a high plant canopy as ornamentals with a small plant canopy can use diff use light better than direct light. The light distribution within the crop changes as well as the photosynthetic response does. The yield of cucumbers is increased, the growth of several pot plants is accelerated. The eff ects of diff use light on photosynthesis, morphology, crop temperatures and greenhouse climate will be explained. Several parameters were investigated such as leaf orientation, leaf area, LAI, dry matters of diff erent plant organs, RuBisCo content, light-response curves, SPAD values with modern techniques and sensors such as 2D and 3D vision technique, modern light sensors and a mobile photosynthetic meter. The result of these investigations is a quantitative foundation for the potentials of diff use light in Dutch horticultural greenhouses and the selection of technological methods to make sunlight diff use including a practical verifi cation. Moreover, the suitability of several greenhouse covering materials and their optical properties (PAR transmission τdirect and τdiff use, haze) is investigated in the laboratories as well as in practice.

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SIMULATED EFFECTS OF CANOPY SIZE, RELATIVE HUMIDITY, LIGHT MANAGEMENT LEVELS, CO2 DOSING, AND MINIMUM VENTILATION RATES ON ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN OPEN AND CONFINED GREENHOUSE SYSTEMSIlhami Yildiz1, Dennis P. Stombaugh2

1Department of BioResource and Agricultural Engineering, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, CA 93407, USA iyildiz@calpoly.edu2Department of Food, Agricultural and Biological Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA

KeywordsEnergy conservation, light management, CO2 dosing, minimum ventilation,

greenhouse heating and cooling

AbstractA dynamic simulation model was developed and validated to predict energy and mass exchanges in a greenhouse as a function of dynamic environmental factors. The model has options to evaluate the eff ects of location, time of the year, orientation, single and double polyethylene glazings, conventional and heat pump heating and cooling systems, open and confi ned greenhouse systems, CO2 enrichment, variable shading, and the use of night curtains. Conventional gas furnaces and evaporative cooling, respectively, provided heating and cooling in the conventional system. In the heat pump systems, gas-fi red heat pump units provided both heating and cooling. The greenhouse with heat pump units also had an option to be operated as a completely confi ned system, using one of the heat pump units as a dehumidifi er. The objective of this study was to evaluate the eff ects of canopy size, relative humidity, light management levels, CO2 enrichment and minimum ventilation rates on energy consumption in three diff erent greenhouse systems (conventional, open-loop heat pump, and confi ned heat pump) in winter, spring, and summer months. Overall, the partial canopy (0.4 m) greenhouse systems had approximately 25% more energy consumption than the full canopy (2.0 m) greenhouse systems. No diff erence was observed in energy consumption with relative humidity set point levels in winter due to the already low relative humidity levels. Some diff erences were observed in spring and summer months due to extra dehumidifi cation required to maintain the inside relative humidity at lower levels. Energy consumption in summer was reduced up to 25.5% by using an 80% relative humidity set point instead of 70% in the open-loop heat pump

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system. Using a 250 W/m2 light management level instead of 350 W/m2 resulted in a 5% reduction in energy consumption in summer months, but the energy used for ventilation and heating did not change in summer. The only change was observed in the energy required for cooling. Using a CO2 enrichment level of 1000 ppm compared to an enrichment level of 350 ppm resulted in a slight decrease in leaf temperatures during the day. And this decrease caused a decrease in the air temperature resulting in slightly higher energy consumption for heating the greenhouse. This small increase in the energy consumption was about 1.7%. However, the energy consumption was signifi cantly aff ected by the minimum ventilation rate. A 50% reduction (using 0.005 m3/s * m2 instead of 0.01 m3/s * m2) in the minimum ventilation rate resulted in 26%, 21%, and 1.5% decreases in total energy consumptions in winter, spring, and summer, respectively.

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INCREASED CUCUMBER PRODUCTION BY GREENHOUSE COOLINGLiisa Särkkä, Eeva-Maria Luomala, Timo Kaukoranta

MTT Argifood Research Finland, Horticulture, Toivonlinnantie 518, 21500 Piikkiö, Finland liisa.sarkka@mtt.fi

KeywordsChlorophyll fl uorescence, modelling, photosynthesis, plant structure, yield

AbstractA cooling and drying system of greenhouse air was tested on cucumber (Cucumis sativus L. cv. Cumuli) cultivation for two summers, 2005 and 2006, at Agrifood Research Finland, Horticulture, in Piikkiö. The system was described earlier in Särkkä et al. 2006 (Acta Horticulturae 719: 439-445). In this presentation we show how the cooling aff ected growth and yield, what where the main physiological alterations beneath, and end up with modelling analysis that integrates the greenhouse microclimate with growth and economical gain. The experiments show that the cooling system can provide a large increase in productivity compared to conventional roof ventilation cooling system even in temperate climates.During the 14 harvesting weeks from May to August in 2006, reduced need for ventilation in the cooled compartment allowed maintaining of constantly higher CO2 concentration (average1000 ppm) than in the control compartment (average 400 ppm). The yield increased both in quality and quantity. The fi rst class yield of cucumber fruits obtained from the cooling was 42 kg m-2 and from the control 30 kg m-2. As percentages of the total yield, this was 88% in the cooling and 79% in the control compartment. The higher yield was mainly attributed to increased net photosynthesis at higher CO2 concentration. Higher harvest index in the cooling than in the control showed that assimilates were more effi ciently partitioned to the fruits than to other plant parts. Gas exchange and chlorophyll fl uorescence measurements made on cucumber leaves revealed that photosynthetic capacity studied as CO2- and light response was not altered during growth at higher CO2 concentration. The structure of the plants and allocation of biomass and nitrogen were altered in a way that favours carbon assimilation and probably contributed to higher yield. In the cooling, the stems and the internodes were longer than in the control. As a consequence, the total number of leaves per plant was smaller in the cooling. The reduction in the number of leaves was, however, compensated by larger individual leaves and by a larger total leaf area in the cooling. In addition, the proportional area of young leaves was greater and their nitrogen content was lower in the cooling,

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which implies that the plants allocated N to produce greater area of young leaves with lower N concentration (per dry weight), but with similar photosynthetic capacity (per leaf area). Greater leaf area increases production of carbohydrates in photosynthesis, but also higher proportional area of young leaves is favourable for growth, because young leaves assimilate more effi ciently than older ones.

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EVALUATION OF COMBINED USE OF FOG SYSTEMS AND CO2 ENRICHMENT IN GREENHOUSES BY USING PHYTOMONITORING DATAUwe Schmidt, Chrisian Huber

Institute for Horticultural Sciences, Humboldt University Berlin, Lentzeallee 55-57, D-14195 u.schmidt@agrar.hu-berlin.de

KeywordsGas exchange effi ciency, Mollier diagram, greenhouse ventilation, boundary layer

condition, stomatal aperture

AbstractWith fog systems an effi cient method is available to increase vapour pressure diff erence between surrounding air and leaf. In times with high global radiation a perceptible cooling eff ect occurs by evaporating of fl oating small water drips. If fog systems and CO2 enrichment is operating at the same time a signifi cant change of microclimate occurs. On the one hand for protecting plants against fungi diseases relative humidity should not increase above 90 % and for a continuous greenhouse cooling eff ect the vapour should remove from the greenhouse. On the other hand with ventilation opening the vapour removes very quickly together with CO2. For managing these coupled systems a precise control of the microclimate is necessary. An essential prerequisite is to have more information’s from the plant. Using a phytomonitoring system the microclimate between a greenhouse with CO2 enrichment and fog system was compared to a greenhouse with CO2 enrichment without fog. To evaluate the mass transfer conditions, a new quantifying parameter - the gas exchange effi ciency – was defi ned. For the calculation of this parameter the ratio between measured and potential CO2 uptake at given light intensity was calculated. For visualisation of the diff erence the Mollier plot method (Schmidt, 2004. Acta Hort. 691:125-132) was used. In summer 2006 the infl uence of diff erent air humidity with CO2 enrichment was conducted with tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum). The experiments were undertaken in two 70 m2 greenhouse cabins with special control algorithm and phytomonitoring systems. Beside short term measurements also fruit yield and quality were recorded. In the results, higher gas exchange effi ciency was measured in the cabin with fog system. This was attended with a 16 % higher fruit yield and increase in fruit quality. Analysing the stomatal movement and boundary layer condition it can be assumed

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that higher relative humidity is lowering leaf transpiration and feeds CO2 transport through the boundary layer. A special control algorithm was developed to remove only the vapour from the greenhouse. Combining fog system and short time opening ventilation (STOV) CO2 can keep longer inside the greenhouse in times with higher global radiation. Using the calculated plant temperature the fog system was also controlled to keep a defi ned dew point distance to protect the plants against diseases.

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UNCERTAINTY ON ESTIMATED PREDICTIONS OF ENERGY DEMAND FOR DEHUMIDIFICATION IN A CLOSED TOMATO GREENHOUSEEddie Schrevens1, Pal Jancsok1, Karel Dieussaert1

1Department of Biosystems, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, K Universiteit Leuven, Willem de Croylaan 42, 3001 Leuven, Belgium eddie.schrevens@biw.kuleuven.be

KeywordsClosed greenhouse, dehumidifi cation, uncertainty, tomato

AbstractThe main reasons to keep a greenhouse closed are twofold. On the one hand an increase in production can be realized by continuously controlled, high CO2 fertilization avoiding extensive emission to the environment and on the other hand possibilities for energy conservation and recuperation can be exploited. The net energy demands for heating, cooling and dehumidifi cation in a closed greenhouse under Western European climate conditions are considerable and are characterized by extensive daily, weekly and seasonal fl uctuations due to outside climate and plant growth and development. As a result, the set up of the optimal specifi cations (thermodynamic and control technology) of such a climate control system are so complex that optimal scenarios and strategies can impossibly be developed by experimental research. As a consequence an accurate bio-physical model of the system is a prerequisite. Typically such a model consists of a pure deterministic, physics based, heat- and mass-transfer model interacting with a deterministic, semi-empirical crop model. Specifi cally for the modeling of the air humidity and the development of optimal dehumidifi cation strategies, accurate knowledge of the interaction between the crop and the inside climate is essential. The objective of this paper is to investigate the eff ects of ‘empirical’ crop parameters and their variability on the uncertainty in the estimated predictions of energy demand for dehumidifi cation in a closed greenhouse, with special emphasis on the diff erent assumptions in the calculations of the heat balance of the leaves in diff erent transpiration sub-models. All simulations were carried out under unlimited heating, cooling and dehumidifi cation capacities, as a result the climate set-points are realized exactly (exact closed greenhouse conditions). Climate set-point profi les were set along to commercial practice in a tomato crop in Belgium.The main crop growth parameters infl uencing the transpiration of the plant are the leaf area development per plant and per plant/stem density (LAI) and the overall plant

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morphology. Concerning the latter, simplifi ed assumptions are necessary to calculate the net radiation, captured by the crop, essential to compute the photosynthesis and the leave temperature. The leave temperature on his turn together with estimates of the boundary layer resistance and the air velocity is necessary for convection loss calculations of the leaves. Finally the transpiration rates are computed from the inside climate conditions, the net radiation on the leaves, the convection losses and the stomatal and boundary layer resistances. The paper concentrates on the uncertainty propagation on dehumidifi cation demands, induced by variability on LAI profi les, resistances and net radiation caused by random error on the one hand and diff erent model specifi cations on the other hand.

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PHOTOSYNTHESIS CANOPY MODEL VALIDATION FOR GREENHOUSE CLIMATE MANAGEMENTMarco Sciortino1, Dvoralai Wulfsohn2, Andrea Andreassen2, Giorgio Gianquinto1,

Jesper M. Aaslyng2

1Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Agromabientali, Università Degli Studi di Bologna - Alma Mater Studiorum, Via Fanin 44, 40127, Bologna, Italy m_sciortino@hotmail.it2Department of Agricultural Sciences, The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University (KVL), Højbakkegaard Allė 30, DK-2630 Taastrup, Denmark

KeywordsClimatic control, Energetic effi cency, Greenhouses, Modelling Photosynthesis

AbstractPhotosynthesis plays a key role in all crop productivity systems and must be accurately calculated at the canopy level. If this process is quite easy to simulate at the leaf level, the simulation at a whole canopy is still diffi cult. The objective of this study was to validate two canopy photosynthesis models considering diff erent temperature treatments and measuring climate at canopy level. Thirty-fi ve chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium, L.) plants were placed in fi ve climatic chambers at fi ve diff erent air temperature treatments; these chambers worked as a semi-closed system, where the canopy net photosynthesis (Pnc,meas) was measured. The major approach adopted was to divide the canopy in 3 layers: bottom(bb), medium (mm) and top (tt). In each layer values of PAR, temperature and CO2 concentration were recorded and used as input for the two leaf models M1 and M2 respectively.To obtain the simulated canopy net photosynthesis (Pnc,sim) [μmol CO2 m 2 s 1], two methods have been used. The former one assumes that all leaves in each layer have the same photosynthesized as the leaf at the upper point (M1_Y; M2_Y) and the second one based on Lambert-Beer law (M1_X; M2_X). The model validation occurred by the comparison between measured canopy photosynthesis and simulated one, taking into account which among the climatic factors could have infl uenced the photosynthesis. The behaviour of the model was considered good considering that the photosynthesis models M1 and M2 were not specifi c for chrysanthemum but generic models for C3 plants. Some of the aspects that the models did not take into account and that could

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have aff ected the overestimation were the photoinhibition, the refl ection of leaves, the angle between leaf and light rays and the changes during the day, while stomata resistance and carboxylation resistance to CO2 diff usion were considered constant. For all these reasons, at the end, a correction and an improvement of the model is necessary. The canopy photosynthesis models can be considered as investigation tools in research but also as direct applications in greenhouse management.

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MECHANICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF PLASTIC NETS FOR PROTECTED CULTIVATIONPietro Picuno1, Alfonso Tortora1, Carmela Sica2

1DITEC Department, University of Basilicata, Campus Macchia Romana - 85100 Potenza, Italy picuno@unibas.it, alfonso.tortora@unibas.it2PROGESA Department, University of Bari, Via Amendola, 165/a, 70126 Bari, Italy sica@unibas.it

KeywordsPermeable covers, shading nets, windbreaks, mechanical properties

AbstractA large dissemination of diff erent plastic materials for protected cultivation has been observed during the last decades, mainly plastic fi lms for greenhouse covering. At the same time growing interest has more recently arisen also about plastic nets used in protected cultivation, that in Italy cover many thousands of hectares. Plastic nets are used for diff erent agricultural purposes: for the protection from hail and wind in fruit-farming; for greenhouse shading; biological nets for the protection against virus-vector insects. Mechanical properties of plastic fi lms for greenhouse cladding were studied in the past, through mechanical tests conducted on new and aged material. The obtained results allowed to verify the agreement to specifi c standards, and provided indication about the possibility to employ some new plastic materials, e.g. recycled or bio-degradable, being able to remarkably reduce the environmental impact of protected cultivation. On the contrary, nets used for agricultural application were not subjected to mechanical tests so far.The mechanical characteristics of nets should be analyzed starting from their fi bers, which constitute the basic structural unit of a woven. By employing standard testing methods, the mechanical properties of the fi bers could be determined, but in cases when the geometry of the woven net is rather complicated, the net should be analysed as such, or it may be modelled as a structural system made up of idealised ‘fi ber-units’.Main objective of the present paper has been to investigate the mechanical properties of some plastic nets diff used in the Italian market in order to compare their characteristics according to an agricultural employment. By means of a universal testing machine Galdabini PMA10, laboratory tests on 6 diff erent typologies of agricultural plastic net

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(3 for windbreak + 3 for anti-aphides application) were conducted, and the results reported in terms of tensile strength and tensile strain at maximum load.The results showed a proportionality between the deformation of the samples and the applied strength, until the breaking value. A diff erent behavior, depending on their specifi c application (windbreak or anti-aphides), during the laboratory tests was also noticed.

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FRUIT YIELD AND QUALITY IN KIWIFRUIT VINES PROTECTED BY PHOTO-SELECTIVE ANTI-HAIL NETSBoris Basile1, Matteo Giaccone1, Rosaria Romano1, Giulia Graziani2, Alberto Ritieni2,

Yosepha Shahak3, Marcello Forlani1

1Dipartimento di Arboricoltura, Botanica e Patologia Vegetale, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Via Università 100, 80055 Portici (Naples), Italy boris@unina.it2Dipartimento di Scienza degli Alimenti, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Via Università 100, 80055 Portici (Naples), Italy3Institute of Horticulture, ARO The Volcani Center, Bet-Dagan, Israel

KeywordsActinidia deliciosa, soluble solids content, percent dry matter, fl esh color, titratable

acidity

AbstractIn Italy the use of nets for anti-hail protection of fruit tree orchards is becoming widespread because of the increased frequency of hailstorms. The presence of nets over the trees can induce changes in the microclimate (air temperature, humidity, light quantity and quality) that may aff ect the physiology of trees. Several studies have reported that some photo-selective shading nets, modifying solar light spectrum, induced interesting photomorphogenic responses in diff erent ornamental species. An ongoing fi eld trial (started on 2004) at the University of Naples is studying the eff ects of 4 experimental photo-selective anti-hail nets (blue, grey, red, and white) on the vegetative and reproductive activity of mature kiwifruit vines. The fi rst results collected in the study indicated that these nets induced interesting responses in kiwifruit. Since fruit quality is an important factor for the economical success of kiwifruit growing, the aim of the present study was to analyze the eff ect of photo-selective nets on fruit yield and the qualitative characteristics of fruit at harvest and during a postharvest cold-storage period. The trial was carried out in a private kiwifruit vineyard planted in 1999. Vines (‘Hayward’ cultivar grafted on ‘Bruno’) were spaced 3.0x4.5m and trained to a modifi ed T-bar. The experimental design was a randomized complete-block design with 5 treatments (4 photo-selective nets and an uncovered control) and three blocks. At commercial harvest (23/11/2005), fruit yield was measured on 18 vines per treatment. All the fruit harvested were weighed and sorted into commercial classes of fruit size. A sample of 300 fruit per treatment belonging to the commercial size class 97-107g were cold-stored (at 0°C and 95% RU) for 5 months. At harvest and fi ve dates

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during cold-storage, 50 fruit per treatment were sampled and the following qualitative parameters were measured: fresh and dry fruit weight, fl esh fi rmness, soluble solids content, pH, titratable acidity, fl esh color, chlorophyll and carotenoid concentration, and antioxidant activity. Fruit yield of vines under the nets was signifi cantly lower than in uncovered vines.Percent dry mass of fruit under the white net was signifi cantly higher than the other treatments (percent dry matter of fruit under the grey net was the lowest). Soluble solids content was signifi cantly higher in fruit under the white and red nets compared to the other treatments, throughout the cold-storage period. Fruit fl esh was slightly but signifi cantly more green in fruit from uncovered vines than in fruit under the nets. Fruit under the red net had the highest chlorophyll and carotenoid concentration compared to the other treatments. Antioxidant activity was higher in fruit under the white net than in the other treatments.

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FLOW THROUGH INCLINED AND CONCERTINA-SHAPE SCREENSM. Teitel1, O. Liron1, Y. Haim1, I. Seginer2

1Agricultural Engineering Institute, Agricultural Research Organization, the Volcani Center, P.O.B. 6, Bet Dagan, 50250, Israel grteitel@agri.gov.il2Civil and Environmental Engineering, Technion, Haifa, 32000, Israel

KeywordsScreen, fl ow, resistance

AbstractThe use of screens to reduce insect entry into greenhouses has become a common practice in many countries. The screens act as a mechanical barrier that prevents migratory insects from reaching the plants, and thus reduce the incidence of direct crop damage and of insect-transmitted virus diseases. As a consequence, the need for pesticide application is reduced. However, the exclusion of very small insects requires installation of fi ne mesh screens across the greenhouse openings which impede ventilation and increase temperature and humidity within the greenhouse. To explore ways in which the resistance of screens to airfl ow can be reduced, experiments were done in a wind tunnel with screens of diff erent porosity (0.62, 0.52 and 0.4) that were inclined to the fl ow and with a concertina-shape screen. The experimental results show that a screen that is inclined to the airfl ow can reduce the resistance in comparison to the case where the fl ow is normal to the screen. An inclined screen allowed in present experiments under certain conditions an airfl ow that is higher by about 15-30% than a screen which the fl ow was normal to it. The experiments in the wind tunnel also show that a concertina-shape screen allows a higher airfl ow (by about 50%) in comparison to a fl at screen under similar pressure drops across the screens. Velocity profi les downstream inclined screens, at two diff erent angles of inclination relative to the fl ow, and downstream a concertina-shape screen are reported.

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PHOTOSELECTIVE SHADE NETTING FOR IMPROVED PRODUCTION OF ORNAMENTAL, FRUIT AND VEGETABLE CROPS. AN OVERVIEWYosepha Shahak

Institute of Plant Sciences, ARO, The Volcani Center, P.O.Box 6, Bet Dagan 50250, Israelshahaky@agri.gov.il

KeywordsShading quality, spectral manipulation, light scattering, productivity, product

quality

AbstractNets are commonly used to protect agricultural crops from excessive solar radiation, environmental hazards or pests. During the past decade, we have developed the netting approach to further include diff erential fi ltration of sunlight, concomitant with providing the desired physical protection. A series of photoselective nets (ColorNets) was developed for outdoor use, each one diff erentially absorbing the UV, Blue, Green, Red, FR or IR spectral regions, and at the same time enriching the relative content of scattered/diff used light. The spectral manipulation is aimed at specifi cally promoting desired photomorphogenetic/physiological responses, while light scattering improves light penetration into the inner canopy. Enriching the intercepted light with productive parts of the spectrum, while reducing the less-productive parts, allows better utilization of the solar energy. Photoselective netting can be applied in net-houses, as well as greenhouses.Our earlier studies of ornamental crops, traditionally grown under black shade nets, revealed dramatic diff erential responses to the photoselective shading. These include stimulated vegetative vigor, dwarfi ng, branching and timing of fl owering. ColorNetting of vegetables (bell peppers and leafy crops) was found to markedly increase productivity (fruitfulness and yield), compared with the common-practice black shade netting. Additional implications of the ColorNets relate to pest control.Ongoing studies of low-shading ColorNetting of numerous fruit tree crops, traditionally un-netted, revealed diff erential eff ects of the diff erent net products on the performance of the orchards. The netting was found to damp extreme climatic fl uctuations, reduce heat/chill/wind stresses, and improve canopy vitality. These, together with the photoselective screening, lead to improved production, expressed by fruit yield, maturation rate, fruit sizing, color, inner quality, as well as reduction of external scars, sunburns, russeting, etc. Most responses depend on the

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chromatic properties of the protecting net. In conclusion, crop responses to photoselective netting emphasize the importance of the light within the shade. The shading quality is a benefi cial factor to be considered in protected agriculture.

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THE EFFECT OF SCREENHOUSE HEIGHT ON MICROCLIMATEJosef Tanny1, Meir Teitel2, Moti Barak2, Yitzhak Esquira3, Roni Amir3

1Institute of Soil, Water and Environmental Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, POB 6, Bet Dagan, 50250, Israel tanai@volcani.agri.gov.il2Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, POB 6, Bet Dagan, 50250, Israel grteitel@agri.gov.il3Shaham, The Extension Service, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, POB 28, Bet Dagan, 50250, Israel

KeywordsAir temperature, air humidity, leaf temperature, ventilation

Abstract Covering crops with screens is a common practice used to attain a number of objectives. These can be divided into diff erent categories: shading from supra-optimal solar radiation, sheltering from wind and hail, improving the thermal climate and exclusion of insects. Obviously the existence of a screenhouse modifi es the exchange of radiation, momentum and mass between crop and atmosphere and hence modifi es the crop microclimate. Screenhouses of diff erent roof confi gurations (e.g., fl at, zigzag, arched) and diff erent heights are used by diff erent growers for the same crop. This is mainly due to the limited information on the eff ects of the diff erent confi gurations and heights on the microclimate. Thus, the objective of this research was to investigate the eff ect of screenhouse height on several microclimatic parameters. Measurements were conducted in two adjacent, otherwise almost identical screenhouses of diff erent roof height: 4 m and 2 m. A black 60% shading screen was deployed on the roof and sidewalls of the two houses, in which Ornamental Ruscus, 0.5 m in height, was grown. The following parameters were measured in each house, approximately at its center: dry- and wet-bulb air temperature by four sensors: three sensors just above the plants and one at the upper region of the house, leaf temperature using an infra red thermometer and net radiation by a net radiometer. Most parameters were measured during 7 days in July 2006. All data were acquired by a data logger. External meteorological conditions were available from a standard meteorological station located 2.5 km southwest of the measurement site. Results show that net radiation was almost identical in the two houses. A line fi tted to the data points in one of the houses against the other house had a slope of 0.99, an intercept of -2.5 Wm-2 and a correlation coeffi cient of r2 = 0.96. Thus, the screen height had no eff ect

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on net radiation. Air temperature and vapor pressure defi cit near the plants, as well as leaf temperature, were higher in the lower screenhouse than those measured in the higher one. The average daily air temperature diff erence between the two houses was 1.5°C and maximum diff erence in leaf temperature was 2°C at noon. The vertical temperature gradient within the low screenhouse was about 3 times larger than that within the high screenhouse, indicating on the better air mixing in the latter than in the former. The diurnal variation of the temperature gradient was well associated with the external wind speed, indicating on the role of wind in better ventilating the higher house than the lower one. Most of the time, absolute humidity in the higher house was closer to the outside absolute humidity than that in the lower house. In conclusion, this study indicates on enhanced mixing and ventilation of the air in the higher screenhouse as compared to the lower one.

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INNOVATIVE PHOTOSELECTIVE AND PHOTOLUMINESCENT PLASTIC FILMS FOR PROTECTED CULTIVATION Flavio Roberto De Salvador1, Giacomo Scarascia-Mugnozza2, Giuliano Vox2, Evelia

Schettini2, Marcello Mastrorilli3, Maher Bou Jaoudé3

1Istituto Sperimentale per la Frutticoltura, Via Fioranello, 52. 00134 Roma, Italy isftc@libero.it 2Department PROGESA, University of Bari, via Amendola 165/A, 70126 Bari, Italy evelia.schettini@agr.uniba.it3CRA-ISAgro, via C. Ulpiani, 5, 70125 Bari, Italy marcello.mastrorilli@entecra.it

KeywordsPhysical properties, solar radiation, phytochrome response, transmissivity

Abstract Solar radiation infl uences biological processes, such as photosynthesis, photomorphogenesis, phototropism and photoperiod. Photosynthesis, the basic process for plant growth, is infl uenced by solar radiation occurring in the photosynthetically active radiation range (PAR, 400-700 nm). With regard to photomorphogenesis, vegetative and reproductive growth processes are infl uenced by the photoreceptor phytochrome and by the cryptochrome. In literature the phytochrome response is characterized in terms of the radiation rate in the red wavelengths (R, 600-700 nm) to that in the far-red radiation (FR, 700-800 nm), i.e. the bichromatic R/FR ratio. The eff ects of the blue radiation (B, 400-500 nm) on the morphogenetic responses of plants can be investigated by means the cryptochrome related parameter, i.e. the ratio of B/FR radiation. Aim of this research is to investigate the radiometric properties of innovative covering fi lms for protected cultivation capable of modifying the spectral distribution of the transmitted radiation in order to reduce vegetative activity. Two photoselective green fi lms, three photoluminescent transparent fi lms were tested and one commercial LDPE transparent fi lm was used for comparison. These innovative covering fi lms selectively transmit certain wavelength bands of the solar radiation. The photoselective green fi lms were characterised by a reduction of the R/FR ratio in comparison to the value of the natural solar radiation. The three photoluminescent transparent fi lms increased the red radiation, the blue radiation and red-blue radiation respectively. The covering fi lms were applied on six steel greenhouses (6 m x 6m) at the experimental farm of the University of Bari in Valenzano (Bari, Italy), latitude 41° 05’ N. In order to assess the photoselectivity

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of the covering materials, the fi lms were tested in laboratory and under natural radiation evaluating the R/FR and B/FR ratios. Durum wheat was cultivated in pots inside each greenhouse to evaluate the covering fi lm infl uence. Several physiological indicators were considered. In the paper are reported the consequences on stomatal conductance and stem elongation, from emergence until booting stage. Since stomatal conductance is infl uenced by hydric (plant water status) and photic (solar radiation) factors, pots were regularly irrigated in order to analyze only the transmitted radiation (when PAR values were higher than 800 μmol m-2 s-1). Stomatal conductance varied between 0.9 cm s-1 and 0.35 cm s-1 (after and before irrigation, respectively). After irrigation, maximum values of stomatal conductance were measured under the three photoluminescent and LDPE fi lms. Diff erently, the two photoselective green fi lms increased the stem elongation.

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AGEING CHARACTERIZATION TO DETERMINE THE LIFE DURATION OF DIFFERENT PEBD BASED DEVICES USED FOR GREENHOUSE ROOF B. Youssef1*, M. Benzohra1, A. Hamou2, A. Dehbi2, J.M. Saiter1

1laboratoire PBM, UMR 6522, LECAP, Institut des Matériaux de Rouen, Université´ de Rouen, Faculté´ des Sciences, Avenue de l’Université BP 12, 76801 Saint Etienne du Rouvray, France boulos.youssef@univ-rouen.fr 2Laboratoire d’Étude des Sciences des Matériaux et de l’Environnement; Département de Physique, Faculté´ des Sciences, Universite d’Oran, Es-Sénia, Algérie

KeywordsGreenhouse, multi layers, artifi cial ageing, natural ageing

Abstract Greenhouse roofs made with plastic fi lms are widely used by farmers all over the world. The nature (one, three or more layers), the composition (nature, amount of diff erent additives) of these fi lms are adjusted to accommodate specifi c climatic constraints that it will have to endure during it use. The cheapest and most common used material is a fi lm made of a mono layer of low density polyethylene (PEbd) in which additives are incorporated before the extrusion process. More sophisticated, are a fi lm made of three layers ; two layers of PEbd with specifi c additives (these layers give the specifi c properties as the colour, the protection against UV light, the anti moisture eff ects..) on each side of a central fi lm of large thickness also made of PEbd (this central layer gives the main mechanical characteristic for the fi lm). We may notice that the number of layers can be greater than 3, for instance a fi lm containing fi ve layers can be found on the green house roof market. Among the most sophisticated device proposed to day we have also a fi lm made of three layers in which air bubbles are trapped. This non exhaustive list shows us an example of the diversity of material proposed. To choose one system rather than an other one requires a good knowledge of the performances of the materials and it will be also important to know how these performances will vary during the period of using. In this work we propose to analyse the results obtained on diff erent PEbd based fi lms used for greenhouse roof. These fi lms will be a mono layer of PEbd, three layers (co extruded fi lms) and a three layers plus bubbles. The goal is to compare the performances in terms of physical and chemical analysis to estimate the life duration of these devices during there use in specifi c climatic conditions as those expected in Saharan or sub Saharan condition. These climatic condition have been used because, up to day the life duration of a plastic roof in Algeria is less than 1 year, which is relatively short.

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REDUCTION OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF PLASTIC FILMS FOR GREENHOUSE COVERING BY USING FLUOROPOLYMERIC MATERIALSLivio Stefani1, Maurizio Zanon1, Michele Modesti2, Elisabetta Ugel2, Giuliano Vox3,

Evelia Schettini3

1PATI Sp.A., via Beltramini 50/52, San Zenone degli Ezzelini (TV), Italy pati@pati.it - infotec@pati.it2Department of Chemical Process Engineering, Padova University, via Marzolo 9 - 35131 Padova, Italy michele.modesti@unipd.it - elisabetta.ugel@unipd.it 3Department PROGESA-University of Bari, via Amendola 165/A - 70126 Bari, Italygiulius.vox@agr.uniba.it - evelia.schettini@agr.uniba.it

Keywords ETFE, UV stability, waste recycle, service life, recovery value

Abstract Greenhouse plastic fi lms are subjected to degradation due to their exposure to solar radiation and to chemical products used during cultivation. For polyolephinic materials, mainly LDPE (Low Density PolyEthylene), EBA (Ethylene-Butyl Acrylate copolymers) and EVA (Ethylene-Vinyl Acetate copolymers), this results in a service life which ranges from some months up to 3-4 years relative to the thickness of the plastic fi lm and to the degree of stabilisation. ETFE (Ethylene-TetraFluoroEthylene copolymer) fi lms show much longer service life, because of the intrinsic UV stability of the polymer without the need of any UV stabilizer and because of the low chemical reactivity vs. the commonly used phytochemicals. A simple model was developed in order to compare ETFE and polyolephinic fi lms in terms of waste generation at the end of their service life. The quantity of waste generated during a period of 15 years by the replacement of the covering sheets for 1 ha of greenhouses was estimated, according to the class of duration of the plastic fi lms in a climatic situation corresponding to Southern Italy. The possibilities of recycling the waste materials was also investigated, taking into account the physico-chemical changes due to the exposure to the solar radiation and to a few selected chemicals at the same time. Such changes were evaluated during fi eld tests carried out on polyolephinic fi lms at the experimental farm of the University of Bari, in Valenzano (Bari, Italy), latitude 41° 05ç N. The concentration of the chemicals, absorbed during the exposure period by the fi lms was evaluated, analysing the fi lm samples that were taken in the fi eld. During the test solar radiation was measured

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by means of a pyranometer in the wavelength range 300-3000 nm and records were stored by a data logger. Results suggested that the use of ETFE fi lms as covering sheets of greenhouses can reduce the waste of plastic materials in a range from 4 to 9 times, with the further advantage of a signifi cant recovery value for the used sheets.

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EFFECTS OF A DYNAMIC LIQUID FOAM TECHNOLOGY ON ENERGY CONSUMPTION, MICROCLIMATE, LEAF GAS EXCHANGES AND FRUIT YIELD IN GREENHOUSE VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONKamal Aberkani1-2, Xiuming Hao1*, Andre Gosselin2, Damien de Halleux2, Shalin

Khosla3

1Greenhouse and Processing Crops Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 2585 County Road 20, Harrow, Ontario, Canada N0R 1G0.2Université Laval, Québec, Canada G1K 7P4.3Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food, 2585 County Road 20, Harrow, Ontario, Canada N0R 1G0 * haox@agr.gc.ca

Keywords Heat transfer coeffi cient, microclimate, high temperature stress, fruit cracking,

photosynthesis

Abstract The climate in major greenhouse crop production areas in Canada is a continental climatic type, which is characterized with cold winters and hot summers. To produce greenhouse crops successfully, signifi cant heating is required in the winter while considerable cooling/shading is needed in the summer to maintain suitable greenhouse microclimate. Liquid foam may be injected into the space between the double layers of polyethylene fi lms in D-poly greenhouses to enhance insulation during the night for reducing heat loss to the outside and for shading in summer to improve greenhouse climate.The eff ects of shading strategies with use of liquid foam technology on greenhouse microclimate and plant productivity of tomatoes and sweet peppers were investigated in summer 2006. Control (no shading) and two shading strategies (Shade1 and Shade2) were tested; each was applied to one greenhouse. The shading by the liquid foam technology was applied only when outside solar radiation exceeded 800W m-2 (before solar noon, 13:00 daylight saving time) or 700W m-2 (after solar noon, 13:00). For Shade1 greenhouse, liquid was applied from the sprinklers to provide about 5-10% shading when greenhouse air temperature exceeded 24 ºC while foam was injected to provide about 50% shading when the temperature exceeded 27 ºC. For Shade2 greenhouse, liquid from the sprinklers was used when the greenhouse air temperature exceeded 27 ºC and the foam was injected when it exceeded 30 ºC.

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Our results indicated that the greenhouse air temperature was reduced by 1.3 oC when the sprinklers were used. With the use of liquid foam, the air, leaf (5th), stem and fruit temperature were reduced by 3.9, 6.8, 5.1 and 1.2 oC, respectively. Fruit cracking incidence was reduced by the shading. We also conducted a winter trial to evaluate energy saving potential of the liquid foam technology. Liquid foam reduced the heat loss through the greenhouse roof (insulated by the foam) by about 50% during the night. Others results from the summer shading and winter insulation trials will also be discussed.

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GLASS MICROSPHERES COVERING FILM: AGRONOMIC EVALUATIONS ON THE PRODUCTION OF CUT FLOWERSGalileo Magnani1, Marco Cascone2, Ferruccio Filippi1, Andrea Ferraresi2

1Dipartimento di Biologia delle Piante Agrarie, University of Pisa, Viale delle Piagge 23, 56124 Pisa, Italy gmagnani@agr.unipi.it.2Soc. Agriplast S.r.L., C.da Marangio, 97019 Vittoria (RG) Italy

KeywordsProtected cultivations, plastic materials, transmittance, air temperature,

fl oriculture

AbstractA trial was carried out to evaluate, in the north-centre of Italy, the behaviour in fi eld of a new plastic covering fi lm with ‘diff ract light’, prepared with the inclusion of empty glass microspheres (“Solex”). The new fi lm was compared to a covering ‘diff use light’ fi lm (“Agrilux”). Both fi lms were co-extruded three layers, with the same content of Vinyl acetate. They were tested in two diff erent conditions (cold tunnel and air conditioned greenhouse), working on two species of cut fl owers, Limonium (Limonium sinuatum Mill.) and three cultivars of carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.). Moreover, the development of some physical and mechanical characteristics of plastic fi lms, were checked. Since the fi rst results, the innovative fi lm showed a better behaviour than the control one. It presented ‘light’ and ‘thermal’ conditions (lower temperature during the day and slightly higher temperature in the night, compared to the control fi lm) that allowed a better growth and yield respect to the control fi lm. In fact, Limonium grown under the glass microspheres fi lm showed higher yield and better commercial quality (stem length). The analysis of cumulative production in carnation showed diff erent results among cultivar. For cv ‘Luisa’ and ‘Dandy’, the positive eff ects of glass microspheres fi lm were more evident during autumn and winter, while in cv ‘Michelle’, those eff ects were higher during warm seasons (april, may and june). This could be explain with the fact that the glass microspheres fi lm provides environmental conditions that avoid some of the stresses plants undergo during some stages of their cycle.

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NITROGEN CONCENTRATION AND MODULE VOLUME EFFECTS ON THE GROWTH CHARACTERS AND YIELD POTENTIALS OF EGGPLANT SEEDLINGSAstrit Balliu, Glenda Sallaku, Sherif Kuçi

Agricultural University of Tirana, Tirana, Albania aballiu@icc-al.org

KeywordsN concentration, N recovery effi ciency, root : whole plant ratio, stem elongation

rate, relative growth rate

Abstract.The infl uence of nitrogen’s concentration in the nutrient solution and the module’s volume at the nursery stage of eggplant seedlings were estimated in an experiment conducted at the plastic greenhouses of Agricultural University of Tirana, during 2006. Graded seeds of cv. Aragon F1, were individually seeded into two diff erent sets of foam trays, 78 cm3 and 95 cm3 module, each, fi lled with vermiculite. Diff erentiated N concentrations were applied in the nutrient solution (100, 150, 200 and 250 mg L-1), while P and K were respectively 40 mg L-1 and 250 mg L-1. The necessary microelements were also added to the nutrient solutions and equal quantities of 20-50 ml/plant were periodically supplied to each module. Root, stems and leaf dry matter were weighted and plant leaf area was measured. Root to whole plant dry weight (RWR) and root to shoot dry weight (RSR), as also the plant relative growth rate (RGR) were calculated. N content in the dry matter of plants was analysed in weekly intervals and the respective NRE were calculated. An equal number of plants, 60 days old, of each experimental plot was transplanted into Klasmann grow bags. Equal quantities of the same nutrient solution (NPK respectively 200, 40 and 250 mg L-1), were periodically applied and early and total yield harvested each plot were recorded. The increase of nitrogen concentration in the nutrient solution was followed by a progressive increase of the whole plant dry weight. In the meantime a steady decrease of root dry weight versus total plant dry weight, and of root dry weight versus shoot dry weight was observed. In addition, a higher stem elongation rate, compared to leaf area expansion rate seemed to be the most common plant response. Generally speaking, top and root N content increased with increasing N solution’s concentration, but NRE values were gradually decreased. Considerable diff erences were found among the NRE values according to the growth stage of crops. They became higher parallel to the gradual increase of the plant root volume and leaf area index. Signifi cant diff erences of relative growth

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rate were found due to the N concentration in the nutrient solution. It seems that net assimilation rate (NAR) was the most important, of its main components, aff ecting RGR diff erences among the experimental plots. Meantime, no signifi cant diff erences were found regarding early and total yield of transplanted seedlings.

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TOUCH PROBES AND SENSING TECHNIQUES FOR ASSESSING CROP WATER STATUS AND GROWTH RATE IN GREENHOUSESYuri Ton

Bio Instruments S.R.L., P.O.B 2250, Chisinau MD-2060, Republic of Moldova yuriton@gmail.com

KeywordsOptimization of irrigation, phytomonitoring, plant growth, environmental control

Abstract Most of sensors used in the greenhouse crop production are focused on measurement of environmental conditions which are considered to be important for plant growth and development. During last decades, certain diff usion of plant sensors also took place due to common recognition that the actual physiological status of growing plants could not be assessed with the use of environmental factors only. The objective of the review is to evaluate available plant sensors in view of their responsiveness, sensitivity, and practical value. Remote sensors are based entirely on optical measurement techniques, mainly in infrared and fl uorescence spectra. As compared with touch sensors, the remote techniques embrace larger areas but are more diffi cult for interpretation. There is a wide variety of the reliable plant touch sensors which provide delicate contact with the plant. The touch sensors provide good comprehension of their readings but require certain maintenance, proper positioning, and careful selection of sample plants. The following touch sensors are considered in the review:Leaf temperature. Can be used for dew control, investigation of temperature gradient in plants, and evaluation of transpiration ability when the leaf temperature is analyzed in relation to the ambient air temperature. Usually based on miniature bead thermistors or thin thermocouples. Sap fl ow rate in plant stem or leaf petiole. Analysis of sap fl ow diurnal behavior in relation to vapor pressure defi cit or potential evapotranspiration (if available) is fruitful method for investigating transpiration limiting factors.Stem Diameter. Variation of stem diameter represents combination of stem growth and variations of plant water content. The growth rate and daytime water defi cit are usually analyzed by diameter trend and daily contraction, respectively. Stem growth. Elongation of stem is measured by an auxanometer which is usually a draw thread displacement transducer. The output of the auxanometer is proportional to the amount of thread pulled out of the unit. The internode growth may be also

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measured by special displacement transducer. Fruit diameter. The continuous record of fruit diameter allows to observe both growth of fruit size and diurnal variation of fruit water content.Leaf CO2 and H2O fl uxes. Continuous recording of the leaf CO2 exchange and transpiration may be easily realized with the use of automatic leaf chambers which are normally open and close the leaf only during short measurement cycle. Design and several rational sets of plant sensors are discussed in view of the following control tasks: optimization of irrigation rate and frequency, detection of water stress, temperature and humidity control, enhancement of plant growth, control of supplemental lighting and application of CO2.

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EFFECTS OF ANTI-TRANSPIRANTS ON TRANSPIRATION AND ENERGY USE IN GREENHOUSE CULTIVATION L.F.M. Marcelis, F. Kempkes, C. Stanghellini, C. Grashoff

Wageningen UR Greenhouse Horticulture, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA, Wageningen, the Netherlands leo.marcelis@wur.nl

KeywordsStomatal resistance, transpiration, photosynthesis, energy

Abstract Greenhouse production in North-Western Europe consumes a lot of energy. The energy is needed for heating the greenhouse and controlling air humidity. Transpiration of a crop increases the energy use. Transpiration of 15 liters of water which has to be removed from the greenhouse to control humidity, results on average in an energy use of about 1 m3 natural gas in The Netherlands. Therefore, if crop transpiration could be reduced without reducing crop yield, this could be very profi table for growers. Anti-transpirants that increase the leaf resistance (sum of stomatal and boundary layer resistance) for gas diff usion may reduce transpiration.The aim of this study was to explore the potential of saving energy by lowering transpiration by means of anti-transpirants and assess the risk that this may reduce yield. Literature and model calculations were used to explore the eff ects of increased leaf resistances on transpiration, energy use and production in tomato, cucumber and sweet pepper.In literature a large number of compounds have been described that act as anti-transpirant. A two-to-fi vefold increase in stomatal resistance can be expected from treatment with anti-transpirants. Model calculations showed that increasing the stomatal resistance throughout the whole year leads to substantial yield reduction: yield was reduced by 6-20%, while transpiration by 15-42% and consequently energy use by 9-16%, all fi gures respectively for a doubling and fi vefold increase of the stomatal resistance. However, application only in the winter period (October - March) the yield reduction was only 0.3-1.3% in tomato, as in this period light levels are low and CO2 concentrations in the greenhouse are relatively high. Raising the (maximum) set-point for CO2 concentration from 1000 ppm to 3000 ppm, increased the actual concentration during day-time from 892 to 1567 ppm (fl ue gases were the only source of CO2). When the application of anti-transpirants was combined with raising the set-point for CO2 concentration, the model showed no yield reduction due to the application of anti-transpirants, while the annual energy use was reduced by 5.5-

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10.4% in tomato. Similar results were obtained for sweet pepper (5-9% energy saving) and cucumber (2-5% energy saving).

These model calculations show that increasing the stomatal resistance by anti-transpirants during the winter period may potentially save a substantial amount of energy (2-10%), without aff ecting yield of vegetables such as tomato, cucumber and sweet pepper.

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QUANTIFYING THE EFFECTS OF LEAF NITROGEN CONTENT ON LEAF PHOTOSYNTHESIS RATE OF GREENHOUSE CUCUMBER UNDER DIFFERENT PAR AND TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS Weihong Luo, Jianfeng Dai, Yongshan Chen, Li Han, Xiang Tai, Shengfei Zhang

College of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, P R Chinalwh@njau.edu.cn

KeywordsPhysiological development stage, thermal time, model

AbstractLeaf nitrogen content is the most commonly used information for crop nitrogen management since it strongly aff ects leaf photosynthesis rate. To optimize the management of nitrogen for crop production, it is essential to quantify the eff ects of leaf nitrogen content on photosynthesis rate of crop leaves. Leaf nitrogen content, however, is aff ected by photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and temperature conditions. This results in that the relationship between the leaf nitrogen content and the leaf photosynthesis rate obtained under specifi c site and season cannot be applied to other seasons and sites. The aim of this study was to develop a model for estimating the eff ects of leaf nitrogen content on leaf photosynthesis rate of greenhouse cucumber under diff erent PAR and temperature conditions through an experimental study. Experiments with 4 nitrogen treatments and sowing dates were conducted in greenhouses in Shanghai during 2003 and 2005. Light saturated leaf photosynthesis rate (Pmax) of fully expanded cucumber leaf was measured every two days using the Li-6400 system after the nitrogen treatments started at anthesis. Leaf nitrogen concentration (N) was determined on the dried leaf samples using the Kjeldahl method every week. The seasonal time course of the optimal leaf nitrogen concentration (Nopt) for photosynthesis was found to be an exponential function of the physiological development time (PDT). The parameters of this function were then related to PAR and temperature conditions using the seasonal average value of the ‘product of normalized thermal time and PAR (PTTP)’. The ratio of Pmax at an actual leaf nitrogen concentration (N) to that at the optimal leaf nitrogen concentration (Nopt) was also found to be an exponential function of the ratio of N/Nopt. Based on these quantitative relationships, a general model for estimating leaf photosynthesis rate of greenhouse cucumber using leaf nitrogen concentration under diff erent PAR and temperature conditions was developed. Independent experimental data were used to

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validate the model. The coeffi cient of determination (R2) and the root mean squared error (RMSE) between the estimated and the measured leaf photosynthesis rate based on the 1:1 line are 0.78 and 1.22 μmol CO2·m-2·s-1, respectively. The model developed in this study gives satisfactory estimation of leaf photosynthesis rate of greenhouse cucumber growing during diff erent seasons. Experimental data from diff erent sites and cultivars are, however, needed to further validate and test the model before applying it to new sites and cultivars.

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GROWTH RESPONSE OF HEDERA HELIX TO TEMPERATURE INTEGRATIONBruno Pollet1, Kathy Steppe1, Pieter Dambre3, Marie-Christine Van Labeke2-3, Raoul

Lemeur1

1Laboratory of Plant Ecology, Department of Applied Ecology and Environmental Biology, Ghent University, Coupure links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium bruno.pollet@ugent.be - kathy.steppe@ugent.be - raoul.lemeur@ugent.be2Department of Plant Production, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium mariechristine.vanlabeke@ugent.be3Research Centre for Ornamental Plants (PCS), Schaessestraat 18, B-9070 Destelbergen, Belgium pieter.dambre@pcsierteelt.be - mariechristine.vanlabeke@pcsierteelt.be

KeywordsChilling, development rate, DIF, fresh weight, shoot length

AbstractReducing energy use in greenhouses contributes to the profi tability of horticulture. Great energy savings can be realized through the use of temperature integration. However, such a greenhouse heating strategy is only acceptable for commercial purposes if there are no adverse eff ects on plant growth and quality. During this three month study, Hedera helix ‘Green Ripple’ and Hedera helix ‘Shamrock’ were subjected to a day/night temperature regime of 20/20°C (control) and two treatments with temperature integration over 24 h and 4 d, respectively, and a bandwidth of 13.5°C while maintaining the average temperature at the same level of the control. Temperature integration had a positive eff ect on plant growth. Shoot length and shoot growth rate increased up to 46% and 50%, respectively, when temperature integration was applied. Moreover, shoot length and shoot growth rate of H. helix ‘Shamrock’ strongly rose with longer integration period. Furthermore, after three months shoot fresh weight was highest for the temperature integration treatment with an integration period of 4 days. As shoot length can be defi ned as one of the major quality characteristics of Hedera, it can be concluded that temperature integration with a bandwidth of 13.5°C and a relatively long integration period (e.g. 4 days) supports commercial production of Hedera.

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EFFECTS OF BLUE-LIGHT PHOTON FLUX DENSITY ON NITROGEN, CARBOHYDRATE CONTENT AND THE GROWTH OF SPINACHRyo Matsuda, Keiko Ohashi-Kaneko, Kazuhiro Fujiwara, Kenji Kurata

Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8657 Japan aa47070@mail.ecc.u-tokyo.ac.jp

KeywordsBlue light, carbohydrate, light quality, nitrogen, spinach

AbstractAnalyses of crop responses to light quality can contribute to the establishment of effi cient irradiation techniques using artifi cial light sources to improve crop productivity and quality in environmentally controlled plant production facilities. Blue light is known to strongly aff ect the growth and development of higher plants. In addition, to well-known photomorphogenic responses mediated by blue-light photoreceptors, blue light is thought to participate in the acclimation of leaf photosynthesis to growth irradiance. In fact, we recently found that some biochemical properties of photosynthesis in spinach leaves became more ‘shade-type’ as the blue-light photon fl ux density (PFD) was lowered under a constant total photosynthetic PFD (PPFD). When acclimating to growth irradiance, plants alter not only photosynthetic characteristics at the single-leaf level, but also other characteristics at the whole-plant level, such as leaf area expansion, nitrogen (N) investment in leaves, and the carbohydrate content of leaves. However, it is unclear whether blue light is related to such changes at the whole-plant level. In the present study, we grew spinach under various blue-light PFDs at the same total PPFD and investigated the eff ects of blue-light PFD during growth on the acclimation responses to growth irradiance at the whole-plant level. Spinach (Spinacia oleracea L., cv. Megaton) plants were grown hydroponically under diff erent blue-light PFDs (0, 30, 100, and 150 μmol m-2 s-1) at the same total PPFD (300 μmol m-2 s-1) beginning 7 d after germination for a duration of 25 d. Blue and red light-emitting diodes (LEDs) were used as the light sources. Leaf area, dry weight, and the reduced N content of each organ and total non-structural carbohydrate (TNC, the sum of glucose, fructose, sucrose, and starch) content in leaves were measured after harvesting. Whole-plant dry weight and the leaf area of plants grown under 0 μmol m-2 s-1 blue light were approximately half of those of plants grown under 30, 100, and 150 μmol m-2 s-1 blue light. No signifi cant diff erences in whole-plant dry weight and leaf area were apparent among the plants grown under 30, 100, and 150 μmol m-2 s-1 blue light. These results indicate that the presence or absence of

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blue light signifi cantly alters the dry matter production of spinach. In general, plants grown under low irradiance expand wider leaves relative to plant mass, invest more N in leaves, and contain less carbohydrate in leaves than do those grown under high irradiance. The ratio of leaf area to whole-plant dry weight did not depend on blue-light PFD, nor did the ratio of leaf N content to whole-plant N content. In addition, leaf TNC content per unit dry weight tended to increase with decreasing blue-light PFD. Thus, under the conditions of this study, no similarities between plants acclimating to low irradiance and those grown under low blue-light PFD were observed. This suggests that blue light is not involved in the induction of acclimation responses of spinach to growth irradiance at the whole-plant level.

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EFFECT OF SOLAR RADIATION BEFORE ANTHESIS ON YIELD FLUCTUATIONS IN TOMATOTadahisa Higashide1, Ep Heuvelink2, Takafumi Kinoshita1

1National Agricultural Research Center for Western Region, National Agricultural and Food Research Organization (NARO), 2575 Ikano, Zentsuji, Kagawa, 765-0053, Japanton@aff rc.go.jp2Wageningen University, Department of Plant Sciences, Horticultural Production Chains group, Marijkeweg 22, 6709 PG Wageningen, The Netherlands

KeywordsFruits number, hilly and mountainous areas, prediction, soilless culture,

temperature

AbstractIn many parts of Japan, it is too hot in the summer to produce tomatoes in a greenhouse without a cooling system. One of the advantages of hilly and mountainous areas is cool temperatures in the summer owing to high altitude so that tomato plants can be grown in summer. We developed a sloped greenhouse and a soilless culture system suitable for use on sloping land, and investigated the eff ects of installing the soilless culture system and the sloped greenhouse on tomato production. During the investigation, we often experienced that tomato yields decreased at almost the same time in many fi elds in the area, although farmers, greenhouses, plant stages and managements were diff erent. We supposed that the changes in the tomato yield were related to some environmental conditions. There were some reports that high temperature before anthesis reduced number of pollen grains released and increased fl ower/fruit abortions. It was also reported that pollen activity decreased by shading. There were some reports on a prediction of the tomato yields. However, it was diffi cult and inaccurate to predict yields of tomato grown in high temperature condition. We investigated environmental data, anthesis and harvesting dates and yields of tomato grown in greenhouses without a cooling and a heating system in hilly and mountainous areas in summer and autumn season. Daily average air temperatures were about 25°C at the end of May, and increased up to about 30°C at the beginning of August, and thereafter decreased. Weekly solar radiation showed large fl uctuations. Days from anthesis to harvesting fruits increased from about 40 days for anthesis at the end of May, to 80 days for anthesis at the beginning of September. It has been reported that the most critical stage for pollen development is meiosis, which occurs

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about 9 days before anthesis. There was no relation between the weekly average air temperature at 9 days before anthesis and weekly harvested fruit number and yield. There was also no relation with the percentage of days with high temperature in that period. However, weekly harvested fruit number and yield were correlated with average solar radiation during 9 days before anthesis. The fruit number and yield were also correlated with the weekly average air temperature at 1 week before harvesting. From short-term experiments conducted in a heated greenhouse in winter and spring, we didn’t observed yield fl uctuations in tomato. We conclude that harvested fruits number and yield of tomato grown in summer were correlated not only with average air temperature during one week before harvesting but also to solar radiation at 9 days before the anthesis.

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THERMAL AND LIGHT REQUIREMENTS FOR FLOWER DIFFERENTIATION OF SNAPDRAGONRoberta Paradiso1*, Giovanna Aronne2, Stefania De Pascale1

1Department of Agricultural Engineering and Agronomy2Laboratory of Botany and Reproductive EcologyUniversity of Naples Federico II - Via Università, 100 - 80055 - Portici - Naples (Italy)*roberta.paradiso@unina.it

KeywordsAntirrhinum majus L., fl ower induction, microscopy, scheduling

AbstractMost common Snapdragon cultivars are currently classifi ed into four groups suitable to diff erent cut stems production cycles in cold greenhouse: group I (winter - early spring): optimal night temperature 7-10 °C; short day and low light intensity; group II (late winter - spring): optimal night temperature 10-13 °C; short day and low light intensity; group III (late spring - autumn): optimal night temperature 13-16 °C; long day and high light intensity; group IV (summer): optimal night temperature >16 °C; long day and high light intensity. Nevertheless, details on the eff ects of photoperiod and temperature on fl owering time are lacking. To defi ne critical thermal and light requirements for fl ower diff erentiation of Snapdragon, 2 thermal treatments [(night/day) 22/28 and 16/22 °C] were factorially combined with 2 photoperiods [Short-day = 8 hours and Long-day = 14 hours]. Four cultivars of Snapdragon, from the diff erent response groups (I Mistral, II Monaco, III Vincenot, IV Potomac), were tested under the 4 thermal-photoperiodic combinations in growth chamber.The eff ects of treatments were studied in terms of plant growth, cut stems production and fl owering time. The time of the transition from vegetative to fl oral meristem was assessed by transmitted light microscopy on thin sections of apical meristems. Floral transition at the meristematic stage was related to morphological parameters at the whole plant level (height, number of leaves, leaf area). Cut stems yield did not change among the cultivars and was not aff ected by thermal and photoperiodic treatments. The number of days to fl owering increased from group I to IV (59 and 87 days from transplanting, respectively). Long-day conditions anticipated fl owering of 40 days compared to the Short-day treatment and reduced both stem length and leaf number at the anthesis. Thermal treatments did not aff ect the fl owering time. Microscopy analyses revealed

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that while it is possible to control the fl oral induction by choosing genotype and modulating environmental parameters, the time between fl ower induction of the meristem and fl owering seems to be unaff ected by treatments. This time corresponded, in our experimental conditions, at approximately 20 days. A critical size of the plant, in terms of leaf area, seems to be required for the fl ower induction.

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THE APPLICATION OF LEDS AS ASSIMILATION LIGHT SOURCE IN GREENHOUSE HORTICULTURE: A SIMULATION STUDYW. Van Leperen1, G. Trouwborst1, M. Bakker1, Ad Schapendonk2

1Horticultural Production Chains Group, Wageningen University, Marijkeweg 22, 6709 PG, Wageningen, The Netherlands wim.vanieperen@wur.nl2Plant Dynamics B.V., Englaan 8, 6703 EW Wageningen, The Netherlands

KeywordsLight emitting diodes, LED’s, assimilation light, simulaton, model, inter-crop-

lighting

AbstractThe application of LED’s as potential source for assimilation lighting in greenhouse production systems opens up a range of new possibilities. LED’s produce light in a very narrow wavelength range and therefore do not directly emit heat radiation. Heat, produced by LED’s due to their limited energy conversion effi ciency can be easily drawn away via convective (water)cooling. As a result, LED’s can be applied at relative dark places within the crop to increase leaf photosynthesis at locations where assimilation light normally doesn’t penetrate. In theory this type of inter crop lighting could signifi cantly increase crop photosynthesis. Existing simulation models for greenhouse/crop systems can be used to simulate the potential eff ects this ‘inter crop lighting’ on crop photosynthesis and production. It is unclear however, whether the assumptions and simplifi cations that are justifi ed in present crop models cause problems in simulations of growth systems with inter crop lighting. It may be anticipated that leaves that are subjected to inter crop lighting with LED’s undergo diff erent physiological changes during their life time than leaves that are subjected to top lighting by natural light and assimilation light only. In this simulation study we investigated the sensitivity of leaf photosynthesis to adaptation of leaf photosynthetic components at diff erent CO2/light combinations, using the widely used steady-state model of Farquhar et al. (Planta 149: 78–90, 1980) for C3 photosynthesis. The results are used to discuss the need for adaptation of the photosynthesis models used to simulate production in future greenhouse systems with intercrop lighting

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A METHOD TO DETECT PLANT-DAMAGE-INDUCED VOLATILES IN A GREENHOUSERoel Jansen1, Jan Willem Hofstee1, Francel Verstappen2, Harro Bouwmeester2,

Maarten Posthumus3, Eldert van Henten1-4

1Wageningen University, Farm Technology Group, P.O. Box 17, 6700 AA, Wageningen, Wageningen, 6708 PD, The Netherlands roel.jansen@wur.nl2Plant Research International, P.O. Box 14, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands harro.bouwmeester@wur.nl3Wageningen University, Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, P.O. Box 8026, 6700 EG, Wageningen, The Netherlands map.orc@wur.nl 4Wageningen UR Greenhouse Horticulture, P.O. Box 16, Wageningen, The Netherlandseldert.vanhenten@wur.nl

KeywordsTomato, greenhouse, air sampling, gas chromatography/mass spectrometry

system

Abstract Early detection and location of plant damage due to pests and pathogens is a major challenge in commercial greenhouse cultivation. It allows the crop manager to perform site-specifi c actions instead of full fi eld treatment. This will reduce the use of pesticides. Previous laboratory experiments have revealed that sensing volatiles released by the damaged plants might off er a powerful technique to monitor the status of greenhouse crops. Such laboratory experiments that confi rm the change of volatile substances released after damage are not new. However, the development and validation of a method to detect plant induced volatiles in a greenhouse was not practiced until now. The objective of this research was to ascertain if volatile plant substances released after artifi cial damage could be detected under greenhouse conditions. A method was developed to analyse the air in a semi-closed greenhouse with 44 m2 fl oor area. This greenhouse, with a volume of 270 m3, was climate controlled and light was supplied with assimilation lamps. Sixty tomato plants (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill cv. Moneymaker) were grown in this greenhouse. These plants were artifi cially damaged on a weekly interval by touching the stems. Small, battery charged continuous fl ow pumps were used to purge the air surrounding the plants through tubes containing an adsorbent. This sampling step was performed before and directly after damage of

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the plants. The air was sampled at three locations within the greenhouse to provide insight into the spatial distribution of volatile substances inside the greenhouse. After sampling, the tubes were transferred to the lab for analysis. The analysis of volatile compounds was performed using a high-throughput gas chromatography / mass spectrometry system. The proposed method enabled the detection of baseline level emission and the emission of volatiles released after artifi cial damage of the tomato plants during a three months growing period. Most dominant volatile compounds after damage were the monoterpenes β-phellandrene, limonene, 2-carene and the sesquiterpene β-caryophyllene. The compounds showed an increase of 100 times compared to baseline level emission. With these results, we prove that it is possible to detect plant damage induced volatiles in a greenhouse. This area of research is promising but more research needs to be done to determine whether it is possible to detect plant damage due to pests and pathogens using volatile sensing.

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AIRFLOW AND MICROCLIMATE PATTERNS IN A ONE-HECTARE CANARY TYPE GREENHOUSE: AN EXPERIMENTAL AND CFD ASSISTED STUDYT.Boulard, H. Fatnassi

Unité de Recherche Intégrés en Horticulture, INRA, 400 route des Chappes PB 167 Sophia Antipolis 06903, France boulard@sophia.inra.fr

H. Majdoubi and L. Bouirden

Laboratoire de Thermodynamique et Energétique, Faculté des Sciences, Cité Dakhla BP 8106 Agadir, Morocco

KeywordsGreenhouse, CFD, Modelling, Airfl ow, Climate distribution, Insect screens, Tomato.

Abstract This study presents an analysis of airfl ow circulation and microclimate distribution during daytime in a 1-hectare Canary type tomato greenhouse in the coastal area of southern Morocco. The investigation of the climate inside the greenhouse is based on a numerical simulation using a fi nite volumes method (commercial software package) to solve the mass, momentum and energy conservation equations of the heat and mass transfers. The main novelty of this simulation lies in the realism of the 3D modelling of this very large agricultural structure with (i) a coupling of convective and radiative exchanges at the surface of the plastic roof cover, (ii) simulation of the dynamic infl uence of the insect screens and tomato crop on airfl ow movement, using the concept of porous medium, (iii) simulation, in each mesh of the crop canopy, of the sensible and latent heat exchanges between the greenhouse air and the tomato crop, and (iv) detailed simulation of climate parameters in a 1-hectare real-scale commercial greenhouse. The model simulations were fi rst validated with respect to temperature and relative humidity fi elds measured inside the experimental greenhouse for fairly steady-state outside conditions marked by a prevailing sea breeze around the solar noon. A good agreement was observed between the measured and simulated values for inside air temperatures and absolute humidity. Once this model was validated, it was used for exploring the details of the air and plant microclimates and transpiration fl uxes throughout the greenhouse space. Numerical simulation for a wind direction perpendicular to the roof openings shows that the insect screen signifi cantly reduced

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airfl ow velocity and increased temperature and humidity inside the greenhouse, especially in the crop canopy. It also reveals the details of the fl ow fi eld within the greenhouse, marked by a strong wind wise air current above the tomato canopy which is fed by the roof and side vents, and a slow air stream fl owing counter-current within the tomato canopy space. Based on these simulations, design studies of the greenhouse crop system were performed to improve the inside climate by making simple adjustments to the components of the system, such as the orientation of the crop rows.

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NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF TEMPERATURES IN GREENHOUSES COVERED WITH NIR-REFLECTING PHOTOSELECTIVE FILMSY. García-Alonso, E. Espí, A. Salmerón, A. Fontecha

Centro de Tecnología de Repsol YPF, Autovía A-5, km 18, 28931 Móstoles (Madrid) SpainE. J. Baeza, J. J. Pérez Parra, J.C. López, J.C. Gázquez

Estación Experimental de la Fundación CajamarAutovía del Mediterráneo km 416,704710 El Ejido (Almería) Spain

KeywordsRadiation, greenhouse cooling, numerical simulation, plastic material

AbstractIn tropical and subtropical areas, greenhouse cultivation is limited by the excess temperatures occurring most of the year due to high radiation levels entering the greenhouse. Under such situations, diff erent cooling methods must be used together in order to maintain the desired temperatures. The most common cooling methods are natural ventilation and shading (generally whitening of the cover). NIR-refl ecting plastic fi lms are a good alternative to traditional shading techniques. Diff erent types of materials are under development nowadays, but the experimental testing of such materials in diff erent locations, with diff erent climate conditions is expensive in both money and time. Numerical simulations can be a good tool to perform an early evaluation of diff erent sets of photoselective fi lms which diff er mainly in their optical properties, selecting the most promising fi lms for later fi eld evaluation. In the present work, a photoselective (NIR blocking) polyethylene fi lm and a standard PE fi lm were tested as covering materials in two adjacent non ventilated boxes and the experimental results of ambient and black body temperature compared with CFD transient simulations. Later, two experimental multitunnel greenhouses were covered with the same materials, and CFD simulations were performed for both greenhouses, and temperatures compared with the experimental measurements for diff erent days, with diff erent boundary conditions, fi nding a good agreement. Thus proving CFD to be an accurate tool to estimate eff ects on greenhouse temperatures of greenhouse coverings with diff erent optical properties.

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PREDICTED EFFECTS OF ROOF VENT COMBINATIONS ON THE CLIMATE DISTRIBUTION IN A GLASSHOUSE CONSIDERING RADIATIVE AND CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFERSP.E. Bournet, SA Ould Khaoua

UMR SAGAH A-462 Institut National d’Horticulture2 rue Le Nôtre 49045 Angers, Francepierre-emmanuel.bournet@inh.fr

KeywordsCFD modelling, sky and solar radiation, inside climate heterogeneity

AbstractUp to now, very few numerical studies on the detailed climate in full-scale greenhouses have been conducted by solving the radiative transfer equation coupled to the energy balance equation. A CFD model was thus implemented to investigate the airfl ow and temperature patterns inside a glasshouse during daytime, by combining convective and radiative heat transfers. Simulations were carried out on a four-span compartmentalised glasshouse. Each bay was 9.6 m wide, 3.9 m high at the gutter and 5.9 m high at the ridge. The greenhouse was covered with a 4 mm thick horticulture glass and equipped with continuous roof vents. A two dimensional steady state CFD model was developed using FLUENT v. 6.1 software considering a 96 m long × 30 m high computational domain. The mathematical model solved the Navier-Stokes equations with the Boussinesq assumption and a closure. Solar and atmospheric radiations were included by using a bi-band (short and long wave length) radiation model. The analysis focuses not only on the ventilation rate but also on the heterogeneity of the climatic parameters in the canopy vicinity.The model was fi rst partially validated by comparing measured and simulated temperatures inside the greenhouse and along the walls. Numerical predictions of the climate were then obtained for various ventilator confi gurations (windward only, leeward only and a combination of both). They off er a detailed view of the spatial velocity and temperature distributions and can be used as a tool to asses the characteristics of the ventilation process. The windward vent case generates the highest ventilation rate; nevertheless, the symmetric case ensures a better homogenization of the temperature and velocity. The best compromise between ventilation and homogenization of climatic parameters at plant level is found by combining a windward roof vent for the windward span and symmetric roof vents for the rest of the greenhouse.

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THERMAL BEHAVIOUR OF A TUNNEL ARC GREENHOUSE DURING A SOLAR DAYDimitrios Fidaros1, Catherine Baxevanou1,Thomas Bartzanas1, Constantinos

Kittas1,2

1Institute of Technology and Management of Agricultural Ecosystems, Center for Research and Technology, Technology Park of Thessaly, 1st Industrial Area, 38500 Volos2University of Thessaly, Department of Agriculture, Crop Production and Agricultural Environment, Fytokou St., N. Ionia, GR-38446, Magnisia, Greece

KeywordsGreenhouse microclimate, Solar radiation modeling, CFD, heat storage

AbstractA greenhouse is an enclosed structure, which traps the short wavelength solar radiation and stores the long wavelength thermal radiation to create a favourable microclimate for higher productivity. The steady-state study of the heat transfer inside a greenhouse neglects the eff ect of heat storage from the structures and plants which can signifi cantly shift the time of maximum temperature appearance and consequently alternate the thermal internal pattern of the greenhouse and the determination of thermal and energy needs. Because of heat storage, during a day there are two time dependent parameters determining the thermal behaviour of the construction which have to be taken account; the solar irradiance and the temperature of high specifi c heat materials inside. The total consideration of those parameters demands an unsteady approach on a solar day cycle.In the present study a commercial computational fl uid dynamics (Fluent) code was used in order to investigate numerically the eff ect of transient solar radiation distribution during the period of a day in arc type tunnel greenhouse with a tomato crop and continuous side vents. For the simulation’s needs a two dimensional mesh was used to render the former geometry, and the fi nite volume method was adopted to carry out the fully elliptic partial diff erential equations’ problem. The variation of solar incident radiation during the period of a typical day was incorporated as time dependent boundary condition using an external user defi ned function (UDF) written in C language. The SIMPLEC (Semi-Implicit Method for Pressure-Linked Equations Consistent) algorithm was used to couple fl ow and pressure equations and a 2nd order scheme for the discretization of the solution domain. The DO (Discrete

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Ordinates) model was used to include radiation in the heat transfer calculations. Optical properties of the covering material were defi ned according to the wave-length of the incoming solar radiation and three spectral areas (UV, PAR and near infrared). Unsteady computations were performed using an appropriate and constant time step in order the numerical stability for time discretization to be ensued by a 2nd order scheme for time evolution As a typical day was chosen for the performed simulation, the 21st of September (autumnal equinox) for the region of Volos (Greece). Climatic data provided by the Greek Centre of Renewable Energy Sources were used in order to approach realistic conditions.The varying thermal pattern inside the greenhouse is given in terms of velocity and temperature contours and profi les. The results of the present study were compared to them coming from steady simulations in order to estimate the divergence caused by the heat storage.

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NUMERICAL MODELLING AND EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS OF PESTICIDES DISPERSION IN A NATURALLY VENTILATED GREENHOUSEConstantinos Kittas1-2, Thomas Bartzanas2, Athanasios Sapounas3, Nikolaos

Katsoulas1, Nikolaos Tsiropoulos1

1University of Thessaly, School of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Agriculture, Crop Production and Rural Environment, Fytokou St., N. Ionia, GR-38446, Magnisia, Greece ckittas@uth.gr2Centre for Research and Technology-Thessaly, Institute of Technology and Management of Agricultural ecosystems, Technology Park of Thessaly, 1st Industrial Area of Volos, 38500 Volos, Greece bartzanas@cereteth.gr 3Center of Agricultural Structures Control, Farm of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki57001 - Thermi, Thessaloniki, Greece

KeywordsCFD, climate distribution, IPM, safe re-entry levels

AbstractThe production of vegetables and ornamentals in greenhouses is associated with specifi c pest and diseases control problems that result in numerous applications of pesticides. Greenhouse crops required intensive care and therefore workers are usually exposed to pesticides in the greenhouse atmosphere. Since some hours after the application of the pesticide the greenhouse will be ventilated in order to alleviate the heat and to reduce the airborne residues of the pesticide in the greenhouse atmosphere, greenhouses became potential sources of aerial pollutants for the environment. To assess the impact of pesticides on the local environment (including the workers) it is necessary to be able to predict their concentration levels, something which is very diffi cult to be done experimentally. Numerical methods including computational fl uid dynamics (CFD) is a valuable tool in making this assessment. In the present study a commercial CFD code was used in order to investigate the dispersion of a pesticide inside an arch type tunnel greenhouse with continuous side vents. Inside the greenhouse there was a tomato crop, planted in double rows with a height of 1.5 m. In parallel, measurements were carried out in order to experimentally determine the decay of pesticide concentration. Air samples were continuously taken at six points in the greenhouse a using air pumps. In the 3D numerical model calculations were done for several wind directions and wind speeds. In each set values from the

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experiments were used for air speed and direction. The fi nal solution for every case of wind direction and wind velocity was obtained, fi rstly by a converge solution under steady - state conditions and secondly by an unsteady one, where at the time which equals to zero the volume of the experimental greenhouse was considered to contain a new mixture material consisting of air and the used pesticide. The simulation results showed a qualitatively good agreement with experimental values, although the choice of wind characteristics is the key factor in order accurate results to be obtained. This is mainly due to the delay between the moment the wind characteristics change and the resulting reaction to the concentration of the used pesticide. In addition, useful conclusions were obtained concerning the decrease of pesticide concentration in safe levels and the time needed in orders its concentration to be minimized reaching the safe re-entry levels.

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NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF THE FLOW THROUGH SCREENSAvraham Arbel1, Alexander Shklyar2

Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural Research Organization, the Volcani Center, P.O. Box 6, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel1arbel@agri.gov.il2shklyar@agri.gov.il

KeywordsScreens, incompressible fl ow, greenhouse

Abstract The objective of the research was to provide the numerical simulation of the incompressible fl ow through screens. Up to now, the attention of numerical simulation of the fl ow through screens, in the numerical model of the heat and mass transfer in greenhouses, is concentrated on the screens pressure drop coeffi cient and there has been no detailed work to fi nd other signifi cant characteristics. Screens generate turbulence eff ects, which are aff ected on the internal fl ow in the greenhouse. The pressure drop coeffi cients, fl ow turning angles, and the turbulence generation levels applied in the numerical model have been calculated numerically by the SSTKW and RSM turbulence models. Simulation results (e.g. force resistance, production of the turbulence kinetic energy etc.) are implemented into screen model. The commercial computational fl uid dynamics package (FLUENT) has the capability of modeling a screen as a porous media, exerting a drag on the fl ow and accordingly creates a pressure drop and changes the velocity components. A velocity component reduction was created by force inputting in the momentum equation. The turbulence generation eff ects were reproduced by fi xing kinetic energy generation at the porous cells. Results of numerical calculations coincided well with experimental results.

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VENTILATION PERFORMANCE OF NET COVERED ARCHED STRUCTURESSergio Castellano1, Antonis Mistriotis2

1Dep. Prime, University of Foggia, Via Napoli, 25, 71100 Foggia, Italys.castellano@unifg.it2Dep. Ag. Eng., University of Athens, 75 Iera Odos Str., 118 55 Athens, Greeceamistr@aua.gr

KeywordsNets, permeable coverings, ventilation, CFD, wind speed

AbstractPermeable covering materials facilitate ventilation due to their porosity. The fl ow characteristics of the air fl ow passing through a net depends on the Reynolds number of the system. So far, only the permeability of nets used in application involving low Reynolds numbers, such as indoor screens, have been studied, while the behaviour of nets used as cladding material of agriculture structures, where the fl ow is characterised by a high Reynolds number, has been poorly studied. In this paper, the ventilation of a net covered tunnel was studied by numerically and experimentally analysing the airfl ow around and through the structure,.The airfl ow through a two-dimensional tunnel structure (8.0 m wide and 2.5 m high) covered with various nets was numerically calculated by Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations. The k-ε model was used for simulating turbulence. In the model, a wind tunnel experiment was simulated numerically. The virtual wind tunnel is 70 m long and 30 m high, while the studied tunnel is placed 20 m downstream from the inlet. The wind profi le obeys the logarithmic law describing the incoming boundary conditions for the wind velocity, the turbulent kinetic energy and its dissipation rate. The net is simulated as a porous material obeying the Forchheimer equation.A full scale tunnel structure, of the same geometry, covered with four diff erent nets was built in order to validate the numerical CFD results. The tunnel structure of 8.00 m span width, 2.50 m ridge height, 24.00 m length- was E-W oriented and covered with four nets, characterised by diff erent porosity and fabric. Consequently, four sectors were defi ned, each one of 6.0m length. Data were obtained in the middle of each sector in order to avoid edge eff ects. Two hand anemometers with cups, with the precision of 0.5m/s, were used to measure the wind speed outside and inside the porous structure.

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The estimation of the indoor/outdoor air velocity reduction ratio shows a good agreement between measured and calculated values, especially for nets with a medium-low solidity ratio. For high solidity ratios the numerical results overestimate the indoor air velocity. The quantitative agreement between the numerical and experimental estimation of the ventilation airfl ow in net-covered structures is better than the one observed in similar impermeable structures, since nets prevent or reduce fl ow separation and suppress turbulence. Moreover the full scale measurements confi rm the dependence of the “a” factor in the Forchheimer equation with the characteristics of the net. Acknowledgment

This work was supported by the European Cooperative Research project AGRONETS (Contract no. COOP-CP-2003-507865)

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SIMULATION OF MICROCLIMATE IN A SLOPING GREENHOUSE USING CFDTakeshi Kuroyanagi, Toshihiko Ibuki, Yuji Nagasaki, Yoichi Nakamoto, Hiroaki

Tanaka

National Agricultural Research Center for Western Region, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Ikano 2575, Zentsuji, Kagawa, Japan tkuro@aff rc.go.jp

KeywordsNatural ventilation, cooling, energy balance, tomato, transpiration

AbstractOne of the main challenges for Japanese agriculture is to utilize mountainous areas that cover a large part of the country. Sloping greenhouse has a low-cost and strong structure for vegetable production in small fi elds of irregular shapes located on mountainous areas. Natural ventilation by side-vents is the main method for environmental control of a sloping greenhouse, whereas insect-proof screen covering the vents causes severe summer heat against workers and crops. Therefore, it is necessary to install roof vents at appropriate positions in order to release warm and humid air from greenhouse.For decision process of detailed arrangement of roof vents, it is time-eff ective to apply computational fl uid dynamics (CFD) simulation. The objective of this study is to examine the aptitude of CFD model considering the energy balance of crops for sloping greenhouse under the climate of high temperature and high humidity in Japan.The measurements were taken from 1 to 9 August, 2006 and the CFD simulation was carried out in a sloping greenhouse located in the south-western region (34N01 latitude, 133E57 longitude) of Japan. The greenhouse was on the north-east oriented slope of 4 degree whose area was 495 m2. The height of the ridge was 4.0m with the gutter at 2.7m. All vents were covered by insect-proof screen with porosity 0.518. In the greenhouse, twelve rows of mature tomato with a height of approximately 1.2m were grown.The CFD software Fluent® 6.2, and pre-processor Gambit® 2.0 were used for this study. The interest 3-D domain was discretized to 982,827 elements, and measured values of wind velocity and direction, outside air temperature and relative humidity, inside surface temperature of ground were prescribed as the boundary condition. The drag coeffi cient of crops was obtained from the literature. The custom source terms for energy and water vapour transport equations, which were calculated by the energy

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balance equation of crops, were specifi ed by a User-defi ned Functions (UDFs). Five data sets including the boundary conditions for input and 16 inside air temperature for validation were used.Including the energy balance model of crops to the CFD model caused overestimation of the inside air temperature when outside wind velocity was 1.25 m/s. On the other hand, the simulated air temperature agreed with the measured ones under calm wind conditions where wind velocity was within the range of 0.65 to 0.81 m/s. The root mean squared error (RMSE) was 2.5 K for weak wind, and 1.4 K for calm conditions, respectively. Under calm conditions, the simulated inside air temperature at the upper part of the greenhouse agreed well with the measured one, whereas that at the lower part between crop rows on the centre of the greenhouse was slightly overestimated.The 3-D CFD model considering the energy balance model of crops element could predict well the distribution of inside air temperature in a sloping greenhouse under calm conditions. However, inside air temperature at the lower part under calm conditions and that under weak wind conditions were overestimated. Thus, suitable model of transpiration transfer for high temperature and high humidity climate would be required to improve the accuracy of the CFD simulation for the next step.

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VAPOR REMOVAL FROM THE GREENHOUSE USING FORCED VENTILATION WHEN APPLYING A THERMAL SCREENJouke Campen

Greenhouse Horticulture, Wageningen UR, Bornsesteeg 65, 6708PD Wageningen, The Netherlandsjouke.campen@wur.nl

KeywordsThermal screen, climate control, vapour removal, strawberry

AbstractThe objective of this study is to dimension a system capable of removing the evaporation of the crop when a thermal screen is applied. The humid greenhouse air is replaced by cold dry outside air using an air distribution system. The common procedure to remove moisture from the greenhouse where a thermal screen is applied is by slightly opening the screen. This results in an air exchange of relatively dry air from above the screen and the humid air below the screen. This procedure is diffi cult to control and causes horizontal temperature diff erences in the greenhouse. By mechanically controlling the exchange of the greenhouse air and outside air these problems can be resolved. The airfl ow through the system needed over the year resulting from the evaporation of the crop and the outside conditions is determined using a greenhouse simulation model KASPRO. Based on this result the dimensions of the system are calculated and a control strategy is suggested. The KASPRO calculations also showed that using outside air for vapour removal is more energy-effi cient as using the air above the thermal screen. The greenhouse climate resulting from using the conventional method of vapour removal as well as with the forced ventilation is investigated using CFD. The CFD calculations show that the climate using the forced ventilation system is much more homogenous and effi cient as the conventional system.The system proves to be economical since investment costs are low (expected to be around 3 EURO/m2 maximum) and it ensures a proper well-controlled climate under the thermal screen resulting in a higher use of the screen through the year. The system is currently being tested in practise at a Dutch commercial tomato grower.

195

EFFECTS OF CHEMICALS ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF PLASTIC FILMS FOR GREENHOUSE COVERINGGiuliano Vox1, Evelia Schettini1, Livio Stefani2, Michele Modesti3, Elisabetta Ugel3

1Department PROGESA-University of Bari, via Amendola 165/A - 70126 Bari, Italy giulius.vox@agr.uniba.it2PATI Sp.A., via Beltramini 50/52, San Zenone degli Ezzelini (TV), Italy pati@pati.it3Department of Chemical Process Engineering, Padova University, via Marzolo 9 35131 Padova, Italy michele.modesti@unipd.it - elisabetta.ugel@unipd.it

KeywordsStress at break, strain at break, iron, chlorine, sulphur

Abstract Greenhouse plastic fi lms are subjected to degradation due to their exposure to solar radiation and to chemical products used during cultivation. This results in a reduction of life which ranges from some months to 3-4 years relative to the thickness of the plastic fi lm and to the degree of stabilisation. Research was carried out in order to evaluate the variation of the mechanical properties of 4 diff erent polyethylene-co-vinyl acetate (EVA) fi lms exposed to the climatic agents and to chemical products generally used during cultivation. The test was carried out at the experimental farm of the University of Bari in Valenzano (Bari, Italy), latitude 41° 05’ N, from April to October 2006. Four polyethylene-co-vinyl acetate fi lms, one without anti-UV additive and three experimental fi lms with diff erent anti-UV additives, were installed on steel arches of low tunnels. The fi lms were sprayed twice a week with chemicals containing iron, chlorine and sulphur. Other four low tunnels, which were covered with the same fi lms, were not sprayed in order to be used as control. Solar radiation falling on the fi lms was measured by a pyranometer in the wavelength range 300-3000 nm and the measured data were recorded by a data logger. Mechanical laboratory tests were carried out on fi lm samples, taken at fi xed time intervals in the fi eld, in order to assess variations of the stress and strain at break. Iron, chlorine and sulphur absorbed by the fi lm samples were evaluated by means of laboratory tests. Results showed that the decay of the mechanical properties of the fi lms started at about 2000 MJm-2 of cumulative solar radiation, in diff erent way for the fi lms using diff erent anti-UV additives. The decay of the mechanical properties of the fi lms with anti-UV additives was faster for the sprayed fi lms, while for the fi lm without anti-UV additive the decay was faster for the un-sprayed fi lms.

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IMPACT OF SUNLIGHT SPECTRUM MODIFICATION ON YIELD AND QUALITY OF READY-TO-USE LETTUCE AND ROCKET SALAD GROWN ON FLOATING SYSTEMGalileo Magnani1, Ferruccio Filippi1, Marcello Vitale2, Eva Borghesi1

1Dipartimento di Biologia delle Piante Agrarie, University of Pisa, Viale delle Piagge 23, 56124 Pisa, Italy gmagnani@agr.unipi.it.2Soc. Ciba Specialty Chemicals S.p.A., Via Pila 6/3, 40044 Sasso Marconi (Bo) Italy

KeywordsCovering materials, photoselective fi lms, dry matter percentage, nitrates,

antioxidant capacity

AbstractThe use of covering plastic materials with specifi c optical and radiometric properties, can modify the spectrum of solar radiation and infl uence some parameters of vegetables and fl owers yield, grown in protected cultivation. For this reason, the research is oriented to the creation, through diff erent technology, of plastics able to vary the red/far red ratio (600-700 nm and 700-800 nm of wavelength), that regulates the photoreceptors activity in plants. In other cases, the spectrum modify regards the increase of some wavelengths through the transformation of UV radiation. The aim of this research is to check the eff ect of solar radiation modifi ed by experimental photoselective fi lms, on growth of ready to use salad (rocket salad and lettuce) cultivated in fl oating system, at diff erent conditions of solar light (autumn and spring). Yield, dry matter percentage, antioxidant capacity (FRAP), nitrates, chlorophyll a and b and carotenoid content were investigated. Results showed that photoselective fi lms had positive eff ect on dry matter percentage both for rocket salad and lettuce, while the fresh weight presented only a slight diff erence. However photoselective fi lms increased the nitrates content, parameter easily controlled by a right management of nutritive solution. Regarding to the antioxidant capacity, measured with FRAP method, rocket salad showed an increase (around 40%) in plants grown under the photoselective fi lms. Chlorophyll and carotenoid content was little infl uenced by the optical properties of the materials. In conclusion, the use of these innovative covering fi lms seem to be interesting even for a high value vegetables, especially for the infl uence on their quality characteristics.

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BIODEGRADABLE COVERING FILM FOR SMALL TUNNELS: FIRST EVALUATIONS ON MELON (CUCUMIS MELO L.)Ferruccio Filippi1, Galileo Magnani1, Sara Guerrini2

1Dipartimento di Biologia delle Piante Agrarie, University of Pisa, Viale delle Piagge 23, 56124 Pisa, Italy gmagnani@agr.unipi.it ffi lippi.dbpa@yahoo.it2Soc. Novamont S.p.A., Via Fauser 8, 28100 Novara, Italy

KeywordsPlastic remainder disposal, environmental impact, air and soil temperature, optical

and mechanical properties, horticulture

AbstractThe use of biodegradable plastic materials seems to be a good solution for the problem of the recover and disposal of plastics used for mulching. The same problem interest even the use of small tunnels to force the melon cultivation. A biodegradable material fully tested and available on the market for mulching, called Mater Bi, was used for a three years research, where biodegradable fi lms with diff erent formulas, were compared to traditional materials, with diff erent experimental design every year: the fi rst year the factors were the kind of plastic materials and the length of covering (20 and 30 days); the second year the factors were the kind of plastic materials and the kind of mulching (biodegradable and traditional); the third year only the kind of covering fi lms was considered. The data collected regarded yield and commercial quality, soil and air temperature, optical, radiometric and mechanical properties of the fi lms. Results showed that the use of biodegradable fi lms for small tunnels could be an interesting device for farmers. Optical properties of biodegradable fi lms allow to obtain a good plant’s growth, while the temperature recorded under them, was always higher compared to the traditional ones. Yield obtained with biodegradable ones was higher or equal to the yield of the traditional materials, but the use of biodegradable material showed other economic advantages, such as a reduction of the labour costs, because the biodegradable materials have not to be removed from the soil by farmers, and a reduction of environmental impact and disposal costs. Some biodegradable fi lms had a longer durability while other showed a faster degradation of the polymer. However all the fi lms guaranteed the crop’s covering for the time established.

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STARCH-BASED FILMS AND SPRAY COATINGS AS BIODEGRADABLE ALTERNATIVES TO LDPE MULCHING FILMSEvelia Schettini1, Giuliano Vox1, Angelo Candura1, Mario Malinconico2, Barbara

Immirzi2, Gabriella Santagata2

1Department PROGESA, University of Bari, via Amendola 165/A, 70126 Bari, Italy evelia.schettini@agr.uniba.it2Institute of Chemistry and Technology of Polymers, CNR, Via Campi Flegrei, 34 Comprensorio Olivetti, 80078 Pozzuoli (NA), Italy synt@ictp.cnr.it

KeywordsPhysical properties, mechanical properties, degradation, solar radiation

Abstract The world consumption of plastic materials in agriculture amounts yearly to 6.5 million tons, among which more then 10 % refers to plastic fi lms for soil mulching. The mulches most widely used on large scale are made with low density polyethylene (LDPE). The use of LDPE mulching fi lms causes the serious drawback of huge quantities of waste to be disposed of and in the last decades the growing environmental awareness has been prompting the research to develop a new generation of mulching products starting with raw materials from renewable origin. These materials have to retain their physical and mechanical properties while in use and have to be compostable or biodegradable at the end of their life, degrading via micro-organisms into carbon dioxide or methane, water and biomass. Within the EC Projects “Bioplastics”* and “BIO.CO.AGRI”**, several biodegradable materials for soil mulching, as pre-competitive research products, were prepared using natural polymers. This paper describes the mechanical and the radiometric properties and the functionalities of the starch-based extruded biodegradable mulching fi lms and of the biodegradable water borne solutions developed within these projects, respectively. While the application of starch based fi lms follows classical protocol of mulching, the water borne solutions, containing marine and/or terrestrial water soluble polysaccharides, when sprayed on the soil form a sort of geo-membrane able to protect the cultivated crops. Real scale fi eld cultivation and laboratory tests were carried out from 2001 to 2005 in Southern Italy in order to study the relevant physical and mechanical properties, the degradation process, the morphological behaviour and the performance in the fi eld of these materials in comparison to commercial oil based non renewable raw materials.

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During their life in fi eld, the biodegradable soil mulching materials showed suitable mechanical and radiometric properties for an effi cient and profi table use in agriculture as low density polyethylene fi lms do. At the end of their lifetime the biodegradable materials were shattered and buried in the soil together with plants and the material residues disposed of in the soil biodegraded in almost 1 month for the water borne coatings and in about 12 months for the biodegradable starch- based extruded fi lms. The biodegradable materials could be the environmentally friendly alternatives to synthetic petro-chemical polymers and could contribute to a sustainable agriculture.

* EC Project ‘Environmentally friendly mulching and low tunnel cultivation - BIOPLASTICS’ (EC RTD QLRT, Contract n. QLK5-CT-2000-00044)** EC Project “Biodegradable coverages for sustainable agriculture - BIO.CO.AGRI” (EC LIFE Environment, Contract n. LIFE03 ENV/IT/000377)

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USE OF COOL PLASTIC FILMS FOR GREENHOUSE COVERING IN SOUTHERN SPAIN J.López1, A.González1, Y.García-Alonso2

1Departamento de Hortofruticultura, IMIDA, 30150, La Alberca (Murcia), Spain josefa.lopez38@carm.es2Espí, E, Salmerón, A, Fontecha, A, Real, A.I. Centro de Tecnología de Repsol YPF, Autovía A-5, Km. 18, 28931 Móstoles, Madrid, Spain

KeywordsTemperature, NIR, additive, fi lm, greenhouse, cool fi lm

Abstract The farmers that grow peppers in Murcia, Southern Spain, have serious problems during the summer due to high temperatures reached inside the greenhouse. Such temperature shave a negative eff ect on both yield and quality since, besides the physiopathologies like “soleado” and blossom end rot, both fruit-set and fattening are problematic. In modern multitunnel greenhouses systems like screens, wet airfl ows, zenithal ventilation and whitening can be used, although they are not enough to completely solve the problems. In traditional “parral” greenhouses these technologies cannot be adapted, being only possible the use of whitening and lateral ventilation, although meshes may be occasionally used. Another system to lower temperatures can be the use near infrared (NIR)-blocking covers to avoid the NIR radiation to enter the greenhouse. In this work, an experimental plastic fi lm with NIR-refl ecting pigments has been evaluated. This type of photoselective cover also slightly blocks the PAR radiation. Under the experimental material, lower temperature, greater yield and better fruit quality are obtained.

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EFFECTS OF A SHADING AND AN INSULATING FOAM INJECTED BETWEEN DOUBLE POLYTHYLENE FILMS ON LIGHT TRANSMISSION, GROWTH AND PRODUCTIVITY OF GREENHOUSE TOMATOKamal Aberkani1-5, Joey Villeneuve2-4, Damien de Halleux2*, Martine Dorais3,

Xiuming, Hao5, Andre Gosselin1

1Centre de Recherche en Horticulture, université Laval, Québec, Canada G1K 7P42Département des Sols et de Génie Agroalimentaire, université Laval, Québec, Canada, G1K 7P43Agriculture et Agroalimentaire Canada, pavillon de l’Envirotron, université Laval, Québec, G1K 7P44Sunarc of Canada, Québec, Canada, 1597 Cunard, Laval, Québec, H7S 2B45Greenhouse and Processing Crops Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 2585 County Road 20, Harrow, Ontario, Canada N0R 1G0. * damien.de.halleux@sga.ulaval.ca

KeywordsGreenhouse, tomato, insulation, shading, energy saving, light transmission,

spectral quality

Abstract Energy saving in cold climats and excess light in warm climats are major concerns to the greenhouse industry. Sunarc of Canada developed a liquid foam technology allowing the genration and distribution of liquid foam between two polyethylene fi lms used as greenhouse covering materials. Investigation of the eff ects of such insulating and shading foams on energy consumption, light transmission and greenhouse climate were performed. Two greenhouses were used in this experiment: (1) a control greenhouse; and (2) a prototype greenhouse installed with the liquid foam technology. The fi rst experiment consisted of injecting liquid foam between two fi lms from 16H00 to 6H00 every night to increase greenhouse insulation and decrease energy consumption. In the second experiment, liquid foam was in circulation between double polyethylene fi lms during the day when solar radiation is high. In the winter experiment, tomato plants were grown using HPS lamps providing 120 umol.m-2.s-1 for 16 hours. No supplemental lighing was used for the summer experiment. Greenhouse climate (air and leaf temperatures and air relative humidity), energy consumption, light transmission and spectral quality were measured in each

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greenhouse. The results indicated that the use of the liquid foam technology reduce energy consumption by 40 to 60% and increase light refl ection at night by 3 to 5%. In summer, the circulation of liquid solution with or without foam as shading reduce natural light by 10 to 50% depending on the time of the day and the presence of foam. Temperature of the covering materials and of the leaves were signifi cantly reduced. The applications of the liquid foam technology will be discussed in relation to both insulation and shading of greenhouses.

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CHARACTERIZATION OF CELLULOSE FIBRES AND GALACTOMANNANS BASED COMPOSITES FOR NEW MULCHING SPRAY TECHNOLOGYBarbara Immirzi1, Mario Malinconico1, Gabriella Santagata1, Dieter Trautz2

1Institute of Chemistry and Technology on Polymers - National Research Council, Via Campi Flegrei, 34 - 80078 Pozzuoli (NA) Italy synt@ictp.cnr.it 2Fakultat Agrawissenschaften und Landschaftarchitektur - FHOS Osnabrueck, Am Krumpel 31 - 49090 Osnabrueck Germany d.trautz@fh-osnabrueck.de

KeywordsPolysaccharides, galactomannans, biodegradability

Abstract In order to develop new eco-sustainable technologies to set up biodegradable fi lms for agricultural activities, spray mulching coating have been planned, prepared and tested on experimental fi elds. The innovative approach of fi lm forming consists on spraying aqueous solutions of natural polymers on the soil thus obtaining, after water evaporation, a continuous, protective, thin, waterproof coating, able to follow the unevenness of the soil surface. The suitable polymers used to this purpose were selected among biodegradable, biocompatible and non-toxic polymers, derived from available and renewable resources; therefore polysaccharides were chosen as the basic ingredients in the new-waterborne formulations developed. Due to their biodegradability, polysaccharides may be left on the soil or buried inside it and microorganisms degrade them transforming in carbon dioxide or methane, water and biomass. The mulching coating formed on the top soil must be water- resistant to assure both its durability and its covering function all over the crop growing period. The natural polymers selected in this study came from terrestrial origin, such as Arabic Gums and from marine origin, such as Agarose. To improve the mulching power and to increase the tensile strength of the fi lm formed upon drying, in the new water-born formulations fi llers like cellulose fi bres were mixed to the polymeric matrices, together with natural plasticizer like glycerol and polyglycerol.The formulations experimented on the soil for the crop growing of lettuce consists of a water mixture of the galactomannans Locust bean gum and Guar gum at a concentration of about 1.5% of each component with the addition of a non-gelling concentration of agarose; to this blend, 1.5 % of glycerol and some fi bres have been added. The water soluble blends were experimented on cultivations plots

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in open fi eld and in greenhouse. In this work the attention is focused on the study and characterization of fi lms peeled off from the soil at successive times. It was so possible to collect a sampling, that, throughout mechanical, morphological and water vapour transmission rate analysis, could give us information about the eff ect of the aging due to the permanence of the materials on the soil. Moreover it was possible to provide information about the infl uence of the diff erent environment on the fi lms performances. After about two months of aging and testing, we could assert that the diff erent setting of natural aging infl uences the fi nal properties of the fi lms: the fi lms aged in greenhouse showed better results as regarding their durability and permeability to water vapour. As regarding biodegradability, all the fi lms showed, by morphological analysis, the same profi le of decomposing. At last, as concerning the agronomic point of view, the easy handling, the weeds suppression and the water resistance of the fi lms evidence better performances mostly for the greenhouse fi lms.

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PREPARATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF BIODEGRADABLE PAPER COATED WITH BLENDS BASED ON PHAF. Salemi1, G. Lamagna1, V. Coco2, L. G. Barone3

1Parco Scientifi co e Tecnologico della Sicilia, Z.I. Blocco Palma 1- stradale V. Lancia, 57, 95121 Catania, Italia info.ct@pstsicilia.org2Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Fitosanitarie, Via S. Sofi a 102, 95123 Catania, Italia vcoco@tiscali.it3Dipartimento di Metodologie Fisiche e Chimiche per l’Ingegneria, Viale A. Doria 6, 95125 Catania, Italia lbarone@unict.it

KeywordsPHA, biodegradabile, paper, mulch

Abstract Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are intracellular biopolymers entirely biodegradable, synthesized by a wide range of bacteria (i.e. Alcaligenes Eutrophus, Cyanobacteria, Pseudomonas, etc.) as a carbon and energy reserve. According to the bacteria strain they come from, PHAs have either elastic or crystalline properties. For this reason they are good candidates for polymeric blends which are suitable to prepare mulching fi lms, pots, disposable shoppers etc. As a part of an ongoing project on the use of waste vegetable oils supported by the Italian Ministry of the University and by the European Union (PON 2000-2006 Sector: Environment n.12842) we have prepared and tested several kinds of paper (i.e. brown paper, blotting paper, newsprint, etc) coated with diff erent blends based on PHA and other biodegradable polyesters. Thermo-mechanical characterization tests, made on coated and not coated samples, wet and dry, showed an improvement in tensile stress and tearing. Scanning electron microscopy analysis showed a partial holes occlusion that improve waterproof features. In greenhouse tests, biodegradable papers, coated with a blend based on PHA were compared to black polyethylene and Mater-Bi in mulched box of soil irrigated. Two months after burial partially degraded samples showed holes started at the surface and physical lesions in the polymer and proceeded to the inner part of the material. Diff erent consortia of microorganisms have been tested eff ective to fasten biodegradation of the fi lms.

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AN EXPERIMENTAL DEMONSTRATION OF ENHANCING THE SOIL TEMPERATURES BY COMBINING AN ANTI-DRIP SOLARIZING FILM WITH A BIODEGRADABLE SPRAYABLE MULCHPasquale Mormile1, Lucia Petti1, Massimo Rippa1, B. Immirzi2, M. Malinconico2

1Istituto di Cibernetica - CNR, Via Campi Flegrei, 34 - 80078 Pozzuoli (Na) Italy2Istituto di Chimica e Tecnologia dei Polimeri- CNR, Via Campi Flegrei, 34 - 80078 Pozzuoli (Na) Italy

AbstractIn the last decades owing to the Material Science and to the eff ort the eff ort of the research world, including materials engineers, chemists, physicists, and agronomists, new materials have been proposed in the panorama of plasticulture. New generation polymeric materials for the preparation of fi lms to be employed in agriculture received in recent years a great deal of attention because of their potential applications for selected cultivation. The optical properties of these materials represent the main feature for their use as thermal fi lms. This use requires specifi c characteristics pointed out by the spectral analysis in UV-VIS-IR region. Soil solarization is a common approach to control broad spectrum soilborne pests. The commonly used fi lms for solarization, e.g. low-density polyethylene (LDPE) or high-density polyethylene (HDPE), elevate soil temp by 7-12 degrees compared with non-treated soil. Increasing soil temperatures during solarization can minimize the time needed for eff ective control of a given pathogen. The objectives of the current study were to demonstrate how a proper combination of fi lms can result in better heating performances during solarization, and evaluate their potential under fi eld conditions. Anti-drip eff ect of thermic solarizing fi lms has dramatically increased the transparency of them and this results in a further increase of heating of soil. Recently, the research (European Life Project Bio.Co.Agri) has focused on an innovative approach where a sort of sprayable water-based varnish made of biodegradable polysaccharides mixture is applied on soil. The agronomic performances have been measured, together with mechanical properties and degradation behavior. The results seem to confi rm the technical feasibility of such approach in developing a sustainable plasticulture.Last year, in the frame of the project, we tested an hybrid combination using a sprayable coating polysaccharide-based, directly on the soil with an anti-drip thermal solarizing fi lm on the top. From a physical point of view this combination simulate the action of a solar panel. In fact, the black layer covered with a thermal plastic fi lm has the same structure of a solar panel which produce as well known temperatures higher

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than 18°C. According to this idea, we prepared an experimental site in open fi eld comparing the anti-drip solarizing fi lm eff ect with the combination Black sprayable mulch / anti-drip solarizing fi lm and recorded the temperatures at diff erent depth in the soil with thermocouples connected to a data logger system. The eff ectiveness of the double layer biodegradable black/anti-drip fi lm has been compared with just the same anti-drip solarizing fi lm.The results confi rm our expectation and demonstrated that this combination could be a very effi cient practice in soil solarization especially in some contests where the times for sterilizing soil are very short.

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INFLUENCE OF GREENHOUSE VOLUME RATIO ON SOIL SOLARIZATION EFFICIENCY Alessandro Miceli, Alessandra Moncada, Giulia Camerata Scovazzo, Fabio, D'Anna

Dipartimento AAT - Sezione Orticoltura e Floricoltura - Università di Palermo, Viale delle Scienze 90128, Italia a.miceli@unipa.it

KeywordsSolar heating, soil disinfestations, greenhouse structure, mulching

Abstract Soil temperature under plastic cover is a function of incoming radiation and thermal characteristics of the mulching material and the soil, but it could be also aff ected by greenhouse characteristics (structure, cover, Volume/Area ratio). Aim of this research was to evaluate the eff ects of diff erent greenhouse unitary volumes and diff erent plastic mulching on soil temperature and soil solarization effi ciency. The experiment was carried out in nonheated greenhouses (8 m x 26 m each) covered with low density transparent polyethylene (PE), located at the experimental fi eld of AAT Department of Palermo University, Italy (l38° 7’ N latitude, 13° 22’ E longitude, 20 m altitude). Four Volume/Area (V/A) ratios were tested: 1,5 - 2,0 - 2,5 - 3,0. Diff erent ratios were obtained varying greenhouses height. Individual plots of 8 m x 4 m were covered with transparent or black PE fi lm from the end of July till the end of August (30 days) in 2003, 2004 and 2005. A streep split design was adopted. The soil was plowed and disced in order to keep soil in good tillage, then was moistened (fi eld capacity) to a depth of 50 cm two days before mulching. The greenhouses were kept closed during the experimental periods. Air temperature for each volume/area ratios and soil temperature at 15 cm depth, were measured every 15 minutes by the use of digital microprocessor thermometers. The time which soil temperature at 15 cm depth exceeded some thermal levels was also estimated. The results showed that the maximum air temperatures in the greenhouse during solarization decreased with increasing Volume/Area ratio. Hourly average soil temperatures were higher in greenhouses with V/A 2,5, with 4 hours over 45°C. Transparent mulching fi lm gave higher soil temperatures than opaque fi lm: 6 hours over 45°C on average. Maximum hourly average soil temperature at 15 cm depth was always reached using the transparent mulching in the greenhouse with a unitary volume of 2,5 (50°C during summer 2003). Soil temperature at 15 cm depth exceeded 50°C or more several days during 2003 and 2005 in the plots mulched with transparent PE under greenhouses with 2,5 and 3,0 V/A. The exposure time at several thermal levels showed a better

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effi ciency, on controlling soil borne pathogens and weeds, of transparent PE mulching in greenhouses with high unitary volume. Nevertheless, results showed that, with high V/A ratios, black PE mulching can raise soil temperature to sublethal levels. So Black PE could be kept on the soil after solarization as crop mulching in order to reduce plastic waste and mulching cost.

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THE OPTIMIZATION OF THE MANAGEMENT OF AGRICULTURAL PLASTIC WASTE IN ITALY USING A GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMGiacomo Scarascia-Mugnozza1, Pietro Picuno2, Carmela Sica1

1PROGESA Department, University of Bari, Via Amendola, 165/a, 70126 Bari, Italy scarasci@agr.uniba.it - sica@unibas.it2DITEC Department, University of Basilicata, Campus Macchia Romana, 85100 Potenza, Italy picuno@unibas.it

KeywordsPlastic fi lm, waste fl ux, GIS

AbstractThe extensive and expanding use of plastic material in the Italian agriculture for several diversifi ed application (e.g., tunnel and greenhouse covering fi lm, mulching fi lm, silage bags, irrigation pipe, etc.), results in increased accumulation of plastic waste in rural areas, that causes severe damages for their environment, turf and landscape, apart from the human health, that could be damaged by harmful substances released by this kind of waste, if not disposed in a controlled way. The abandonment of plastic waste along rivers and rural areas as well as the open and uncontrolled combustion of plastic waste are against the law. Nevertheless, these are practices still frequently in use in Italy, where only a part of agricultural plastic wastes are collected and recovered in a controlled way by the National Consortium “Polieco”, that has the task to collect, transport and direct them toward the mechanical recycling.On the other hand, the waste fl ux deriving from the use of these materials, like the waste stream generated in other industrial sectors, may be individuated and rationalized through a Geographical Information System (GIS) ad hoc designed. The application of a GIS to planning strategies of agricultural land, environment and landscape is more and more utilized since its attitude for synthesising of complex land relations. Many Authors used these useful tool for many relevant agricultural applications, e.g. the location of areas with best attitude for intensive agriculture in greenhouses, the analysis of agricultural-forestry land evolution phenomena and the related environmental impacts, the defi nition of several sustainable development indicators for the monitoring and planning process, the defi nition of land use and attitude by means of both GIS techniques and crop simulation models.In the present paper, the implementation of a Geographical Information System at

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regional scale is described, in order to contribute to the analysis of agricultural plastic waste production, fl ux, collection and disposal in Italy: the principal areas subjected to intensive use of agricultural plastics, particularly mulching and greenhouse fi lm, were examined by means of statistical data (covered areas according to the type of application, the cultivation, the type of material, etc.) and remote sensing survey. These data were introduced in a specifi c database, basing on which three diff erent layers were created. Through the use of this GIS, the Italian viability net was so examined, in relation with agricultural areas where the consumption of plastic material is widely diff used and with existing temporary storage areas, in order to optimize the transport of agricultural plastic waste from farms to recycling fi rms. The obtained results enabled the analysis and planning of agricultural plastic waste fl uxes, together with the possibility to investigate diff erent development scenarios and to consider new planning strategies for the management of agricultural plastic waste.

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TESTING THE ABILITY OF OPTINET™ SCREENS TO PROTECT CROPS AGAINST PESTS INFESTATIONSHadar, D.1, D. Ben-Yakir2, M. Chen2

1Polysack Plastic Industries Ltd. Nir Yitzhak, D.N. Negev 85455, Israel drorh@polysack.com 2Dept. of Entomology, ARO, The Volcani Center, Bet Dagan 50250 benyak@volcani.agri.gov.il

KeywordsWhitefl ies, Thrips, screen, photo-selective additives, pest protection

AbstractThrips, whitefl ies, aphids and mites are major pests of vegetables and fl owers grown under protective structures. The ventilation openings of these structures are often covered with fi ne mesh screens to prevent the entry of small pests. The screens reduce the effi cacy of ventilation which often results in stressful conditions for both plants and workers. It has been reported that screens containing photo-selective additives or refl ective colors provide a greater protection from pests than standard screens. We evaluated the protective ability of screens with photo-selective additives that are being developed by the Polysack Co. under the trade name OptiNet. The study was conducted in southern Israel, between 2002 to 2005, in small (6x6x2.7m) walk-in tunnels. When thrips infestation levels on cucumber and tomato plants were compared in tunnels that were covered with either 50 mesh OptiNet or a standard 50 mesh screen, OptiNet reduced thrips infestations 3 to 4 folds. In tunnels covered with 50 mesh OptiNet with narrow strips of aluminum foil woven into it thrips infestations was further reduced 5 to 8 folds. Moreover, even a 40 mesh OptiNet screen reduced thrips infestations 5 folds compare to standard 50 mesh screen. When we placed yellow sticky traps on the screens, facing outside, the number of whitefl ies caught on OptiNet was 2 folds lower than the number caught over the standard screen. This indicates that whitefl ies, as well as other pests, are less likely to land on OptiNet screens than on standard screens. This fact may explain, in part, the protective eff ect of OptiNet against those pests. This protection is particularly important against thrips which can easily pass through 50 mesh screens.

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THE INFLUENCE OF COLOUR ON RADIOMETRIC PERFORMANCES OF AGRICULTURAL NETSSergio Castellano1, Silke Hemming2, Giovanni Russo3

1PRIME Dept., University of Foggia, Via Napoli, 25, Italy s.castellano@unifg.it2Wageningen UR Greenhouse Horticulture - Bornsesteeg 65, 6709 PD Wageningen, The Netherlands silke.hemming@wur.nl3PROGESA Dept., University of Bari, Via Amendola 164, Italy giovanni.russo@agr.uniba.it

KeywordNets, permeable coverings, radiometric properties

AbstractThe whole construction parameters of the net, combined with the shape of the structure, the position of the sun and the sky conditions aff ect the radiometric performance of the permeable covering system. The radiometric properties of the permeable membrane, such as the transmissivity, the refl ectivity, the shading factor, the capability to modify the quality of the radiation passing through the net, infl uence the quality of the agricultural production and the aesthetic characteristics of the netting system. Moreover, the colour of the material and the light refl ection- especially of the wavelengths visible for the human eye (VIS, 380-760nm)- is an interesting criterion to determine the aesthetic value of the net structure and its environmental impact. In order to investigate the infl uence of the threads colour on the radiometric properties of the net, a set of fi eld tests were performed by means of a spectroradiometer (GER2600) with an acquisition range in the solar radiation in combination with an experimental setup 120x120x50cm covered with membranes formed by threads with diff erent colour. The average values of transmissivity were calculated in UV, visible, PAR, NIR ranges. A second set of experiment was performed, on the same kind of nets, in laboratory by means of a large integrating (R=1.50m) sphere and a small one (R=0.50m). The total transmissivity in the PAR range (τPAR in 400-700nm) and in the UV range (τUV in 300-400nm) of 50x50cm samples was measured by means of the large integrating sphere. The haze, the diff use component of the light passing trough the nets in the PAR range, (τHPAR), was measured by means of the small integrating sphere. The evaluation of the transmissivity values shows that the colour of a net infl uence spectral distribution of the radiation passing through the net absorbing their

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complementary colours. The transmissivity of black nets is almost constant in the visible range and the reduction of the incoming radiation is proportional to the solidity of the net. High values of transmissivity, more then 70%, characterise nets with transparent threads. In the PAR range transparent nets doesn’t cause an alteration of the spectrum of solar radiation and transmittance is almost constant with a slight growth in nets having lower porosity.

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EFFECT OF INSECT SCREEN CONFIGURATION ON NATURAL VENTILATION IN A SINGLE-SPAN GREENHOUSESadanori Sase1, Masako Suzuki2, Limi Okushima1

1Controlled Environment Agriculture Team, National Institute for Rural Engineering, Kannondai 2-1-6, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8609, Japan sase@aff rc.go.jp2Horticulture Technology Department, Tochigi Prefectural Agricultural Experiment Station, Kawaraya-cho 1080, Utsunomiya, Tochigi 320-0002, Japan suzukim22@pref.tochigi.jp

KeywordsAirfl ow, air temperature rise, tracer gas, ventilation rate, vent opening

AbstractInsect screens with fi ne mesh have been applied to exclude the insect vectors that cause virus diseases. Since the insect screens restrict the airfl ow, air temperature rise and less airfl ow in the screened greenhouses are the major concern of growers particularly under mild climate. If the vents are fi xed and have no possibility of being reconstructed wider on the occasion of installation of screens, an increase in the area of screen itself is a practical alternative to reduce the airfl ow resistance and increase ventilation rate in the naturally ventilated greenhouses. The objective of this study was to investigate the eff ect of screen confi guration on the natural ventilation characteristics. Field experiments were carried out using same single-span glasshouses equipped with continuous hinged ridge vents and sliding-door type side vents without plants growing. 0.4-mm mesh screen was used for the experiments. Three cases of screen confi guration were simultaneously compared: 1) screens on the side and ridge vent openings, 2) screens on the side vent openings and a screen installed horizontally at a gutter height, and 3) no screen as control. The greenhouse environmental conditions and the outside weather conditions were monitored. The natural ventilation rate was measured continuously using SF6 gas as a tracer. Preliminary results showed that the horizontal installation of a screen in the greenhouse (case 2) improved the natural ventilation rate and the air temperature rise compared with the installation of screens on the ridge vent openings (case 1), although the air temperature might be attributed to approximately 10% reduction of light transmission by the screen. The average natural ventilation rates of cases 1 and 2 were 40% and 77%, respectively of the control (case3) when all vent openings were fully open on a nearly clear day with an outside

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solar radiation peak of 782 W m-2. The average inside air temperatures of cases 1 and 2 were 1.5 °C and 0.5 °C higher, respectively than the control. When the solar radiation remained roughly constant at approximately 400 W m-2 and the outside wind velocity was below 1 m s-1, the eff ect of side vent opening area was investigated. It was shown that the diff erences in natural ventilation rate between cases increased as the side vent openings were open wider. When the side vents were closed, the air temperature rise for the control reached up to 6.2 °C, while the air temperatures for cases 1 and 2 were 1.6 °C and 0.9 °C higher, respectively than the control. The observed values showed an exponential relationship between the natural ventilation rate and the air temperature rise as expected from the energy balance.

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SPECTRO-RADIOMETRICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF PLASTIC NETS FOR PROTECTED CULTIVATIONCarmela Sica1, Pietro Picuno2

1PROGESA Department, University of Bari, Via Amendola, 165/a, 70126 Bari, Italy sica@unibas.it2DITEC Department, University of Basilicata, Campus Macchia Romana, 85100 Potenza, Italy picuno@unibas.it

KeywordsPlastic nets, radiometric properties, protected cultivation

AbstractIn the last thirty years a wide dissemination of plastic fi lms for protected cultivation has been observed in the Mediterranean agriculture; in the more recent period, a growing interest has arisen also about plastic nets used to protect orchards by hail and wind, to shade crops and to stop the way to virus-vector insects inside protected environment. The use of permeable nets sets some technical problems connected with their radiometrical characteristics and the consequent microclimatic performance. Refl ective screening materials have benefi cial eff ects when used for shading crops and for thermal screens in greenhouses. Shading screens stretched horizontally above the ground were found eff ective in reducing the risk of frost damage: the screens reduce the net amount of long-wave radiation from the ground to the sky during the night and thus keep the temperature of the plants under the screens at a higher temperature than the surrounding air.Hundreds of diff erent screens are available from various manufacturers in the market, although most are made from a limited number of materials. Thus, a large number of screens may vary only in the percentage of coverage, but are composed of the same materials. Some of them are based on an aluminium foil/polyester material, but can be manufactured with virtually any percentage of cover, according to the customer's specifi cations. Yet, the translation of percentage of material to the spectro-radiometrical properties of the net, such as transmittance, absorptance, refl ectance and emissivity, has not been adequately investigated. In the present paper the spectro-radiometrical characteristics of n° 6 diff erent agricultural nets, for shading and photo-selective application, produced by four diff erent European fi rms, were analyzed. Spectro-radiometric measurements, with

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special reference to transmittance and refl ectance to radiation in the PAR band [400 -700 nm] and to long IR radiation in the band [7500 -12500 nm], were performed by a Jasco modular spectro-radiometer operating in collimated and diff used light, in a continuous wavelength range from 190 to 25000 nm.The results obtained by the laboratory tests showed that, as expected, there is a relationship among the porosity of a net and its transmittance in the solar range, but that many other parameters compete to give diff usion eff ects of the incident radiation and, consequently, diff erent shading and transmittance levels. An improvement of the technical properties of the plastic nets, based on these results, should therefore be possible, even with the aim to guarantee all the players of the protected cultivation market (cladding material producers, growers and their associations, post-consume collectors and recyclers, fi nal consumers) about the quality of the nets and the effi ciency in their application for protected cultivation.

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EXPERIMENTAL TESTS FOR THE EVALUATION OF THE SHADING EFFECT OF AGRICULTURAL NETSAngelo Candura1, Sergio Castellano2, Giacomo Scarascia Mugnozza1

1University of Bari, Via Amendola 164, Italy scarasci@agr.uniba.it2University of Foggia, Via Napoli, 25, Italy s.castellano@unifg.it

KeywordNets, permeable coverings, shading eff ect, radiometric properties

AbstractAt the moment, there is a large number of agricultural net typologies on the market characterised by diff erent texture features such as threads, texture, dimensions of fi bres and meshing, physical properties such as weight, colours, shading factor, durability, porosity, air permeability and mechanical characteristics such as stress, strength at break and elongation. The reduction of incoming solar radiation can be considered as a positive eff ect for shading installations whilst, in other agricultural applications, like anti-insect or anti-hail, it is considered as a negative consequence of net performances. In both cases, it is very important to evaluate the transmissivity of nets in the diff erent sun radiation wave lengths. Actually the only national standard in Europe providing a methodology to evaluate nets shading factor (SF) is the Italian UNI10335. In order to investigate the infl uence of nets construction parameters on their radiometric properties, a set of fi eld tests were performed by means of a spectroradiometer (GER2600) with an acquisition range in the solar radiation in combination with an experimental setup 120x120x50cm covered with 17 diff erent kinds of membranes used as shading, anti-hail and windbreak. The average values of transmissivity were calculated in UV, visible, PAR, NIR ranges. Tests allowed to defi ne the infl uence of net construction parameters in the evaluation of the transmissivity to solar radiation. Measurements highlighted diff erences between shading factors calculated by means of UNI10335 and the transmittance measured in open fi eld depending on the following parameters: the infl uence of net construction parameters; the haze eff ect in real structures; the diff erences between the artifi cial source assigned by the standard and the solar radiation; the distance “d” of the sample from the light source. Basing on UNI10335 provisions, for each kind of net it was defi ned the distance “d” which better fi ts the SFs with measured transmissivity. Criteria which correlate “d” to net construction parameters were defi ned and, as result, a new calculation methodology of shading factors was developed. The application of this new methodology showed its capability to predict the SF of permeable coverings for protected cultivations.

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INTRA-CANOPY VARIABILITY OF FRUIT QUALITY IN KIWIFRUIT VINES PROTECTED BY ANTI-HAIL NETSBoris Basile, Rosaria Romano, Matteo Giaccone, Marcello Forlani

Dipartimento di Arboricoltura, Botanica e Patologia Vegetale, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Via Università 100, 80055 Portici (Naples), Italy boris@unina.it

KeywordsActinidia deliciosa, soluble solids content, percent dry matter, fl esh color, titratable

acidity

AbstractIn several fruit trees species, it is well known that intra-canopy variability occurs in fruit quality at harvest. This variability in fruit growth and quality has been correlated with intra-canopy diff erences in local source-sink relationships. One of the parameters that can induce changes in the local source-sink relationships is the heterogeneous distribution of light within the canopy. Scattered light has higher penetration capacity through the canopy than direct light. The aim of the present study was to verify (a) if intra-canopy variability in fruit quality at harvest and during post-harvest cold storage also occurs in kiwifruit and (b) if intra-canopy variability can be aff ected by protecting the vines with an anti-hail net that increases the percent of scattered light compared to normal ambient light. The experiment was performed on 7-year-old kiwifruit vines cv. ‘Hayward’ grafted on ‘Bruno’. Vines were spaced 3.0 m x 4.5 m and trained to a modifi ed T-bar system. Each vine had two permanent cordons placed horizontally along the row (2 m above the ground) with16 fruiting canes (8 on each side) tied to horizontal wires located in the alley, 0.75 m from the row center (the proximal end of each canes was left going toward the ground). In 2004 part of the vineyard was covered with a white anti-hail net (20.4% shading factor of PAR) placed 2 m above the canopies (4 m height from the ground). The installed net was able to increase the percent of scattered light in the PAR from 10.7% under normal ambient conditions to 23.0%. The experiment used a randomized complete-block design with three blocks and 12 vines per block. Uncovered vines were used as controls. At commercial harvest (14 November 2006), 150 fruits (with a size of around 100-110g) per treatment were harvested separately on shoots located at the proximal and the terminal part of the fruiting canes (top and bottom canopy layers, respectively). Part of these fruits (150 fruit) were cold-stored (at 0°C and 94% RU) for 4 months. At harvest and on two dates during cold-storage (after two and four months of cold-storage), 50 fruit per treatment were sampled to measure the following qualitative parameters: fl esh fi rmness, soluble solids content,

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pH, titratable acidity, fl esh color (measured as CIE L*a*b* coordinates), and percent of dry matter. Most of the fruit qualitative parameters were signifi cantly aff ected by the length of cold-storage (0, 2, 4 months), the canopy layer, and the presence of the net. During cold-storage, fl esh fi rmness, acidity, the L* and the b* fl esh color coordinates decreased, whereas soluble solids content, the a* fl esh color coordinate increased. Fruit from the top canopy layer had higher soluble solids, percent dry mass, titratable acidity, and fl esh fi rmness than fruit from the bottom canopy layer. Fruit quality was signifi cantly improved under the anti-hail net. For instance, fruit of vines under the anti-hail nets had higher percent dry matter and soluble solids content (during the cold-storage period) than the fruit of the uncovered vines. Within-canopy variability in fruit quality was not reduced in vines protected with anti-hail nets.

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PHOTOSELECTIVE SHADE NETS IMPROVE PRODUCTIVITY OF BELL PEPPERS Yosepha Shahak1, David Ben-Yakir2, Eli Matan3, Hanna Yehezkel3, Itzak Posalski4,

Yoel Messika4, Hannan Zohar4, Kira Ratner1, Elazar Gal5, Yossi Offi r5*

1Pepartment of Fruit-tree Sciences, ARO, The Volcani Center, Bet-Dagan, Israel shahaky@volcani.agri.gov.il2Department of Entomology, ARO, The Volcani Center, Bet-Dagan, Israel benyak@volcani.agri.gov.il3Southern R&D Network, B’sor Experimental Station, Israel mopdarom@netvision.net.il4Extension Service, Ministry of Agriculture, Israel itspos@shaham.moag.gov.il5Polysack Plastic Industries, Nir Yitzhak - Sufa, Israel yosi_o@polysack.com*Presenting author

KeywordsNet-houses, capsicum, light-quality, fruitfulness, pest control

AbstractBell peppers are commercially grown at the B’sor area in Israel under black shade nets of 30-40% shading. The shade-net protection is required for producing high-quality fruit. Here we report on a study in which the common black net was compared with photoselective nets (ColorNets, Chromatinets™) of a similar shading factor. These nets were developed during the last decade to screen selected regions of sunlight spectrum, concomitantly with enriching the relative content of diff used light. The ColorNets under study were chosen based on our former results in ornamental and fruit crops.In 2005 we tested the Red and Pearl nets, and in 2006 the Red, Pearl and Yellow, in four repetitions (18x18m each) per net. Three cultivars were tested (Anna, Caliber and Triple Star in 2005, and Anna, Vergasa and Alegria in 2006), using commercial cultivation practices. Plants were planted on June 1, and fruit selectively harvested from August 20 till January each year. The results showed that productivity was signifi cantly aff ected by the photoselective shading. The number of fruit per plant was 30-40% higher, and the yield (Ton/Ha) 20-30% higher, compared with the black shading, in all tested cultivars. Fruit size and quality were comparable with the black net control. Although all three photoselective nets increased fruitfulness relative to the control, the Red net consistently out-performed the Pearl and Yellow nets.

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Pest behavior studies revealed that the penetration of thrips and whitefl ies was also diff erentially aff ected by the photoselective nets, even though the dimensions of the holes allow free passage of the pests. Most signifi cantly, the Yellow net reduced the risk of whitefl ies penetration.The results, to be further detailed, demonstrate the potential uses of photoselective, light-dispersive shade nets in protected agriculture, and further emphasize that the quality of the light within the shade can make a lot of diff erence.

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ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF IMPROVED TECHNOLOGY IN MEDITERRANEAN GREENHOUSE SYSTEMSAssumpció Antón1, Teresa Soriano2, Juan Ignacio Montero1, Pere Muñoz1, I. Escobar2,

J. Hernandez2, N. Castilla2

1IRTA. Ctra. Cabrils Km 2 E-08348 Cabrils,Barcelona, Spain assumpcio.anton@irta.es 2 IFAPA-CIFA Granada. Camino de Purchil s/n 18080 Granada, Spain

Keywords“Parral” greenhouse, LCA, heating, forced ventilation

Abstract The expansion of greenhouse horticulture in the Mediterranean area involves an important economic progress especially in marginal areas. It is possible to grow crops in low-technology greenhouses, such as “parral” greenhouse, a simple locally made structure with plastic fi lm cladding, which requires fewer resource inputs than higher technology greenhouses. However, in recent years, some growers searching for highest quality and income of the produce have incorporated improvements at the structure and new equipments such as forced ventilation or heating. In parallel, “parral” greenhouses have been improved in order to increase solar radiation transmission and optimise natural ventilation. However, the incorporation of these equipments has led to an increase in the consumption of energy and other resources.The aim of this paper is to identify the most relevant environmental issues and quantify the environmental impact associated to these improvements. Two greenhouse production systems were compared: 1) arch-roofed industrial steel frame multispan, equipped with forced ventilation, shading-thermal screen and low temperature water heating systems for better climate control and 2) improved “parral-type” greenhouse prototype with an emergency air heating system and natural ventilation. Both greenhouses were covered with multilayer low density polyethylene (LDPE) fi lm. Life cycle assessment (LCA) was used as an environmental tool to detect the environmental “bottle necks” of both systems.The study was run in “La Nacla” Experimental Station, located in Motril (Granada, south Spain), with a hydroponically grown cherry tomato crop. The same fertigation and cultural practices were followed in both greenhouses. Pesticides applied are out of the scope of this study.Results showed that the higher environmental impacts were due to the management of the diff erent climate systems (forced ventilation and heating) in the multispan

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greenhouse. Depending on the environmental categories, an increase in the tomato yield between 1.1 and 3.5 times in relation to parral greenhouse should be necessary to justify the higher investment in equipment and energy. Regarding the greenhouse structure, although parral structure has showed less impact, further developments are needed in the prototype improved parral greenhouse to reduce the number and size of the supporting frame, which would have a positive eff ect in the environmental burden.This study has contributed to highlight the environmental consequences of using improved technologies and could help to make decisions of their limits. It is important to wear in mind that the optimal climate conditions and the proximity of markets are the most important factors for greenhouse production, when selecting a certain site, to ensure its sustainability in the Mediterranean area.

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PROTECTED CROP SYSTEM VIABILITY IN A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE CONTEXTBrajeul E.1, Boulard T.2, Robert F.3, Le Quillec S.1

1Ctifl , ZI Belle Etoile-Antarès, 35 allée des Sapins, 44483, Carquefou Cedex, France brajeul@ctifl .fr2INRA, Unité de Recherches Intégrées en Horticulture (URIH), 400 route des Chappes, BP 167, 06903, Sophia Antipolis, France boulard@sophia.inra.fr3ASTREDHOR, 44 rue d’Alésia, 75682, Paris Cedex, France fabien.robert@astredhor.asso.fr

KeywordsGreenhouse, intensive production, sustainable development, innovative concepts,

energy savings

AbstractThanks to protected crop systems, customers can now be supplied with fresh fruits & vegetables and ornamental plants all over the year and the world. However, these intensive agricultural systems have strong interactions with natural, social and economical environment, thus advantages and disadvantages with respect to the standards of the sustainable development. The objective of the French national Eco-serre project is to evaluate if an agricultural system can be both intensive and respectful for the environment, and more globally in line with the social, economical and environmental basis of the sustainable development. This paper presents the project plans performing a state of the art of the greenhouse agro system with respect to the sustainable development, then facilitating the environmental acceptability of the cultural practices together with their integration into the production processes. The technical institutes Ctifl and ASTREDHOR associated with INRA will particularly help to defi ne innovative global cultural concepts, before comparing them with existing standards for vegetable (Ctifl ) and ornamental plants (ASTREDHOR) for both Mediterranean and Oceanic areas. Various sustainable greenhouse tools and strategies will be evaluated in semi-commercial greenhouses for tomatoes, cucumbers and cut fl owers considering energy, production and quality criteria. On the one hand, specifi c tools such as energy consumption calculation and innovative greenhouse climate software’s will be developed and validated, especially to reduce energy consumption. On the other hand, various IPM strategies and production systems will be evaluated by the technical institutes, especially innovative systems for input limitation and water, nutrient and waste management in greenhouses.

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ENVIRONMENTAL IMPROVEMENTS OF GREENHOUSE FLOWER CULTIVATION BY MEANS OF LCA METHODOLOGY Giovanni Russo1, Barbara De Lucia Zeller2, Giacomo Scarascia Mugnozza1

1Dept. Progesa University of Bari, Via G. Amendola 165/a, Italygiovanni.russo@agr.uniba.itscarasci@agr.uniba.it2Dept. S.P.V., University of Bari, Via G. Amendola 165/a, Italy barbara.delucia@agr.uniba.it

KeywordsCut fl ower cultivation, LCA, in soil and soil-less cultivation

Abstract This paper presents the results of a Life Cycle Assessment study conducted to determine the environmental burdens associated with cut fl owers greenhouse cultivation.The goal of this research is to provide an objective analysis of t of ornamental production and point out technical and operational solutions in order to reduce the environmental burdens produced by fl ower cultivation. In the area of the U.E. project “Ecofl ower Terlizzi” (LIFE04 ENV/IT/000480) on ISO standardisation guidelines, a research has been carried out, with the participation of Italian fl ower growers, in order to acquire information regarding production process. Twenty two farms of the greenhouse districts of Terlizzi, near Bari in the southern Italian region of Apulia, were chosen in order to analyse the environmental sustainability of soil and soil-less production. The farmers completed a questionnaire on greenhouse typology (structure and covering), equipments (heating, electric, irrigation, etc.,) crops (rose, etc.), pesticides, fertilisers, substrate, irrigation on the soil and consumption of water, nutrient solutions distribution, energy consumed for the cultivation and the running of solution distribution systems. The results, based on CML2001 interpretation method, show that plastic covering materials instead of glass, the use of thermal screen, an optimization of structures, equipments and agronomical management can reduce environmental burden of fl ower cultivation.

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COMPOST SUBSTRATE FOR GREENHOUSE SUSTAINABLE CULTIVATIONPellegrino A.1, Doronzo G.2, De Falco A.1

1EURECO European Environmental Company S.p.A - loc. Fagianeria, Piana di Monte Verna, Caserta Italy antonella.pellegrino@eurecompany.it Ph. +39 0823 611284 fax + 39 0823 6112462A.I.P.I.N. Italian Association for Soil Bioengineering

KeywordsLandscape bioremediation, benefi cial microorganisms, sustainability agriculture

AbstractCompost tea” is a compost extract brewed with a microbial food source. The compost-tea brewing technique extracts and grows populations of benefi cial microorganisms; it is rich in nutrients and microorganisms and can stimulate plants growth, protect plants from diseases and help suppress soil born pathogens. By making sure the tea is well oxygenated and highly aerobic, it’s possible to eliminate potential plant-disease-causing bacteria and plant-toxic products. The soil microorganisms, in fact, can aid plant growth and plant health. Good bacteria work against the detrimental ones in four ways: they consume the bad guys, they may produce antibiotics that inhibit them, they compete for nutrients and they compete for space. There has been limited investigation relating disease control effi cacy to compost tea production methods, particularly relating compost tea produced with active aeration and additives to increase microbial population densities. We wish to use compost tea in sustainability agriculture, without chemicals and fertilizers and in landscape bioremediation based on bio-engineering techniques to increase plants grown (leaf and roots). So, we tested a fast and cheap method to obtain a high quality compost tea from mature municipal wastes based compost and we verifi ed its state of conservation (time and temperature). On samples of compost and of compost tea, we are testing same microbiological, biochemical and chemical parameters, like pH, enzyme activities, ATP content, heavy metals, nutrients and organic matter contents. In a second part of research, we will test the eff ects of compost tea in greenhouse cultivation; in particular, we’ll test soil microbial community status and the eff ects of tea on agricultural plant growth.

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IMAGE PROCESSING FOR THE CLASSIFICATION OF CROP SHELTERS Claudia Arcidiacono, Simona M.C. Porto

Department of Agricultural Engineering, University of Catania, via S. Sofi a 100, 95123 Catania, Italy carcidi@unict.it - siporto@unict.it

KeywordsGreenhouses; digital images; GIS

Abstract The importance of automatic classifi cation procedures applied on digital images (aerial orthophotographs, satellite images, etc.) for the recognition of soil coverage or morphological elements (geological discontinuities, ground textures, etc.) is widely confi rmed by several studies on environmental issues.As far as cultivation shelters are concerned, there is no thematic cartography generally available mainly due to the temporary character of this type of constructions. Yet a wide and deep knowledge of localization and territorial density of cultivation shelters can be of great interest in strategic choices for environmental and landscape protection.Aim of the present study is to verify the eff ectiveness of image processing application to the classifi cation of cultivation sites and its accuracy. An intensively-cultivated area located in South-Eastern Sicily was selected to perform the localization of greenhouses and other type of shelters (i.e. vineyards coverings). A mosaicked digital orthophotograph fi le of Sicilian territory was subset to breaking out a portion which contains the chosen study area. This image was georeferenced and then analyzed by using image processing softwares. A supervised classifi cation of the image was carried out by selecting suitable classes on the basis of signatures related to specifi c sample areas. The classifi cation was then refi ned by using neighbourhood and contiguity analysis algorithms. The results of the analyses allowed to recognize and localize the cultivation shelters and quantify their planimetric area. The latter was also compared with the attributes of georeferenced feature classes based on visual recognition. The application of this methodology to a wider adjacent area showed good results. The methodology developed in the present study could provide the technical cartography with a new thematic layer of cultivation shelter coverage. This application, among the others, could be useful to show the temporal displacement of the cultivation shelters in a specifi c area.

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THE USE OF RURAL SHAPES AND MATERIALS IN THE ENVIRONMENTAL ARCHITECTUREDal Sasso P., Ruggiero G., Marinelli G.

Dipartimento PROGESA - Università di Bari, via Amendola 165/A, Italy dalsasso@agr.uniba.it

KeywordsShapes, materials, environmental architecture

AbstractsThe actual architecture is strongly conditioned today from the demands connected to the respect of the environment both in terms of consumption containment of primary resources, both to get self-suffi cient energetically “shell”. Also for such motivations, it takes from agriculture world, more and more frequently, shapes and materials that develop the same functions, originally connected to the cultivations, for the civil architecture. This involves modifi cations and new connotations of the actual architecture that can been defi ned "environmental" because it turns to the energetic containment and, in general, to the consumptions of resources. The study compares some recent realizations and projects of civil architecture with the rural constructions with particular reference to the greenhouses that constitute, more than other types of protected cultivation, evident application of the concepts of using solar energy through the use of specifi c coverage materials. The comparison allows to underline the similarities between some enveloping forms, or part of them, of traditional cultivation greenhouses and the actual trend of applications of such formal, energetic and environmental concepts also for buildings of consistent dimensions, as in the case of skyscrapers in the metropolises. The images and the comparisons bring to develop considerations more general on the concept of architecture, thought as artifi cial construction of man using the materials made available from the nature, assembled to get an inside space divided by an outside one, and in which diff erent activities can be conducted and environmental conditions diff erent from those external can be defi ned. Proceeding in this manner we reach an epistemologic architecture that contains all the typologies of architectures (civil, rural, industrial, etc.) with principal reference the environment in which it is inserted, with the materials and the natural energetic sources.

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GREENHOUSES AND RURAL LANDSCAPE: PROPOSALS FOR THE CONTROL OF TERRITORY MODIFICATIONSDal Sasso P., Ruggiero G., Marinelli G.

Dipartimento Pro.Ge.Sa.; Università di Bari, via Amendola 165/A, 70126 Italy dalsasso@agr.uniba.it

Keywords Greenhouses, rural landscape

AbstractsThe rural territory is interested, with more and more frequency, by cultivation activities turned to the control of the production periods and to the protection of the crop from limiting and harmful atmospheric conditions.Such interventions, involving the use of materials with specifi c physical-mechanic characteristics, easiness of management and relatively maintained costs, are not limited anymore to the typical protected crops (vegetables, fl owers etc.) but also to the cultivation traditionally not protected (vineyards, cherry orchards etc.). Protected growing, extended to a considerable surface of rural territory, induces problems of modifi cations of rural landscape that, even if often temporary, can alter vast zones of prevailing agricultural characterization. The study considers some areas of Southern Italy and Europe and faces the problems connected to the protected cultivation spreading in order to outline criteria that can mostly address to an aware use of the territory able to make the productive activities of the protected cultivations coexisting, in a stable equilibrium, with landscape characteristics.

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ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECT ON RURAL TURF AND LANDSCAPE OF WIDE COVERINGS FOR CROP PROTECTIONAlfonso Tortora, Pietro Picuno

DITEC Department, University of Basilicata, Campus Macchia Romana, 85100 Potenza, Italy alfonso.tortora@unibas.it - picuno@unibas.it

KeywordsPlastic covers, shading nets, windbreaks, crop protection, landscape impact

AbstractThe extensive use of wide protecting structures covered with plastic permeable or not-permeable materials for fruit farming is growing especially in rural areas characterized by intensive agricultural production. This application may however generate aesthetic pollution, apart from other negative environmental impacts on air, water cycle and agricultural soil: the variation in the visual perception of the territory can modify, even in a remarkable way, the landscape characteristics. In the present paper the impact that the use of a wide permeable coverage may produce on the rural environment has been assessed, together with virtual simulations that allowed an analysis of the correlated landscape aspects and the evaluation of possible technical actions able to minimize the visual impacts. This aesthetic and environmental analysis has been conducted in a study area of the Basilicata Region (Southern Italy), in which the realization of agricultural structures for grape or kiwi growing (known as “tendone”) covered with plastic material, particularly nets or fi lm sheets, is common. The evaluation of the landscape impacts produced by these “tendone” structures has been possible implementing, through a Geographical Information System, a three-dimensional modelling of the territory, with the overlap of some photographic pictures in which the structures for protected crops were reproduced. Then, through solid extrusion implemented in the virtual model, on the basis of the currently practiced crops new structures covered with nets were inserted and analyzed considering that their potential use in this zone is meaningfully possible in the future, due to the notable increase that they allow in terms of crop production. Such simulations were realized for diff erent portions of territory (characterized by an increasing percentage of soil covered with plastic material) with the purpose to evaluate the consequent impacts. The results of this analysis should pave the way to the introduction of the concept of a “threshold” limit for the quantity of plastic-covered agricultural structures. This limit would represent the maximum value that, from an aesthetic point of view, could be tolerated in an intensive agricultural context. On this basis, a specifi c eff ort aimed

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at the production of plastic materials characterized by textures and/or colours more suitable for a mitigation of the aesthetic and environmental impact should therefore be possible and pursued by plastic fi lm and nets producers.

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QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF POTATO TRANSPLANTS GROWN UNDER CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENTYong Hyeon Kim

Division of Bioresource Systems Engineering, College of Agriculture & Life Sciences, Chonbuk National University, Jeonju 561-756, Republic of Korea yhkim@chonbuk.ac.kr

KeywordsQuality, potato transplants, controlled environment, artifi cial lighting

Abstract Quality of potato transplants can be divided by external and internal indices. Plant height, stem diameter, number of nodes, leaf area and colour are recognized as the external indices that can be evaluated visually. But photosynthetic rate, transpiration rate and chlorophyll content are included in internal ones that are related to its physiological process. Potato transplants with adequate plant height and stem diameter are preferable for mechanical transplanting in the fi led or in greenhouses. Quality transplants are also needed for increasing the yield.This study was conducted to investigate the quality characteristics of potato (Solanum tuberosum L. cv. Superior) transplants grown under controlled environment. Diff erent levels of photosynthetic photon fl ux (PPF), photoperiod and DIF were provided to analyze the quality characteristics of potato transplants.Plant height decreased with increasing PPF and photoperiod. Some external indices such as stem diameter, number of nodes and leaf area increased with increasing PPF and photoperiod. Photosynthetic rate and chlorophyll content of the internal indices also increased with increasing PPF and photoperiod. There was signifi cant diff erence in leaf colour and chlorophyll content in the leaves of potato transplants as aff ected by PPF and photoperiod.In external indices, plant height increased with increasing DIF but leaf area decreased with increasing DIF. Chlorophyll content increased with increasing DIF.It is concluded that the quality of potato transplants nursing under artifi cial lighting can be promoted by the control of physical environment.

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GREENHOUSE MANAGEMENT

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GROWTH RESPONSE AND NITROGEN USE EFFICIENCY OF TWO DIEFFENBACHIA CULTIVARS GROWN IN SOILLESS CULTUREG. Colla*, Y. Rouphael, M. Cardarelli

Dipartimento GEMINI, Università della Tuscia, via S. C. De Lellis snc, 01100 Viterbo, Italy *giucolla@unitus.it

KeywordsDieff enbachia, growth response, nitrogen use effi ciency, ornamental quality

AbstractDieff enbachia is one of the most commercial foliage plant of interiors. The objective of this study was to assess the growth response and nitrogen use effi ciency of two Dieff enbachia cultivars grown in a soilless system. A greenhouse trial was conducted from 13 October 2002 until 13 June 2003 at Floramiata Farm located in Central Italy using two cultivars: Camilla and Compacta. Single plants were grown in pots 12 cm ∅ and the substrate used was prepared from peat and cocofi ber (1:1 v/v). The plant density was 24 plants m-2. Plants were overhead-irrigated. The parameters of growth and ornamental quality were taken monthly. On each sampling date, thirty randomly selected plants were used to determine plant height and the number of leaves and stems were also counted. Later, plant parts (leaves, stems and roots) were dried in a forced draft oven at 80 °C until constant dry weight for recording plant dry weight. The plants used for destructive measurements were always surrounded by guard plants (plants not used in the experiment) and replaced by spare plants of the same size to avoid disturbing light distribution in the crop. The nitrogen concentration was determined after mineralization with sulfuric acid by “Regular Kjeldahl method” and the nitrogen use effi ciency (NUE) was also calculated. Among the cultivars, Camilla exhibited a slight improvement in growth parameters and ornamental quality in comparison to Compacta. The growth parameters of both cultivars were similar in the fi rst 150 days after transplanting, after that a linear increasing was observed until the harvest time. In both cultivars, the nitrogen concentration was constant and ranged between 33 and 44 g kg-1 of dry weight. Results also indicate that nitrogen uptake was low in the fi rst 120 days and increased linearly from 150 days after transplanting until harvest and ranged between 50 and 150 mg plant-1. Moreover, the NUE was always low (13%) during the whole growing cycle. An explanation of this low NUE could be the irrigation system adopted (overhead) and not the well effi cient systems as drip-irrigation and subirrigation. Another reason for this low value of NUE could be related to the open-loop system and consequently to the water and nutrient losses over root zone.

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GROWTH OF ORNAMENTAL PLANTS IN TWO COMPOSTS PREPARED FROM AGROINDUSTRIAL WASTESDe Lucia B.1, Rea E.2, Ventrelli A.1, Pierandrei F.2, Vecchietti L.1, Delicato M. A.2

1Department of Science of vegetable crop. University of Bari. Via Amendola 165/A 70125 Bari, Italy barbara.delucia@agr.uniba.it2C.R.A. - Experimental Institute for Plant Nutrition. Via della Navicella 2/4 00184 Roma, Italy elvira.rea@entecra.it

KeywordsProtected cultivation, waste management, renewable sources, Euphorbia milii X

lophogona

AbstractThe research work was conducted in a heated glasshouse in order to investigate the possibility of using olive-mill wastes compost (O.W.C.) and green compost (G.C.) in the production of ornamental succulent plants, replacing part of the peat in the growing medium. Rooted apical cuttings of Euphorbia milii X lophogona hybrid were grown in media containing O.W.C. and G.C., peat and draining material in various ratios; their vegetative growth, root growth and fl owering was determined. A medium of peat : draining material 7:3 was used as control. Six media, three with O.W.C. and three with G.C. were tested. The physical and chemical characteristics of the media were determined. The plants were irrigated to ensure adequate leaching from the pot, with frequency depending on the weather conditions, plant species and age. During the crop cycle the measurements of the main morpho-biological traits were conducted from potting (June, 12, 2006). In the experiments a completely randomized design was used. The results showed that the increasing replacement of peat with O.W.C. and G.C. up to 70% in the medium caused electrical conductance increase. After 140 days from transplanting plant height and diameter, the number of leaves as well as the number of lateral shoots and the plant green weight were signifi cantly reduced only in case of 50% or 70% peat replacement for both composts. The dry weight of the roots was similar in the control and in the 30% O.W.C. and G.C. media. After 140 days from the fi rst measurement the plants grown in 70% O.W.C. had the lowest increase in all the vegetative characteristics. Plants grown in the 30% O.W.C. and G.C. media fl owered at the same time of the control, fi rst decade of October, while plants in media with 50% and 70% compost fl owered respectively 10 and 15 days later. The results of the present research suggest that G.C. can replace peat up to 30% in

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a medium with draining material in the production practice of Euphorbia milii X lophogona hybrid. The quality of the plant produced in G.C. medium was particularly interesting. Higher concentration of O.W.C. are not recommended for Euphorbia milii X lophogona production.

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USING GROWTH FUNCTIONS FOR MODELLING CROP GROWTH IN SOILLESS SWEET PEPPER Francisco M. del Amor1, Maria D. Gómez-López2

1Instituto Murciano de Investigación y Desarrollo Agrario y Alimentario, C/Mayor s/n, 30150 Murcia, Spain franciscom.delamor@carm.es2Department of Agricultural and Food Engineering, Technical University of Cartagena,Paseo Alfonso XIII ETSIA, 30203 Cartagena (Murcia), Spain lola.gomez@upct.es

KeywordsCapsicum annuum L., explolinear function, Gompertz function, biomass

allocation.

AbstractA better knowledge of the dynamics of dry matter allocation into fruits is necessary in order to predict the harvestable yield and the infl uence that various factors (climate, plant management, fertirrigation) may have on the pattern of biomass allocation. Information about dry matter partitioning is of paramount value for modelling growth and yield of horticultural crops. Glasshouse experiments were carried out in coconut substrate in Southern Spain (Cartagena) to determine the dynamics of dry matter partition of two sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum L. cv Cierva) in two diff erent growth cycles (2005 and 2006). The 2005 cycle was carried out between May and September and the 2006 cycle from February to July. Dry matter of vegetative and generative parts was determined at several stages of the growth cycle. A classical growth analysis was applied to the data in order to obtain growth parameters (growth rate and relative growth rate), characterizing the growth of each part. The results indicated that, when using thermal time (base temperature= 10 ºC), the dynamics of dry biomass of the two growth cycles were quite similar, and were fairly well described by a Gompertz (plant biomass and vegetative part) and an expolinear function (generative part). The vegetative growth showed a marked decrease when fruits began to constitute the main sink for assimilates. The results suggest that, during the period of fruit production, the sink demand of the fruits is the main process driving dry matter accumulation and partition in sweet pepper plants. A clear relationship also was found between the fruit quality and the biomass allocation and plant senescence. So, using the greenhouse temperature and the proposed functions, the pattern of biomass allocation and the marketable quality could be easily predicted.

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EFFECT OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS ON SHOOT/ROOT RATIO OF CUCUMBERAuthorsH-P. Kläring, M.A. Dimova

Institute of Vegetable and Ornamental Crops, Theodor-Echtermeyer-Weg 1, D-14979 Großbeeren, Germany klaring@igzev.de

KeywordsAllometry, dry matter distribution, functional equilibrium, leaf/root ratio

AbstractRoot growth of cucumber is often believed to limit shoot growth and yield. It is generally accepted that the dry matter distribution between shoots and roots follows the principle of functional equilibrium; although the underlying mechanism of this is still not understood. This study aimed to investigate the eff ects of various environmental conditions on the biomass distribution between shoots and roots of hydroponically grown greenhouse cucumbers. In all experiments, treatments were adjusted when the plants reached the 10th leaf stage. Plants were topped after about 20 leaves. Fruits were harvested when they had reached a mass of about 400 g, and after all fruits on the main stem had been harvested, the experiments were terminated and root and shoot characteristics were recorded. CO2 concentration and the nutrient solution pH did not aff ect shoot/root or leaf/root ratios. However, the leaf/root ratio increased signifi cantly with increasing air temperature. Furthermore, when root zone temperature was decreased by cooling the nutrient solution, root growth was stimulated, while no clear eff ects on dry matter of the shoot, water uptake and yield were observed. Thus, leaf/root ratio increased signifi cantly with root zone temperature. The strong increase in shoot/root and leaf/root ratios goes against data from many other species such as tomato, carrots or various trees for which shoot/root ratios were observed to be independent of or even decreasing with air or root zone temperature. Further work will be necessary to understand the mechanism of dry matter allocation in plants.

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THE EFFECT OF CLIMATIC FACTORS ON THE MORPHOLOGY OF FOREST WOODY PLANTSJoachim Meyer1, Martin Kahl1

1Department of Plant Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Dürnast 4, 85350 Freising Germany joachim.meyer@wzw.tum.de

KeywordsForest woody plants, climatic conditions, greenhouse, morphology

Abstract The research has examined the eff ect of diff erent climatic growth conditions with forest woody plants in container rearing. Due to many forest-scientifi c research works an increase of growth is possible by an infl uence of the climatic factors light, temperature and air humidity.Firstly the growth period was to be extended and achieved by the cultivation of forest wood in the greenhouse. Secondly under optimal climatic control a multi-increase in length and thickness will be achieved. In addition to the climatic measurement by data supervision phenological and morphological aspects were analyzed. Many forest woody plants had a more intensive growth under favourable climatic conditions.

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EVALUATION OF STRAWBERRY CULTIVARS IN SOILLESS CULTIVATION IN SICILYAlessandra Moncada, Alessandro Miceli, Fabio D’Anna

Dipartimento di Agronomia Ambientale e Territoriale (AAT), Sezione di Orticoltura e Floricoltura Università di Palermo, Viale delle Scienze 90128 Palermo, Italy oefunipa@unipa.it

KeywordsFragaria x ananassa, coconut coir dust, open system, fruit yield

AbstractThe purpose of this study was to evaluate in soilless cultivation some strawberry cultivars and selected lines derived from the breeding programs included in the national project “Frutticoltura” fi nancially supported by the Ministry of Agriculture (MiPAF).The research was carried out in 2004/2006; during the fi rst year seven cultivars (Tudla, Ventana, Camarosa, Camino Real, Carisma, Rubea, Demetra) and an advanced selection (MT 99.20 1) were tested while in the 2nd year three cultivars (Tudla, Ventana, Naiad) and three advanced selections (MT 99.20.1, MT 99.163.14, MT 99.163.22) were compared.The experiments were conducted under a 200 m2 plastic greenhouse. Fresh strawberry plants were transplanted in the beginning of October in an open soilless system using polystyrene containers (40 l m-1 volume) fi lled with coconut coir dust at plant density of 12.5 plants/m2. Water and fertilizer were supplied via drip-system (1 dripper per plant with discharge of 2 l/h), automatically controlled by a computer. The electrical conductivity and the pH of the nutrient solution were maintained at 1.5 dS/m and 5.6 respectively. A randomised block design with four replicates was adopted, with elemental plots of 4 m2. Data were collected on the number of axillary buds per plant, marketable fruit yield, average fruit weight, fruit hardness and solid soluble contents. Data were statistically analysed by analysis of variance and mean separation was performed by Duncan’s multiple range test.During the fi rst experiment the highest yield was obtained from Carisma (65.4 t/ha), followed by Camino Real (58.9 t/ha) and Ventana (58.4 t/ha) while the lowest was observed from Rubea (41.0 t/ha) and Tudla (41.5 t/ha). Regarding the average fruit weight, the largest fruits were obtained from Carisma (23.5 g) and Ventana (23.2 g). This last cultivar performed particularly well: Ventana produced more sweet (7.7 °Brix) and fi rm (650 g) fruit than the other cultivars.

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In the second experiment the highest total fruit yield was obtained with MT 99.20.1 selection (48.2 t/ha) while no diff erences were observed among the other cultivars; however, Ventana fruits showed the largest size (21.5 g), the highest fi rmness (572 g) and sweetness (7.5 °Brix).Ventana is a cultivar with a singular behaviour: in soil cultivation it often shows problems (low yield, vegetative collapse) may be due to high temperature and soil electrical conductivity in protected environment during the hot season (March-April). However, the experimental results suggest that Ventana has good adaptability in soilless cultivation as well as the new selection MT 99.20.1.

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SHORT-TERM NITRATE UPTAKE RATES FOR SOILLESS CULTURE: SEASONAL EMPIRICAL RELATIONS FOR ROSE CROP PRODUCTIONDolores Roca1, Rosa M. Belda2, Angeles Calatayud1, Elisa Gorbe1, Pedro-F Martínez1

1Instituto Valenciano de Investigaciones Agrarias (IVIA), Departamento de Horticultura, 46113 Moncada, Valencia spain. a droca@ivia.es2Instituto Agroforestal Mediterráneo, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, 46022 Valencia, Spain

KeywordsRose , soilless culture, nutrient uptake, model, fertigation control

AbstractPenman-Monteith’s simplifi ed model is being successfully used for the water management in glasshouse crops for cut-rose production. This model relates plant transpiration fl uxes to radiation, leaf area and vapour pressure defi cit. In our greenhouse, the measurement of these environmental parameters is carried out by sensors which are spread in the greenhouse and provide actual readings each 15 seconds. Integrating the algorithm in the greenhouse control system allows an immediate control of water supply. Fertigation systems such as they are used for rose crops in greenhouses make it desirable to implement a model for plant nitrate uptake based on water uptake. Although for large periods of time, e.g. weeks or months, both water uptake and nitrate uptake are found to correlate positively, a model will not prove useful for soilless culture unless it were successful predicting nitrate uptake at shorter periods.Nitrate and water uptake by a rose (Rosa hybrida cv Dallas) crop was measured hourly for 24 hour periods at various days typifying each of the four seasons. Mean of nitrate uptake rate (NUR) in the spring and autumn seasons was larger than in the summer and winter by 32%. With respect to nitrate uptake effi ciencies those of the autumn and the summer were the largest of the year. This was likely due to the unbalanced dry matter distribution between root and shoot following the late spring pruning and to the subsequent nutritional response aiming to the recovery of the plant.Empirical models for NUR were developed by means of analysis of stepwise multiple regression. The regressor variables considered for the model were water uptake rate (WUR), global radiation inside the greenhouse (simultaneous to the uptake registration (Gin)) or accumulated in the previous 4 (Gin4), 8 (Gin8) and 12 (Gin12) hours to the uptake registration), air temperature (airT) and air Vapour Pressure Defi cit (VPD) both

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from inside the greenhouse, and temperature of the nutrient solution surrounding the root system (rootT). Three highly signifi cant regression models were obtained, one for summer (r2=0.81), one for autumn (r2=0.85) and one for spring (r2=0.61). Of the variables tested WUR and rootT appear in the summer model, WUR in the autumn and VPD in the spring. Minimum root temperature is highest in the summer. This may pose a limiting condition for the nitrate transporters in the root as has been reported in the literature. Although WUR has similar mean values for the three seasons under consideration, VPD is lowest in spring, which may explain VPD overruling WUR as the driving force for NUR in the spring. The three models were validated with further measurements in the three seasons. At this stage the splitting of the model into two, one for the daylight period and one for the dark period at night for each of the seasons, is under consideration, since the means for NUR and WUR diff er signifi cantly between the two periods. Furthermore, it might also provide with a model for the winter.

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COMPARING MINERAL UPTAKE EFFICIENCIES IN ROSE PLANT FLOWERING FLUSHES UNDER TWO CLIMATE CONDITIONSDolores Roca1*, Rosa M. Belda2, Angeles Calatayud1, Elisa Gorbe1, P-F Martínez1 1Instituto Valenciano de Investigaciones Agrarias. 46113 Moncada, Valencia, Spaindroca@ivia.es2Instituto Agroforestal Mediterráneo. Universidad Politécnica. 46022, Valencia, Spain

KeywordsRose, growth rate, climatic parameters, mineral uptake effi ciency, partitioning.

AbstractWater and mineral supply optimization in closed soilless culture, depends on knowledge progress of crop needs in every climatic condition. Moreover, knowing the relationships between mineral uptake and transport, and sugars and starch reserves of the plant, informs on plant capacity for generating and mobilizing resources for growth and development.The present work aims at studying the water and mineral crop demand, along the growing cycle of fl ower stem, during two climatic seasons of crop growing activity in: 1)- end of Winter to Spring initiation and 2)- Summer (with shading net protection). A rose crop (Rosa hybrida cv. Grand Gala) is used, growing for all-year-round production in a closed hydroponic system, under greenhouse. Plants are pruned down to two nodes, in order to study their behaviour, along a whole fl ower stem growing cycle. The daily mineral uptake rates for N, P, K, Ca and Mg, as well as the evolution of biomass partitioning, total non-structural carbohydrates (TNC) and total N are determined, along the fl ower stem growing cycle. Two stages of fl ower stem growth are considered: 1- from pruning to visible fl ower bud; 2- from visible fl ower bud to harvesting. Clear diff erences between the two climatic seasons, are shown in the crop responses. Growth and water uptake rates are higher in Summer, as well as mineral uptake effi ciencies (g d.w. harvest per uptaken mmol) for Ca2+, K+, Mg2+, NO3- and PO4H2-. Biomass balances, TNC and total N, along the two stages of fl ower stem growth, in the two seasons, show that: 1)- the high growth rate and lower mineral uptake rates in Summer, can be related to a decrease of starch, soluble sugars and total N in the arched stem biomass, during the two growth cycle stages. These materials should be addressed towards the fl ower stems, that, doubtlessly, are the strongest sink, followed by the root as the secondary one; 2)- during Winter-Spring the growth rate is lower, in spite of higher mineral uptake rates. Reserve and total N concentrations are also higher than the Summer ones in the diff erent considered compartments (root, arched stems,

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fl ower shoots), which suggest limited reserves and total N mobilization, explaining the close relationships between growth and mineral uptake rates.The obtained results can be useful for improving crop management, particularly in terms of adjusting root uptake capacity and actual mineral plant demand.

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THE INFLUENCE OF SUBSTRATES AND IRRIGATION ON SOIL AIR COMPOSITION AND ITS EFFECT ON GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THREE HORTICULTURAL PLANTSThorsten Rocksch, Nazim Gruda, Uwe Schmidt

Institute for Horticultural Sciences, Humboldt University of Berlin, Lentzeallee 55-57, 14195 Berlin, Germany t.rocksch@agrar.hu-berlin.de

Keywords Peat, perlite and peat, wood fi ber substrate, Ficus benjamini, Capsicum annuum,

Cucumis sativu, CO2, O2

AbstractChanges in CO2- and O2-concentrations in the root zone can aff ect growth and development of cultivated plants. In addition to the microbial activity, substrate temperature, nutrient composition and root respiration. Water content and substrate also can eff ect the soil air composition. The objective of this study is to determinate the soil air composition of diff erent substrates after irrigation. Changes in the soil air composition were tested to determine its eff ect on plant physiological and production parameters. In the fi rst investigation Ficus benjamini L. was cultivated in two diff erent peat substrates (Stender A 710 and Stender E 910, respectively) in a whole plant cuvette. The substrate composition diff ered in the clay content (A 710 - 0%, E 910 – 20%). Measurements of CO2- and O2-contents of the substrate air were carried out continuously. Plants height, sprout number, and the number of new leaves were determined weekly. At the end of the experiment leaf numbers, fresh mass of leaves and the leaf area index were recorded. In the second experiment, paprika (Capsicum annuum L.) cv. 'Mazurka' was cultivated in perlite and a peat substrate with a medium particle size (Stender E 400) in a whole plant cuvette. CO2-and O2 concentration in substrates were continuously recorded, with regard to water application. In the third experiment with cucumbers (Cucumis sativus L.) continuous oxygen measurements were recorded in a wood fi ber substrate (EKOfi bre) and in rockwool (Grodan). The infl uence of irrigation on the oxygen content of substrates was determined. Only slight changes in the soil air composition were found in peat substrates after a moderate fertigation. More extreme changes were observed in daily O2/CO2 ratio, probably due to the root respiration and microbial activity infl uenced by temperatures. No diff erences were found between peat substrates with or without clay. A continuous decrease of the oxygen content was observed in a perlite and peat substrate after the

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irrigation with 5 L water per 50 L of substrate, while the CO2 content were increased only briefl y. The normal O2 levels were achieved after several days. Another trend appeared when using the wood fi ber substrate EKOfi bre. Shortly after irrigation the oxygen content rose and after approx. 30 min reached the starting level.

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PREDICTING LEAF NUMBER OF HYDROPONICALLY ZUCCHINI SQUASH BASED ON THE THERMAL TIME APPROACHY. Rouphael1, S. Fanasca1, C. Fallovo1, M. Cardarelli1, A. Marucci2, A. Salerno3, E. Rea3,

G. Colla1*

1Dipartimento GEMINI, Università della Tuscia, via S. C. De Lellis snc, 01100 Viterbo, Italy 2Dipartimento DAF, Università della Tuscia, via S. C. De Lellis snc, 01100 Viterbo, Italy 3CRA-Istituto Sperimentale Per la Nutrizione delle Piante, via della Navicella 2-4. 00184 Roma * giucolla@unitus.it

KeywordsCucurbita pepo L., growing degree days, leaf number, temperature

AbstractParticular importance to crop modeling eff orts is the ability to predict leaf area development, as this aff ects the amount of radiation intercepted by the crop, which in turns aff ects whole plant photosynthesis and transpiration. Crop leaf area depends on the leaf appearance rate, the leaf expansion rate and leaf senescence rate. The leaf appearance rate and the leaf numbers are aff ected by such environmental factors as temperature, photoperiod, radiation, water stress and nutrient supply. Of these various factors, temperature is predominately considered predictive models for the crop leaf area. While there has been considerable research concerning the temperature infl uence on the leaf number of grain crops, there is much less information available for most vegetable crops. The objective of this research was to delineate leaf appearance rate of hydroponically-zucchini squash (Cucurbita pepo L.) grown at diff erent planting dates (spring-summer and summer-fall growing seasons) and to develop a model for predicting leaf number based on thermal time. Thermal time (ºCd) was calculated using a based temperature of 8 ºC and a ceiling temperature of 32ºC. A relationship between leaf number and the thermal time was established from the fi rst growing cycle data set, and data from fall planting during the consecutive growing cycle was used for model validation. Results indicate that a single relationship could be used to predict the leaf number of zucchini squash cultivar in response to the thermal time. The response of leaf number to thermal time was curvilinear. These results should be useful in developing a model for leaf area and eventually a crop growth model for zucchini squash.

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THE EFFECTS OF GREENHOUSE CONDITIONS ON THE CONTAINERIZED SEEDLING PROPAGATION OF SCOTS PINE (PINUS SYLVESTRIS L. VAR. HAMATA) AND ORIENTAL SPRUCE (PICEA ORIENTALIS L. LINK)Sezgin AYAN

Kastamonu Univ., Faculty of Forestry, Silviculture Dep., 37200 Kastamonu / Turkey sezginay@gai.edu.tr

KeywordsPinus sylvestris L. var. hamata, Picea orientalis (L.) Link, morphological characters

AbstractThis study was carried out on oriental spruce (Picea orientalis (L.) Link.) which is a paleoendemic species and naturally distributed on Eastern Black Sea Region and scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L. var. hamata) which has its south point of natural distribution on the world in Turkey. In the containerized seedling propagation trials, the eff ects of diff erent production processes as outdoor (O), greenhouse + outdoor (G+O), greenhouse + overshading fi eld + outdoor (G+OF+O) for scots pine, “waiting period in the greenhouse (1.5 and 2.5 months)” for oriental spruce, on the morphological parameters were tried to clarifi ed.In the scots pine experiment, seedling height (SH), root collar diameter (RCD), root fresh weight-root dry weight (RFW-RDW), stem fresh weight-stem dry weight (SFW-SDW) and seedling total dry weight (STDW) parameters were measured on 1+0 aged seedlings. Also, for oriental spruce, SH, RCD, bud number (BN), seedling branch number (SBN), SDW, RDW, STDW, dry root percentage (DRP), SDW/RDW ratio and quality index (QI), SH/RCD ratio parameters were measured on 2+0 aged seedlings. In the oriental spruce trials, 2.5 months waiting period in the greenhouse positively aff ected the SH, RCD, SBN, SDW/RDW, QI, SDW, STDW values of 2+0 years old oriental spruce seedlings. Contrary to this, the short period waiting (1.5 months) in the greenhouse showed raising eff ects on DRP and BN. The waiting period in the greenhouse was no statistically signifi cant eff ect on DRW and SH/RCD ratio. As a conclusion of scots pine experiment, based on outside fertilization, G + OF+ O treatment show 34%, 20% and 40% of superiority in SH, RCD and STDW than O treatment, respectively. Also, G+O treatment increased SH, RCD and STDW by 17.5 %, 44% and 34 %, sequentially.

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LIGHT REQUIREMENTS FOR FLOWERING OF LISIANTHUSRoberta Paradiso, Sergio Fiorenza, Stefania De Pascale

Department of Agricultural Engineering and AgronomyUniversity of Naples Federico II - Via Università, 100 - 80055 - Portici - Naples (Italy)roberta.paradiso@unina.it

KeywordsEustoma grandifl orum Griseb., photoperiod, supplemental lighting, production

scheduling

AbstractCommercial cultivars of Lisianthus (Lisianthus russellianus Hook) for cut stems production are currently classifi ed into three groups, recommended for diff erent growing periods in protected cultivation: group I, for late autumn-winter transplanting (from the end of October to the middle of February); group II, for early spring transplanting (from the end of February to the end of June); group III, for late spring-summer transplanting (from the middle of April to the end of June).Flowering of Lisianthus is photoperiod-independent and most literature refers to this species as a day neutral plant that naturally fl owers in late spring. Nevertheless, some authors have reported that long days (16 hours) and/or high light intensity promote the fl owering of some cultivars and they consider this species a quantitative long day plant.In this research we investigated the eff ects of supplemental lighting on fl owering of two double fl ower Lysianthus cultivars to establish a link between light requirements and fl owering time in this species.The experiment was carried out in Salerno (Scafati, 40°45' N, 14°32' E) in an air heated plastic tunnel (day/night 22 °C/16 °C). Plants of the white cultivars Echo (group I) and Cessna (group III) were transplanted on sandy soil on January, 15, at the density of 60 plants/m2. Two lighting treatments were compared: natural day (ND) and 18-hours long day (LD). Supplemental lighting was applied from the transplanting until the beginning of the harvest, using High Pressure Sodium (HPS) lamps (600 W).Under ND conditions, the number of days from transplanting to the beginning of fl owering was 113 in Echo and 130 in Cessna. The lighting treatment reduced the time to fl owering in both the cultivars, with a stronger eff ect in Echo (19 vs. 8 days in Cessna before the control). The length of cut fl ower stems was shorter in the earlier cultivar and under LD.

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SUPPLEMENTARY LIGHTING SCREENS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON GREENHOUSE CLIMATE AND RETURN ON INVESTMENT CHARACTERISTICSBert van ’t Ooster1, Eldert J. van Henten1, Egon Janssen2, Eric Bongaerts1

1Wageningen University, Farm Technology Group, P.O. Box 17, 6700 AA Wageningen, Netherlands bert.vantooster@wur.nl eldert.vanhenten@wur.nl2TNO Built Environment and Geosciences, P.O. Box 49, 2600 AA Delft, Netherlandsegon.janssen@tno.nl

KeywordsLight pollution, low light emission, crop growth, internal refl ection, climate

Abstract Discomfort caused by light pollution from greenhouses that apply supplementary lighting is an issue in Dutch society nowadays. At this moment Dutch legislation requires opaque screen that cover 95% of the greenhouse wall. In 2008 also the light emission by the greenhouse roof must be reduced by 95% and supplementary light will be limited to 15,000 lx (180 μmol.m-2.s-1 for high pressure sodium lamps), unless light emission is totally prevented. The objective of this research is to calculate the economic consequences of installing refl ecting, light emission reducing or blocking screens by considering crop yield eff ects and screen costs. A mathematical correction equation was developed to approach the light gain for the crop as a result of internal refl ection. Greenhouse climate and tomato crop growth were simulated for a reference greenhouse with supplementary lighting and without an emission blocking screen and for a low-light-emission greenhouse with a blocking screen. The supplementary lighting level was set at 180 μmol.m-2.s-1. Results show that the greenhouse climate below the screen remained manageable, but that the desired DIF of 2 °C was aff ected. The light gain was on average about 3 % and resulted in production increase. Based on these calculations, the yearly increase in yield as a result of direct and indirect eff ects of the screen resulted in a net yearly profi t. In conclusion the simulation suggests that stopping light emission at the source with help of refl ective non transparent screens is economically feasible.

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GRAFTING EFFECTS ON TOMATO GROWTH RATE, YIELD AND FRUIT QUALITY UNDER SALINE IRRIGATION WATERAstrit Balliu1, Gjok Vuksani1, Thoma Nasto1, Llazar Haxhinasto1, Skender Kaçiu2

1Agricultural University of Tirana, Tirana, Albania, aballiu@icc-al.org 2University of Pristina, Pristina, Kosovo, skaciu@yahoo.com

Keywords Tomato, grafting combinations, growth rate, yield, fruit quality, saline irrigation

water

AbstractThe grafting infl uences on growth intensity and harvested yield under plastic greenhouses, compared to common commercial seedlings, were estimated in several combinations of “Charlotte F1“ and “Bona F1“ tomato cultivars (Lycopersicon esculentum L.) with “Energy”, “Prospero” and “Cyndia” rootstock cultivars (Lycopersicon spp). Grafting response to growth, yield and fruit characteristics under the saline irrigation water conditions were simultaneously estimated in a single grafting combination (Cyndia x Miranda). Natural soil and Klansmann grow bags were respectively used as substrate in the fi rst and the second experiment. Commercial cultivation practices were used in the fi rst experiment and nutrient solutions composed by NPK, respectively; 200, 40 and 250 mg L-1, were applied at the second one. Diff erent levels of NaCl (0; 2,5 and 5,0 mM) were added. Signifi cant diff erences have been found between diff erent rootstock:scion combinations regarding to plant growth rate and harvested yield. No signifi cant increase of the yield, compared to the non grafted plants was usually observed. A general depression eff ect was present in any case. NaCl addition in the irrigation water was responsible for the signifi cant reduction of plant growth rate and yield, but an increase in fruit dry matter, soluble solids and ascorbic acid content was evident. Under this circumstances, grafting has promoted higher growth rate and also bigger fruits and more reach in soluble solids and ascorbic acids, compared to the non grafted plants.

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DETERMINING SOIL MOISTURE THRESHOLDS FOR THE RESPONSES OF GAS EXCHANGE AND LEAF WATER POTENTIAL IN DIFFERENT TOMATO CROP SYSTEMSMartine Dorais1, Steeve Pepin2, Claudine Ménard1

1Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Envirotron bldg, Laval University, QC, Canada, G1K 7P4 doraisma@agr.gc.ca2Horticulture Research Centre, Département des sols et de génie agroalimentaire, Laval University, QC, Canada, G1K 7P4 steeve.pepin@sga.ulaval.ca

KeywordsNet photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, leaf water potential, soil moisture

AbstractAppropriate irrigation management is a key factor for high productivity. The irrigation management of greenhouse tomato crops is generally based on time (diff erent percentages of leaching according to the period of the day) and solar radiation, with few concerns about soil matric potential or soil water content (v/v). In order to determine soil moisture thresholds for greenhouse tomato plants (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. cv Trust) grown in diff erent cropping systems, three greenhouse experiments were carried out in organic soil and soilless growing systems. Tomato plants were exposed to soil/substrate drying in two of those experiments. The physiological responses (CO2 assimilation rate, stomatal conductance, leaf water potential, Chl a fl uorescence) to diff erent matric potentials of plants grown under each type of growing media (organic soil, rockwool, pure spruce sawdust, and mixes of sawdust:peat) were measured 2 to 4 times during the 10 month growing season. In the organic soil, matric potentials at 10 cm depth varied between saturation (0 cm) and -700 cm, while they ranged from -2 to -70 cm in the soilless culture. As expected, physiological responses to changes in soil moisture varied greatly between growing systems, and diff erent thresholds were observed depending on the physiological parameters studied. For soilless culture, there were no signifi cant diff erences in Amax, Rd, Γ, and φ when soil matric potentials ranged from -6 to -16 cm. However, larger variations in moisture content resulted in soil moisture thresholds that were between -5 to -12 cm for rockwool, -10 to -13 cm for pure sawdust and -15 cm for the sawdust:peat substrate, based on measurements of CO2 assimilation and stomatal conductance. Leaf water potential did not signifi cantly change when matric potentials ranged from -5 to -30 cm. For the soil tomato crop, even though low matric potential (up to -700 cm) reduced fruit setting, no signifi cant

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diff erences were observed in gas exchange parameters. Leaf water potential was, however, lower during the summer time when soil matric potentials were lower than -100 cm. Soil water content threshold values will also be presented and discussed to conclude on the reliability of both types of threshold for irrigation management of soil and soilless tomato crops.

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REDUCTION OF NUTRIENT SOLUTION CONCENTRATION ON LEAFY VEGETABLES QUALITY GROWN IN FLOATING SYSTEMAmanda Alberici, Emanuele Quattrini1, Matteo Penati1, Massimo Schiavi2, Livia

Martinetti1, Pietro Marino Gallina1, Antonio Ferrante1

1Dipartimento di Produzione Vegetale, University of Milan - Italy2CRA - Istituto per l’Orticoltura di Montanaso Lombardo (LO) - Italy

KeywordsCarotenoids, chlorophyll, hydroponics, nitrate, yield

AbstractThe greenhouse production has been evolving more and more towards sustainable or environmental friendly systems. However, the yield and the quality of vegetables must have the priority. The reduction of fertilisers should be obtained without compromising the marketable produce. Floating systems for minimally vegetables production have been increasing, but adequate nutrient concentration solutions are not yet available. Usually growers use standard Hoagland’s solution even for short vegetable production cycles such as 20-40 days after sowing (depending on the period of the year). The aim of our work was to identify the nutrient concentration range that allows to grow leafy vegetables without compromising the yield and the quality. Experiments were performed on lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.), rocket (Eruca sativa Mill.), spinach (Spinacea oleracea L.), lamb’s lettuce (Valeriana locusta L.) or grown in fl oating system with standard nutrient solution (mM) 12 N-NO3, 3.8 N-NH4, 2.8 P, 8.4 K, 3.5 Ca, 1.4 Mg 9.5 Na, 8.0 Cl, 2.7 S, 0.04 Fe and Hoagland’s concentration for micronutrients (NS100%), or with diluted nutrient solutions halved concentration (NS50%) or 1/4-fold (NS25%). At harvest, yield, total chlorophyll, carotenoids, total phenols and leaf nitrate contents were determined. Results showed variability among species and period of the year. No signifi cant diff erences in yield among the treatments were found, except for spinach that showed signifi cant reduction in yield for plants grown at lower nutrient solution (NS25%). Chlorophyll, carotenoids, total phenols and nitrates decreased with reduction of nutrient concentration in the nutrient solution.

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EFFECT OF A BIOFERTILISER ON THE GROWTH OF POINSETTIALivia Martinetti1, Antonio Sparacino1, Antonio Ferrante1, Luigi Allievi2

1Dipartimento di Agronomia, University of Milan, via Celoria 2, 20133 Milan, Italy livia.martinetti@unimi.it2Dipartimento di Scienze Alimentari e Microbiologia, via Celoria 2, 20133 Milan, Italyluigi.allievi@unimi.it

KeywordsEuphorbia pulcherrima, nitrogen fertilisation, rhizobacteria, anoxygenic

phototrophic bacteria

Abstract The experiment was aimed at evaluating the eff ect of a biofertiliser containing the purple non-sulfur anoxygenic phototrophic bacterium Rhodobacter capsulatus (‘Ores’, PSBIO System, Italy) on the growth of two cultivars of poinsettia in comparison with the usual nitrogen fertilisation. In the period August-December 2004, plants of poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd.) cv ‘Peterstar’ and ‘Maren’ were grown in a greenhouse at the Centre for Advanced Technologies in Greenhouses (Ce.T.A.S.), University of Milan, into 18 cm diameter pots fi lled with a peat based commercial substrate. Two weeks after potting, all the plants were topped over the eighth leaf, and then fertilized every twenty days with a solution containing (mM) 1.5 P, 8 K, 3.5 Ca, 1.7 Mg, 9.5 Na, 8.0 Cl, 2.7 S, 0.04 Fe and micronutrients. Five treatments were compared: 1) the non-treated control; 2) 120 mg N as NH4NO3 per pot applied fortnightly from the topping until the middle of November; 3)-4)-5) the biofertiliser ‘Ores’ applied four times, the doses being 20 ml per pot of solution containing 0.75, 1.5, and 3 mL of the commercial product per litre of water, respectively. Before potting, the rootballs of the seedlings were immersed in the biofertiliser, then the biofertiliser was injected three more times at monthly intervals into diff erent zones of the growth substrate. The experimental design was a split-plot, the cultivars being in the main plots and the treatments in sub-plots; there were three blocks and 8 replicates, 240 plants in total.Plant growth was controlled by the “cool morning” technique. At the end of the growth cycle, height, diameter, plant fresh and dry weights, and number and size of coloured bracts were detected. The poinsettia cultivars were diff erently aff ected by the treatments. ‘Maren’ was rather indiff erent to treatments, being nevertheless a little depressed by the highest dose of

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‘Ores’; on the contrary, ‘Peterstar’ was favoured by ‘Ores’ at 1.5 mL/L and, subordinately, 3 mL/L, that enhanced many growth parameters compared with the control, and in some case also in comparison with the conventional nitrogen fertilisation. It is noteworthy that these positive eff ects concerned the most important characteristics of poinsettia (diameter of coloured “crowns”, size and number of coloured bracts). Although the growth increase was not very high, the biofertilisation resulted to be a useful means of improving nutrition in poinsettia, while reducing the use of nitrogen fertilisers. Nevertheless, the high fertility of the substrate commonly used in poinsettia cultivation probably reduced the eff ect of both the mineral and the biological fertilisation.

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EFFECTS OF SALINITY ON FRUIT QUALITY IN RELATION TO PLANT DEVELOPMENT AND WATER STATUSNajla, S.1, Vercambre G.1, Gautier H. 1, Bertin N. 1, Navez B.2, Rosso L.3, Grasselly D.3

Najla Safaa1, Vercambre Gilles1, Gautier Hélène1, Bertin Nadia1, Navez Brigitte2,

Rosso Laurent3, Grasselly Dominique3

1UR1115 Plantes et systèmes de culture horticoles, INRA, F-84000 Avignon2CTIFL Centre de Saint Rémy, Route de Mollégès 13210 Saint-Rémy de Provence3CTIFL Centre de Ballandran, BP 32 - 30127 Bellegarde

KeywordsLycopersicon esculentum, salinity, fruit growth, fruit quality, water relations

AbstractLarge amount of literature has been accumulated in the last twenty years, demonstrating that organoleptic (taste and fl avour) and nutraceutic (health components) quality of tomato fruit can be enhanced by cultivation management. For instance mild water stress and high mineral solution salinity may enhance the fruit contents in sugar, acid and health factors such as lycopene, β carotene, and vitamin C. However, high levels of salinity compatible with quality improvement may result in signifi cant yield reduction, mainly due the decrease of fruit size and the occurrence of growth disorder such as blossom-end-rot. Physiologically, salinity or water stresses alter the water and carbon fl uxes into the fruit by restricting the amount of water supplied by the phloem, by concentrating the phloem sap and by reducing the transpiration. Objectives of this work were to better understand the changes in tomato fruit composition in relation to the plant development and water status, and to the plant-to-fruit water relationships. Tomato plants have been grown under glasshouses at four salinity levels (4, 7, 10 and 13 mS cm-1). Plant development, dry matter production and distribution among organs, stem, leaf and fruit water potentials, fruit growth (cell division and expansion, water and carbon accumulation) and composition (sugar, acids, C vitamin) have been measured from January to June. The higher salinity levels decreased the mean fruit size mainly by reducing cell size, and improved fruit quality through a signifi cant increase of fruit fi rmness and sugar, acid and C vitamin contents on a fresh weight basis. At the plant level, the vegetative growth was modifi ed, with reduced leaf surface area and dry matter accumulation. No signifi cant diff erences were measured dealing with the photosynthesis and transpiration at the leaf scale level. However, the four salinity levels led to large variations in the water status of the plant and of the fruit. Predawn and minimal leaf water potentials, as well as fruit water potential, varied greatly according to the salinity level.

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THE INFLUENCE OF SHADING LEVEL TO FOLIAGE PLANT ACCLIMATIZATIONScuderi D., Li Rosi A., Cassaniti C., Paratore A., Romano D.

Dipartimento di OrtoFloroArboricoltura e Tecnologie Agroalimentari, Università di Catania, Italy dscuderi@mbox.unict.it

KeywordsFicus beniamina L., Codiaeum variegatum (L.) Bl., quality, gas exchange

AbstractFicus benjamina L. and Codiaeum variegatum (L.) Bl. (croton) are very popular foliage plants. They are used extensively in interior landscape and have a very high commercial value. Foliage indoor pot plants should be produced in greenhouses under conditions that are suitable also for enhancing their adaptability to interior environments. In fact appropriate light levels during the growth of plants are considered very important for improving quality as well as their keeping of indoor life. Perhaps equally important is the fact that growers of indoor plants are able to produce high-quality plants in a reasonable short period.The aim of the trial was to analyse the eff ects of shading level and duration on growth and quality of Ficus and Codiaeum plants. The plants were grown in pots in greenhouse under 50, 70 and 90% shade for three months (Phase A). After this period half plants of 50 and 70% shade were transferred to 90% shade for two months (Phase B). At the end of both phases the following data were collected: fresh and dry weight, plant height and width, trunk diameter, chlorophyll content, leaf number, leaf surface area, anatomical characteristics (stomata number and mesophyll thickness) parameters related to ornamental characteristics (leaf size, angle, variegation) and leaf gas exchange.The two species showed diff erent growth rates linked to plant morphology and leaf characteristics. Shade level signifi cantly modifi ed some characteristics and infl uenced the quality of plants. The increasing of shade level reduced Ficus growth but didn’t infl uence signifi cantly Codiaeum plants. Ficus plants exhibited growth, morphological adaptations in response to shade levels. Reduction of light intensity decreases plant growth but enhances leaf effi ciency to intercept and utilize light. The latter has been confi rmed by results of net photosynthesis taken under PAR low conditions. In Codiaeum the eff ects of analysed factor were not so much evident. Plant quality was more aff ected at the lowest availability of light for both species; in particular Codiaeum leaf variegation was positively infl uenced by light reduction.

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VARIATION IN SOME FRUIT QUALITY PARAMETERS OF GREENHOUSE-GROWN NECTARINE AFFECTED BY DIFFERENT CANOPY POSITIONKong Yun1-2, Ma Hun-pu1, MA Cheng-Wei2, Yao Yun-Cong1

1Dept. of Plant Science & Technology, Beijing Agricultural College, Beijing 102206, P. R. China ky0257@126.com2Key Lab in Bioenvironmental Engineering of Ministry of Agriculture, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, P. R. China

KeywordsNectarine, fruit quality, canopy position, greenhouse.

AbstractsIn this study we investigated the eff ects of diff erent canopy positions on the fruit characteristics of nectarines grown in a Chinese lean-to greenhouse. At harvest the canopy of nectarine trees, trained by ‘Y’ form, was divided into three horizontal regions, i.e. northern region, middle region and southern region, and into three vertical layers, i.e. upper layer, middle layer and lower layer. Each layer was subdivided into two zones according to the light exposure, i.e. exposed zone and shaded zone. Dry weight, fresh weight, diameter, color index and soluble solid content (SSC) of nectarine fruits from the diff erent canopy positions were compared. The vertical canopy direction aff ected nearly all the fruit characteristics. Color index, dry weight and SSC of fruits from the upper layer were larger than the lower layer and showed no signifi cant diff erences with the middle layer. In contrast, fresh weight and diameter of fruits from the upper layer was reduced compared to the middle layer. Also there was a signifi cant diff erence in dry weight, color index and SSC between fruits from exposed zone and shaded zone. With the exception of the color index, no signifi cant diff erences in other fruit characteristics were found among fruits from diff erent horizontal directions. Therefore, the variation in fruit quality was most aff ected by vertical direction of the canopy whereas the color index of nectarine fruits was most aff ected by the light exposure.

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COMPARISON BETWEEN CONVENTIONAL AND VACUUM STORAGE SYSTEM IN CUT FOLIAGE AND FLOWERSSilvia Pacifi ci1, Anna Mensuali-Sodi1, Antonio Ferrante2, Giovanni Serra1

1Scuola Superiore S. Anna, Piazza Martiri della Libertà 33 – 56100 Pisa, Italy2Dep. Produzione Vegetale, University of Milano, via Celoria 2 – 20133 Milano, Italy

KeywordsChlorophyll, fl uorescence, foliage packaging, weight loss.

AbstractIn fl oriculture market is extremely competitive that involve all countries in the world. The production and selling market can be very far with long transportation periods. The storage and packaging system play an important role in preserving quality and reducing costs. Italy is an importer and exporter of cut fl owers. Therefore packaging and storage systems have to be accurately chosen for being successful in keeping quality and vase life potential at the end user. The aim of this work was to evaluate the vacuum packaging for increasing the loading capacity without compromising the produce quality. It was also compared this packaging system with conventional storage and transportation methods. Experiments were performed on cut foliage and fl owers. Plant materials used was cut eucalyptus and cut stock fl owers.The conventional and vacuum packs were stored at 4°C for 1, 2 or 3 weeks. After storage the vase life was evaluated at 20°C in post harvest evaluation room. During vase life the weight, water uptake, chlorophyll content and ethylene were determined.Results showed that vacuum packaging eff ectively increased the loading capacity per unit of volume in all fl oriculture items. No chlorophyll reduction was observed during storage in cut stock fl ower, while it declined during vase life. Cut eucalyptus, instead, did not show chlorophyll decline neither during storage nor during post storage vase life determination. Ethylene increased with prolonging storage in both fl oriculture items.

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INVESTIGATIONS ABOUT THE USAGE OF LASER LIGHT BEAMS FOR WEED CONTROL IN GREENHOUSESChristian Wöltjen1, Dirk Herzog2, Thomas Rath3

1Biosystems Engineering Section and Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Leibniz University Hannover, Germany christian.woeltjen@web.de 2Laser Zentrum Hannover e.V., Hollerithallee 8, 30419 Hannover d.herzog@lzh.de3Biosystems Engineering Section, Leibniz University Hannover, Herrenhäuser Str. 2, 30419 Hannover, Germany rath@bgt.uni-hannover.de

Keywords Laser light beam, weed control, CO2 laser, diode laser

AbstractThe objective of this research is the investigation of the eff ect of laser treatment on young plants. Lasers are to be used as a tool for weed control. Such a technique off ers a means of environmentally friendly production in greenhouses by reducing the application of herbicides and it decreases manpower used for manual weed control, especially in protected cultivation of vegetables with ecological farming. In their publication, MATHIASSEN et al. (2006) showed that laser treatment can be used as a weed control method. The tests were conducted with hand-held diode laser systems with a narrow wavelength band (532 nm, respectively 810 nm) and applied to relative small spot diameters (max. 2.4 mm) containing three dicotyledonous plant species (Stellaria media, Tripleurospermum inodorum, Brassica napus) in the cotyledon stage only. In this present survey however, stationary laser systems (diode: 940 nm; CO2: 10600 nm) are tested. Unlike the aforementioned paper, new factors were examined, such as the long wavelength of the carbon dioxide laser, a larger spot diameter of 6 mm - which should simplify the positioning of the laser beam in relation to the plant - and the distribution of the uncoupled energy, as well as the use of dicotyledonous (Nicotiana tabacum) and monocotyledonous plants (Echinochloa crus-galli), each within three growth stages. Within the test procedure, the fresh biomass of every plant is measured for four replications after the laser treatment within a given spot of 6 mm to the centre of the plants and compared to non-treated plants. The eff ects of the treatments follow logistic dose-response-curves by rising energy doses [J/mm2]. The growing stage of the plants seems to be an important factor: the larger the plant, the more energy is needed. The absorption of the diode laser irradiation in the plant material is relatively weak (7 %, respectively 40 %), while the carbon

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dioxide laser irradiation is absorbed at a high level up to 95 %. Between the species, the observed diff erences are given due to diff erent absorption spectra and growing principles. To handle Echinochloa crus-galli, more energy is needed than for Nicotiana tabacum. It can be concluded that both systems can work with economical energy doses (maximum connected load including cooling: 500 W) to delay and to stop the plant growth. This is only possible until the true-two-leaves stage is reached, which is also the point when an alternative herbicidal application is more or less at the edge of good results. The investigation of the underlying processes within the plant material, as well as many diff erences between diff erent plant species need further research and development.

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AN INNOVATIVE SYSTEM TO CONTROL THE AMBIENT PARAMETERS INSIDE THE GREENHOUSEMichele Carrara1, Pietro Catania1, Felice Pipitone1, Mariangela Vallone1, Salvatore

Piraino1, Marco Salvia1, Carmelo Paolino2

1Dept. ITAF, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, 13 - 90128 Palermo, Italy p.catania@unipa.it - m.vallone@unipa.it2Wisenet Engineering, Viale delle Scienze ed.16 near ARCA, Palermo, Italy cp@wisenetengineering.eu

KeywordsGreenhouse, ambient parameters, sensors

Abstract In the last years, the crop production in greenhouses in Sicily has highly increased from the economical point of view both for the higher profi t guaranteed by the advanced or deferred crops and for the growing demand of the market. The aim of this paper is the optimization of the production process inside the greenhouse through the control of the main ambient parameters. The research was carried out in some greenhouses located in Western Sicily. An innovative control system designed to continuously measure chemical and physical quantities without connection cables was used in order to measure the ambient parameters; the wireless comunication in the band ISM with frequency 433 MHz was employed. The system is made up of 5 node sensors to measure temperature, relative humidity and light, 2 node sensors to measure the concentration of CO2 and a base station that allows to collect the measurements of the whole net into a database and to connect the system to a personal computer, through an USB port, to download the recorded data. The node sensors, fed by batteries, allow to accurately control the changes of the collected parameters through a continuous system of data acquisition to consequently put into operation some systems inside the greenhouse (fans, humidity producers, irrigation plant). The advantages of the system are mainly represented by the accurate control, its adaptability due to the possibility of increasing the number of node sensors any time, and, consequently, the optimization of the costs of crop production in the greenhouses. Moreover, the system is not invasive for the crops.

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A PROPOSAL OF A METHODOLOGY FOR FUNCTIONAL INSPECTION OF SPRAYERS USED IN GLASSHOUSEPaolo Balsari, Gianluca Oggero

Dipartimento di Economia e Ingegneria Agraria, Forestale e Ambientale (DEIAFA)Via L. da Vinci, 44 10095 Grugliasco (TO), Italy paolo.balsari@unito.it

KeywordsInspection, spray lances, knapsack sprayers, international standard

AbstractHorticultural crops in Italy are present on a surface of about 480000 ha as fi eld crops and of about 22000 ha as covered crops; the gross output represents 15% of the total national agricultural production (Tei F., 2005). Italy is the fi rst producer of vegetables within the EU (25 countries), followed by Spain and France respectively. More than 40 diff erent horticultural species are cultivated in Italy, with an average surface of 10-20000 ha each (exceptions are artichoke with 50000 ha cultivated and tomato with 100000 ha cultivated), while the average farm size is quite small (1.7 ha). Horticultural and fl oricultural pesticides represent about 15% of the total pesticides used in Italy. Spray applications are usually carried out in closed, hot environments with high-level volatilization of the products distributed, with therefore a higher risk of inhalation and contact compared with working in the open air. The fact that the operators work in a usually hot and damp environment means that very often they do not wear the necessary personal protection equipment thus exposing themselves to contact with the chemical formulate distributed, with a deposit rate that may even exceed 200 ml/h (Mazzi and Capri, 1998).A survey carried out in 2006 by a national research group co-ordinated by DEIAFA, within a research project funded by the Ministry of University and Research, pointed out that, on the basis of a sample of 200 farms having glasshouses (for fl oriculture or horticulture), in 75% of cases equipment in use were not traditional sprayers (boom sprayers or air-assisted sprayers) and that 66% of equipment were spray guns or lances. To be prepared for the recepiment of the future European Directive on the sustainable use of pesticides, which foresees the mandatory inspection of all types of sprayers in use (COM 2006-372); 2) to face the demands for “environmental certifi cates” coming from the large-scale retail trade (f.e. Eurepgap) a test methodology for lances, spray guns and knapsack sprayers that are not considered inside the EN 13790 standard has been set up.

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IMPROVEMENT IN PESTICIDE APPLICATION ON GREENHOUSE CROPS: RESULTS OF A SURVEY ABOUT GREENHOUSE STRUCTURES IN ITALYCristiano Baldoin1, Paolo Balsari2, Emanuele Cerruto3, Simone Pascuzzi4, Michele

Raff aelli5

1Dipartimento di Terrirorio e Sistemi Agro-forestali (TESAF), Viale dell'Università, 16 Agripolis 35020 Legnaro (PD), 35020 Legnaro, Italy cristiano.baldoin@unipd.it 2Dipartimento di Economia e Ingegneria Agraria, Forestale e Ambientale (DEIAFA), Via L. da Vinci, 44 10095 Grugliasco (TO), Italy paolo.balsari@unito.it3Dipartimento di Ingegneria Agraria (DIA), Via S. Sofi a, 100, 95123 Catania, Italyecerruto@unict.it 4Dipartimento di Progettazione e Gestione dei Sistemi Agro-zootecnici e Forestali (PROGESA), Via Amendola 165/A, 70126 Bari, Italy pasquale.guarella@agr.uniba.it5Dipartimento di Agronomia e Gestione dell‘Agro-ecosistema (DAGA), Via S. Michele degli Scalzi, 2, 56124 Pisa, Italy mraff aelli@agr.unipi.it

KeywordsGreenhouse structure, spray application, horticultural crops

Abstract Horticultural crops in Italy are grown on about 50,000 hectares under frame. This type of cultivation, in plastic tunnel or in glasshouse, due to its peculiar conditions, is a very specifi c agro-system where diff usion of diseases and weeds is very likely. Therefore this cultivation system marks itself out because of a very high pesticide consumption, leading to heavy problems for the operator security. Therefore the choice of the type of sprayer and its way of use should be made taking into account some parameters, among other things the type of greenhouse. Within the framework of the Research Project about pesticide application in greenhouses started in 2005, a survey was taken about the situation of under frame cultivation in Italy. This was made by means of questionnaires which were fi lled up at 184 greenhouse growers in six Italian region where under frame cultivation is very important. The survey regarded many features of the farms, and among them the type of structures. The results of the surveys pointed out the presence of a wide variety of types of structures, plants and spraying equipments; in particular, the most common type of structure resulted the multiple tunnel with plastic coverage fi tted on an iron framework.

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SOLAR RADIATION DISTRIBUTION IN A TUNNEL GREENHOUSECatherine Baxevanou1, Thomas Bartzanas1, Dimitrios Fidaros1, Constantinos

Kittas1-2

1Institute of Technology and Management of Agricultural Ecosystems, Center for Research and Technology, Technology Park of Thessaly, 1st Industrial Area, 38500 Volos2University of Thessaly, Department of Agriculture, Crop Production and Agricultural Environment, Fytokou St., N. Ionia, GR-38446, Magnisia, Greece

KeywordsGreenhouse microclimate, heterogeneity, CFD, Radiation, Mixed heat transfer

AbstractSolar radiation inside the greenhouse signifi cantly aff ects the greenhouse microclimate and consequently plant growth and development. From a quantitative point of view, the amount of solar energy transmitted into the greenhouse drives the physiological fl uxes, like transpiration and photosynthesis. At the same time, the spectrum of the outside solar radiation can be signifi cantly modifi ed by the optical properties of the greenhouse cover. These qualitative changes in the radiation transmitted inside the greenhouse induce morphogenetic eff ects and can result in modifi cations of the architecture and shape of the plants. In the present study a commercial computational fl uid dynamics (Fluent) code was used in order to investigate numerically the eff ect of solar radiation distribution in arc type tunnel greenhouse equipped with continuous side vents. Inside the greenhouse there was a tomato crop 1.5m tall. For the simulation’s needs a two dimensional mesh was used to render the former geometry, and the fi nite volume method was adopted to carry out the fully elliptic partial diff erential equations’ problem. Climatic data provided by the Greek Centre of Renewable Energy Sources were used in order to approach realistic conditions. Special items like the mechanical behaviour of covering material or the climatic behaviour of the rows of tomato crop are taken account using an external user defi ned function (UDF) written in C language. The SIMPLEC (Semi-Implicit Method for Pressure-Linked Equations Consistent) algorithm was used to couple fl ow and pressure fi eld and a 2nd order scheme for the discretization of the solution domain. The DO (Discrete Ordinates) model was used to include radiation in the heat transfer simulations. Optical properties of the tested covering materials were defi ned according to the wave-length of the incoming solar radiation and three spectral areas (UV, PAR and

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near infrared). Based on the meteorological data of October for the region of Volos (Greece), two parametric studies were carried out: (a) varying the incoming solar radiation and solar angle (-60°, -30°, 0°, 30° and 60°) and (b) diff erentiating the optical properties of covering materials. In particular, six covering materials were used with diff erent optical properties and the solar angle of the incoming radiation was -30°. The results show the infl uence of the optical properties of covering materials and of the incidence angle of the incoming solar on the distribution of solar radiation inside the greenhouse. The fl ow recirculation due to buoyancy eff ect shows the importance of internal temperature gradients although the dominance of the forced convection resulted from natural ventilation. The diversifi cation of the temperature patterns, mainly and secondarily of airfl ow fi eld indicates that heat transfer due to the solar radiation distribution for diff erent covering materials in the three diff erent spectral areas was successfully simulated.

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CFD SIMULATION OF NATURAL VENTILATION OF A PARRAL GREENHOUSE WITH A BAFFLE DEVICE BELOW THE GREENHOUSE VENTSE.J. Baeza, J.J. Perez-Parra, J.C. Lopez, J. C. Gazquez

Estación Experimental de Cajamar “Las Palmerillas”Autovía del Mediterráneo km 416.7 04710 El Ejido (Almería) ejbr@cajamar.es

J.I. MonteroIRTACarretera de Cabrils s/n08348 Cabrils (Barcelona) juanignacio.montero@irta.es

KeywordsAir fl ow, temperature fi eld, canopy area, air exchange, greenhouse spans

AbstractAn effi cient greenhouse cooling with natural ventilation must combine a suffi cient number of air exchanges, in order to evacuate the excess sensible heat, with a good air circulation through the canopy. This can be usually achieved with a good combination of roof and not too distant side vents. However, many greenhouses do not have side vents, and air exchange takes place only through the roof vents. If such is the case, it has been observed on CFD simulations that most of the air is exchanged on the upper part of the greenhouse, whilst the air movement in the canopy area is poor, creating large and harmful hot zones. Diff erent design changes can enhance air movement in the canopy area, such as increasing the size of the vents or the slope of the spans. The use of an air fl ow baffl e device below the roof vents has proved to drastically increase air exchange on the canopy area in a single span greenhouse. The present work has used two dimensional CFD simulations to study the eff ect of 1 m high baffl e devices located below the ridge of each one of the spans of a 5 spans parral type greenhouse, for three diff erent roof vent confi gurations (all windward, alternate vents and double vents). Diff erent wind velocities have been simulated and the results show that the present of the baffl es does not aff ect overall air exchange rate for any of the confi gurations. However, air fl ow in the canopy area is enhanced, specially on the fi rst spans, thus reducing temperature diff erences with the exterior. The air velocity fi elds suggest that the baffl e devices does not have to be used in all the greenhouse spans, as similar results are achieved with baffl es in only the fi rst and last span.

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ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEMS FOR SMALL-SCALE SPACE-BASED GREENHOUSES Raimondo Fortezza1,Giovanni Minei1,Lorenzo Boccia2,Mario De Stefano3, Raff aele

Savino3

1MARS Center S.r.L. Naples, Italy fortezza@marscenter.it - minei@marscenter.it2 Dip. Ing. Agraria & Agron. Territ. (DIAAT), Univ. Naples, Italy lorenzo.boccia@unina.it3 Dip. di Ingegneria Aerospaziale (DIAS), Univ. of Naples, Italy rasavino@unina.it

KeywordsAdvanced Control System, Plant Cultivation Chamber, CFD, Space Facility

AbstractThe High Plant Cultivation Chamber (HPPC) represents an essential element for the design of Closed Loop Environmental Control System needed for future extra-planetary manned outpost. In fact it is the last compartment of the bio-regenerative loop aimed at the transformation of the crew metabolism’s products absorbing CO2 and producing fresh food and O2. During last years MARS and DIAS have been actively collaborating with DIAAT in an eff ort to develop a certain number of small ground models of HPCC for Space Research to integrate engineering solutions taking into account the needs for the new equipment to be prepared for the future Space Programs. Several prototypes have been designed and manufactured, characterized by a growing complexity in terms of automation, environmental and nutrient control. The last product is represented by the “Salad Dispenser“: a 1/8 cubic meter chamber where CO2, temperature, light, humidity, airfl ow, nutrient fl ow controls have been implemented. The equipment, built with dimensions compatible with Space facilities, was developed under Italian Space Agency contract and it is currently installed at DIAAT for studies on light sensitivity of crops using LED dichromatic illumination. Since this element is essential for the crew survival, the most advanced technologies are required to ensure the correct functionalities, to increase the reliability, to optimize the resources and to optimize the productivity.For this purpose the integrated team is focusing on the design and development of a sophisticated model of the HPCC, which shall be used to defi ne the diff erent subsystem performances and to design the appropriate fl ow and geometry for the future developments. In the subsequent phase, the same model can be integrated into the control system to provide extrapolated data, to identify criticalities of the system and to carry out a fi rst cut prediction analysis for plants growth. The model developed

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foresees the integration of CFD techniques, combined with not deterministic models based on innovative paradigms obtained from AI Techniques; those are essential where the laws for the parameters variation induced by the boundary conditions cannot be captured with mathematical models. The CFD Analysis for the climate conditions in the HPCC model with forced ventilation shall consider the vegetation canopy which will be modeled as a 3D region characterized by exchanges of momentum, energy and humidity with the air fl ow. The model implemented includes the entire closed loop air fl ow chain formed by pipes, fans, heat exchanger, heaters, TEC’s needed to ensure temperature and humidity control. Pure CO2 injection is also considered to guarantee its optimal concentration during the growth.The paper describes the hardware developed together to the requirements imposed by the mission driving the current confi guration. The CFD and plant models are illustrated with the results obtained and the modifi cations implemented. The fi nal part of the paper will provide the current and future plans of the team for the development of new facilities to be installed onboard the International Space Station or to be launched toward the Moon or Mars as part of the manned outposts where Bio-regenerative systems will be a must.

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CRITERIA TO IMPROVE LEEWARD VENTILATION OF LARGE MULTISPAN GREENHOUSES Juan I. Montero1, A. Antón1, M. Melé1, M.C. Cid2, P. Muñoz1, V. Raya2, J.Pérez-Parra3

1IRTA Centre de Cabrils, 08348 Cabrils, Barcelona, Spain juanignacio.montero@irta.es 2Departamento de ornamentales y horticultura. ICIA. Estación de Investigación Hortícola de Santa Lucía de Tirajana. Apartado 7, 35110. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain 3Fundación CAJAMAR. Autovía del Mediterráneo, km 416,7, 04710 El Ejido. Almería, Spain

KeywordsCFD, internal climate, air movement, temperature distribution.

AbstractThe objective of this research was the improvement of air exchange and temperature distribution in multi span greenhouses when the roof ventilators are opened opposite to the external air fl ow (lee ventilation). Previous research has pointed out the importance of combining side wall ventilation and roof ventilation for proper air exchange. Besides, windward ventilation has been recommended over lee ventilation since windward ventilation clearly increased the ventilation rate. Nevertheless, eff ective windward ventilation requires building relatively narrow greenhouses to avoid excessive temperature gradients. This is not of the like of many growers, who are also reluctant to open the side wall and roof ventilators towards the wind since they are afraid of mechanical damage on the crop and the greenhouse structure. Good leeward ventilation of wide greenhouses is still a problem not properly resolved.Bi dimensional CFD simulations were conducted on a curve-shaped twelve-span greenhouse 96 m wide. A uniform heat source of 500 Wm-2 was imposed from the soil surface to the greenhouse air to simulate solar heating of empty greenhouses (the condition that requires more ventilation rate to avoid overheating). Simulations were made for this greenhouse with the side walls closed and the roof vents opposed to the wind direction under a number of external wind speeds ranging from 1 to 5 ms-1. The scalar fi eld of temperature showed some areas with pockets of hot air unfavourable for crop growth. Based on the study of the static pressure fi eld around the greenhouse structure a number of changes on the ventilator arrangement were tested to eliminate those hot areas.

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Simulations show that a signifi cant improvement of temperature and uniformity can be achieved with minor modifi cations of the ventilation system. For instance, it was observed an area of low pressure on the roof near the gutter of the fi rst span facing the wing. A ventilator built in this area proved to be a very effi cient air outlet. Furthermore, keeping the windward side closed and opening the lee side wall remarkably favoured the air entrance at the lee side of the greenhouse. It was also detected that every four spans an area of air is created. This problem can be solved by increasing the ventilator area every four spans. Other minor ventilator modifi cations not discussed in this abstract showed that it is possible to design effi cient leeward ventilation systems.

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A COMPARISON BETWEEN EXPERIMENTAL AND CFD RESULTS WITH REGARD TO FLOW PATTERNS AND VENTILATION RATE OF A NATURALLY VENTILATED GREENHOUSEO. Liran1, M. Teitel1, G. Ziskind2, R. Letan2

1Agricultural Engineering Institute, Agricultural Research Organization, the Volcani Center, POB 6, Bet Dagan, 50250, Israel grteitel@agri.gov.il2 Ben Gurion Univ Negev, Department of Mechanical Engineering, POB 653, Beer Sheva, 84105, Israel gziskind@bgu.ac.il

KeywordsVentilation, CFD, fl ow patterns

AbstractVentilation is one of the most important key factors in the design of greenhouses since it directly aff ects the average air temperature, humidity and CO2 concentration within the enclosed space. Recent developments in computational fl uid dynamics (CFD) have encouraged researchers to use this tool for analyzing the complex fl ow patterns within greenhouses and the resultant microclimate. Nevertheless, the application of CFD to the prediction of microclimate is not yet satisfactory and further study is needed. This paper presents a comparison between CFD and experimental results with regard to fl ow patterns and ventilation rate of a naturally ventilated small greenhouse. The greenhouse was ventilated by side openings and roses were grown inside it. Velocity vectors at several positions inside the greenhouse were measured with a 3-D sonic anemometer. In addition, the ventilation rate of that greenhouse was estimated from the decay rate of a tracer gas concentration and also was calculated from the air velocity, measured by the sonic anemometers, and the area of the openings. To simulate the greenhouse, two cases were investigated using the CFD analysis: (i) ventilation due to wind only, without buoyancy eff ects and also with no crop inside the greenhouse, and (ii) ventilation due to buoyancy and wind forces, with a crop inside the greenhouse. The crop was simulated as porous media. A very good agreement was obtained between the tracer gas decay method and the calculations using the 3-D anemometer data with regard to the ventilation rate. On the other hand, ventilation rates estimated by the CFD were usually noticeably higher. In some cases, the predicted detailed fl ow fi elds diff ered from the measured velocity vectors. Possible reasons for this disagreement are highlighted and discussed in the paper.

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NUMERICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF FAN AND PAD EVAPORATIVE COOLING SYSTEM IN A GREENHOUSE WITH TOMATO CROPAthanasios. A. Sapounas1, Chrysoulla Nikita-Martzopoulou2, Gerasimos

Martzopoulos2

1Center of Agricultural Structures Control, Farm of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 57001 Thermi, Greece sapounas@agro.auth.gr 2Department of Hydraulics, Soil Science and Agriculture Engineering, School of Agriculture, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 (229) Thessaloniki, Greece nikita@agro.auth.gr

KeywordsCFD, temperature, humidity, air-fl ow

Abstract The current trend in greenhouse cultivation is to extend the production season in order to maximize the use of greenhouse equipment, extend the export season and increase both the annual yield and profi tability. Nevertheless, in many Mediterranean greenhouses, such a practice is limited, because the used cooling methods (mainly ventilation and shading) do not provide the desired conditions, especially during the hot summer months. In addition, cooling design may be more critical than previously believed considering that even small increases in temperature above the optimum may result in reduced yields. Evaporative cooling system using fans and pads brings a substantial improvement in greenhouse climate by forcing fresh air through wet evaporative cooling pads. Although, the main disadvantage of it is the creation of large temperature and humidity gradients which could be determined by detail both by analytical and numerical methods. Aim of the present study is to simulate numerically a greenhouse equipped with fan and pad evaporative cooling system. The crop (tomato) was simulated using the equivalent porous medium approach by the addition of a momentum source term, due to the drag eff ect of the crop, to the standard fl uid fl ow equations. In addition, preliminary calculations were carried out in order the pressure drop, occurred in crop model due to air fl ow, to be determined as a function of leaf area and stage of crop growth. The water rate in pad, the temperature and humidity of incoming air and the operational characteristics of fans were specifi ed to set up the CFD model. The numerical analysis was based on the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations in

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conjunction with the RNG k-ε turbulence model. The fi nite-volume method (FVM) was used to solve the governing equations on the computational grid of a 3D full scale model. The validation of the simulation model was accomplished using data collected over the summer period during experiments carried out in an experimental greenhouse with tomato crop located in the Farm of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. The numerical results concerning the air temperature, humidity and air velocity were compared with those obtained by the experimental process showing a qualitatively good agreement.The numerical approach provides an accurate description of climatic parameters inside the greenhouse. Results show the infl uence of the diff erent ventilation and water rates on greenhouse microclimate. The choice of ventilation and water rates in order to improve the temperature uniformity and simultaneously, avoidance the plant transpiration, is the key factor of the evaporative cooling pad concept. The numerical model is proved to be a useful tool in order to study the performance of cooling pad systems for rational greenhouse design.

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DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF A GLOBAL CFD MODEL OF HEAT, WATER VAPOUR AND FUNGAL SPORES TRANSFERS IN A GREENHOUSE T. Boulard1, H. Fatnassi1, A. Kichah1, J.C. Roy2, I.B. Lee3

1 INRA -URIH, 400, route des Chappes, BP 167, 06903 Sophia-Antipolis, France2 FEMTO-ST, CREST, Université de Franche-Comté, 2, Avenue Jean Moulin, 90000 Belfort, France3 Dept of Rural System Engineering, Seoul National University, San56-1, Silim-dong, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea

Keywords Greenhouse, climate, ventilation CFD, spore, Botrytis Cinerea, insect-proof net.

AbstractThis paper describes a global CFD Model of heat, water vapour and Botrytis c. spores transfer in a three spans greenhouse. In addition to the integration of plant transpiration to the convective transfer which has been already presented in previous papers, we focus in this article on the description of a specifi c module to compute the eff ects of soil, insect-proof nets and vegetation rows on the deposition of Botrytis spores. It aims at the simulation of the spores concentration patterns in a greenhouse in relation with the external conditions and particularly the spore concentration.The equations of fl ow are solved with the Fluent® CFD code and the standard k-ε turbulence model and we present specifi c models for the determination of source/sink terms in the equation of transport of a scalar that corresponds i) to the water vapour and ii) the spore concentration in the airfl ow. Concerning the particles transport, three kinds of sink terms are considered for the soil, for the insect-proof nets and for the vegetation rows. The parameters of the model together with the experimental measurements and climate boundary conditions were determined in an experimental study for a rose greenhouse with roof and lateral vents equipped with insect-proof nets. Comparisons with experimental results of greenhouse air exchange rates and inside climate (temperature and humidity) are presented and discussed together with measured and computed values of inside air spores concentration and deposit on the crop cover. First results on distributed values of air fl ow, temperature, humidity and spores concentration and deposition fi elds within the greenhouse are presented and commented.

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WIND LOADS ON NET COVERED STRUCTURES FOR PROTECTED CULTIVATIONS

Autors

Mistriotis A.1, Briassoulis D.1

1Dep. Ag. Eng., University of Athens, 75 Iera Odos Str., 118 55 Athens, Greece amistr@aua.gr

KeywordsNets, permeable coverings, windloads, CFD, aerodynamic coeffi cients

AbstractAgricultural plastic nets are popular materials for constructing crop protecting structures against natural hazards such as hail, wind, or snow. However existing design standards do not provide a methodology for the calculation of wind loads on structures with permeable cladding. Moreover, there are few experimental data concerning the wind pressure distribution around air permeable structures.Determining aerodynamic coeffi cients for structures with a permeable cover is a very complicated and time-consuming task because the airfl ow and the resulting pressure distribution depend not only on the geometrical characteristics of the structure, but also on the air permeability of the covering net. Therefore, a large number of experiments would be required in order to cover all combinations of structures and nets. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations provide a cheap and easy to use alternative for analysing the wind generated pressure distribution around net-covered structures. In these simulations the agricultural net permeable cladding is treated as a porous material obeying the Forchheimer equation. In this way, the numerical method allows us to estimate aerodynamic force coeffi cients for structures covered with nets of various air permeability characteristics. This numerical approach has been validated against experimental data in the case of an elevated panel covered with agricultural nets.In this paper the aerodynamic coeffi cients of four typical designs used for supporting agricultural nets for various protected cultivation applications have been numerically calculated. In particular the following structures have been studied: a) windbreak, b) duo-pitch anti-hail canopy roof, c) vaulted roof anti-insect house, d) fl at roof shading house. The numerical results were compared against the provisions of the Eurocode-1-2-4 for the corresponding impermeable structures.Acknowledgment

This work was supported by the European Cooperative Research project AGRONETS (Contract no. COOP-CP-2003-507865)

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MONITORING AND MAPPING TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY IN GREENHOUSESRicardo Suay, Talo Gutiérrez, Enrique Moltó

Centro de Agroingeniería, Instituto Valenciano de Investigaciones Agrarias (IVIA),Ctra Moncada-Náquera, km 4.5 - 46113 Moncada, Valencia, Spain

KeywordsTemperature, Humidity, Mapping, CFD, Validation

AbstractThis work is the second step of a broader scope project aimed at developing a methodology to validate CFD models and simulations for their application in greenhouse technology. The fi rst part of the project consisted in the development of a device able to gather detailed measurements of temperature and humidity in commercial greenhouses in order to provide real and comparable data. The second step deals with the data processing and the display of this huge amount of information in a comprehensible way to asses and to validate CFD models and simulations. The particular objectives of this work are the determination of the optimal sampling frequency in diff erent climatic conditions and greenhouse confi gurations; the development of a procedure to display these data in a graphic, easily understandable manner and the evaluation of the total number of sensors required to optimise the spatial resolution of the data acquisition system, in order to be signifi cantly comparable with simulation results.Temperature was measured by means of Pt100 and Pt1000 probes and humidity was measured by means of HC1000 probes. The confi guration of the data acquisition system and its metrological characterisation (accuracy, sensibility and repeatability) are described in a previous work (Suay et al., 2006).In this work, the experiments took place in a greenhouse with a span section of 42 m2. 42 temperature probes were uniformly distributed and placed in the section, in such a way that each sensor covered an approximate surface of 1 m2. 20 humidity probes were also placed uniformly, thus covering a surface slightly larger than 2 m2. The initial data recording frequency was 1 min and several vents positions were fi xed. The acquisition rate provided an important time resolution, which was employed to determine an optimal sampling frequency in each greenhouse vents confi guration. Temperature and humidity maps were built by including these data in the CFD simulation software, and then using its graphical tools and options. The geometric model of the greenhouse mesh employed for simulations was used to graphically

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display the real data. This procedure allowed to obtain a graphic representation of actual temperature and humidity data that is easily understandable and is ready to be directly compared with simulation results.Because simulation maps have much higher spatial resolution than our real data maps, interpolation techniques have been employed to fi ll the gaps. Some comparisons between simulated and real data maps in diff erent ventilation confi gurations are presented. The need for additional sensors to improve the spatial resolution of the current data acquisition system is then evaluated and an optimal solution is proposed.

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NUMERICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER IN A GREENHOUSEThomas Bartzanas1, Nacima Tadj2-3, Belkacem Draoui2, Constantinos Kittas1-3

1Centre for Research and Technology-Thessaly, Institute of Technology and Management of Agricultural ecosystems, Technology Park of Thessaly, 1st Industrial Area of Volos, 38500 Volos, Greece bartzanas@cereteth.gr 2University Center of Bechar Institute of Exact Sciences, BP 417 08000 Bechar, Algeria Sciences, BP 417 08000 Bechar, Algeria3University of Thessaly, School of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Agriculture, Crop Production and Rural Environment, Fytokou St., N. Ionia, GR-38446, Magnisia, Greececkittas@uth.gr

KeywordsCFD, convective heat transfer, climate distribution

Abstract Greenhouse climate distribution is not only an important factor that infl uences crop growth uniformity, but it also enhance energy loss and impair optimization of its climate control. In order to produce high quality products all year round many greenhouses are heated in order to maintain desired climate conditions. Heating pipes is one of the most widely adopted greenhouse heating systems. The location of the pipes determines, apart from the amount of heat transferred to the canopy and the total energy loss through greenhouse cover the, distribution of the climate variables inside the greenhouse. Aim of the present study is to investigate numerically and experimentally the internal convective fl ows generated in a closed greenhouse by thermal buoyancy forces. For the numerical part of the study a commercially available computational fl uid dynamics code (CFX-5). The simulation was carried out in three dimensions. Mean values form experimental data was used in order to ensure realistic boundary conditions. In order to reduce the computational time for a convergence solution, symmetry conditions were applied at the sides of the domain and the simulations were carried out only for half greenhouse. The standard k-ε model was adopted to describe the turbulent transport. The crop was modelled by means of the concept of porous medium and the Darcy-Forcheimer equation.Experiments were performed in an experimental arc type tunnel greenhouse with a

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tomato crop. The North-South oriented greenhouse with a total ground area of 160 m2 was located at the University of Thessaly near Volos, Greece. A network of black plastic heating pipes (diameter, of 28 mm), located close to the gutter holding the growing substrate in a height of 0.3 m above greenhouse ground was used to heat the greenhouse. For the same energy released from the heating pipes, results show that there were not signifi cant diff erences in mean values of greenhouse air temperature and most of the temperature gradients occurred near the greenhouse ground and its roof while greenhouse air temperature remains almost constant and stable in the rest greenhouse volume. Velocity streamlines shows two symmetric loops and the higher air velocities were observed close to the walls and soil with values up to 0.4 m s-1.

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PREDICTING CROP TRANSPIRATION HETEROGENEITY IN A GLASSHOUSE USING COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICSP.E. Bournet, A Kichah, G. Chassériaux

UMR SAGAH A-462 Institut National d’Horticulture2 rue Le Nôtre 49045 Angers, Francepierre-emmanuel.bournet@inh.fr

KeywordsClimate, airfl ow, heat transfer, humidity, aerodynamic and stomatal resistances

AbstractThe crop inside a greenhouse interacts with the local climate through heat and water vapour transfers between the crop cover and the greenhouse air. This results in temperature and humidity patterns which strongly depend not only on the characteristics of the crop itself, but also on the meteorological conditions prevailing outside the greenhouse.For the purpose of the study, a 2500m2 glasshouse equipped with continuous roof vents was considered. The mechanisms involved in the climate and crop transpiration process were investigated using a commercial computational fl uid dynamics (CFD) software. The modelling approach is based on the resolution of the 2D Navier-Stokes equations with the Boussinesq assumption and a closure. Solar and atmospheric radiations were included by solving the Radiative Transfer Equation with the Discrete Ordinate Method and distinguishing short and long wavelength contributions (bi-band model). The crop transpiration was calculated assuming that the canopy may be considered as a porous medium exchanging latent and sensible heat with the ambient environment.The bi-band model has already been validated under diurnal conditions for a set of external weather conditions. The crop model was validated for lettuce, tomato and rose crops. In the present study, simulations were conducted under typical summer conditions for a set of ornamental species with specifi c leaf area index values, stomatal and aerodynamic resistances. Results show that the spatial heterogeneity of air velocity and climate inside the greenhouse interferes with plant activity and largely infl uences crop transpiration. Conversely, the nature of the species itself may strongly interfere with the local climate just above the crop. The study thus gives an insight on the interaction process between the canopy and the local climate inside a greenhouse with a particular focus on temperature and humidity distributions.

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COOLING NATURALLY VENTILATED GREENHOUSES IN THE TROPICS BY NEAR-INFRA RED REFLECTIONUrbanus N. Mutwiwa1-3, Bukhard von Elsner1, Johannes Max2-3, Hans J. Tantau1*

1Horticultural and Biosystems Engineering Section, Leibniz University Hannover, Herrenhausser Str. 2, D-30419, Hannover Germany2Institute of Plant Nutrition, Leibniz University Hannover, Herrenhausser Str. 2, D-30419, Hannover Germany3Asian Institute of Technology, P. O. Box 4, Khlong Luang, 12120, Pathumthani, Thailand*tantau@bgt.uni-hannover.de

KeywordsGreenhouse, insect-proof screens, natural ventilation, NIR-refl ection, tropics

AbstractHigh air-temperature and -humidity inside greenhouses located in the semi-humid and humid tropics is one of the major constraints to protected cultivation in areas such as central Thailand. Studies were conducted during the dry and rainy seasons in two naturally ventilated greenhouses, clad with insect-proof nets on the sidewalls and roof ventilation openings, to investigate the eff ect of a newly developed shading paint containing a near infra red (NIR) refl ecting pigment on the greenhouse microclimate and plant growth. A polyethylene fi lm was used to cover the roof and gable of the greenhouse. Mulching material was a white plastic fi lm. The shading paint was applied on the roof of one of the greenhouses (“Trt”) using a high pressure system. This led to a lowering of the greenhouse air temperature by a maximum of 4 °C when the crop was young corresponding to 18% reduction in transmission of global radiation. However, due to the cooling eff ect of the transpiring crop, temperature diff erences between the greenhouses levelled out when the crop was mature. Shading reduced plant water requirement, power consumption of the fans, the number of blossom-end rot aff ected and parthenocarpic fruits, in both dry and rainy season. A slight reduction in marketable yield and an increase in the number of cracked fruits were observed in Trt. Although there is need for more research, these results reveal that combination of natural ventilation and NIR-refl ection may provide a solution for cooling greenhouses in areas with high ambient humidity levels.

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EFFECT OF ANTI-DRIP GREENHOUSE COVER MATERIALS ON MICROCLIMATE AND PRODUCTION OF A HYDROPONIC CUCUMBER CROPNikolaos Katsoulas1, Thomas Bartzanas2, Chrysoula Manolaraki1, Constantinos Kittas1-2

1University of Thessaly, School of Agricultural Sciences, Dept. of Agriculture Crop Production and Rural Environment, Fytokou St., N. Ionia, GR-38446, Magnesia, Greece nkatsoul@uth.gr - ckittas@uth.gr2Centre for Research and Technology of Thessaly, Institute of Technology and Management of Agricultural Ecosystems, Technology Park of Thessaly, 1st Industrial Area, 38500 Volos, Greece bartzanas@cereteth.gr

KeywordsMicroclimate, humidity, anti-fog cover materials, cucumber

AbstractOne of the most important issues that greenhouse owners have to deal with is the management of high humidity levels, especially during the cold period of the year. Recent endeavors on greenhouse heating energy saving have resulted in an increase in the air relative humidity, due to the use of even more airtight greenhouses. It has unequivocally shown that a high level of humidity is a factor that directly aff ects the fruit yield and quality of greenhouse crops by pre-disposing these crops to fungal diseases. Humidity in greenhouses is currently controlled by simultaneous heating and ventilation, a method that is very costly in terms of energy; and with the application of plant protection products. Recent year’s concerns about food safety, environmental pollution, worker’s safety, resistance to chemicals and the need for rational use of energy stimulated extensive research concerning the development of alternative techniques in order to manage high humidity levels. Such a technique is the use of anti-drip (AD) and anti-fog (AF) cover materials. Aim of this work was to study the eff ects of two AD PE cover materials on greenhouse microclimate and on growth and production of a hydroponic cucumber crop. The experiments were carried out from September to December of 2006 in three similar, heated greenhouses, covered by diff erent cover materials: the fi rst greenhouse was covered by a PE fi lm with AD and AF properties, the second one was covered by a PE fi lm with AD properties and the third one was covered by a common PE fi lm (control greenhouse). Greenhouse and outside microclimate and energy consumption for heating were recorded in parallel with crop growth and production measurements. Results showed that the energy consumption for heating and the greenhouse air temperature were at similar levels

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for the three greenhouses. However, the relative humidity levels were found much higher in the greenhouse covered by the AD PE fi lm. Furthermore, the temperature diff erence between the cover material and the dew point air temperature was more negative under the same greenhouse, leading in higher condensation rates over the PE fi lm. The time duration with condensation over the PE fi lm, which can be used as an index for estimating the possibility for fungi diseases development, was shorter under the AD+AF PE fi lm and longer under the common PE fi lm. The leaf area index and the height of the cucumber plants were higher under the greenhouse covered by the AD+AF PE fi lm. Nevertheless, the total crop production was similar in the three greenhouses. Even so, in order to control fungus development, the greenhouses covered by the common and the AD PE fi lm needed more than double fungicide applications, than the greenhouse covered by the AD+AF PE fi lm.

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PROPERTIES OF NEW BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS FOR MULCHING AND CHARACTERIZATION OF ITS DEGRADATION UNDER LABORATORY AND FIELD CONDITIONSLluís Martin-Closas1, Pietro Picuno2, Daniel Rodríguez2, Ana Maria Pelacho1

1Dept. Horticulture, Botany and Gardening. ETSEA, University of Lleida, 25198 Lleida, Spain martin@hbj.udl.es2DITEC Department, University of Basilicata, Campus Macchia Romana, 85100 Potenza, Italy picuno@unibas.it

Keywords Biodegradable fi lm, mulching, degradation, ageing

AbstractProtected cultivation is presently one of the more productive and competitive sectors of Mediterranean horticulture. However, several important technical aspects involved have not been yet studied deeply enough, like the serious drawback of huge quantities of waste caused by the extensive use of plastic material. A solution to this problem can be the introduction in agriculture of fi lms produced with biodegradable raw materials. As Mediterranean Horticulture is more and more aware of the environmental by-eff ects of its activity, it is looking for renewable materials that can accomplish the same functions than conventional materials, like polyethylene, but solving the environmental drawbacks. The aim of this work is to determine the potential of biodegradable plastics in order to replace the polyethylene mulching fi lm. A fi eld trial has been conducted under continental Mediterranean climate with a black mulched tomato crop. Three biodegradable-compostable plastics for mulching, available in the European Market (Mater-bi, Biofi lm and Biofl ex (Bi-opl)) were compared with polyethylene (PE). Spectro-radiometrical and mechanical properties of the new materials were analysed in the laboratory and compared with the ones of the polyethylene. Plastic fi lm degradation was monitored by means of a qualitative scale along the crop cycle. At the end of the crop, degradation was studied by image analyses. Also, plastic samples were taken and mechanical tensile tests were performed. For mulching, the new biodegradable materials proved to be competitive from a radiometrical point of view (both in the optical and thermal range), while their mechanical characteristics resulted lower than those of a traditional PE fi lm, but anyway suffi cient for this specifi c application. Degradation of the materials along time was diff erent and at the end of the crop Biofi lm was the most degraded, followed by Mater-bi and Biofl ex. Polyethylene was scarcely

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degraded. Their performance in the fi eld was in accordance with that of the laboratory mechanical test, where a quick decrease of tensile strength and elongation at break was observed for the three biodegradable fi lms. These aspects should be therefore taken in account in order to programme the use of these materials for mulching crops characterized by a short application period. After ploughing the biodegradable plastic residues in the soil at the end of the crop, in one and a half month, no remains of biodegradable plastics were observed. The degradation of all biodegradable materials tested did not negatively infl uence the productivity, since biodegradable materials allowed better or equivalent productivity than polyethylene, and avoided the need to pick up the PE and transport it to the landfi ll after use. We can conclude that the biodegradable plastics tested behave very similar to PE, degradation adding an additional value to these new materials.Acknowledgment: Project RTA2005-00189-C05-03 fi nanced by INIA (Spain)

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NEW BIODEGRADABLE MATERIALS FOR GREENHOUSE SOIL MULCHING Giovanni Cascone1, Alessandro D’Emilio1, Erika Buccellato1, Rosalia Mazzarella2

1Department of Agriculture Engineering, University of Catania, via S. Sofi a 100, 95123 Catania, Italy gcascone@unict.it2Parco Scientifi co e Tecnologico della Sicilia, Blocco Palma I, Z.I. Stradale V. Lancia, 95131 Catania, Italy romazza@unict.it

KeywordsPHA, soil mulching, biodegradable mulch, paper mulch

Abstract The objective of the research is to evaluate the performances of new biodegradable mulches by means of laboratory tests and a fi eld trial. The innovative mulches are made of paper sheet coated with diff erent biodegradable polymer mixtures: PHA/PHB, PHA/PCL, Biomass/PHB, Biomass/PHB, Biomass/PCL. PHA indicates a polyester of the Polyhydroxyalkanoate family with medium chain length produced by the microbial conversion of exhausted edible oils, PHB (Poly-β-hydroxybutyrate) is a low chain length Polyhydroxyalkanoate commercially available, Biomass is the lyophilized bacterial micro-organism containing PHA and PCL (Polycaprolactone) is a commercial biodegradable polyester. The fi eld trial was performed inside a steel-structure greenhouse of the experimental farm of the University of Catania. The considered theses were: the innovative mulches, a PE fi lm, a commercial biodegradable fi lm based on corn starch and the bare soil. Inside the greenhouse pepper plants were grown according to the good practice of cultivation. During the trial, solar radiation fl ux, air temperature and relative humidity were monitored outside and inside the greenhouse, while soil temperature in the experimental theses were measured at 5 cm and 15 cm below the soil surface. Furthermore, a periodical check of weed growing was performed. The laboratory test were carried out for evaluating the decay of the diff erent materials on mulch samples collected inside the greenhouse at regular time-interval. The results show that the examined innovative materials could be an alternative to the use of the traditional plastic fi lms, even if additional improvements of the mixtures and of the manufacturing process are needed.

291

CORRELATION OF KEY AGRICULTURAL PLASTIC WASTE PARAMETERS WITH THE QUALITY OF THE RESULTING WASTE STREAMDemetres Briassoulis, Epifania Babou, Miltiadis Hiskakis

Agricultural University of Athens, Department of Agricultural Engineering, Iera Odos 75, 11855, Athens, Greece Tel: +30 210 529 4022 briassou@aua.gr

KeywordsAgricultural plastic waste, use, collection, storage, handling, disposal of the waste

stream

AbstractThe mechanical and chemical degradation of the agricultural plastic as well as its soil/moisture contamination, aff ect its ability to be recycled and be used for energy recovery. These critical parameters were investigated in an eff ort to assess and control the quality of the agricultural plastic waste streams. Samples of agricultural plastics from greenhouses, low-medium tunnels, mulching fi lms, bale wrapping fi lms etc (from various cultivations, across Greece and Europe) were collected before and after their use. Samples were also collected from the plastic removed before and after its storage in the fi eld. The samples were properly conditioned and tested in the laboratory for mechanical properties degradation and for moisture-soil contamination. The results of these tests are thoroughly presented and discussed. The results obtained indicate that the degree of mechanical degradation of the agricultural plastic waste is highly dependent on a combination of application and material characteristics. Among the dominant factors aff ecting the quality of the agricultural plastic waste included are the thickness of the fi lm versus the period of exposure, the material composition and additives, the use of agrochemicals and the exposure of the material to contamination by soil during use and handling after the removal (e.g. mulching fi lms). Thus, plastic waste coming from LDPE greenhouse and low tunnel fi lms seem to retain their mechanical strength while mulching fi lms seem to have lost their mechanical strength to a high degree after their exposure in the fi elds for a period of 8 months. There are cases however, when mulching fi lms of a diff erent composition exhibit better resistance to weathering conditions. Solarization fi lms lose faster their mechanical strength when compared with greenhouse and low tunnel fi lms, and degrade more readily even than mulching fi lms, due to their low thickness values combined with the weaker stabilization and high temperatures developed in the space covered by the

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fi lm. Soil contamination and moisture were measured to high in cases of plastic waste coming from mulching fi lms that was stored in the fi elds for a couple of months. The duration and conditions (location, exposure to the elements etc) of the storage aff ect greatly the contamination level. The above tests are to be combined with chemical and thermal analysis tests in the framework of a Europrean project Labelagriwaste to establish the technical requirements the agricultural plastic waste should fulfi l to be disposed accordingly (mechanical recycling, energy recovery, composting etc).Acknowledgement

The present work has been supported by the European ‘Labelling agricultural plastic waste for valorising the waste stream’, Collective research, LABELAGRIWASTE, Contract no. 516256-2.

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LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF COMMON USED PLASTIC PRODUCTS IN THE EUUlrike Bos, Cecilia Makishi, Matthias Fischer

University of Stuttgart, Chair of Building Physics, Department Life Cycle Engineering, Hauptstr. 113, 70771 Leinfelden-Echterdingen, Germany ulrike.bos@LBP.uni-stuttgart.de

KeywordsAgriculture plastic waste (APW), life cycle assessment, mulch fi lms, pipes,

greenhouse fi lms

AbstractAgriculture Plastic Waste (APW) generates about 615.000 tons of waste per year in Europe. This presents a serious challenge concerning the production of the plastic as well as the disposal or recycling of the materials. For addressing especially the specifi c issues of APW the European Commission funds a project called LABELAGRIWASTE, labelling agricultural plastic waste for valorising the waste stream. In the consortium partners from Belgium, Cyprus, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, and Spain are working together on developing a labelling scheme for European APW. In order to identify the environmental impact of the main agricultural plastic products, a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is performed. The LCA is done before the development of a labelling scheme starts to examine the diff erent life cycles of the most commonly used products in agriculture in Europe. The study includes the LCA of mulch fi lms, pipes, and greenhouse fi lms, each with two diff erent plastics and diff erent End-of-Life options. Also diff erences in four countries and the European Union in total are investigated. Furthermore, the LCA includes the production of the plastics and the following diff erent End-of-Life scenarios: mechanical recycling, landfi ll and incineration. As a result the environmental profi les of diff erent materials with various End-of-Life options are generated. The environmental categories Global Warming Potential (GWP), Acidifi cation Potential (AP), Eutrophication Potential (EP), Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential (POCP) and additionally the Primary Energy use are shown. The results are varying depending on the End-of-Life option, the country and of course the material studied. Often an incineration as End-of-Life option benefi ts the whole Life Cycle because it recovers energy that can be used and gives benefi ts in some environmental categories. The paper presents key results of the study and gives an impression of the environmental profi les of diff erent options of materials in agriculture, providing a clear picture of the country-specifi c current situation as well as giving basis for the development of the project.

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AGRICULTURAL PLASTIC WASTE MAPPING IN GREECEMiltiadis Hiskakis, Demetres Briassoulis, Epifania Babou, Konstantinos Liantzas

Agricultural University of Athens, Department of Agricultural Engineering, Iera Odos 75, 11855, Athens, Greece tel +30 210 529 4022 - hiskm@aua.gr

KeywordsAgricultural plastic waste, waste collection, waste generation

AbstractA detailed geographical mapping of the agricultural plastic use in Greece was conducted in the framework of a European project focusing in the areas of high use. Quantitative data and analysis of the agricultural plastic waste generation by category (fi lms, bags etc), the geographical distribution, the compositional range and physical characteristics of the agricultural plastic waste per use, the temporal distribution of removal, the current agricultural plastic waste management practices and disposal methods available are presented. Information on the agricultural plastic use in Greece is sporadic and unreliable. A fi rst attempt was limited in mapping the fi lms used for protected cultivations in Greece. This eff ort has been updated and expanded to include all major categories of agricultural plastic and to present a detailed geographical distribution of the areas of Greece where the concentration of these plastics is the highest. Detailed geographical information data have been collected, including the specifi c intensive protected cultivation zones and the transportation system that are necessary for planning an integrated waste consolidation - management system at a regional level (i.e. number and location of consolidation stations required). Data from the Ministry of Agriculture and the Statistical Organization of Greece were combined with information from the services of the prefectures, local agronomists and farmers, site visits and interviews with the sales departments of major producers and importers of agricultural plastics. The timing of removal of the used plastic from the fi eld was investigated through interviews with local farmers and agronomists. The temporal distribution of the agricultural plastic waste generation within each zone is important for the logistic of the consolidation operation. The compositions and physical characteristics of the agricultural plastic waste streams were mapped by category and by application by interviewing the plastic manufacturers. These characteristics, delimit the disposal options of the streams (i.e. recycling, energy recover) and guide the consolidation methodology. Transportation options from the fi eld to the consolidation stations were investigated by visiting the sites where this is in eff ect across Greece and Spain. Their operational and technical characteristics are

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analysed and compared to map current practices.This work represents the fi rst systematic eff ort to completely map the agricultural plastic waste generation and consolidation in Greece. The structured information and the reliable data provided in this work are expected to stimulate the design of an optimized waste management system for the agricultural plastic wastes chain in Greece. It is also expected that this work will facilitate the implementation of the labelling scheme to be developed in the framework of the European project Labelagriwaste 1.

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LCA (LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT) OF ROSES AND CYCLAMENS PRODUCTION IN GREENHOUSE CULTIVATIONGiovanni Russo1, Patrizia Buttol2, Mario Tarantini2

1Dept. Progesa University of Bari, Via G. Amendola 165/a, Italy giovanni.russo@agr.uniba.it 2ENEA, Via Martiri di Monte Sole, 4, 40129 Bologna, Italy

KeywordsLCA, fl ower greenhouse cultivation, roses, cyclamens

Abstract The fl ower market, mainly realized in Terlizzi area with a greenhouse surface equal to 108.5km2, has estimated at approximately 19,000,000 € in the Puglia Region including the export trade. The productions are principally cut fl owers and pot plants and the farm typology is of small and medium enterprise organised often as family business. In this framework the European Project “Ecofl ower Terlizzi” (LIFE04 ENV/IT/000480) was carried out to support the implementation of a sustainable environmental policy in the area. The project was aimed at defi ning the criteria of environmental quality of the fl owers produced in this area and includes both the defi nition of an EPD (Environmental Product Declaration) programme and of a local eco-label (type I). To reach this objective environmental analyses and LCA studies were carried out on a sample of enterprises. In this paper the main issues concerning the application of the LCA methodology to the production of roses and cyclamens and the results obtained will be presented. Seven farms with productive cycles of fl owers were analysed by means of information regarding energy consumptions, structures and equipments and raw materials used in the year 2005. Three farms produce soilless rose, two produce in soil rose and two produce pot cyclamen. These fl owers represent respectively the cut fl ower and pot plant production. Data concerning the production of materials used for the cultivation (substrates, fertilisers, biocides, chemicals) and for the construction of structures and equipments were found in the open literature or in commercial databases. The on-site emissions of fertilizers and biocides on the cultivation site were estimated on the basis of literature models that allow the balance between the delivered amount and the plants uptake and the calculation of the pollutants emission into water, soil and air. The impact assessment was performed using the CML 2001 method. Since this methodology lacks the characterization factors for the majority of the biocides active substances of this study, an indicator

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was proposed to evaluate the toxicity aspects, which includes a hazard index based on the WHO (World Health Organization) classifi cation. Thermal energy consumption gives the main contribution to the environmental impacts of the roses’ life cycle. For the pot cyclamens the main contribution comes from the baby-plants production. For both productions, the structures and equipments give a remarkable contribution to the environmental impacts.

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BIODEGRADABLE IRRIGATION SYSTEMS FOR PROTECTED CULTIVATIONDemetres Briassoulis1, Miltiadis Hiskakis1, Epifania Babou1

1Agricultural University of Athens, Department of Agricultural Engineering, Iera Odos 75, 11855, Athens, Greece Tel: +30 210 529 4022 briassou@aua.gr

KeywordsBiodegradable plastics, irrigation tapes, tensile strength, hydraulic characteristics

AbstractNew environmental regulations, societal concerns, and a growing environmental awareness throughout the world have triggered the search for new products and processes that are compatible with the environment. This paper presents the research project carried out by AUA with the cooperation of Eurodrip S.A. investigating the possibilities and limitations in developing biodegradable irrigation pipes for agriculture. Biodegradable drip irrigation systems are especially needed in the cases of protected cultivation systems using biodegradable mulching and low tunnel fi lms. The aim is that all biodegradable materials, fi lms and irrigation tapes are roto-tilled into the soil following the end of the cultivation period eliminating in this way the agricultural plastic waste management problem. A thorough investigation of the available biodegradable plastics that can be used in the production of the irrigation pipes with conventional equipment was conducted. The selection of the biodegradable plastic resins to be tested in the production of biodegradable irrigation pipes was made through a combination of literature survey and interviews with producers of biodegradable raw materials. Irrigation tapes were produced in a pilot test using ‘Mater Bi’ (a starch based polyester resin by Novamont S.A.) and ‘Biofl ex’ (a PHB polyester resin by Biomer S.A.). The processing conditions to extrude irrigation tapes were decided by combining the Diff erential Scanning Calorimetry profi les of the materials, the recommendations of the producers and the capabilities of the extruding equipment. Several problems were encountered with the processing of the materials. The tapes produced were tested in the fi eld in Athens and Bari under real conditions and in the laboratory in terms of their mechanical and hydraulic behaviour and also biodegradation after their useful life-time. The fi eld tests of the above irrigation tapes showed a satisfactory performance, despite a gradual mechanical deterioration indicating photodegradability of both materials operating as irrigation tapes under natural exposure. The tensile strength of the tapes as well as

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their hydraulic characteristics were retained at the same levels during the irrigation period except from the regions where the tapes were folded during the production phase (total loss of tensile strength after 100 days for Mater Bi and 90 days for Biofl ex; direct reduction of the elongation at break values after the fi rst 20 days). Water fl ow problems were mainly observed with the Biofl ex tape (after 4 months of exposure). This proves that the folding of the tapes renders them friable during their use. The above experiments proved the concept of producing irrigation tapes but several diffi culties remain to be overcome before commercialization.

The project is funded by the General Secretariat for Research and Technology, Greece. Thanks are due to N.Baharidis and C.Bolinis of Eurodrip for the production of the pipes at the industrial facilities of Eurodrip, the technical teams of Novamont S.A.and Biomer S.A. for the technical support, Prof. G.Scarascia (University of Bari) for cooperation in the fi eld tests and G.Makris for the fi eld tests.

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USE OF COMPOSTABLE POTS FOR POTTED ORNAMENTAL PLANTS PRODUCTIONGiovanni Minuto1, Sara Guerrini2, Marco Versari2, Andrea Minuto1, Luisa Pisi1,

Federico Tinivella1, Stefano Pini3, Marco Capurro3

1Centro Regionale di Sperimentazione ed Assistenza Agricola (Ce.R.S.A.A.), C.C.I.A.A. di Savona, Regione Rollo, 98 - I 17031 Albenga- Italy giovanni.minuto@sv.camcom.it2Novamont SpA, Via G. Fauser, 8 - I 28100 Novara - Italy guerrini@materbi.com 3Regione Liguria - Dipartimento Agricoltura e Protezione Civile - Italy, Via G. D’annunzio, I 16121 Genova stefano.pini@regione.liguria.it

KeywordsFloriculture, compostable pots, thermoplastic starch

Abstract Several products, manufactured using starch-based technology, have been introduced in the market. In a context of organic and/or conventional agriculture growers feel the need of an increasing use of biodegradable or compostable materials and tools, in order to satisfy market demand, particularly the north European one, and to reduce the environmental impact caused by the use of polypropylene and the disposal costs.During the last three years (2004-2007), thanks to an European fi nancial support (LIFE ENV/IT/463) a specifi c experimental and demonstrative project was carried out to evaluate the possibility for the introduction of special compostable pots, obtained from thermoplastic starch. The fi rst introduction of compostable pots occurred mainly in the Albenga area (Liguria, Northern Italy); some trials were carried out even in Pescia area (Tuscany, northern Italy). Several ornamental crops where cultivated during these three years: rosemary, lavender, sage, cyclamen, sweet basil and daisy. Experimental and demonstrative trials were carried out on cyclamen, sweet basil and daisy in greenhouse and on rosemary, lavender and sage in open fi eld. Experimental activities were carried out at CeRSAA; during the second and the third year pre-commercial evaluations started in farms. Results demonstrated the possibility of the cultivation of ornamental crops in pots obtained from starch-based technology. Pots maintained original mechanical characteristics and physical properties - comparable to the ones of polypropylene - during the whole cropping period and even during the marketing period. Tests on resistance to deformation and on resistance to crushing indicated a good quality of this product and the possibility of using it in highly mechanized cropping systems too. No interference on quality of plants was observed.

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Composting trials were carried out to test the degradation rate and then to evaluate the possibility to compost together plants and pots at the end of their life cycle. Two large marketing trials were carried out in order to test fi nal consumer’s satisfaction. A positive feedback was obtained. At the moment costs of compostable posts are higher than conventional polypropylene ones, but environmental advantages, costs for polypropylene pots collection and recycling and completion of the production cycle in the case of organic ornamental productions should be taken in consideration in the economic balance. Results obtained from the project will be use by Regione Liguria for the set up of future regional regulations in sustainable agriculture.

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A PHOTO-THERMAL MODEL FOR PREDICTING DEVELOPMENT AND QUALITY OF STANDARD CUT CHRYSANTHEMUM IN GREENHOUSESJianfeng Dai, Weihong Luo, Zaiqiang Yang, Xiaojie Mi, Qifeng Ding, Xiangmao Li

College of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, P R Chinalwh@njau.edu.cn

KeywordsPAR, temperature, light length, harvesting date, fl ower diameter

AbstractStandard cut chrysanthemum is one of the major cut fl owers in China. Light and temperature control is essential for regulating time of anthesis and harvest and quality of produce to fi t market requirements for year round production of standard cut chrysanthemum. In order to optimise the light and temperature control for standard cut chrysanthemum production in greenhouses, the integrated eff ects of light length, PAR and temperature on standard cut chrysanthemum development and quality have to be quantifi ed. For this purpose, experiments with diff erent cultivars, planting dates and planting densities were carried out during 2005 and 2006 in multi-span plastic greenhouses in Shanghai. The concept of physiological thermal and light eff ectiveness (PTLE) and its calculation method were proposed. The relationships of PTLE to the development stage and quality indices of standard cut chrysanthemum were quantifi ed. Based on these relationships, a model for predicting standard cut chrysanthemum development and quality was developed. Experimental data independent of those used for model development were used to validate the model. The results show that the predicted results agree well with the measured ones. Based on the 1:1 line, the root mean square error (RMSE) for development stages from cutting to planting, beginning of the short-day length treatment, bud break and harvesting date were, respectively, 2.3, 2.9, 1.2 and 3.2 days; the relative prediction error (RSE) for such external quality indices as number of leaves unfolding per plant, leaf area per plant, plant height, stem diameter, inter-node length and fl ower diameter were 5.5%, 6.5%, 5.9%, 4.1%, 11.2% and 12.4%, respectively. Based on the results obtained in this study, it can be concluded that the developed model can give satisfactory predictions of development and quality of standard cut chrysanthemum and can be used for decision making for the optimization of light and temperature control for standard cut chrysanthemum production in greenhouses.

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PRODUCTION OF HIGH QUALITY VEGETABLES BY APPLYING LOW TEMPERATURE STRESS TO ROOTSKota Hidaka1-2, Masaharu Kitano3, Taro Takahashi4, Daisuke Yasutake1-2, Yuki Sago2,

Katsumi Ishikawa2, Toshio Kawano2

1Research Fellow of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Japan k-hidaka@cc.kochi-u.ac.jp2Faculty of Agriculture, Kochi University, Nankoku, Kochi, 783-8502, Japan ikatsumi@cc.kochi-u.ac.jp3Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, 812-8581, Japan kitano@bpes.kyushu-u.ac.jp 4Faculty of Horticulture, Chiba University, Matsudo, Chiba, 271-8510, Japantakahashitaro@graduate.chiba-u.jp

KeywordsHigh quality, low temperature stress, osmoregulation, root zone

Abstract Low temperature stress to the plant can induce adaptive functions such as osmoregulation and antioxidation, which are expected to result in production of high quality vegetables enriched in sugars and antioxidants, etc. However, there are diffi culties for a stable control of the stress treatment because of seasonal and daily changes in weather condition. A hydroponic system, which can control the root zone temperature was newly developed, and low temperature stress treatment was applied only to roots for production of high quality vegetables. Spinach plants (Spinacia oleracea L.) were grown in the newly developed system where the root zone temperature was controlled at an optimum temperature of 20oC. Two weeks before the harvest, a low temperature stress treatment with a root zone temperature of 5oC was applied for only one week. After one week application of low temperature stress to roots, sugars, ascorbic acid and Fe2+ were signifi cantly enriched in leaves. Furthermore, concentrations of NO3- and oxalic acid, which are harmful for human health, were extremely decreased. From these results, it was verifi ed that the one week low temperature stress treatment only to roots is applicable for high quality vegetable production.

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EFFECTS OF SALINITY ON TOMATO FRUIT QUALITY: IMPACT ON MACRO AND MICRO CONSTITUENTSHélène Gautier1, Claude Courbet1, Safaa Najla1, Gilles Vercambre1, Nadia Bertin1,

Dominique Grasselly2, Laurent Rosso2, Brigitte Navez3, Laurent Gomez1

1UR1115 Plantes et systèmes de culture horticoles, INRA, F-84000 Avignon2CTIFL Centre de Balandran, BP 32 - 30127 Bellegarde3CTIFL Centre de Saint Rémy, Route de Mollégès 13210 Saint-Rémy de Provence

KeywordsFruit quality, lycopene, Lycopersicon esculentum, salinity, tomato, vitamin C

AbstractFresh tomatoes are produced all year round under glasshouses, under contrasted environmental conditions which could trigger seasonal variations in their macro-and micro-components content and consequently in their gustative and nutritional quality. This study was aimed to improve tomato fruit quality. Fruits harvested during winter had less dry matter, sugars, acids and antioxidant contents compared to fruits harvested during Spring or Summer. Previous studies have shown that increasing the salinity of the fertigation could improve fruit quality, but it also reduced fruit size and fruit yield due to reduced leaf area and carbon acquisition limitation. Our objective was to determine the electroconductivity of the fertigation solution which improves gustative and nutritive fruit quality with the slightest fruit yield limitation. In the present paper, we focuss on antioxidant compounds; the eff ects of increasing salinity were compared on major (sugars and acids) and minor constituents (vitamin C and carotenoids content which could be responsible for tomato fruit nutritional quality). Tomato plants were grown under glasshouse and irrigated with 4 diff erent salinity levels (4, 7, 10 and 13 mS). Ripe fruits were harvested and fruit quality was assessed from chemical analysis of dry matter, sugars, acids, vitamin C and carotenoids. Increasing salinity reduced fruit water content and consequently increased the macro- and micro-constituent concentrations expressed per fresh weight. Data were also expressed per dry weight and per fruit to discriminate whether increased concentrations were due to reduced water content or specifi c eff ects on primary or secondary metabolism.

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HIGH QUALITY TOMATO PRODUCTION BY SUITABLE APPLICATION OF CONCENTRATED DEEP SEAWATER Masaharu Kitano1, Takahiro Wajima2, Kota Hidaka3-4, Yuki Sago2, Daisuke Yasutake2-3, Katsumi Ishikawa2, Takahisa Matsuoka4, Kazuhumi Zushi5, Naotaka Matsuzoe6

1Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, 812-8581, Japan kitano@bpes.kyushu-u.ac.jp 2Faculty of Agriculture, Kochi University, Nankoku, Kochi, 783-8502, Japan ikatsumi@cc.kochi-u.ac.jp3Research Fellow of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Japan yasutake@cc.kochi-u.ac.jp4The United Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Ehime University, Matsuyama, 790-8566, Japan5Shokei University, Kumamoto, 861-8538, Japan6Faculty of Environmental and Symbiotic Sciences, Prefectural University of Kumamoto, Kumamoto, 862-8502, Japan matsuzoe@pu- kumamoto.ac.jp

KeywordsDeep seawater, Lycopersicon esculentum Mill., osmoregulation, phloem transport,

salt stress

Abstract The concentrated deep seawater has been discharged abundantly in processes producing many kinds of goods from the deep seawater. A suitable application of the concentrated deep seawater for the high quality tomato production was examined by analyzing phloem transport and fruit quality. Tomato plants (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) were grown in an NFT system, where the concentrated deep seawater was applied for the short-term salt stress treatment for only two weeks at the stage of rapid fruit growth. Physiological eff ects of the short-term application of the concentrated deep seawater were analyzed with special reference to the expression of osmoregulation in phloem transport to fruits by using a newly developed method to evaluate fl uxes and concentrations of soluble solids in phloem sap. Furthermore, eff ects on root absorption, leaf photosynthesis, fruit growth, accumulation of sugars, minerals, amino acids and antioxidants in fruits, fl avour of fruits and occurrence of blossom-end rot were analyzed. From these physiological analyses, it was verifi ed that the short-term application of the concentrated deep seawater at the stage of rapid fruit growth can induce the osmoregulation in the phloem transport

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to fruits and can produce high quality tomatoes enriched in sugar, minerals, functional amino acid and good fl avour without occurrence of extremely small-sized fruits and blossom-end rot.

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PLANT SOLARIMETER FOR ENERGY BALANCETadashi Takakura

Bioresource Research Center, Kyushu Electric Power Co. Inc., Takagise Higashi 1-10-1, Saga, Japan takakura@nagasaki-u.ac.jp

KeywordsSolarimeter, energy balance, greenhouse environment control

Abstract The objective of the research was to develop a solarimeter which can measure an accurate amount of solar energy enters a plant canopy in a greenhouse with limited space. Normal hemispherical solarimeters which have black sensors of a fl at plate type have been widely used for energy analysis of such greenhouses in many aspects. However, a large error was found in energy analysis when the sun’s altitude becomes low with ordinary solarimeters.It was found out that the cosine law for a fl at sensor causes an error since the surface of a plant canopy which receives the sun energy is not fl at. It was proved that if measured solar energy by an ordinary solarimeter is modifi ed by the cosine law to obtain solar radiation received by a normal plane along with the change of sun’s altitude, the error was minimized. In order to develop an economical solarimeter to measure solar radiation received by the surface normal to the direct solar radiation, a photo diode was placed at the bottom of an opaque white ping-pong ball which had a hole for the photo diode at the bottom. The ping- pong ball acted as a constant area which receives solar radiation and as an integration sphere once the radiation was trapped in. The measured data by this solarimeter showed relatively similar values of solar radiation received by the normal plane to the direct radiation. Then it was concluded that this solarimeter can be used to have a better control strategy for greenhouse environment control. A patent has been applied on this solarimeter.

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NEW THERMAL DISSIPATION MOISTURE SENSORS FOR SOIL AND GROWTH MEDIA Terence Mcburney, Fali Minocher Dadachanji1, Nathalie Chavrier2, David Arias2

1McBurney Scientifi c Limited, Malvern Hills Science Park, Malvern, Worcestershire, WR14 3SZ UK tmcb2000@clara.co.uk2 Innovación y Tecnología Agroalimentaria, Citagro S.A, Avenida Gutenberg s/n. Edif. IAT 41092 Sevilla, Spain nchavrier@citagro.es

KeywordsSoil moisture tension, volumetric moisture, mineral wool, cut fl owers, fertigation

Abstract A new moisture sensor based on the thermal dissipation principle is described, with diff erent confi gurations for monitoring moisture tension of soils and volumetric moisture content of ‘rockwool’ rooting media. Tests of the interchangeable sensors and associated processor electronics were carried out in the laboratory under conditions of carefully controlled soil moisture that demonstrated excellent linearity and long term repeatability over the moisture ranges required for irrigation decisions, as well as practical immunity from fl uctuations in growth media temperature, bulk density and solute content. Further tests carried out in commercial protected crops demonstrated the utility of the sensor for fertigation control of cut fl ower and vegetables species, with options for wireless data access locally by means of a Bluetooth hand-held PDA computer or remotely via GPRS telemetry and an internet website.

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HYDRION-LINE, A PROTOTYPE CROP LIGHT INTERCEPTION SENSOR IN GREENHOUSESH.J.J. Janssen1, Th.H. Gieling1, V.Sarlikioti2, B.Meurs2 , J.Ruijsch van Dugteren3

1Wageningen UR Greenhouse Horticulture, P.O.box 46, 6700AA Wageningen2The Netherlands Plant Research International, P.O.box 46, 6700AA Wageningen 3The Netherlands Agrotechnology & Food Sciences Group, P.O.box 17, 6700AA Wageningen

KeywordsCrop growth, light interception, incoming and refl ecting radiation

Abstract The most important factor for plant growth is the amount of light that is intercepted by the crop. The amount of intercepted light depends on the incoming radiation in the greenhouse and the percentage of interception by the crop, which is directly related to the leaf area. At present growers are familiar with radiation but not with the amount of intercepted radiation. A proper crop management requires the measurement of the most important growing factors. In case of application of crop growing models the simulation of the leaf area (light interception) is one of the biggest uncertainties in the results of the models. Automatic calibration of the model based on radiation interception increases the accuracy of the model results. For the determination of radiation interception of the crop in a greenhouse a radiation sensor is used which determines the ratio of the incoming radiation from the upper side and the refl ection from lower side. The principle behind the refl ection measurement is simple. The crop has a low refl ection in the blue spectrum (~5% at 460 nm) and the white plastic on the fl oor has a high refl ection (~90% at 460 nm). The sensor sees a relation between the high and low refl ection which decreases with the covering of the soil by the plant leaves. This ratio can be related to the light interception by the crop. The Hydrion-line project is a multi-disciplinary research project, where a large number of researchers of diff erent science groups of Wageningen UR co-operate with commercial business partners. At the end of the project, as a result, Hydrion-line should produce prototypes of directly applicable products. The paper describes the algorithms and boundary conditions to take account of for proper results. Time series measurements of incoming, refl ecting and global radiation are used to design a radiation interception sensor. Data are shown of the algorithm to calculate the radiation interception. With the developed algorithm it is possible to create a simple and robust sensor that can measure the light interception in a greenhouse. The sensor is tested on a cucumber crop in a practice greenhouse.

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A SOFT-SENSOR FOR ON-LINE ESTIMATION OF VENTILATION OF A GREENHOUSECecilia Stanghellini, Jan Bontsema

1Wageningen UR Greenhouse Horticulture, Wageningen, The Netherlands cecilia.stanghellini@wur.nl

KeywordsTemperature, humidity control, carbon dioxide, energy, climate computer

Abstract In modern greenhouses vents’ opening is controlled as a mean to regulate temperature and humidity within the house. There is an eff ect as well on carbon dioxide concentration inside, since in greenhouses with active CO2 fertilisation the concentration set-point is lowered with vents opening whereas, in the absence of fertilisation, the CO2 concentration results from the balance of assimilation and infl ow through the vents. A good estimate of the ventilation rate, by allowing foreknowledge of the eff ect of an action, would much improve the effi cacy of the interlinked control of temperature, humidity and [CO2] through the single action of vents’ opening. However, the eff ect obtained by a given action (that is, the amount of energy, vapour and CO2 that are exchanged with the outside world) depends in a complex way from the geometry of the vents, the amount of opening, wind speed and direction, and temperature and humidity diff erence between in- and outside. Therefore models to calculate the ventilation rate of greenhouses require many specifi c parameters and are as complex as to be of little practical use (aside from design purposes).In this work we describe an innovative method–a “soft-sensor”–to estimate on-line the ventilation rate from data that are routinely collected by a climate control computer. The method is based on the computational technique of the “unknown input observer”. We show that, in spite of being developed and tested with Dutch Venlo greenhouses, the method can be successfully applied to the quite diff erent greenhouse structures and climate conditions of The Mediterranean basin. We use a couple of selected examples to discuss how this method could be applied to improve management in such conditions.

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OPEN-LOOP OPTIMAL TEMPERATURE CONTROL IN GREENHOUSES: CHOOSING THE LENGTH OF THE SAMPLE INTERVAL IN A CONTROL PARAMETERIZATION SOLUTIONE.J. Van Henten1-2*, J. Bontsema2

1WUR Greenhouse horticulture, P.O. Box 16, NL-6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands2Farm Technology Group, Wageningen University, Bornsesteeg 59, NL-6708 PD Wageningen, The Netherland;*eldert.vanhenten@wur.nl

KeywordsGreenhouse climate, temperature control, temperature integration, optimal

control, control parameterization, sample time

AbstractVarious researchers have shown that considerable energy savings can be achieved by maintaining an average temperature in the greenhouse in stead of maintaining rigid pre-defi ned temperature ‘blue-prints’. The main feature of the former approach is that, heating is shifted from periods with large energy losses to periods with smaller energy losses whilst maintaining an average temperature during a predefi ned period of time. A model based optimal control approach has proven to be a suitable framework to tackle these kind of control problems (Gutman et al., 1993; Chalabi et al., 1996). Chalabi et al. (1996) have shown that this approach can be implemented on-line in a greenhouse with success. But, when on-line optimal temperature control is considered, interesting questions arise, some of which are still unresolved. The question tackled in this paper is: ‘What is the relation between the resolution of the control strategy (sample time) and energy savings?’. One would expect that an accurate and frequent anticipation to changing outdoor climate conditions might result in reduced energy consumption. Chalabi et al. (1996) calculated hourly optimum temperature setpoints but did not motivate this choice of the sample time. Gutman et al. (1993) indicated that a sample interval of 0.25 h was suffi ciently short. However, they used a steady-state model of the greenhouse air temperature and static or slowly varying data of outdoor climatic conditions. In this research, the relation between the control resolution and energy savings was quantitatively investigated using a dynamic greenhouse climate model and realistic Dutch outdoor climate conditions containing high-frequency components. It was found that sample times smaller than 15 minutes, hardly had any

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eff ect on the energy consumption. So, for this particular control problem, changing the control settings every 15 minutes seems justifi ed from the point of view of energy consumption.

ReferencesChalabi ZS, Bailey BJ, Wilkinson DJ. A real-time optimal control algorithm for greenhouse heating. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 1996, 15:1-13.Gutman PO, Lindberg PO, Ioslovich I, Seginer I. A non-linear optimal greenhouse control problem solved by linear programming. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 1993, 55: 335-351.

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IN-VIVO MEASUREMENT OF TOMATO FIRMNESS Viktória Zsom-Muha1, Tamás Zsom2, József Felföldi3

1Department of Physics and Control, Corvinus University of Budapest, 1118 Budapest, Somlói út 14-16 viktoria.muha@uni-corvinus.hu2Department of Refrigeration and Livestock Products Technology, Corvinus University of Budapest, 1118 Budapest Ménesi út 43-45 tamas.zsom@uni-corvinus.hu3Department of Physics and Control, Corvinus University of Budapest, 1118 Budapest, Somlói út 14-16 jozsef.felfoldi@uni-corvinus.hu

KeywordsIn-vivo, acoustic, tomato, fi rmness

Abstract The acoustic method is used for measuring the stiff ness of horticultural products for some decades. The advantage of this method is that the sample can be examined non-destructively. So, it is possible to follow accurately the changes of the sample fi rmness (e.g. during growing, ripening or storage). The other advantage is that the set-up is small enough to be portable, so tests could be carried out not only in the laboratory but in the fi eld too. Due to the above mentioned properties, in-vivo measurement can be carried out by the acoustic method.The objective of this experiment was to investigate the fi rmness changes of tomato during growing and ripening. Other aim was to examine the applicability of the widely used acoustic stiff ness coeffi cient during growing and ripening.Two varieties of tomato, Preciza and Boderine, grown in greenhouse, were examined. Acoustic technique was used for measurement of the stiff ness changes. The experiment lasted more than two months and the samples were examined in every 2-3 days. The tomatoes were measured in the same time of the day to eliminate the daily fi rmness variation. Two diameters and the height of the samples were measured by a calliper. The volume of the tomato was estimated from the three measured geometrical parameters. Finite element method was used to choose which acoustic stiff ness coeffi cient suitable to describe the changes during growing and ripening. The resonance frequency of the tomatoes showed a decreasing trend during growing and ripening. A signifi cant decrease was detected in the frequency few days before reaching the harvest ripeness stage. The volume changes during growing can be approximated by an exponential curve. The change of density was investigated too. The density of the tomato increased from 975 kg m-3 to 995 kg m-3 during ripening.

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The mass of the sample can be estimated from the volume and the density.According to the theoretical consideration and the results of the fi nite element analysis, the S2=f2• m2/3 and S3=f2 • d2 stiff ness coeffi cients are able to describe the fi rmness changes during growing. All the three investigated stiff ness coeffi cients (S1=f2 • m, S2=f2 • m2/3 and S3=f2 • d2 ) are able to follow the changes during ripening, so the S2 and the S3 were used to calculate the stiff ness coeffi cient in this situation. The tomatoes softened both during growing and ripening. By reaching a certain maturity stage, the fi rmness of samples decreased signifi cantly (at approx. S2 = 1 • 107 Hz2g2/3 or at approx. S3= m2s-2). After this point the samples softened as much in the next 2-3 days as during 20-25 days before.

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COMPARISON OF FIELD MEASUREMENT AND CFD SIMULATION IN A NATURALLY VENTILATED MULTI-SPAN GREENHOUSE IN SUMMERMasahisa Ishii1, Makio Hayashi2, Yasutaka Yamamoto2, Sadanori Sase1, Limi

Okushima1, Hideki Moriyama1

1Controlled Environment Agriculture Team, National Institute for Rural Engineering, Kannondai 2-1-6, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8609, Japanmasaisii@aff rc.go.jp2School of High-Technology for Human Welfare, Tokai University, Nishino 317, Numazu, Shizuoka 410-0395, Japanhayashi@fb.u-tokai.ac.jp

KeywordsMulti-span Venlo greenhouse, natural ventilation, solar radiation, airfl ow pattern,

temperature distribution

AbstractThis paper presents a comparative study of the fi eld measurement and CFD simulation of air temperature distributions in a naturally ventilated multi-span Venlo greenhouse in summer. The measurements were carried out in an empty commercial 17-span Venlo greenhouse, located in Mishima, Shizuoka, Japan. The outside weather and the inside environment were measured from 15 to 24 July, 2004. The direction of the greenhouse ridges was north-south. The air temperatures were measured at four diff erent heights above the fl oor and fi ve locations in the central vertical plane of the greenhouse from the east side wall to the west side wall. The CFD simulation described only steady-state conditions. Therefore, the stable weather conditions such as wind speed, wind direction, outside air temperature and solar radiation were input data to the CFD simulation. When only the roof vents were open, the measured air temperatures in the windward side of the greenhouse were higher than that in the leeward side. For example, when the outside air temperature was 29.0ºC on a sunny day and wind direction was easterly, at the height of 1.4 m above the fl oor, the measured average air temperatures at the distance from the east side wall of 5 m, 16 m, 27 m, 38 m, and 49 m were 35.6ºC, 34.7ºC, 34.0ºC, 34.6ºC, and 33.3ºC, respectively. A good agreement was found between the measurement result and CFD simulation result. The maximum temperature diff erence between the measurement and CFD simulation was 0.8ºC. The CFD simulated airfl ow pattern showed that the outside air entered the greenhouse

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through the roof vents located in the leeward side and travelled along the greenhouse fl oor towards the windward side. These results suggested that the reverse fl ow caused the air temperature distributions in the greenhouse.

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DEVELOPMENT OF AN EFFICIENT VENTILATION SYSTEM FOR A HIGH-RISE MUSHROOM CULTIVATION HOUSE USING CFD TECHNOLOGYIn-Bok Lee, Hyun-sub Hwang, Se-woon Hong, Il-hwan Seo

1Department of Rural Systems Engineering, Seoul National University, Sillim-dong, Seoul-city, Republic of Korea iblee@snu.ac.kr2Department of Rural Systems Engineering, Seoul National University, Sillim-dong, Seoul-city, Republic of Korea hyun1018@nate.com3Department of Rural Systems Engineering, Seoul National University, Sillim-dong, Seoul-city, Republic of Korea wooni91@snu.ac.kr4Department of Rural Systems Engineering, Seoul National University, Sillim-dong, Seoul-city, Republic of Korea siwbest0@snu.ac.kr

Keywords Aerodynamics, Computational fl uid dynamics, Mushroom cultivation house,

Ventilation

Abstract This study used an aerodynamic simulation technology to compare and analyze the ventilation eff ectiveness of a high-rise mushroom cultivation house. We used a CFD, a typical aerodynamic analysis tool, to analyze the internal airfl ow and the uniformity of ventilation effi ciency. LMA/LMR theory was also used to quantitatively and qualitatively examine the ventilation effi ciency and was connected to the CFD main module using user defi ned function (UDF) technology. The CFD accuracy was initially examined using LMA/LMR theory and then the comparisons indicated that the error of the CFD model was at most 5.5%, showing that the CFD model was reliable enough for studying the ventilation effi ciency in this research. The total mass fl ow rates of the inlet and outlet slots were also compared to examine the mass balance of the CFD model, and the comparison showed that the errors were -2.2% and -3.9%, respectively, at 100% and 50% of the ventilation rate. The CFD results showed that the developed ventilation system was appropriate for improving the ventilation effi ciency of the high-rise mushroom cultivation house. The results revealed that the sizing of each inlet and outlet was very important for improving the uniformity of ventilation effi ciency at all the mushroom locations. The angle of the diff user installed at the ceiling inlet was also critically important for maintaining uniform air pressure and airfl ow at all of the inlet slots.

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NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF NATURAL VENTILATION IN GREENHOUSES: A COMPARISON BETWEEN FINITE VOLUME METHOD AND FINITE ELEMENT METHODFrancisco Domingo Molina-Aiz1, Hichan Fatnassi2, Thierry Boulard2, Jean Claude

Roy3, Diego Luis Valera1

1 Department of Rural Engineering, University of Almería, C/Cañada de San Urbano s/n, 04120 Almería, Spain fmolina@ual.es2 INRA-URIH, 400, route des Chappes, BP 167, 06903 Sophia Antipolis, France thierry.boulard@sophia.inra.fr3 FEMTO-ST, CREST, Université de Franche-Comté, 2, Avenue Jean Moulin, 90000 Belfort, France jean-claude.roy@univ-fcomte.fr

Keywords Finite Element Method, Finite Volume Method, Computational Fluid Dynamics

(CFD), greenhouses, ventilation

AbstractThe modelling of the greenhouse climate published until now has used several computer fl uid dynamics programs (CFD) based on the fi nite volume method (FVM), because of its facility to understanding, programming and versatility. Although not many commercial packages are based in the fi nite element method (FEM), this has also been used to successfully model the wind and building interaction in greenhouses. However, no comparison has been made among codes solving the same equations governing greenhouses natural ventilation (benchmark test) and the goal of the present contribution is to compare the numerical results calculated with a FVM program (Fluent v. 6.1.) and FEM software (ANSYS/FLOTRAN v. 9.0.). Although the equations are similar, the handling of the boundary conditions, the interpolation functions, and other numerical techniques such as the use of the pressure or the iteration scheme are diff erent. We used the same boundary conditions, turbulence κ−ε model together with the same assumptions, for the modelling as porous media of the insect proof nets protecting the greenhouse, except in the buoyancy term of the momentum equation. The Boussinesq approximation used with FLUENT is not suffi ciently accurate at large temperature diff erences, while another method is used with ANSYS, treating the air as an ideal gas and expressing the density diff erence by means of the ideal gas equation.Simulation results have been compared with experimental observations in three

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diff erent greenhouses: i) a reduced-scale single-span greenhouse with adiabatic walls was used to compare airfl ows and temperature distributions (corresponding to a typical single-cell Rayleigh-Benard convection pattern); ii) air exchange rate measurements were used to validate the CFD simulations performed in a four-span experimental greenhouse for low wind velocities and temperature gradients and fi nally iii) air velocity was measured inside an Almería-type greenhouse with hot-bulb anemometry at great temperature diff erentials and high wind speed.Comparisons of the obtained results for temperature and dynamics fi elds are analysed with respect to the experimental measurements together with the meshing facilities, the convergence time and the initial set of state variables and recommendations are provided for the use of each method. As a summary, it can be said that a benchmark test in two dimensions has been made for greenhouse natural ventilation calculations.

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A PROTOTYPE FOR MECHANICAL DISTRIBUTION OF BENEFICIALSGiacomo Blandini, Giuseppe Emma, Sabina Failla, Giuseppe Manetto

Department of Agricultural Engineering, University of Catania, Via S. Sofi a 100, 95123 Catania, Italy sfailla@unict.it

KeywordsPlant protection machines, biological control, benefi cials

Abstract The research aim was to investigate natural enemy distribution using an innovative prototype. It was designed to mechanically release Phytoseiulus persimilis Athias Henriot and Orius laevigatus (Fieber), commonly employed in organic control programs for protected vegetable crops. The benefi cials were placed with the carrier material inside the bottles (vermiculite and buckwheat husk) into a hopper with an adjustable product dispenser. Product descends onto a revolving disc (Ø = 20 cm.) driven by a DC electric motor.Currently, the prototype weighs about 4 kg and is set on a one-wheeled frame. The height of the prototype is adjustable in relation to plant height. Two long handles ease work between cultivated rows.Several trials were carried out under laboratory conditions to defi ne parameters and improve its components for work in the fi eld. Throw direction and distance, quantity distributed, feed-rate and vertical throw were examined.Subsequently, fi eld trials were carried out in greenhouses with pepper crops to compare mechanical and manual release for the same product quantity. The results show that metering and distribution system of the prototype proved proper for organic plant protection treatments. DC motors are very handy, have reduced costs and environmental impact.Furthermore, eff ective work time is shorter with mechanical rather than manual distribution.

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DESIGN OF A STRAWBERRY FACTORY USING A MOVABLE BENCHShigehiko Hayashi1, Hirotaka Yoshida1, Satoshi Yamamoto1, Yasunaga Iwasaki2,

Yoshinobu Urushiyama2

1Institute of Agricultural Machinery, BRAIN, 1-40-2 Nisshin, Kita, Saitama, 331-8537 Japan shigey @aff rc.go.jp2Miyagi Prefectural Agriculture and Horticulture Research Center, 1 Takadate Kamikawa, Natori, Miyagi, 981-1243 Japan

KeywordsStrawberry, movable bench: high-density planting, automation

Abstract Large-scale venlo-type greenhouse introduced from Europe has been popularising gradually in Japan, and fruit type vegetables such as tomato and paprika have been producing in it. Strawberry, however, is mainly cultivated in a small plastic-house. A survey showed that the growing area per farmer is around 3,000m2, the planting density is 7 plant/m2, and the average yield is around 3kg/m2. The objective of the research is to establish a technique for year-round production for strawberry, which enables high yield and large-scale management. Then, we have sought a feasibility of short cycle plant, and designed a strawberry factory using a movable bench system. The strawberry factory has several signifi cant features: 1) a movable bench to realise high-density cultivation by removing a passage, 2) improvement of work performance 3) automation and robotizing. An operator can work at a fi xed position since the strawberry comes serially, so short cycle plant would become easy, and could utilize ever-bearing cultivar and cold-stored seedling. Moreover, the strawberry factory has great possibility to introduce an automatic and robotic system. On the basis of these designs of the strawberry factory, a prototype of the movable bench system was developed. The movable bench system comprises mainly two longitudinal conveying units, two lateral conveying units, seventeen planting benches, a chemical spraying unit and a control unit. The size of the prototype is 5.04m in width and 5.25m in length. The gutter is attached on the bench of 2.2m long. The 13 pots for subirrigation (160mm in diameter) can be loaded on the gutter. The bench distance and crop distance are 0.50m and 0.16m respectively, so that a plant density reaches 12.5 pant/m2, which is almost two times of traditional cultivation. The bench circulates by longitudinal movement and lateral movement repeatedly. As the results of a functional test, the cycle time of the bench was 72 s, and the electric energy consumed within one cycle

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was 3.67 Wh. A spraying performance was satisfactory during the lateral movement of the movable bench. The growing test of the prototype would need to be conducted, especially during summer. It is necessary to give full consideration for practical use to environmental control, work effi ciency, an enlargement of the system, a cost reduction, and a mass production of seedlings. Moreover, robotic application seems to be worthwhile subject to investigate.

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INNOVATIVE CULTIVATION OF VEGETABLE ON VERTICALLY MOVING BEDS CONTROLLED BY DOUBLE SEESAW MECHANICS Kota Hidaka1-2, Eiji Ito3, Shunji Imai3, Masaharu Kitano4, Daisuke Yasutake1-2

1Research Fellow of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Japan k-hidaka@cc.kochi-u.ac.jp2Faculty of Agriculture, Kochi University, Nankoku, Kochi, 783-8502, Japan yasutake@cc.kochi-u.ac.jp3Hiroshima Prefectural Agriculture Research Center, Higashihiroshima, Hiroshima 739-0151, Japan e-itou86213@pref.hiroshima.jp4Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, 812-8581, Japan kitano@bpes.kyushu-u.ac.jp

KeywordsDouble seesaw mechanics, light condition, photosynthesis, strawberry, yield

Abstract Aiming at high yield and labor saving production of strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa Duch.), an innovative cultivation system was newly developed. By a three-dimensional use of the greenhouse space, a set of the system can support four bed lines vertically moving under operation of the double seesaw mechanics, where heights of the four bed lines can be changed in course of time by the sequence control. This innovative system can support four times planting density as high as the conventional culture system with the stationary bench. The daily integrated values of solar radiation and leaf photosynthesis on the respective moving bed lines were signifi cantly depressed, but the two times yield of marketable strawberry was achieved. This suggests that by establishing the suitable logic for the optimum control of the vertical motion of the bed lines, this system can be expected to achieve the higher productivity with the help of the ever-bearing cultivation and the zone control of the bed line environment.

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PESTICIDE APPLICATION TECHNIQUES TO STRAWBERRY CROPS INSIDE PROTECTION TUNNELPasquale Guarella1, Simone Pascuzzi1, Anna Guarella2

1Dipartimento di Progettazione e Gestione dei Sistemi Agro-zootecnici e Forestali (PROGESA), Via Amendola 165/A, 70126 Bari, Italy pasquale.guarella@agr.uniba.it2Dipartimento di Produzione animale, Via Amendola 165/A, 70126 Bari, Italy

KeywordsHand held equipments, spray application, leaf deposits, ground losses

AbstractUnder the point of view of the available mechanical technologies for pesticide distribution, the strawberry crop shares some problems with cucurbitaceous crops, resulting from cultivation on modelled and mulched soil, with narrow planting layouts, which do not allow the employment of usual sprayers inside the protection tunnel. Such diffi culties reduce the typologies of the available machines: hand held equipments (spray guns, spray booms, etc), connected to usual pressure-driven atomizing sprayers, placed outside the tunnel; air assisted sprayers equipped with tangential cannon, working from the two extremity of the tunnel. The afore mentioned typologies of sprayers put both qualitative (uniform distribution on and within the vegetation of pesticide, ground losses) and quantitative (volume/ha; timeliness) nature problems.The aim of this paper is focused on the results of simulated treatment tests carried out in tunnel on strawberry crops with following analysis of the leaf deposits made through colorimetric techniques. Tests were made using the following hand held equipments: spray gun and spray boom; furthermore an air assisted sprayers equipped with tangential cannon was utilized. Relating to hand held equipments, leaf deposits result from: a) the equipment characteristics and its positioning as to target; b) operator velocity exchange during of the treatment; c) position of the sampled leaves. Relating to sprayers equipped with tangential cannon, leaf deposits point out the low capacity of penetration of the spray inside the vegetation and the need to adjust the length of the tunnel to the spray range. Finally, the ground losses are always higher than the leaf deposits, also in the case of localized treatments (carried out with the spray gun and the spray boom) owing to excess volumes/ha as regards to the eff ective needs of the cultivation.

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PESTICIDE APPLICATION IN GLASSHOUSE IN ITALY: FIRST RESULTS OBTAINED BY A NATIONAL RESEARCH GROUPPaolo Balsari1, Gianluca Oggero1, Emanuele Cerruto2, Dario Friso3, Pasquale

Guarella4, Michele Raff aelli5

1Dipartimento di Economia e Ingegneria Agraria, Forestale e Ambientale (DEIAFA), Via L. da Vinci, 44 10095 Grugliasco (TO), Italy paolo.balsari@unito.it2Dipartimento di Ingegneria Agraria (DIA), Via S. Sofi a, 100, 95123 Catania, Italy ecerruto@unict.it3Dipartimento di Terrirorio e Sistemi Agro-forestali (TESAF), Viale dell'Università, 16 Agripolis 35020 Legnaro (PD) dario.friso@unipd.it4Dipartimento di Progettazione e Gestione dei Sistemi Agro-zootecnici e Forestali (PROGESA), Via Amendola 165/A, 70126 Bari, Italy pasquale.guarella@agr.uniba.it5Dipartimento di Agronomia e Gestione dell‘Agro-ecosistema (DAGA), Via S. Michele degli Scalzi, 2, 56124 Pisa, Italy mraff aelli@agr.unipi.it

KeywordsExposure, glasshouse, sprayer, volume application rate, horticulture

AbstractWith the aim to improve the crop protection application techniques actually used in greenhouses and glasshouses with special regard to horticulture, an ad hoc research group (fi ve operating units) has been organized with the fi nancial support of Italian Ministry of University and Research (MIUR). This to achieve a higher quality of products and to ensure safety of food, operators and environment. The research will be carried out in two years (2006 and 2007) according to the following steps: A) enquiry about the present situation (crop protection strategies, type and use of spraying equipment, precautions adopted to ensure operators safety); B) fi eld tests to assess the most adequate operating parameters for the most spread types of sprayers; C) development and functional test of innovative spraying equipment for sustainable crop protection in horticulture;D) set up of specifi c test benches for the inspection and calibration of spraying equipment used in glasshouses.The main result obtained during the fi rst year and related to B (test carried out on tomato and strawberry crop) are reported.

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OPERATOR CONTAMINATION DURING PESTICIDE APPLICATION IN TOMATO GREENHOUSESEmanuele Cerruto, Giuseppe Emma, Giuseppe Manetto

Department of Agricultural Engineering, Via S. Sofi a 100 – 95123 Catania, Italy cerruto@unict.it

KeywordsSafety, Deposition, Spray gun

AbstractIn Sicily, the widest island in the Mediterranean Sea, there are some 8,700 ha of horticultural protected crops in greenhouses, 3,600 ha of which are tomato crops. They require 15-20 pesticide applications per year, spraying between 80-90 and 160-180 litres of mixture every 1,000 m2, according to the plant development. The most widespread equipment used in treatment execution is the high pressure spray gun, with forward movement of the operator. Usually the plants are arranged in twin rows and the application time varies between 15 and 40 min/1,000 m2, with two working people. Aim of this research was to measure the operator’s contamination during pesticide application in greenhouses with tomato crop, using a high pressure spray gun with two nozzles, and comparing forward and backward movement, taking also into account the plant development. Experimental trials were carried out in two greenhouses with similar plant density (some 30,000 plants/ha), at diff erent phenological stages: end of production and before production. In each stage, the plants were characterised by measuring some geometrical quantities: minimum and maximum height of the vegetation, thickness at several heights, leaf area index (LAI). Spray applications were performed by distributing a water solution with a food dye as a tracer. Three replicates were carried out for each movement of the operator (forward and backward) and for each phenological stage. After each replication, the overalls and protection devices worn by the operator were cut in several pieces (head, trunk, arms, legs, mask, gloves), and the deposition on each piece was measured in laboratory by means of a spectrophotometric technique. In order to compare the results, all the replications were normalised to a fi xed volume application rate. The fi rst results showed a much higher contamination of the operator when he/she works walking forward, up to 8 times when the plants are fully developed and up to 4 times when they are before production. Legs, arms, and feet are the parts of the body more contaminated. The whole results will be reported in the full paper.

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ROBOTIC HARVEST OF CUT FLOWERS BASED ON IMAGE PROCESSING BY USING GERBERA JAMESONII AS MODEL PLANTMarco Kawollek1, Thomas Rath2

1Databases and IT-Engineering, Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart, Germany mkawollek@ulmer.de2Biosystems Engineering Section, Leibniz University Hannover, Herrenhäuser Str. 2, 30419 Hannover, Germany rath@bgt.uni-hannover.de

KeywordsRobotic harvesting, image processing, Gerbera jamesonii

Abstract A system for automatic harvesting of Gerbera jamesonii cut fl owers grown in greenhouses was developed using image processing. The plants were presented in front of a stereo-camera system with high resolution CCD cameras and near infrared fi lters on a swivelling pallet. In the experiments eight images per plant were taken from diff erent viewpoints. The data were transformed to a global data space by using a special mathematical camera model. The developed image processing algorithm identifi es fl ower stem objects in the images. Diff erent image processing operators were used: morphological operators, edge- and line detection operators, Hough-transformations, region segmentation operators and special algorithms, developed for this purpose. Based on this data three dimensional models of the plant where computed using triangulation. Results show that in 72 % of the images all fl ower stems were identifi ed correctly. Looking at the whole image series of eight pictures per plant in 97 % of the series in at least one oft the stereo image pairs all fl ower stems were completely identifi ed. For harvesting process of fl ower stems an industrial robot with six axes was used which was mounted on an additional linear axis. For harvesting an end-eff ector was developed using razor blades for cutting the stems. Special calibration algorithms were used for online calibration of the whole harvesting system (robots, end eff ectors, transport unit, cameras). For harvesting process results of image processing from eight diff erent viewpoints where analysed to enable the identifi cation of all fl ower stems in at least one of the positions. Harvesting was performed stepwise, if necessary in diff erent positions of the plant. To realise a collision-free harvesting process a path-planning module was integrated. Additionally, an algorithm for “fl ower stem tracking” was implemented to predict the appearance of

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the fl ower stem in the following none-visible area. In harvesting experiments 80 % of all fl ower stems where harvested. The rate of harvested fl ower stems was decreasing with increasing number of fl ower stems per plant. Looking at plants with one or two fl ower stems 98 % of the fl ower stems where harvested. 51 % of all fl ower stems where harvested at plants with fi ve ore more fl ower stems. Generally, the image processing algorithm and the modules for path planning and robotic control are applicable with modifi cations. Transferring the harvesting results to other plant species with similar habitus is supposed to be possible.

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PLANT WILT DETECTION BY IMAGE PROCESSINGLaszlo Font, Istvan Farkas

Department of Physics and Process Control, Szent István University Pater K. u. 1., Gödöllő, H-2103 Hungaryfarkas.istvan@gek.szie.hu

KeywordsPlant wellness, machine vision, canopy direction, monitoring, irrigation control

Abstract An algorithm was developed to analyse lateral images of plants in a model greenhouse. Images were taken automatically at user defi ned rime scale, 60 minutes. A region of interest (RoI) can be selected by the user, in this case a single leaf on the upper-middle of the plant was the Top RoI, a part of the bottom area where leaves were moving in and out from the frame was the Bottom RoI, and a Whole RoI containing a big part of the canopy from the top area to the bottom area was selected. This way the upper and bottom area of the plant and a bigger area including the Top and Bottom RoI were monitored. The top and the bottom part of the plant were outside the image.Canopy direction in degrees, compare to horizontal direction was calculated from the Whole RoI by a method described in the study. The closest point to the ground (bottom point) among the recognised edge pixels of the canopy was recorded in the Top RoI along with the bottom point of the Bottom RoI.The bottom point of the Top and Bottom RoI among with the canopy direction of the Whole RoI was calculated and stored for each image.The algorithm compared the measured canopy direction in the Whole RoI to a user defi ned value after each measurement. If the measured direction was closer to the vertical direction then the defi ned value, an irrigation pump was turned on for a user defi ned time, to water the plants.

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DEVELOPMENT OF AN END-EFFECTER FOR A STRAWBERRY HARVESTING ROBOTSatoshi Yamamoto, Shigehiko Hayashi, Hirotaka Yoshida, Ken Kobayashi,

Kenta Shigematsu

IAM, Bio-oriented Technology Research Advancement Institution, 1-40-2 Nisshin, Kita, Saitama, 331-8537 Japan syamamot@aff rc.go.jp

Keywords Strawberry, elevated substrate culture, harvesting, robot, end-eff ecter

AbstractBRAIN has a consideration to an automated large scale strawberry production and shipping system which combines a strawberry harvesting robot, a movable bench system and an automated packing system. At present, a strawberry harvesting robot, which can fi nd, pick and carry strawberries in the greenhouse, is being developed with the cooperation from several manufacturers. In this paper, a prototype of an end-eff ecter for a strawberry harvesting robot is designed and the results of a basic examination and an evaluation test are explained. As a basic examination, the maximum force for separating a peduncle from a fruit was measured through two methods with several varieties of a strawberry. One of methods for separating is tilting a fruit in 90 degrees and pulling it, another is pulling a fruit straightly. As a result, the average force was from 3.3N to 16.8N with the fi rst method. With the second method, it was from 11.7N to 22.7N. It became clear that the force of separating a fruit from a peduncle can be reduced with tilting a fruit and pulling it. Diffi culty of harvesting with a robot becomes severe by an existence of obstacles which are in front of a targeted fruit. In the case that a robot is applied to a greenhouse in which an elevated substrate culture is installed, it is speculated that there are many obstacles like peduncles of other fruits if a robot tries to approach a targeted fruit from a horizontal direction. So we investigated the diffi culty of approach from downside of the targeted fruit at the greenhouse in Ehime prefecture. As the result, the number of fruits which were independent from other fruits was 37%, the number of fruits which were exposed from downside touching the next fruits was 38%, and the number of fruits which were not exposed from downside touching the next fruits was 25%. Based on these results, we manufactured the prototype of an end-eff ecter. At fi rst, it approaches the targeted fruit from downside with a robot arm, and then it holds the fruit with the suction unit.

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Simultaneously, it makes the targeted fruit independent from the other fruits with a blow of air. Then the end-eff ecter hooks the stem with two fi ngers and holds the fruit between cushion sponges. Finally, the robot tilts the fruit to reduce the force of separating and pulls, and then separates the fruit from a peduncle. The end-eff ecter was installed on the robot arm which has seven degrees of freedom of motion, and then we prepared the software which enables us to teach the position of the targeted fruit to the robot beforehand. The performance was evaluated with actual plants. In the case of an independent fruit, the ratio of success of approach was 88%, and the ratio of success of separating was 80%. If a fruit was exposed from downside with no overlap of the other fruits, the ratio of success of approach was 97%, and the ratio of success of separating was 94%. On the other hand, when a fruit was overlapped with the other fruits from downside, the ratio of success of approach was decreased to 52%. The ratio of success of separating was also decreased to 33%. The ratio of the results of damaging the targeted fruit was 7%. The ratio of the results of damaging the other fruits was 12%.

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HORTICULTURAL ROBOTICS: SEVEN YEARS OF EXPERIMENTATIONGustavo Belforte1, Roberto Deboli2, Paolo Gay3, Pietro Piccarolo3, Davide Ricauda

Aimonino3

1Dipartimento di Automatica e Informatica, Politecnico di Torino, corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Torino, Italy gustavo.belforte@polito.it2Imamoter, Strada delle Cacce, Torino, Italy r.deboli@ima.to.it3Dipartimento di Economia e Ingegneria Agraria Forestale e Ambientale, Università degli Studi di Torino, via Leonardo da Vinci 44, 10095 Grugliasco (TO) paolo.gay@unito.it

KeywordsGreenhouses, robotics, automation

Abstract Despite the large diff usion of robotic and automated solutions that took place during the last decades in most production processes, the agricultural sector only marginally benefi ted from automated solutions (such as the control of climatic parameters in greenhouses).The motivation for the little development that high level of automation plants and robotic solutions deserved so far in the agricultural sector is related, in the authors opinion, to some particularities of the specifi c sector, like the fact that farming is usually performed in an unstructured environment that is therefore less friendly for robotic solutions than a well structured industrial environment. A consistent share of the research eff ort conducted so far, mainly tried to use standard industrial robotic solutions adapting them to the intensive farming sector instead of developing brand new solutions that exploit the specifi c features of the agricultural sector. Finally the focus of most research was so far on single specifi c activities or tasks and less frequently on the whole production process or on a consistent share of it. In our opinion the approach should be revised looking for new specifi c robotic solutions that take advantage of peculiarities and needs encountered in the agricultural sector that are diff erent from those of the industry.In this paper the state of the art of robotic research and of available robotic solutions in intensive agriculture is presented fi rst. The particular features that valuable robotic solutions should deserve for agricultural applications are then outlined discussing also which are, in the authors’ opinion, the most promising research directions for the next years. Such research should address diff erent problems to develop competences

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and build new knowledge needed for developing valuable practical solutions suited for the specifi c agricultural sector. Research results attained by the authors along some of the lines previously described are illustrated. Finally, two diff erent prototypes of robots, designed and developed by the authors’ research group during last seven years, and their experimentation in greenhouse are presented and discussed.

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COLLISION-FREE INVERSE KINEMATICS OF A 7 LINK CUCUMBER PICKING ROBOT E.J. Van Henten1-2*, E.J. Schenk3, L.G. van Willigenburg3, J. Meuleman2, P. Barreiro4

1WUR Greenhouse Horticulture, P.O. Box 16, NL-6708 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands2Farm Technology Group, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 17, NL-6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands3Systems and Control Group. Wageningen University, Bornsesteeg 59, NL-6708 PD Wageningen, The Netherlands4Laboratorio de Propiedades Físicas y Tecnologías Avanzadas en Agroalimentación LPF-TAG, Departamento de Ingeniería Rural ETSIA, Madrid, Spain*eldert.vanhenten@wur.nl

AbstractThe paper presents results of research on inverse kinematics algorithms to be used in a functional model of a cucumber harvesting robot consisting of a redundant P6R manipulator. Within a fi rst generic approach, the inverse kinematics problem was reformulated as a non-linear programming problem and solved with a genetic algorithm. Although solutions were easily obtained, the considerable calculation time needed to solve the problem prevented on-line implementation. To circumvent this problem, a second, less generic, approach was developed which consisted of a mixed numerical-analytic solution of the inverse kinematics problem exploiting the particular structure of the P6R manipulator. Using the latter approach, calculation time was considerably reduced. During the early stages of the cucumber harvesting project, this inverse kinematics algorithm was used to off -line evaluate the ability of the robot to harvest cucumbers using 3D-information of a cucumber crop obtained in a real greenhouse. Thereafter, the algorithm was employed successfully in a functional model of the cucumber harvester to determine if cucumbers were hanging within the reachable workspace of the robot and to determine a collision-free harvest posture to be used for motion control of the manipulator during harvesting.

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BIO-REGENERATIVE LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS AND PLANETARY GREENHOUSES: THE CAB ITALIAN INITIATIVEC. Lobascio1, M. Lamantea1, V. Cotronei2, B. Negri2, S. De Pascale3, A. Maggio3, M.

Maff ei4, S. Palumberi5

1Thales Alenia Space Italia SpA2Agenzia Spaziale Italiana3Department of Agricultural Engineering and Territorial Agronomy (DIAAT) University of Naples Federico II Italy4Depart. of Plant Biology and Centre of Excellence CEBIOVEM. University of Turin Italy5Sofi ter System Engineering Italy

Abstract The Italian Space Agency (ASI) has recently started a research project (CAB) aimed at improving fundamental knowledge and developing innovative solutions for Bio-regenerative Life Support Systems. The CAB (Controllo Ambientale Biorigenerativo) program has been assembled under the prime contractorship of Thales Alenia Space Italia, in collaboration with the Universities of Napoli and Torino with the primary objective of developing technological tools for resources regeneration and food production for life support during long duration planetary missions. Main technological and scientifi c issues addressed in this project are related to: (a) Food production, in particular via the cultivation of higher plants; (c) Water and air regeneration; (d) Solid waste processing; (e) Resources allocation and storage; (f ) Environmental control. Fundamental components of the proposed regenerative system must rely on self-suffi ciency and minimal use of external resources. In this respect, improving the effi ciency of closed soil-less systems for plant growth and advancing environmental control technologies will both be major areas of research for this project, in which the Planetary Greenhouse represents a key element. Main outcomes emerged from a preliminary feasibility project have highlighted the following needs: 1) Developing a system architecture which takes into account RAMS (Reliability, Availability, Maintainability, and Safety), management, autonomy, control and system analysis; 2) Developing models for mass balance and system stability, since this would be extremely helpful in simulating and anticipating the performances of the system in the diff erent conditions and in designing and performing preliminary studies on future missions; 3) Addressing the compatibility of diff erent subsystems in order to identify and solve possible physical, chemical, biological compatibility issues; 4) Developing integrated monitoring and control systems based on specifi c sensors for a real time

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determination of environmental factors, biomass concentration and composition; 5) Ensuring stability and reliability of plant cultivation systems (hydroponics), since these will provide food, oxygen and “fi ltered” water for the crew; 6) Developing eff ective regenerative technologies for air, water purifi cation and waste recycling; 7) Elucidating the complex interactions between diff erent plant species and various environmental stresses as well as plants adaptability and productivity in terms of harvest index, product quality and taste. Within the CAB program, technology transfer and spin-off s will be encouraged via identifi cation of possible alternative fi elds of application of the acquired knowledge. This will in turn greatly advance current technology in greenhouse production systems.

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THE CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT SYSTEMS RESEARCH FACILITY (CESRF) AT THE UNIVERSITY OF GUELPH: TAKING THE CANADIAN GREENHOUSE INDUSTRY TO MARS AND BACKGeoff rey C.R. Waters*, Michael A. Dixon**

Controlled Environment Systems Research Facility, Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario CANADA, N1G 2W1*waters@ces.uoguelph.ca **mdixon@ces.uoguelph.ca

KeywordsClosed environments, bio-regenerative life support, technology transfer

AbstractThe Controlled Environment Systems Research Facility (CESRF) at the University of Guelph has developed research infrastructure which is used to investigate the effi cacy of crop plants in providing life support elements, including food; potable water; air revitalization and psychological benefi t to crew on long duration missions to the moon or Mars. The development of closed crop cultivation systems for such aerospace applications demands the reclaimation of all resources including mineral elements bound in inedible biomass and human waste (faeces and urine) streams. Such eff orts, therefore, require the parallel development of technologies which allow for mass closure of the crop root and shoot zones. As such, the technologies developed and tested within the CESRF’s portfolio have value to the greehouse farmer faced with the challenge of mitigating environmental impacts associated with run-off of open cultivation systems. The CESRF has developed a synergy with both the aeropscae and commercial greenhouse sectors and has a manadate of technology transfer in the key areas of remediation technology, sensor and control algorithm development for closed systems.The CESRF houses over 25 controlled environment plant production chambers ranging in size from those designed for short term experiments with a few plants at a time to those capable of the long term enclosure of hundreds of plants. The facility has an operating budget of about $4.5 annually and has been supported by the greenhouse and aerospace industries, government agencies, such as the Ontario Centres of Excellence, the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada and the Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Aff airs and the Canadian Foundation for Innovation. The facility has also been

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largely supported wth direct funding from the Canadian Space Agency, and, through Canada’s participation in the Aurora program, from the European Space Agency. This paper will review the historical activities of the team at CESRF including its research in crop characterization for life support applications, the engineering of ambient and low pressure (hypobaric) plant growth chambers for net carbon exchange and volatile organic detection, technologies for root zone contamininant control and the assessment of the labour requirements and associated benefi ts of robotic technologies in protected agriculture. Particulalr emphasis will be placed on discussion of the expected benefi ts of bio-regenerative life support related research to the commercial greenhouse industry as indentifi ed through the CESRF’s technology transfer mandate.

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SUSTAINABLE CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT AGRICULTURE FOR URBAN AREASJennifer Nelkin, Theodore Caplow, Ph.D.

New York Sun Works Center for Sustainable Engineering, 1841 Broadway, Suite 200, New York, NY 10023, USA jnelkin@nysunworks.org

KeywordsUrban agriculture, renewable energy, rain water catchment, recirculating

hydroponics, sustainability

Abstract Current scientifi c consensus identifi es carbon combustion as the primary driver of global climate change, and warns of resulting food and water shortages in many parts of the world. These trends, coupled with continued urbanization and the high environmental and monetary costs of delivering power, water, and food to cities, suggest that a low impact form of controlled environment agriculture (CEA) could play a role in urban settings. Environmental impacts of CEA can be aggressively reduced through carbon neutral energy supply, water recapture and recycling, and siting on pre-existing or underutilized structures. As a pilot study, a 120 m2 greenhouse was constructed on the steel deck of a 460 m2 barge moored in central Manhattan in New York City. Recirculating hydroponic production of vine and leaf crops began in April 2007, employing a combination of high wire, nutrient fi lm, and vertical tower techniques. Ventilation and cooling, controlled by computer, is achieved via atrium vents, evaporative pads, and electric fans. All power demands are met on site by a 2.4 kW solar array, a 2 kW wind turbine array, and a 5 kW generator running on biofuels recovered from local food retailers. All water needs are met on site by desalination of river water and by rooftop rainwater catchment. Greenhouse operations are maintained for 8 months per year, with supplemental heating available from a biofuel furnace. A ratio of approximately 5:2 between greenhouse fl oor area and solar panel area would allow 100% solar operation, and a ratio of approximately 1:1 between greenhouse fl oor area and rainwater catchment surface meets irrigation and evaporative cooling demands, with modest supplemental desalination. In New York City, over 5000 ha of unshaded, unoccupied rooftop space is theoretically available to support systems of this kind. Potential benefi ts include a sustainable food supply, increased urban green space, greater control of rooftop thermal fl uxes in supporting buildings, and educational opportunities. Future research should address costs, suitability in diff erent climates, and constraints on building integration.

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CROPPING IN ARID AREA GREENHOUSE G. Sharan1, Kamlesh Jethava2

1Centre for Management in Agriculture, Indian Institute of Management, Vastrapur, Ahmedabad 380 015, India gsharan@iimahd.ernet.in2Centre for Management in Agriculture, Indian Institute of Management, Vastrapur, Ahmedabad 380 015, India

KeywordsGreenhouse, earth-tube-heat-exchanger

AbstractIn hot, arid regions, yields are usually low and unstable. Greenhouse technology can stabilize and improve yields. But its adoption is impeded by the requirement of large amounts of water for cooling. Evaporative cooling is the most common method. Arid Area Greenhouse (AAG) is being developed for hot arid regions, particularly to reduce or eliminate the water needed for cooling. To achieve this, AAG employs earth-tube-heat-exchanger (ETHE) for environmental control. A prototype AAG was installed in 2002 in an arid region, at village Kothara (ϕ 23° 14 N, λ 68° 45 E, at 21 m a.s.l.) for study. The single span saw-tooth greenhouse is 20 X 6 X 3.5 m. The ETHE is buried 3m deep directly below and coupled to it in closed-loop mode. ETHE is made of eight pipes arranged in two tiers. Each pipe is 23 m long and 20 cm in nominal diameter, and made of mild steel. ETHE provides 20 air changes per hour. There are three continuous closable vents - two along the base of long sides and one along the ridge. A retractable shading cover is provided over the roof. The aim is to determine (a) the extent to which ETHE meets the need for environmental control (b) the extent to which water productivity is increased in comparison to the open-fi eld and (c) the extent to which cropping season is extended and yields increased. By now (July 2006) four rounds of cropping have been done, the fi fth is on. ETHE was able to heat the greenhouse easily from 9° C to 22-23° C in half hour in the cold winter nights. Static ventilation along with shading was eff ective for day time control till early March. Subsequently ETHE was operated. It limited the greenhouse temperature gain keeping the inside near 36° C with top shaded and crop inside. Yield of tomato has been 1.5 to 2 times that of the open-fi elds in the area. Water used was 44% of that used in open-fi eld. The water used was mostly for plants, only a small part was for supplementary cooling using foggers. ETHE holds promise as environmental control device for greenhouses in hot arid regions.

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EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE INTEGRATION REGIMES WITH LOW PRE-NIGHT TEMPERATURES ON ENERGY CONSUMPTION, MICROCLIMATE, AND FRUIT YIELD IN EARLY GREENHOUSE TOMATO PRODUCTIONXiuming Hao1, Md. Saidul Borhan1, Shalin Khosla2

1Greenhouse and Processing Crops Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada 2585 County Road 20, Harrow, Ontario, Canada N0R 1G0 haox@agr.gc.ca2Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food, 2585 County Road 20, Harrow, Ontario, Canada N0R 1G0 shalin.khosla@ontario.ca

KeywordsLycopersicon esculentum, temperature integration, climate control, energy,

microclimate

Abstract Energy (for heating) is the largest cost in greenhouse vegetable production in Canada. To reduce heating cost and improve early fruit production, a study was initiated in Jan. 2006 at the Greenhouse and Processing Crops Research Centre to investigate the eff ects of a new temperature control strategy (temperature integration with low pre-night temperatures) on greenhouse microclimate, energy consumption, plant growth, fruit yield and quality in greenhouse tomato production. Two temperature integration regimes with low pre-night temperatures were applied in 6 greenhouse compartments (3 replications) in a winter/spring tomato crop: Control TI – temperature integration with a pre-night temperature of 17°C, and New TI - temperature integration with a pre-night temperature of 13°C. The low pre-night temperatures were applied from 6 to 9 pm for 3 hours. Same target 24-h temperature for both TI regimes was maintained by adjusting temperatures in other periods during a day. Temperature integration was implemented using the Argus Smartheat climate control program with an integration period of 3 days.With the low pre-night temperature regimes, air temperature, leaf and fruit temperatures started to decline sharply in late afternoon and reached their lowest points around the end of pre-night period (9 pm). The change in fruit temperature always lagged behind that of leaf temperature because of the low surface area per unit of volume of fruit. With Control TI, the lowest temperature and long term average temperature were similar between fruits and leaves. However, with New TI, the lowest fruit temperature was about 1-2 °C higher than the lowest leaf temperature

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during pre-night period. As a result, the long term average fruit temperature with New TI was 0.4 °C higher than that of leaf temperature. New TI also reduced vapor pressure diff erence between leaf and air (VPDleaf to air) during the pre-night period, in comparison to Control TI. Therefore, New TI modifi ed plant microclimate in favor of generative (fruit) growth. With New TI, early fruit yield especially for vegetative cultivar Big-Dena was higher than Control TI, and energy consumption was lower (3-5%) than Control TI. Therefore, New TI is an energy effi cient temperature control strategy for early greenhouse tomato production.

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IMPROVED HEATING TECHNIQUE FOR GREENHOUSES USING LOW EXERGY FROM REJECT HEAT SOURCESBurkhard von Elsner

Biosystems and Horticultural Engineering Section, Institute of Biological Production Systems, Leibniz University Hannover, Herrenhaeuser Strasse 2, D-30419 Hannover, Germany elsner@bgt.uni-hannover.de

KeywordsGreenhouse heating, reject heat, low temperature heating, primary energy

effi ciency, CO2-emission

AbstractIn the middle of the 1980ies, 45 ha of greenhouses were built close to cooling towers of a power station in the Cologne area, Germany. Since then, the greenhouses are heated by reject heat in order to profi tably cultivate tomatoes, cucumber and fl oriculture plants. Because of increased energy costs, a feasibility study was carried out to project a new horticultural park for reject heat using greenhouses. As a fi rst step of development, 30 ha of greenhouses are planned to be connected to the cooling towers of an improved power plant fuelled by brown coal. The heating equipment for the new greenhouse was redesigned in order to reduce the electricity load needed to spread the warmth of the 26 °C water fl ow directly. The heat generation costs consist of capital expenditures for heating pipeline, enlarged heating systems in the greenhouses, in addition to running costs for pumps and fans. The reject heat utilization was compared on economic basis to diff erent heating concepts like conventional light oil, natural gas, or hard coal burning, and diff erent heat pump confi gurations. The primary energy effi ciencies of these techniques and the CO2-emissions were quantifi ed. The use of reject heat by direct use of low temperature water in enlarged air heaters was most favourable for all assessments. At the moment, only the enormous capital expenditures for new, large greenhouses, heat supply, and marketing infrastructure restrict the realization by German growers.

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USE OF REJECT HEAT FROM BIOGAS POWERPLANTS FOR GREENHOUSE HEATINGJoachim Meyer*, Markus Pietzsch

Department of Plant Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Dürnast 4, 85350 Freising, Germany *joachim.meyer@wzw.tum.de

KeywordsBiogas, greenhouse heating, reject heat, CO2-neutral crop production

Abstract The production of electricity by biogas powered motor/generator plants is combined with a considerable amount of reject heat which could be recollected by heat exchangers and used for greenhouse heating without consumption of fossil fuels. Objective of the presentation is a calculation of the possible sizes of greenhouses which could be heated with the reject heat of a specifi c power plant. Moreover the problem of the annual course of heat consumption and the problem of peak heating loads are being discussed. Results will be shown on the percentage of energy use from the power plant and on the percentage of coverage of the energy consumption of the greenhouse with reject heat.

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DEVELOPMENT OF A CONCEPT FOR A ZERO FOSSIL ENERGY GREENHOUSEBert van ’t Ooster1, Eldert van Henten1, Egon Janssen2, Gerard Bot3, Edward

Dekker1

1Wageningen University, Farm Technology Group, P.O. Box 17, 6700 AA Wageningen, Netherlands bert.vantooster@wur.nl eldert.vanhenten@wur.nl2TNO Built Environment and Geosciences, P.O. Box 49, 2600 AA Delft, Netherlands egon.janssen@tno.nl3Wageningen University, Systems and Control Group, P.O. Box 17, 6700 AA Wageningen, Netherlands gerard.bot@wur.nl

KeywordsGeothermal heat, heat pump, aquifer, methodical design, closed greenhouse

Abstract Dutch government and greenhouse horticultural practice aim for reduction of fossil energy use and of environmental loads by increased use of sustainable energy in 2010 and by producing energy neutral greenhouses in 2020. In this framework transition from current fossil energy based heating systems to concepts for energy neutral greenhouses are explored. This research aims to design a greenhouse concept with minimal use of fossil energy. The concept was named fossil-zero-greenhouse. Current energy technology and sustainable energy are used as basis for this concept. Boundary conditions for the design are that Dutch energy and environment objectives are realised and that the concept is not dependent of conventional greenhouses nearby to close the energy balance. Methodical design methods were used to come to a successful design. Literature research was conducted to fi nd appropriate technologies on climate functions with emphasis on technologies capable of controlling crop growth in a closed greenhouse setting. These technologies were displayed in a morphologic chart and experts composed in total nine design concepts for the fossil-zero-greenhouse. These concepts were evaluated against criteria resulting from the brief of requirements. A fi rst quick scan expert evaluation followed but did not point out a unanimous best solution, mainly caused by diff erent viewpoints of the experts. The on-average best concept uses an aquifer for long term heat and cold storage.

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Geothermal heat and a heat pump connected to the warm pit of the aquifer were used to heat of the greenhouse. Electricity need is generated in a sustainable way. Cooling and dehumidifi cation of the greenhouse is done by a heat pump and with help of cold pit of an aquifer. This concept was evaluated in depth with help of model calculations. Diff erent scenarios were evaluated that focused on minimizing heat demand, closed or ventilated greenhouse concepts and available capacity of geothermal heat. From the simulations it was concluded that a combination of geothermal heat and a heat pump/aquifer can fi ll in 90% of the heat demand of the greenhouse, however to work completely without a central boiler is diffi cult. Also a fully closed greenhouse concept is hard to manage in the summer season. For this season the chosen concept was not able to cool and dehumidify the greenhouse air to target temperature and humidity with given technologies. A semi closed fossil-zero-greenhouse could solve this problem.

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AN UNDERGROUND WATER PIPE SYSTEM FOR ENERGY−SAVING CONTROL OF GREENHOUSE TEMPERATURE BY EXCHANGE OF SENSIBLE AND LATENT HEATS Daisuke Yasutake1-2, Masaharu Kitano3, Kiyoshi Miyauchi2, Shinzo Yamane2,

Yoshinori Yamamoto2, Kota Hidaka1-2, Mohammad Aff an F. F.2, Motoyasu Ochi4,

Katsumi Ishikawa2

1Research Fellow of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Japan yasutake@cc.kochi-u.ac.jp 2Faculty of Agriculture, Kochi University, Nankoku, Kochi, 783−8502, Japan yamayosi@cc.kochi-u.ac.jp 3Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, 812−8581, Japan kitano@bpes.kyushu-u.ac.jp 4Hiroshima Prefectural Agriculture Research Center, Higashihiroshima, Hiroshima, 739−051, Japan m-ochi89311@pref.hiroshima.jp

KeywordsEnergy−saving control, greenhouse temperature, sensible and latent heats

Abstract In protected horticulture, much interest has been focused on energy−saving techniques for temperature control in greenhouses, where the daytime high temperature in hot season and the nighttime low temperature in cold season are serious problems. Yamamoto (1966) developed the underground heat storage system which stored surplus sensible heat in the greenhouse during the daytime and released it during the nighttime by circulating the air inside greenhouse through the pipes set in the soil. This sensible heat exchange system seems to be an eff ective energy−saving technique for greenhouse temperature control, but has not been widely used because of the insuffi cient ability of heat exchange. In this study, an underground water pipe system was newly developed for energy−saving control of greenhouse temperature by exchange of latent heat as well as sensible heat. The new system consists of the two parts: one is the heat exchange unit which is the water−fi lled pipe (0.4 m diameter, 19 m length) set in the underground (2 m depth), and the other is the circulating unit composed of blowers and a polyvinyl chloride tube (0.05 m diameter, 5 m length) for sending the air into the water−fi lled pipe. The greenhouse air circulates continuously between the greenhouse and the water−fi lled pipe, where sensible and latent heats (enthalpy) are exchanged with high effi ciency.

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Diurnal variation in exchanges of sensible and latent heats by the new system was analyzed on a fi ne day. During the daytime, the enthalpy of the greenhouse was stored in the water−fi lled pipe, and this stored enthalpy was released to the greenhouse during the nighttime. The proportion of latent heat exchange to enthalpy exchange was approximately 50%. These results suggest that the new system can improve the daytime high temperature and nighttime low temperature in the greenhouse by exchange of sensible heat and, in addition, latent heat. Furthermore, the system was able to be applied to controlling temperature of nutrient solution in the hydroponics, where the solution circulated between the cultivation bed and the stainless steel tube set in the water−fi lled pipe. Thus, the underground water pipe system newly developed is an eff ective technique for energy−saving control of greenhouse temperature.

Reference Yamamoto. (1966) J. Agri. Meteorol., 22, 77−79.

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HEAT BUFFERS IMPROVE CAPACITY AND EXPLOITATION DEGREE OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY SOURCESBert van ’t Ooster1, Egon Janssen2, Jaap de Wit1, Jan Ruigrok2

1Wageningen University, Farm Technology Group, P.O. Box 17, 6700 AA Wageningen, Netherlands bert.vantooster@wur.nl2TNO Built Environment and Geosciences, P.O. Box 49, 2600 AA Delft, Netherlands egon.janssen@tno.nl

KeywordsGeothermal heat, combined heat and power (CHP), heat buff er, buff er management,

linear programming

AbstractDutch government and greenhouse horticultural practice aim for reduction of fossil energy use and of environmental loads by increased use of sustainable energy in 2010 and by producing energy neutral greenhouses in 2020. In this framework transition from current fossil energy based heating systems to concepts for energy neutral greenhouses are explored. Within this framework this research focuses on the role of heat buff ers to support optimal use of combinations of traditional (central boiler, CHP) and renewable heat sources such as geothermal heat for greenhouse heating. The objective was to determine through optimisation how heat buff ers can contribute to eff ective and feasible new combinations of resources under the condition that not only greenhouse heat demand, but also carbon dioxide and electricity demand were realised at minimum cost. Considered buff er types were short and long term buff ers, tank buff ers, basement buff ers and aquifers. To see if geothermal heat could be used to their benefi t, simulations were carried out for two newly built nurseries in the Dutch horticultural area Agriport A7, a 10 ha sweet pepper nursery without and a 30 ha tomato nursery with 15 ha intensive supplementary lighting. Standard heating systems based on central boiler and CHP were used as a reference and compared with combinations of boilers, CHP and geothermal heat as well as heat buff er strategies. Crop production and greenhouse climate were simulated and heat, carbon dioxide and electricity demand determined for normal greenhouse operation and compared with practical results of these greeneries. Linear programming was used to meet heat, carbon dioxide and electricity demand at minimum cost with help of resources and equipment that were available to the model.

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Results show that for geothermal heat, heat buff ers help to reduce the required capacity of a heat source and increase both the exploitation degree and the percentage of total heat demand covered by geothermal heat. The technically most feasible solution for long term buff ering was the basement buff er, but economically they are not yet feasible. This buff er type allows high buff er volumes without loss of useful space and heat loss contributes to greenhouse heating. Also deep aquifers seem a good option, but exploitation risks and manageability are a potential problem. For CHP, buff ers support the decoupling of heat and electricity supply to the greenhouse. Simulation showed that at current gas price level geothermal heat is cheaper than the central boiler and even cheaper than CHP. Instead of large buff ers, peeks can also be covered with central boilers. Simulated solutions reduced gas consumption with 60 to 90%. In the nursery without supplementary lighting geothermal heat could be incorporated in both technically and economically feasible solutions and in the nursery with supplementary lighting economic feasibility is still a problem.

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INVESTIGATION OF THE POTENTIAL OF INFRARED-RADIATION (IR) TO REDUCE ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN GREENHOUSE HEATING Angeliki Kavga1, Vasilis Bontozoglou2, Thrassos Panidis1, Spiros Pantelakis1

1Department of Mechanical Engineering & Aeronautics, University of Patras, 26500, Rion, Patra, Greece akavga@mech.upatras.gr2Departments of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, University of Thessaly, 38334 Volos, Greece bont@mie.uth.gr

KeywordsHeating, infrared radiation, energy balance, thermal heating effi ciency

Abstract Energy consumption for heating is the primary cost component in greenhouse operation. Considering the global energy crisis, the eff orts should be focused on the increase of the functionality of a greenhouse and especially its heating effi ciency. During the conventional heating, the interior of the greenhouse is heated to the same or even slightly higher temperature than the value targeted for the plants.A breakthrough alternative for reducing energy consumption in greenhouse heating could emerge by the use of infrared radiation. By activating an IR source, plants and soil may receive heat directly, thus eliminating the need to increase the inside air temperature in order to deliver to the plants the necessary heat by convection. In this way, the air and cover temperatures remain relatively low and heat losses are signifi cantly reduced. Few works published in the early 80’s, investigate the suitability of IR for greenhouse heating where energy savings of 33-41% are reported. In the present work, a parametric study is carried out fi rst to quantify the contribution of each of the components of a greenhouse, located in Western Greece and heated by hot water pipes, to the energy consumption during heating. All estimates are made for steady state conditions and for one representative outdoor temperature, and results confi rm the expected dominant contribution of convective and radiative energy losses through the greenhouse cover. Then, the performance of a system based on direct heating of plants by infrared radiation is considered. Detailed energy balances are formulated and signifi cant diff erences among the temperatures of plantation, inside air and greenhouse cover are observed. An approximate estimate of transient heating effi ciency is made. A signifi cant potential for increasing heating effi ciency by involving

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IR heating is demonstrated. Improvements start from 46% and reach up to 280% depending on the heating time assumed. Besides the work is extended by estimating the energy consumption to retain the desirable temperature in the greenhouse for the growth of plants over an entire thermal year. The calculation is based on the Degree-hours-heating (Dhh) method and exploits meteorological data collected over a three year period. Calculations for the same case-studies show that IR heating results in reduction of steady heat losses of the order of 40%. Finally the calculations made above are exploited to quantify the potential benefi ts of infrared radiation in greenhouse heating over the entire thermal year as compared to conventional heating by means of hot water pipes.

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USE OF SOLAR THERMAL COLLECTORS FOR WATER DISINFECTIONYiannis Tripanagnostopoulos1*, M. Carmen Rocamora Osorio2

1University of Patras, Physics Dept., Patra 26504, Greece yiantrip@physics.upatras.gr2Universidad Miguel Hernández, Departamento de Ingeniería. Carretera de Beniel km 3,2. 03312 Orihuela (Alicante), Spain rocamora@umh.es*corresponding author

KeywordsWater disinfection, solar thermal collectors, ICS systems, Fresnel lenses

AbstractHorticulture represents an important percentage of Greenhouse production in Mediterranean regions. The high demand of water combined with water scarcity problems in some of these areas make necessary to recirculate irrigation effl uents. The use of drainage water in hydroponics can achieve savings of 20 to 30% in water and agrochemicals, reducing also soil contamination. Effl uents can be used again in the hydroponics or in fog or evaporating cooling systems. Water disinfection is necessary to eliminate pathogens, as many horticultural products are to be consumed raw. Temperatures above 50 ºC are lethal to some pathogens, and temperatures of 65ºC maintained along the suffi cient time can disinfect the water. Current methods to disinfect water (heat exchangers, UV lamps and ozone injections) are energy demanding. In regions with high values of radiation all over the year, solar energy can be used for this purpose. Solar thermal collectors can provide the energy required for heating water up to the temperature lethal for pathogens. There are several types of solar thermal collectors that are suitable for disinfecting water. The main categories are the fl at plate collectors and the Integrated Collector Storage (ICS) systems, where the external surface of the water storage tank is also the absorber of solar radiation. The combination of these systems with booster refl ector results to the achievement of satisfactory performance in higher temperatures. In addition, the Compound Parabolic Concentrating (CPC) solar collectors, the vacuum tube collectors and the Fresnel lens collectors are also suitable systems for effi cient operation in higher temperatures. The Fresnel lens type collectors can be additionally used to control the light and the temperature of greenhouses, contributing to lower energy cooling demand. In this paper, solar collector confi gurations are studied regarding the water treatment procedure. A detailed analysis of the design, operation and performance of the proposed solar collectors is given with emphasis to the ICS systems, where storage

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tank designs must be adapted with the water treatment requirements combined with Compound Parabolic Concentrating (CPC) solar collectors. In the fi rst part of the disinfection system the drainage water is conducted through absorbing tubes at the focal line of the Fresnel lenses that are placed on the greenhouse roof. Water temperature increases along the tubes and drainage water goes into the thermal solar collectors, placed outside the greenhouse and throughout the collectors lethal temperatures for pathogens present in water are achieved.Laboratory scale experimental results with an ICS solar water heater combined with linear Fresnel lens are presented. A minimum time period of 3 hours was observed for an eff ective disinfection treatment at 65oC, but for solar collectors operating in higher temperatures, a shorter time is necessary in order to achieve similar disinfection results.

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SIMULATION OF A GREENHOUSE SOLAR HEATING SYSTEM WITH SEASONAL STORAGE IN GREECES. Voulgaraki1*, G. Papadakis**

1Department of Natural Resources and Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural University of Athens, Iera Odos street 75, Athens 11855, Greece*stavou@aua.gr**gpap@aua.gr

KeywordsGreenhouse, solar collector, storage tank, seasonal storage, TRNSYS 16

AbstractEnergy and environmental issues call for an increase of the use of solar energy. Solar Heating Plants with Seasonal Storage (SHPSS) are promising systems. In Greece, large-scale solar thermal systems are not used widely contrary the high potential of solar radiation. In this article, a greenhouse Solar Heating Plant with Seasonal Storage (SHPSS) is simulated using TRNSYS 16 to predict thermal performance and economic aspects. TRNSYS 16 with its complete and extensible graphical environment made very easy the simulation of real SHPSS system parameters. The system is located in Thessaloniki prefecture, northern Greece. It consists of an array of fl at plate collectors, a medium-sized storage tank and the thermal load. The load is a greenhouse of an area of 1000 m2. The system has a 900 m2 collector area (A) and a 552 m3 of storage volume (V). The solar liquid used was water. TRNSYS 16 prediction for the system is that about 40% of the total heating load of 705 000 MJ/year can be provided from the sun. The rest of required energy can be provided by co-heating with conventional or biomass burner. With regard to duration of stagnation period, the used tank is reasonably seasonal because its temperature stays high for a relatively long period time (about 900C for about 4000 h a year). The solar fraction for diff erent system sizes and the ‘virtual solar self-suffi ciency’ conditions are also analyzed even though the actual system was found to be not economically viable. Our calculation reveals that a low-cost SHPSS system in combination with a biomass burner could be viable on depth of time, except the suffi ciently large system dimension.

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THE LIVING RAINFOREST SUSTAINABLE GREENHOUSESGerard Bot1, Karl Hansen2, Adrew Logan2, Feije de Zwart1

1Wageningen UR Greenhouse Horticulture Bornsesteeg 65, 6708 PD Wageningen, The Netherlands 2The Living Rainforest, Hampstead Norreys, Berkshire RG18 0TN, UK*gerard.bot@wur.nl

KeywordsLow k-value, seasonal storage, heat pump, bio-energy, integration of greenhouses,

other buildings

Abstract The Living Rainforest (www.livingrainforest.org) is an educational charity that uses rainforest ecology as a metaphor for communicating general sustainability issues to the public. Its greenhouses and offi ce buildings are to be renovated using the most sustainable methods currently available. This will be realised through construction of a high insulating greenhouse covering with a low k-value of less than 2 Wm-2K-1, passive seasonal storage of surplus summer solar energy in the soil by a vertical soil heat exchanger (VSHE) and exploitation of this low degree solar energy for heating in winter by a heat pump. Similarly, the heat pump will produce cold water to cool the VSHE, allowing a cooling function in summer. It will be demonstrated that a VSHE is an alternative for an open aquifer in regions with no aquifer availability. The heat pump will deliver the basic heating load, the peak load will be delivered by a biomass boiler, fi red with locally-sourced low-cost wood chips. It is expected that the energy saving will be about 75%, resulting in a major cost reduction. The climate in the offi ce buildings will be very comfortable in summer due to the available cooling from the seasonal storage. Moreover, the winter climate will be comfortable due to wall and fl oor heating. The low k-value of the covering is linked to a light transmission of 75 %. This is high enough for the demands of the vegetation in The Living Rainforest. Because the inner greenhouse climate demands are comparable to that of ornamentals, the results will be applicable to commercial ornamental production. In future low k-value coverings will also be available with high light transmission, allowing wider application of the results. This paper focuses on the correlation between k-value, light transmission and energy demand in order to investigate the trade-off between light transmittance (a major energy gain) and heat loss. The eff ects of these design parameters on storage and harvesting capacity are

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also studied. The renovated greenhouse site at The Living Rainforest will show that new greeenhouses and ecology can be linked to sustainability and this will be communicated and demonstrated to the public.

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EXPERIENCES IN CULTIVATION INSIDE THE WATERGY PROTOTYPE OF A CLOSED GREENHOUSE FOR SEMI-ARID REGIONSGuillermo Zaragoza1, Martin Buchholz2

1Estación Experimental, Fundación Cajamar, Autovía del Mediterráneo km. 419, El Ejido, 04710 Almería, Spain gzaragoza@cajamar.es 2Department of Building Technology and Design, Technical University of Berlin, Str. des 17 Juni 135, 10623 Berlin, Germany martin.buchholz@tu-berlin.de

KeywordsClosed greenhouse, greenhouse cooling, closed water cycle, CO2 fertilization

Abstract A prototype of closed greenhouse has been constructed in the semi-arid region of El Ejido in Almería, Spain. It is a plastic greenhouse which minimizes the use of water and energy. The design allows for the natural buoyancy to establish an air circulation between the plant area and a tower which contains an air-to-water heat exchanger inside, connected to a heat storage outside the greenhouse. This system removes the heat from the greenhouse during the day and discharges it during the night in a passive way using the colder air temperatures. The cooling process involves a condensation of the air humidity, acting as a means of water recovery inside the greenhouse. The main advantages of the closed greenhouse are: (i) a considerable reduction of the needs of water, due to closing the water cycle with the recovery of the evapotranspiration from the plants and soil; (ii) also, it allows for an eff ective CO2 enrichment of the air inside, increasing the photosynthetic activity of the plants and therefore the production; (iii) fi nally, no pest treatment is required at any time, due to the non penetration of insects in the closed greenhouse. The prototype described achieves all this with minimum consumption of energy other than solar. It has been operating during two consecutive years. An average of 75% of the irrigation water has been recovered. A concentration of CO2 of about 1100 ppm has been constantly maintained inside the greenhouse during the day, and a healthy crop grown successfully, even in the hot conditions of the summer in Southern Spain. This work presents the evaluation of the system during the fi rst two years of operation, when several cycles of cropping have been performed in diff erent seasons (one autumn cycle and two spring cycles of bush beans, two summer cycles of okra). Climate data are summarized and horticultural production data are given, together with those of the water use inside the closed greenhouse.

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GREENHOUSE PRODUCTION OF VEGETABLE CROPS GROWN WITH A RECYCLED FERTIGATION SYSTEM IN A PESTICIDE-FREE ENVIRONMENTDaniel J. Cantliff e1, Nicole L. Shaw1, Elio Jovicich1, Lance S. Osborne2, Peter J.

Stoff ella3

1Horticultural Sciences Department, University of Florida, P.O. Box 110690, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA djcant@ufl .edu - nlshaw@ufl .edu2Mid-Florida Research and Education Center, 2725 Binion Rd., Apopka, FL 32703 USAlso@ufl .edu 3Indian River Research and Education Center, 2199 S. Rock Rd, Ft. Pierce, FL 34945, USApjs@ufl .edu

KeywordsBiological control, integrated pest management (IPM), pepper, cucumber,

muskmelon

AbstractVegetable crops were valued at nearly $1.9 billion during 2005 in Florida. Field growers rely on methyl bromide and chemical applications of insecticides and fungicides throughout the season to insure high crop yields. Vegetable growers in Florida are faced with pressures from urban areas for land use as well as pesticide drift. Greenhouse production is an alternative scheme to reduce land use, allow production in less desirable areas or less productive land, and allow for effi cient production schemes including recycling unused fertilizer and irrigation water. Greenhouse production cannot only increase yield per area, but the structure can serve as a barrier from insect pressures using anti-virus exclusion screens, worker entry disinfection zones, and UV blocking polyethylene coverings that interrupt pest reproduction cycles. Pest management is thus enhanced by using timed releases of biological control insects, banker plant habitats, and an IPM strategy that includes no pesticide applications with residual eff ects on the benefi cials in use, including bumble bees. The primary insect pests associated with greenhouse vegetable production in a closed-system in Florida are: broadmites, spider mites, thrips, aphids, and whitefl ies. The primary disease is powdery mildew. The objective of this research was to identify pesticide-free control measures of the most common insect pests of the Florida greenhouse vegetable industry. The University of Florida Protected Agriculture Project has successfully

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implemented the use of several biological control schemes which control these pests. Benefi cial insects must be introduced prior to pest infestations and releases are generally made at transplanting and repeated twice during initial crop growth. Banker plants, most often a monocot species, are introduced at transplanting to rear an additional food source and serve as a habitat for benefi cial insects by maintaining a pest population that is specifi c to the host banker plant which in turn the benefi cial insects can feed and reproduce on. Broadmites and spider mites are controlled with the predatory mite N. californicus if released prior to or at transplanting. Aphids and whitefl ies are controlled with the parasitic wasps A. colemani and Eretmoserus or Encarsia sp., respectively, which can be released and/or reared on banker plants. Thrips populations can be reduced with generalist predators such as Orius sp., but more recently a predatory mite, A. swirskii has been shown eff ective. Disease resistant cultivars are preferred, however, cultural controls such as isolation from disease pressure, anti-condensation coverings, fans and aeration and bio-friendly fungicides are necessary. Regular scouting and correct identifi cation of insects is key to pest management and implementing biological control. A pesticide-free environment is not only safer for the plants and produce being grown, but also, employee effi ciency can be increased since re-entry periods that delay worker production are eliminated.

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INTEGRATED PRODUCTION OF TOMATO, CUCUMBER AND SWEET PEPPER UNDER GREENHOUSE CONDITIONS IN NORTHERN PLAINES OF INDIABalraj Singh and N.P.S.Sirohi

Center for Protected Cultivation Technology (Formerly Indo-Israel Project) Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi : 110 012 India drbsingh2000@yahoo.com

KeywordsSemi-climate controlled greenhouse, naturally ventilated greenhouse, big fruited

tomato, colored sweet peppers, parthenocarpic cucumber.

AbstractProtected cultivation was introduced to India during 1980 and it went through a slow pace of expansion in the 25 years. Firstly, it was adopted for production of ornamental crops, but in the last decade it has been shifted to vegetable cultivation in several parts of India. The main aim of protected cultivation was to enhance off -season production of vegetables, to produce earlier crops than open fi eld production and to increase the yield and quality in vegetable crops. In the last 5-6 years area under protected cultivation of vegetables has increased in several states of the country but still the speed of expansion is slow, which needs strong support from government agencies. In 1998 the Indo-Israel Project was established after agreement between two governments and during the last 5 to 6 years the project has developed and standardized the production technology of high value vegetables like tomato, sweet peppers and parthenocarpic cucumbers. Under semi-climate controlled greenhouse conditions the big fruited tomatoes including cherry tomatoes were cultivated for a period of 9 to 10 months with fruit yield level of 220-230 tonnes/ha, coloured sweet pepper crop was grown for a priod of 9-10 months with fruit yield of 50-60 tonnes/ha and three crops of parthenocarpic cucumber were grown successfully from August fi rst week to May fi rst week in each year with high quality fruit yield of 120.0 to 150.0 tonnes/ha under northern plain conditions of India. This greenhouse production technology for tomato, sweet pepper and cucumber is highly suitable for peri-urban areas of the country, as high quality vegetables can be supplied to various fi ve star hotels, Embassies of various countries and other niche markets available in those big cities around which these vegetables are expected to be grown. Various varieties of tomato, cherry tomato, sweet pepper and cucumber have been evaluated in the last 5 to 6 years to fi nd out the best suitable variety of each crop and the production

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technology of tomato and parthenocarpic cucumber under naturally ventilated greenhouse conditions has also been developed and standardized for northern plains of the country. Tomato and parthenocarpic cucumber cultivation under naturally ventilated greenhouse is economical for growers of the peri-urban areas of the country.

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SPATIO-TEMPORAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANT BIOAGGRESSORS IN GREENHOUSES: TOWARDS A BETTER KNOWLEDGE OF DISEASE AND PEST DYNAMICSChristine Poncet1, Joëlle Vaglio1, Alexandre Bout1, Ludovic Mailleret1, Roger Boll2

1INRA-UR 880 URIH, 400 route des Chappes , BP 167, 06903 Sophia Antipolis Cedex, France christineponcet@sophia.inra.fr2INRA-UMR 1112 ROSE, 400 route des Chappes, BP 167, 06903, Sophia Antipolis Cedex, France

KeywordsIntegrated Pest Management, Sampling, Bayesian Approach

AbstractThis study aimed to derive generic methods for increasing our understanding of the development of pests and diseases on greenhouse crops. The experiment was carried out in a rose greenhouse managed by IPM during 32 months. The main diseases and pests were powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca pannosa var.rosae Wallr.:Fr Lev), spider mites (Tretranychus urticae (Koch)) and western fl ower thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis, (Pergande)). A quick visual sampling method was established to provide a continuous monitoring about the overall crop health. A Bayesian inference approach was then used to analyse, both the temporal and spatial heterogeneity in the occurrence of pests and diseases. This approach takes into account the eff ects of cultivar and treatment. Temporal and spatial heterogeneities were highligted for each disease and pest. Concerning time eff ect, powdery mildew levels on stems peak at the start of the year and this pattern was very regularly reproduced throughout all the three years. The curve for the eff ects of time on spider mite populations on stems was sinusoidal over the entire study period but the one-year representation shows peaks in spring and autumn. The temporal curve for thrips was aperiodic, with peaks in summer (June-July) and at the end of the year for infestations on stems and basal foliage. Concerning the space eff ect, little heterogeneity was observed on maps of powdery mildew infection throughout the greenhouse when mites and thrips showed strong spatial disparity. Spatio-temporal models can be used to formulate hypotheses, on the one side, on the biological and behavioural characteristics of the bioaggressors and, on the other side, on abiotic factors aff ecting these studied communities. For example, temporal curves showed that mite levels were high when thrips levels were low and

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vice versa suggesting interference between bioaggressors or between their natural enemies used for biological control. In the context of integrated pest management, this information could be used to improve monitoring strategies, by identifying risk periods or locations. It could also facilitate the design of pest control procedures, improving sampling plans and optimizing the choice of biocontrol agents and timing of benefi cial releases.

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EFFECT OF RHIZOBACTERIA ON PLANT GROWTH OF DIFFERENT VEGETABLESFunda Kidoglu1, Ayse Gul1, Hatice Ozaktan2, Yuksel Tuzel1

1Ege University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Horticulture, 35100 Bornova-Izmir, Turkey fundish@yahoo.com - ayse.gul@ege.edu.tr - yuksel.tuzel@ege.edu.tr 2Ege University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Plant Protection, 35100 Bornova-Izmir, Turkey hatice.ozaktan@ege.edu.tr

KeywordsPathogens biological control, cucumber, eggplant, pepper, tomato

AbstractPlant growth promoting rhizobacteria -PGPR- are naturally occurring soil microorganisms. It is reported that PGPR have been applied as biological control agents against fungal, bacterial and viral pathogens, and root knot nematodes; and they increase resistance of plants against various abiotic and biotic stress conditions, and increase plant growth and yield. This study aimed at evaluating the eff ect of diff erent strains of rhizobacteria on growth of diff erent vegetable species. Isolates of rhizobacteria present at the Department of Plant Protection, Agricultural Faculty of Ege University (18/1K: Pseudomonas putida, 21/1K: Enterobacter cloacae, 62: Serratia marcescens, 70: Pseudomonas fl uorescens, 75: Burkholderia cepacia, 66/3: Bacillus spp., 180: Pseudomonas putida) and two commercial rhizobacteria products (FZB24, FZB42) were tested. As plant material, commercial varieties of tomato, cucumber, pepper and eggplant were used. Experiments were carried out in vitro and in vivo. IAA synthesis and phosphatase activity were determined in vitro. The seeds inoculated with the bacterial isolates (109CFU/ml) were sown into peat-perlite mixture. Number of leaves; length, fresh and dry weight of stems; length, fresh and dry weight of roots were determined. PGPR strains 18/1K, 62, 70, 66/3 were selected for future studies.

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EFFECT OF NITROGEN SOURCE AND CONCENTRATION IN RECIRCULATED SOLUTION ON INCIDENCE OF PYTHIUM AND FUSARIUM CROWN ROT IN CUCUMBERB. Bar-Yosef1, G. Kritzman1, I. Levkovitch1, P. Klaering2

1Agricultural Research Organization, Bet-Dagan 50250, Israel vwbysf@volcani.agri.gov.il2Institute of Vegetables and Ornamental Crops, Grossbeeren, Germany

Keywords pH, ammonium, calcium, closed loop irrigation, perlite

AbstractCrop nitrogen nutrition has a major impact on plant disease susceptibility to various root patho-gens. The exact mechanism of N involvement is unknown but there are indications that it is associated with concentration and NH4:NO3 ratio in solution. The objective of this work was to investigate these relationships in a closed loop irrigation system with Pythium aphanidermatum inoculated cucumber (cv 36-AV) as test crop. Treatments were NH4:NO3:Urea ratio at equal total N concentration (126±14 mg L-1 N) and N concentration at constant NH4:NO3 ratio of 30:70, both in the fi ll solution. Experiments were carried out in a climate controlled greenhouse at Bet-Dagan, central Israel with perlite #2 as growth substrate (12 L/plant). Threshold EC for solution discharge was 4.5 dS/m. Three days after planting, the recycled solution in all treatments was inoculated with Pythium aphanidermatum, the causal agent of cucumber root rot disease. Number of dying plants due to Pythium and root/stem rot of cucumber caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. radicis-cucumerinum (the latter stemming from spontaneous infection in the greenhouse) was recorded daily. Solutions were analysed daily for EC and pH and weekly for nutrients. Plants were sampled and analysed weekly for dry weight and tissue chemical composition.Results showed that after 40 days of growth, the mortality increased as the NH4:NO3 ratio rose from 20:80 (70% mortality ) to 80:20 (94% mortality). In the presence of urea (50NO3:50 urea) the mortality dropped to 22%. At the end of the growing season (day 75) more than 90% of the plants died in all treatments as a result of the Pythium or Fusarium infection.When maintaining a 30:70 NH4:NO3 ratio and increasing total N concentration from 2 to 4-8 and 16 mM, the mortality after 40 days increased from 0 to 18-30 and 74%, respectively, and at 2 mM N no plant died until the end of the experiment. A similar

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conclusion can be drawn from the results of number of days that were required to kill 60% of the initial plant population. Enhanced NH4 concentration in solution decreased the pH, which was negatively correlated with the % mortality (higher pH - lower mortality). It is unknown if the low NH4 per se caused the reduced mortality, the higher solution pH, or both factors operating together.The %Ca in leaves was found to be negatively correlated with the % mortality (higher concentration lower incidence). As NH4 in solution is known to adversely aff ect Ca uptake, this might present a crop dependent mechanism explaining the relationship between NH4 and root diseases, complementary to the abiotic eff ect of high pH on NH3 release from NH4 in solution and its fungicidal eff ect on root pathogens.

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ENVIRONMENTS, ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND PLANT GROWTH IN A CONTAINERIZED PLANT PRODUCTION SYSTEM USING LOCAL HEATING AND A NUTRIENT-WICK CULTURE SYSTEMJung Eek Son, Sung Bong Oh, Nguyen Huy Tai, Sung Kyu Kim, Yin Ji Lu

Department of Plant Science, Seoul National University, Gwanak-gu, Silim-dong, Seoul 151-921, Korea sjeenv@snu.ac.kr

KeywordsContainerized plant, energy effi ciency, environment, local heating, plant growth, NFW

system

Abstract Since temperature needs are relatively high in most of the pot plants which respond sensitively to ambient temperature, energy-saving methods to reduce energy consumption are required. The objectives of the research were to analyze the environments, energy use and plant growth in a pot plant production system using local heating and a nutrient-wick culture (NFW) system. Four pot plant production systems, single- and double-layer NFW and NSW (Nutrient-stagnant wick culture) were established and their temperature and relative humidity were compared. For preventing heat loss, the surfaces of the production systems were covered with tunnels. Two independent heaters having small and large capacities heated the inside of the tunnel and the greenhouse, respectively. Before the short-day treatment, the lower beds were regularly stored inside from 18:00 to 09:00 in the double layer systems, while the upper beds were still exposed to the sun by sunset. Temperatures and operation of two heaters were measured and simulated. Plant growth in each system was observed. Condensation on the inside tunnel was observed in the NSW system due to high relative humidity at night whereas it was not observed in the NFW system. The desired temperature for potted plants could be maintained within ±2.5oC by using a tunnel-type local heating system. Sole operation of the heater for in-tunnel heating could maintain temperature over the set point, even when the temperature of outside greenhouse was below -10 oC. During the heating by the local heater, movement of heat occurred and this maintained the temperature of the greenhouse over 4-5 oC, which prevented freezing damages. When the lowest temperature was set to 4-5 oC, the operation of the central heater was not necessary. Kalanchoe grew better in the NFW system than in the NSW systems, especially showing a little better growth in the upper bed that in the lower bed. Flower bud diff erentiation occurred 3 weeks earlier in the lower bed than in the upper bed.

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CARBON DIOXIDE CONCENTRATION IN MEDITERRANEAN GREENHOUSES: HOW MUCH LOST PRODUCTION?Cecilia Stanghellini1, Luca Incrocci2, Juan Carlos Gázquez3, Biagio Dimauro4

1Wageningen UR Greenhouse Horticulture, Bornsesteeg 65, 6708 PD Wageningen, The Netherlands cecilia.stanghellini@wur.nl2Dipartimento di Biologia delle Piante Agrarie, University of Pisa, Viale delle Piagge 23, 56124 Pisa, Italy 3Estación Experimental de Cajamar Las Palmerillas, 04710 El Ejido (Almería). Spain4Assessorato Agricoltura e Foreste, Regione Siciliana, U.O.S. 36-Centro colture protette, Via degli studi 20, 97013 Comiso (RG), Italy

KeywordsAssimilation, ventilation, CO2, temperature, carbon fertilisation

Abstract In the absence of artifi cial supply of carbon dioxide in the greenhouse environment, the CO2 absorbed in the process of photosynthesis must ultimately come from the external ambient through the ventilation openings. This requires that the CO2 concentration within the house must be lower than the external concentration, as there would be no fl ow inwards otherwise. Since potential assimilation (that is, the assimilation level that can be attained when no other factor is limiting) is heavily dependent on carbon dioxide concentration, this implies that assimilation is reduced, whatever the light level or crop welfare. The ventilation of the greenhouse implies a trade-off between ensuring infl ow of carbon dioxide and maintaining an adequate temperature within the house, particularly during sunny, chilly days. We apply a simple model, on which the Dutch “philosophy” of CO2 fertilisation is based, for estimating the potential production loss through data measured in commercial greenhouses in Almeria and Sicily. Thereafter we discuss the management options for a grower to limit losses. In particular we analyse costs, potential benefi ts and consequences of bringing in more carbon dioxide either through increased ventilation, at the cost of lowering temperature, or through artifi cial supply. We fi nd out that, whereas the reduction in production caused by depletion is comparable to the reduction resulting from the lower temperature caused by ventilation to avoid depletion, compensating the eff ect of depletion is much cheaper than making up the loss by heating.

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WATER AND FERTILIZERS USE EFFICIENCY IN GRAFTED AND NON GRAFTED TOMATO PLANTS ON SOILLESS CULTURECh. Lykas, A. Zambeka, C. Kittas

University of Thessaly, School of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Agriculture, Crop Production and Rrual Environment, Phytokou St., N. Ionia, GR-38446, Magnisia, Greececkittas@uth.gr

KeywordsWUE, fertilizers use effi ciency, grafted plants, tomato, hydroponic

AbstractThe improved rooting environment and the absence of pathogens at substrates used in soilless cultures has made unnecessary the use of grafted plants when they are grown hydroponically. Nevertheless, the worldwide water shortage and the increased environmental pollution indicate that the use of any technique that can increase both the production and the water/fertilizers use effi ciency, should be promoted. In this work water use effi ciency (WUE) and fertilizers use effi ciency (FUE) in agronomical and biological terms (g marketable fruit and g dry matter per litre of transpired water and g of absorbed nutrients, respectively) have been determined on non grafted tomato plants (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) cvs Big Red as well as on cvs Big Red and Hemans grafted onto Big Red rootstocks. Plants were grown in an open hydroponic stystem. Measurements of leaf area, transpiration and shoots, leaves and fruits nutrients concentrations as well as plants fresh and dry weight were performed on grafted and non grafted plants. The results indicate that non grafted tomato plants had 42% higher leaf area (and for this reason the higher water consumption) and 36% higher shoots and leaves dry weights compared to the grafted plants. In contrast, grafted plants had 25% to 35% higher fresh weight fruit production. In conclusion, grafted plants had 15% and 25% higher WUE and FUE respectively compared to non grafted plans that consume more water and nutrients on unmarketable (shoots and leaves) production.

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EFFECTS OF SOLARIZATION AND BIOFUMIGATION ON TOMATO GREENHOUSE PRODUCTION IN THE SOUTHERN COAST OF SICILYGiovanni Iapichino, Luca Puleo, Filippo Vetrano, Alfonso Sciortino

Dipartimento di Agronomia Ambientale e Territoriale (AAT), Sezione di Orticoltura e Floricoltura, Università di Palermo, Viale delle Scienze 90128 Palermo, Italy giapichino@unipa.itConsorzio Regionale di Ricerca I.T.E.S. Palermo, Italy

KeywordsProtected cultivation, soil diseases, tomato

AbstractFor many years the soil fumigant methyl bromide has been widely used by Italian growers to control soilborne pathogenic fungi and nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) aff ecting vegetable crops. The phase out of methyl bromide in 2005 has mobilized researchers to develop feasible alternatives to this widely used compound. Solarization by covering moist, preirrigated soil with polyethylene fi lm is used as an eff ective method of soil disinfestation for high-value crops. An alternative approach has been recently provided by the cultivation and green manure of selected Brassicaceae plants releasing natural toxic volatiles (biofumigation) that reduces soil pests. The objective of this study was to evaluate solarization and biofumigation alone or in combination as pre-plant soil treatments for plasticulture tomato production in the Southern coast of Sicily (Italy). The research was conducted for two years between March 2003 and March 2005. Brassica juncea selection ISCI20, characterized by a high content of glucosilates capable of producing highly fungitoxics hydrolysis derived products, was sown in spring 2003 and 2004. In the fi rst week of June of each year, plants at full fl owering stage were cut, collected and the biomass incorporated into the soil of a multispan plastic covered greenhouse to a depth of 15 cm with a two passes of a bed disk. Diff erent rates of biomass (0, 10, and 20 t ha-1) either alone or in combination with solarization were tested in a randomised complete block design. Plots to be solarized were covered with 50-μm-thick, transparent polyethylene mulch and left undisturbed for 43 and 50 days in 2003 and 2004, respectively. Tomato plug plants, cv. Ikram, were transplanted on 28 November 2003 and on 22 September 2004. Harvest data were collected and the eff ect of the soil treatments on fungal pathogens and nematodes evaluated. In 2003-2004, the combination of biofumigation and solarization produced higher early and total yields than biofumigation or solarization alone. In 2004-2005, solarization alone

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and the combination of solarization and incorporation of 10 t ha-1 of biomass were almost equally eff ective in increasing yields over those of biofumigation alone. In both years, the combination of solarization and incorporation of 20 t ha-1 of biomass was the most eff ective in terms of early and total yields and it also decreased densities of Pyrenochaeta lycopersici and Meloidogyne incognita.

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WEED CONTROL WITH BIODEGRADABLE MULCHING IN VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONGiovanni Minuto1, Andrea Minuto1, Sara Guerrini2, Marco Versari2, Luisa Pisi1,

Federico Tinivella1, Stefano Pini3, Marco Capurro3

1Centro Regionale di Sperimentazione ed Assistenza Agricola (Ce.R.S.A.A.), C.C.I.A.A. di Savona, Regione Rollo, 98 - I 17031 Albenga, Italy giovanni.minuto@sv.camcom.it2Novamont SpA, Via G. Fauser, 8 - I 28100 Novara, Italy guerrini@materbi.com 3Regione Liguria - Dipartimento Agricoltura e Protezione Civile - Italy, Via G. D’annunzio, I 16121 Genova stefano.pini@regione.liguria.it

KeywordsSoil mulching, biodegradable mulch, thermoplastic starch

AbstractSeveral products, manufactured using starch-based technology, have been introduced in the market. In a context of organic and/or conventional agriculture growers feel the need of an increasing use of biodegradable or compostable materials and tools, in order to increase the effi cacy of cropping methods, reduce chemical inputs and environmental impact and, when possible, costs. During the last three years (2004-2007), thanks to a European fi nancial support (LIFE ENV/IT/463) a specifi c demonstrative project was carried out to implement the introduction and the diff usion of several starch-based products. Experimental trials, demonstrative activities, dissemination of results, introduction of best practices and special regional regulations where carried out. Several crops where taken in consideration during this period: vegetables (sweet basil, lettuce, tomato, artichoke, garlic, onion, sweet pepper, water melon, zucchini, Brussels sprout, eggplant, strawberry), fruit trees (hazelnut tree, grape wine) and ornamental trees (Christmas tree).Experimental and demonstrative trials where carried out under greenhouse and in open fi eld, in Liguria, Piedmont and Tuscany region. Most part of the fi eld activities were carried out in farm, according to an experimental design which could fi t growers’ needs.Results demonstrated the eff ectiveness of biodegradable fi lms manufactured using starch-based technology in controlling weeds development; the tested fi lms appeared suitable for their adoption in diff erent seasons, in open fi eld and in greenhouse and relevant to almost all selected crops. Evaluation of the percentage of mulched soil at the end of the crop along with evaluation of crop yield stress that an eff ective weed

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control can be achieved as long as the biodegradable mulching completely covers the soil during most part of the cultural cycle. The complete covering of the soil at the end of crop cycle is not needed since, a late development of weeds do not infl uence crop production. Costs per square meter of biodegradable fi lms used for mulching vegetable crops are comparable with conventional polyethylene fi lms. At the moment, biodegradable fi lms aren’t effi cient enough and are costly in the case of mulching strawberry and ornamental trees. Results obtained from the project were used by Regione Liguria for the revision of regional production protocols and for the set up of future regional regulations.

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DEVELOPING SOFTWARE TO SUPPORT CONTROLLED STRESS AS A STRATEGY TO IMPROVE PRODUCT QUALITY OF ORNAMENTALS IN GREENHOUSESBo Nørregaard Jørgensen1, Carl-Otto Ottosen2

1University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, 5230 Odense M, Denmark bnj@mmmi.sdu.dk. 2Aarhus University, Kirstinebjergvej 10, 5792 Årslev, Denmark co.ottosen@agrsci.dk

KeywordsPost-harvest performance, keeping quality testing, software development

AbstractIn this paper, we address the problem of developing software support for studying the correlation between the use of controlled stress as a part of the production strategy for improving the internal quality and post-harvest performance expressed as the product quality (i.e., external quality). Exposing plants to stress during production by varying environmental growth factors such as: temperature, water availability, humidity and light in a controlled manner have shown positive eff ects on post-harvest performance. The eff ect of applying controlled stress to a particular production batch is measured by subjecting a subset of the batch to a keeping quality test. This test produces a successive set of observations for the characteristics of each plant, i.e., the number of leaves, fl owers, etc. Together with the stress depending variations in growth-related environmental factors, the keeping quality test provides the basis for analyzing the correlation between controlled stress and post-harvest performance. Hence, software support must provide some means of registering observations of plant characteristics during the test phase and interfacing the greenhouse’s climate computer for retrieving the data values of environmental factors during the plant production phase. To address these issues we have developed a set of applications, which together form an analysis platform. Data values for environmental factors are extracted from the greenhouse’s climate computer and stored in a relational database using a set of data extractor applications, which support both manual and automatic extraction. The keeping quality observations are entered into a relational database using a PDA, running a web-based observation registration application over a wireless Internet link. The screen layout of this application was optimized for the small display area of a PDA. An additional web-based application provides support for defi ning and planning keeping quality tests. Finally, a fat client analysis application access the

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relational databases containing the environmental factors and the test observations to provide graphical representations of statistical models, as well as user defi ned models for selected data series. All applications are developed using state-of-the-art in Java-based component and web technologies. This includes NetBeans rich client platform for component-based development, Java server pages (JSP), Struts, Sitemesh and Spring for web development and Hibernate as an object/relational persistence and query service.Experimental validation of the software platform was carried out as part of a national Danish research project on improvement of the keeping quality of ornamentals in greenhouses. The outcome of this validation showed that the developed system provides a fl exible platform, which eff ectively facilitates the analysis of the aff ect of controlled stress on the keeping quality of ornamentals.

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RADIATION-INTEGRATOR CURVE FOR IRRIGATION SCHEDULING OF HYDROPONIC TOMATO IN CENTRAL MEXICOWaldo Ojeda-Bustamante1, Armando Ramírez2, Irineo L. López2, Abraham Rojano2

1Instituto Mexicano de Tecnología del Agua, Paseo Cuauhnáhuac No. 8532, Jiutepec, Mor, México 62550 wojeda@tlaloc.imta.mx2Universidad A. Chapingo, Chapingo, México 56230

KeywordsPlastic greenhouse, water requirement, solar radiation

Abstract A study was conducted to estimate water requirements for hydroponic tomato in plastic greenhouse. Obtained data were used to generate a solar-integration curve for irrigation scheduling. Solar radiation accumulation thresholds change with growth and development of crop resembling a Kc curve. Solar threshold, needed to trigger automatically irrigations, was calibrated for typical management of greenhouse tomato cropped in central Mexico. Results show that generated radiation-integrator curve can be used to control irrigation.

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PARTITION OF THE LEAF CO2 EXCHANGE MEASUREMENTS FOR ASSESSING PHOTOSYNTHESIS, PHOTORESPIRATION, AND DARK RESPIRATION IN GROWING PLANTSNicolae Balaur1, Emmanuel Kleiman2, Yuri Ton2

1Institute of Plant Genetics and Physiology, 20 Padurii St., Chisinau MD-2002, Republic of Moldova nicolae_balaur_00@yahoo.com 2Bio Instruments S.R.L., P.O.Box 2250., Chisinau MD-2060, Republic of Moldova yuriton@gmail.com

KeywordsPhotosynthesis, phytomonitoring, crop growth control

Abstract The objective of this research was to investigate the innovative technique for partitioning the leaf CO2 exchange in continuous recording mode. The technique was implemented in the new PTM-48A Photosynthesis Monitor (Daletown Company Ltd.). The standard leaf chamber of the Monitor is normally open and holds an open leaf in fi xed position. In measurement cycle, the leaf is enclosed for 30 seconds only. Typical sampling interval is from 10 to 30 minutes. The Monitor was equipped with two modifi ed leaf chambers, one with transparent windows and another one with opaque windows. The principle of measurement was similar to PIB (post-illuminance burst). The only diff erence was in the initial CO2 concentration inside the leaf chamber. In the standard PIB technique, the initial concentration is already reduced due to photosynthesis. In our case, the initial concentration was equal to ambient one as the open chamber came to close state only at the beginning of the measurement cycle. Thus, the transparent leaf chamber was used for determining the net (apparent) photosynthesis while the opaque chamber produces a concentration transient curve which allows to derive respiratory exchange rates (photorespiration and dark respiration) by time-domain processing. Diff erent species were tested by using the technique: sugar-beat, grapevine, cucumber, sunfl ower, soybean, pepper, tomato, wheat (all C3) and corn (C4). All experiments were carried out in the growth chamber with controlled light level. The results were highly consistent and showed good proximity with the exchange values known for tested species. The main advantage of the new technique is the possibility to repeat the measurement cycles in automatic mode as many times as required for drawing separate diurnal curves for every component of the leaf CO2 exchange. Such partition may be useful for optimization of temperature and light conditions the greenhouse.

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EARLY DETECTION OF WATER STRESS IN TOMATO PLANT LEAF WITH PHYSIOLOGICAL REFLECTANCE INDEX MEASUREMENT Kotaro Takayama1, Hiroshige Nishina1, Yoshiaki Sakai1

1Faculty of Agriculture, Ehime University, Tarumi 3-5-7, Matsuyama, Ehime 790-8566, Japan takayama@agr.ehime-u.ac.jp

KeywordsDiagnosis, chlorophyll fl uorescence, photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance

Abstract Early detection of physiological dysfunctions in plants caused by biotic or abiotic stresses is very important for the greenhouse management. The objective of this study is to investigate the availability of Physiological (or Photochemical) Refl ectance Index (PRI) measurement technique for early detection of water stress in tomato plant leaf. PRI has been used as a useful parameter that indicates the status of plant leaf stress in various research fi elds in recent years. PRI is calculated with the refl ectance at 531nm and 570nm, PRI=(R531-R570)/(R531+R570), and several previous studies reported that the changes in the refl ectance at 531nm were correlated with the changes in de-epoxidation state of the xanthophyll cycle, which regulates the activation of heat dissipation of excessive light energy absorbed by chloroplasts. Hence, PRI provides information on leaf photosynthetic activity, e.g. PRI shows linear or curvilinear relationships with chlorophyll fl uorescence parameters such as non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) and photosynthetic effi ciency (ΦPSII), however, which is depending on plant species. In this study, we simultaneously measured PRI, chlorophyll fl uorescence parameters (NPQ and ΦPSII), photosynthetic rate and stomatal conductance of an attached tomato plant leaf during water stress treatment induced by cutting the petiole of the leaf in the air. Then, the relationships between those parameters were analyzed. Photosynthetic rate and stomatal conductance promptly decreased after the petiole cutting and reached to their lowest levels within 60 min. This showed that the severe water stress was induced by the petiole cutting treatment. During the water stress treatment, ΦPSII decreased slowly, though NPQ and PRI decreased immediately. The results imply that the changes in PRI observed here refl ected the changes in NPQ, i.e. activation of the heat dissipation process in leaf, and PRI measurement technique is useful for early detection of physiological dysfunctions in plants.

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ROUND-THE-CLOCK MEASUREMENT OF THE LEAF CO2 EXCHANGE AND TRANSPIRATION IN GREENHOUSE CROPSYuri Ton, Emmanuel Kleiman

Bio Instruments S.R.L., P.O.Box 2250, Chisinau MD-2060, Republic of Moldova yuriton@gmail.com

KeywordsPhotosynthesis, phytomonitoring, crop growth control

Abstract The objective of the research was to investigate the practical value of the innovative photosynthesis monitor with automatic leaf chambers. The monitor was tested both in laboratory conditions and in commercial greenhouses. Most of commercial photosynthesis meters are designed for instant measurement and have a limited duration of measurement cycle. Recently, a new innovative model of the photosynthesis meter (PTM-48M Monitor, Daletown Company Ltd.) with the original automatic self-clamping chambers becomes commercially available. The chamber is normally open and holds an open leaf in fi xed position. In measurement cycle, the leaf is enclosed for 30 seconds only. Typical sampling interval is from 10 to 30 minutes. This monitor enables automatic continuous recording of both CO2 and H2O fl uxes with minimal eff ect on leaf conditions. The monitor is of true open-type design. It takes ambient air so it has no special requirements for sealing the chamber with the leaf. The main advantage of the monitor is the capability to evaluate daily totals of CO2 uptake that seems to be more signifi cant than the transitory values of photosynthesis. In addition to that, the continuous recording of gas exchange allows investigating response of photosynthesis to light intensity and to other aff ecting environmental factors in order to disclose a factor which currently limits productivity. The monitor was tested both in laboratory conditions for determining actual measurement range, overall error, and discrimination between CO2 and water vapor. The overall error varied from ±0.3 μmolCO2 m-2 s-1 at zero exchange to ±0.94 at 40 μmolCO2 m-2 s-1 exchange rate. The eff ect of water vapor on CO2 readings was found almost negligible. If transpiration rate was up to 20 mg H2O m-2 s-1, the equivalent evaporation did not cause any eff ect above the measurement error. At the maximum level of 50 mgH2O m-2 s-1, the eff ect was equivalent to approximately +0.8 μmolCO2 m-2 s-1. This is comparable with the overall error found for photosynthesis rate between 20 and 40 μmolCO2 m-2 s-1.The paper also reported several case studies carried out in laboratory conditions and

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in commercial greenhouses aimed at demonstration of capabilities and advantages of the continuous around-the clock recording of leaf gas exchange in optimization of temperature, supplemental lighting, and CO2 application..

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OPERATOR SAFETY DURING PESTICIDE APPLICATION IN GREENHOUSES: A SURVEY ON ITALIAN SITUATIONEmanuele Cerruto1, Gianluca Oggero2, Dario Friso3, Anna Guarella4, Michele

Raff aelli5

1Dipartimento di Ingegneria Agraria (DIA), Via S. Sofi a, 100, 95123 Catania, Italyecerruto@unict.it 2Dipartimento di Economia e Ingegneria Agraria, Forestale e Ambientale (DEIAFA), Via L. da Vinci, 44 10095 Grugliasco (TO), Italy paolo.balsari@unito.it3Dipartimento di Terrirorio e Sistemi Agro-forestali (TESAF), Viale dell'Università, 16 Agripolis 35020 Legnaro (PD) dario.friso@unipd.it4Dipartimento di Progettazione e Gestione dei Sistemi Agro-zootecnici e Forestali (PROGESA), Via Amendola 165/A, 70126 Bari, Italy pasquale.guarella@agr.uniba.it5Dipartimento di Agronomia e Gestione dell‘Agro-ecosistema (DAGA), Via S. Michele degli Scalzi, 2, 56124 Pisa, Italy mraff aelli@agr.unipi.it

KeywordsExposure, Contamination, Sprayer.

AbstractGreenhouses are microcosms aimed at providing physical environments suitable for increase growth and production of crops. Pesticide application is a common practice in order to improve quality and quantity of agricultural products. Unfortunately, the enclosed conditions mean that greenhouse workers are more exposed to higher levels of plant protection products than general agricultural workers. Exposure can occur during mixing, loading and application and during crop activities, such as harvesting. Moreover, pesticides are one of the most hazardous groups of contaminants of fauna and environment in general (air, soil and water). Contaminations can be not only diff used (due to the treatments), but also localised (due to preparation and cleaning of the equipment).This paper reports the results of a survey carried out by 5 Italian research teams (Universities of Turin, Padua, Pisa, Bari, and Catania) in 187 farms situated in the Regions where greenhouse crops are very widespread (Piedmont, Liguria, Veneto, Tuscany, Basilicata, Sicily). The survey considers several aspects regarding pesticide applications and operator safety:• Equipment used, their maintenance and operating parameters;

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• Number of applications and volume rates;• Use of personal protective equipment (PPE): during the preparation and the distribution of the mixture and during the cleaning of the equipment;• Environment protection: cleaning and management of the empty pesticide containers, management of the waste water.Each aspect has been developed on the basis of the replies to a questionnaire submitted to the farmers. The fi rst results show that 40% of the farmers does from 10 to 20 applications per year, and 28% does more than 20 applications. The most frequent (57%) volume rates are in the range of 1000-2000 L/ha. The most common equipment used is the spray gun (71%) and with backward movement (51%). The use of PPE is not widespread as it should: during the preparation of the mixture, workers don’t use at all gloves (26%), overalls (35%), mask (35%), and boots (67%), while during applications 14% of them does not protect the respiratory tract and 14% does not wear overalls (31% wears tissue overalls).

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EVALUATION OF CONCENTRATED RELEASES OF PARASITOIDS FOR THE CONTROL OF WHITEFLIES ON POINSETTIAGabriele Amoroso, Piero Frangi, Riccardo Piatti

Fondazione Minoprio - Centro MiRT, Vertemate con Minoprio (CO), Italy frangi@fondazioneminoprio.it

KeywordsBiological control, Bemisia tabaci, Encarsia formosa, Eretmocerus spp., Euphorbia

pulcherrima, Trialeurodes vaporariorum

Abstract Whitefl ies are considered the most serious insect pest in greenhouse poinsettias. Research on alternative strategies to chemical control has successfully introduced the biocontrol with parasitoids. Shipping cost of parasitoids is the main constraint for the diff usion of biocontrol. This experiment was conducted to evaluate the eff ectiveness of concentrated releases of parasitoids for pest control on poinsettia grown in greenhouse, in order to induce an early biocontrol of the whitefl ies Bemisia tabaci and Trialeurodes vaporariorum and reduce shipping costs. Two biological products were used: one with only Encarsia formosa and the other with both E. formosa and Eretmocerus spp. The parasitoid treatments were compared with a chemical control (thiamethoxam) and with a non-treated test. Results showed that during poinsettia cultivation whitefl y control with 4 concentrated releases was not signifi cantly diff erent from the traditional 8 releases program. No diff erences in the eff ectiveness of the two biological products used were observed. A single drenching treatment with thiamethoxam 6 weeks after potting was very eff ective in controlling whitefl ies. At the end of the trial the eff ectiveness of biological products was similar to the chemical control.

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EFFECT OF SUBSTRATE SOLARIZATION ON TOMATO SOILLESS CULTIVATIONAlessandra Moncada, Giuseppina Caracciolo, Fabio D’Anna

Dipartimento di Agronomia Ambientale e Territoriale (AAT), Sezione di Orticoltura e Floricoltura, Università di Palermo, Viale delle Scienze 90128 Palermo, Italy oefunipa@unipa.it

KeywordsGreenhouse, coconut coir dust substrate, cultivar

AbstractThe objective of this research was to investigate the effect of substrate solarization on tomato soilless cultivation. The use of recycled substrates involves the accumulation of residues of the previous crop, but a continuous reutilization of organic substrates (like coconut coir dust), also cause a rise in pH and conductivity, decomposition of organic matter and an increase in soilborne crop pest. The substrate solarization can be a way to reduce soilborne inoculum of crop pests and also increase the concentration of soluble mineral nutrients.The research was carried out in 2005/2006, on the experimental farm of Horticultural and Floricultural Branch of the Department AAT of the University of Palermo. The soilless cultivation was carried out in a 264 m2 glasshouse. Two types of tomato were compared: a plum-type (cv Piccadilly) and a cherry-type (cv Shiren). They were planted in a new and solarized coconut coir dust substrate, previously used for curry cultivation. The experimental design used was a split–plot with three replications; the substrate treatment was the main factor while the variety was the secondary factor. Substrate solarization was carried out under transparent PE for 60 days (July-August).An open soilless system was used and a balanced nutrient solution at a conductivity of 3,2-3,8 mS/cm and pH 5,8 was applied by drip irrigation. Data were collected on marketable yield, average fruit weight, fruit solid soluble contents and fruit flesh hardness. Data were statistically analysed and mean separation was performed by Duncan’s multiple range test. Harvest started on February and finished on May 2006. Piccadilly (88,1 t/ha) was more productive than Shiren (57,8 t/ha). Piccadilly’s fruits (38,3 g) were bigger than Shiren’s (17,2 g). The unmarketable yield was 11% of the total production. However, cultivation in a solarized substrate caused less waste (9,7%). The quality of fruits was not influenced by the treatment of substrate and cultivar.

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Firmness of Piccadilly’s fruits (392,8 g) and Shiren’s (388,6 g) was similar; fruit sweetness was higher in Shiren’s (7,7 °Brix) than in Piccadilly’s (5,5 °Brix). A repeated use of the substrate could change its physical and chemical characteristics but this limitation could be overcome through solarization before utilization.

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EFFICIENCY OF NEOSEIULUS CUCUMERIS AND FRANKLINOTHRIPS VESPIFORMIS FOR CONTROLLING THE THRIPS IN GREENHOUSE ROSESJeannine. Pizzol1, Doummar Nammour1, Jean Pierre Ziegler1, Sophie Voisin1, Nicolas

Olivier2, Bruno Paris2

1INRA – UR 880, 400 route des Chappes, BP 167, 06 903 Sophia-Antipolis Cedex, France jeannine.pizzol@sophia.inra.fr2CREAT Chambre d’Agriculture des Alpes Maritimes, MIN fl eurs 17 Box 85, 06296 Nice Cedex 3, France

KeywordsIntegrated Pest Managment, Thrips, Neoseiulus cucumeris, Franklinothrips

vespiformis, greenhouse roses

Abstract The thrips Frankliniella occidentalis Pergande and Thrips tabaci Lindeman are serious pests on roses in greenhouses under Mediterranean climate. The study was undertaken in 2005 and 2006 in two greenhouses of 130 m2, on three varieties of roses: Aubade, Miss Paris and Sayonara in the South of France. Integrated control using Neoseiulus cucumeris Oudemans and Franklinothrips vespiformis Crawford (5 adults / m2) succeeded in limiting the populations of thrips compared to the control where only N. cucumeris was released. Under our experimental conditions, F vespiformis did not remain on the crop. Among the three varieties of roses, Aubade (beige) and Sayonara (yellow) were signifi cantly more heavily attacked by the thrips than Miss Paris (red).

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A RESEARCH PROJECT TO OPTIMISE THE ENERGY USE IN ORNAMENTAL PLANT PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTIONCarlo Bisaglia2, Marco Fedrizzi1, Paolo Menesatti1, Maurizio Cutini2, Elio Romano2,

Piero Frangi3, Giovanni Minuto4, Federico Tinivella4, Vito Miccolis5, Vincenzo

Candido5, Giovanni Santoro1.

1CRA-ISMA, Via della Pascolare 16, 00016 Monterotondo (RM), Italy isma@entecra.it.2CRA-ISMA, Via Milano 43, 24047 Treviglio (BG), Italy isma.bg@entecra.it3Fondazione Centro Lombardo per l’Incremento della Floro-Orto-Frutticoltura, Scuola di Minoprio (Fondazione Minoprio), Viale Raimondi 54, 22070 Vertemate con Minoprio (CO), Italy frangi@fondazioneminoprio.it4Centro Regionale di Sperimentazione e Assistenza Agricola (CeRSAA), Azienda Speciale della Camera di Commercio, Industria, Artigianato e Agricoltura di Savona, Regione Rollo 98, 17031 Albenga (SV), Italy cersaa.direzione@sv.camcom.it5Università degli Studi della Basilicata, Dipartimento di Scienze dei Sistemi Colturali, Forestali e dell’Ambiente, Viale dell’Ateneo Lucano 10, 85100 Potenza, Italy miccolis@unibas.it.

KeywordsGreenhouses, ornamental plant production, energy consumption, logistic

AbstractClimatic conditions and cultural traditions grant to Italy an important role in fl ower and ornamental plant production. This activity is characterized by an intensive use of technical inputs that, taking into account the energetic applications, have voices of cost only lower to manpower. Moreover, the increasing cost of oil and the growing environmental problems (i.e. global warming) pushed the main producing Countries to improve technologies for alternative-energy use. Considering this background, the Italian Ministry of Agricultural, Forestry and Food Policies launched at the end of 2006 the research project FLORENER in order to study the optimisation of energy use along the fl ower and ornamental plant production and distribution chain. The Working Group includes research Institutes based in diff erent climatic areas of Italy and it’s constituted by the CRA-ISMA - that also acts as coordinating centre - the Minoprio School (Northern Italy), the Regional Centre for Agricultural Experimentation and Assistance of Savona (North Mediterranean) and the University of Basilicata (Southern Italy). The cooperation of the CRA-ISFLORI with its section of Pescia (Tuscany) is also planned.

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The research project foresees fi ve main objectives: (1) the reduction of energetic requirements dropping the thermic conductibility of structures, increasing the effi ciency of conditioning systems, introducing new management practices and adopting available renewable sources of energy; (2) the arrangement of a specifi c software for energetic budgets evaluation; (3) the optimisation of the logistic aspects studying the territorial allocation of the production and distributions platforms; (4) the evaluation of passive refrigeration systems in comparison with conventional refrigeration techniques in the distribution chain and (5) the evaluation of an innovative heating systems in comparison with conventional heating systems in greenhouses production. Details of each research activity and specifi cations of planned experiments will be reported.

Abstract proposed for the following topic:

Protected cultivation and environment3. Resource use effi ciency and renewable sources

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DECISION SUPPORT FOR OPTIMISING ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN EUROPEAN GREENHOUSESOliver Körner1, Doug Warner2, John Tzilivakis2, Barbara Eveleens3, Ep Heuvelink3

1University of Copenhagen Department of Agricultural Sciences Crop Science Højbakkegård Allé 21; 2630 Taastrup; Denmark oli@life.ku.dk 2University of Hertfordshire Agriculture and the Environment Research Unit ; College Lane; Hatfi eld, Herts AL10 9AB; United Kingdom d.j.warner@herts.ac.uk j.tzilivakis@herts.ac.uk3Wageningen University; Horticultural Production Chains, Marijkweg 22; 6708 PG Wageningen, The Netherlands barbara.eveleens@wur.nl, ep.heuvelink@wur.nl

Keywords DSS, greenhouse builder, model, simulation

Abstract In addition to optimal crop production the reduction of energy consumption within greenhouses is one of the major aims of the greenhouse horticultural industry. The majority of greenhouses in the European Union have been built during the last 20 years or so and do not conform to current standards of low energy consumption. Investing in new low-energy consuming greenhouses is very cost intensive. Improving existing structures in terms of insulation and other features, however, could save energy with signifi cantly lower investment costs. In the EU project Greenergy a decision support system is being developed that can be used by advisors and growers to evaluate the possibilities and eff ects of diff erent greenhouse materials such as covers or screens or complete new structures on energy consumption and crop yield. The system has been constructed as an easy to use software tool based upon a set of simulation modules for greenhouse energy fl uxes, crop growth and dry matter distribution. The user defi nes his existing greenhouse from the pre-defi ned menu. This greenhouse is then used as reference greenhouse that can be compared to various modifi cations of it. The user can change the greenhouse settings in order to create diff erent sets of modifi cations of their reference greenhouse. Additional variables such as physical location (country), crop, climate set points etc. allow simulations of energy consumption and crop yield over a period of one year using reference climate data of the chosen location as input.

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The system is constructed in such a way that the database of greenhouse construction materials can be updated easily to maintain its value in the long term. First tests with commercial greenhouse growers have shown that this decision support tool can be used for investment planning in small and medium sized enterprises.

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OVERALL ENERGY ANALYSIS OF (SEMI) CLOSED GREENHOUSESFeije de Zwart

Wageningen UR Greenhouse Horticulture, P.O. Box 16, Bornsesteeg 65, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlandsfeije.dezwart@wur.nl

KeywordsEnergy consumption, heat pumps, climate management, heat storage

AbstractNatural ventilation to discharge excess heat and vapour from the greenhouse environement has serious drawbacks. Pests and carriers fi nd their way through the openings; carbon dioxide fertilisation becomes very ineffi cient and the inescapable coupling of heat and vapour release results often in sub-optimal conditions for either temperature or humidity and may cost heating energy. The present trend, therefore, is to reduce ventilation as much as possible, also in Mediterranean conditions. This relies obviously on improved means for energy exclusion and climate management. The (semi) closed greenhouse, based on innovative cooling equipment, can combine the benefi ts of cooling the greenhouse air with serious energy conservation. For growers the fi rst promise is appreciated a lot, although savings in energy costs are always welcome. Policy makers are primarily enthusiastic about the 15 to 30% decrement of fossil energy consumption and the associated reduction of CO2 emission, but are also keen on improvements of the horticultural output. In fact, an informed decision must be based on an analysis of costs and benefi ts and there is a growing demand for some computational tool that enables quantitive comparisons between the vast number of alternatives with respect to the diff erent components of (semi) closed greenhouse systems. The benefi ts in terms of improved production (quality, ornamental value and quantity) are quite diffi cult to quantify, due to the complexity of the biological processes involved. There is, however, a growing body of some 5 years of experience on which growers can rely. On the other hand, since the physics of greenhouses, climate controllers and horticultural hardware can be described very well, it is quite possible to develop such a tool for predicting the energy consumption of a (semi) closed greenhouse under a wide range of horticultural and outside climatological conditions. This paper gives an outline of such a tool and discusses the outcome for a number of scenarios. For instance, we show that, for Dutch weather conditions, a greenhouse where only 1/3 of the area is furnished as a closed greenhouse, harvests enough summertime heat excesses to provide sustainable heating for the whole site.

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The model computes the primary energy saving on 28% but, moreover, the model also gives insight in the physical and horticultural characteristics that constraint the primary energy consumption. This insight shows the most promising focus points for technical research to improvements of the energy saving characteristics. Surprising enough the biggest improvement can be found in blocking the heat load by spectral selective fi lters.

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REVERSIBLE CLIMATISATION OF GREENHOUSES IN FRANCE USING AQUIFER THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE: A PRE-FEASIBILITY STUDYNathalie Courtois1, Vincent Petit1, Dominique Thiery1, Ariane Grisey2, Dominique

Grasselly2

1BRGM, 1039 rue de Pinville, 34000 MONTPELLIER - France Tel 33 4 67 15 79 94 - fax: 33 4 67 64 58 51 n.courtois@brgm.fr http://www.brgm.fr2CTIFL, BP 32, 30127 BELLEGARDE - France Tel 33 4 66 01 10 54 - fax: 33 4 66 01 62 28 grisey@ctifl .fr http://www.ctifl .fr

KeywordsEnergy storage, greenhouse, aquifer

AbstractIn the actual context of predicted shortage of fossil energies and of awareness of environmental preoccupations (greenhouse gases for example), saving energy and converting to renewable ones become priorities. As energy-intensive consumers, greenhouses are directly implicated. That’s why the Ctifl (Technical Institute for Fruit and Vegetables) would like to develop the concept of “sustainable greenhouses” in France, using renewable energy. In this case, the method which retains the attention is the concept of reversible climatisation through Aquifer Thermal Energy Storage (ATES). This technique is already in application in other European countries, especially in the Netherlands, by has never been tested in France. The objective of the research project led by the Ctifl and the BRGM (French Geological Survey) is to determine the parameters to take into account (and their relative importance), to evaluate the pre-feasibility of this technique on an agricultural site. First a thermal dimensioning of a typical greenhouse has been done for two climatic contexts in France (North-West, and South-East). It allows to determine the power which is necessary to maintain consign temperatures, in summer and in winter. These elements allow also the determination of the temperatures and of the volumes of water that have to be alternatively pumped and injected in the aquifer (in the cold and in the hot wells). The second part of the project consists in studying the aquifer thermal energy storage through sets of numerical simulations. The model used in a fi nite diff erences model developed by BRGM, which can treat both water fl ow and heat transfers. A sensibility analysis is led on several sets of parameters, which depend either of exploitation conditions (pumping and injection discharge, distance between wells, etc.), or of aquifer conditions (geometry, thermal and hydraulic characteristics, etc.).

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INTEGRATIVE USE OF SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY FOR GREENHOUSE TEMPERATURE REGULATIONA. Grassotti*, S. Cacini, E. Taibi1

C.R.A. – Istituto Sperimentale per la Floricoltura - Via dei Fiori 8, 51012 Pescia (PT)1Solar systems designer*antonio.grassotti@entecra.it

KeywordsHeat generators, protected environment, energy savings

AbstractAn increased need for cost competitiveness in greenhouse production, both from the economic and technological points of view, persuaded the C.R.A. Experimental Institute of Floriculture in Pescia to carry out an experiment regarding the integration of traditional methods of greenhouse thermal regulation during the winter season to ensure suitable temperatures for plant development. The use of solar energy was evaluated as an additional renewable energy source that could also result in fuel savings. This innovative project in Italy could be an eff ective answer to the needs of the production sector within protected environments. The solar thermal system was set up in late December 2006 and was fully functional by February 2007. It consisted of:1) high-yield, thermic vacuum-packed panels, able to capture both diff use and direct light; covering a surface of 24 m2;2) one insulated water tank of 1.000 litres of capacity with single heat exchanger coil;3) two heater units, one of 29 kW and 3.200 m3 hour range capacity, and the other of 13 kW and 1.450 m3 hour range capacity; and4) two calorie counters to measure the accumulated energy by the water tank and that dispersed by the two heater units.The system has been installed in a 400 m2 greenhouse equipped with a 80.000 Kcal/h warm air generator with an estimated consumption of ~ 8,88 l/h of diesel oil. Another greenhouse of identical characteristics was used as a comparison for the present experiment.The heat generators’ electronic thermostats were set to 13°C, while the thermostats of the two heater units of the greenhouse with solar panels were set to 15°C.

Data collected daily included:

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1) diesel oil consumption by the two warm-air generators;2) accumulated calories inside the water tank;3) dispersed calories;4) minimum and maximum temperatures inside the tank;5) temperature fl uctuation in the experimental versus the control greenhouses;6) hours of sunlight.Preliminary results show that it is possible to obtain energy savings of approximately 15%. This result was observed only in the days when the environmental conditions allowed the system to accumulate suffi cient heat. It has been observed that, to obtain the aforementioned performance, the water in the tank needs to reach temperatures above 50°C, or better yet, that it can accumulate more than 40 kWh, which is possible only if the day is at least partially sunny.Future activities will include the evaluation of more effi cient methods to use the accumulated heat in the tank through an improved distribution of the warm water to plant level.We will also investigate the possibility of using the system during summer months, equipping it with a chemical storage absorption chiller or an adsorption air conditioning unit, that would use the energy accumulated inside the tank to reduce greenhouse temperatures. This would allow for plant culture at physiologically more appropriate temperatures during the warm season, and a simultaneous reduction of system operation costs.

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POINSETTIA (EUPHORBIA PULCHERRIMA) CULTIVATION IN BIODEGRADABLE POTS: MECHANICAL AND AGRONOMICAL BEHAVIOUR OF POTS AND PLANT TRAITSVincenzo Candido1, Donato Castronuovo2, Carlo Manera2, Vito Miccolis1

1Dipartimento di Scienze dei Sistemi Colturali, Forestali e dell’Ambiente, University of Basilicata, Viale dell’Ateno Lucano 10, 85100 Potenza, Italy vincenzo.candido@unibas.it 2Dipartimento Tecnico Economico per la Gestione del Territorio Agricolo e Forestale, University of Basilicata, Viale dell’Ateno Lucano 10, 85100 Potenza, Italy donato.castronuovo@unibas.it

KeywordsPoinsettia, biodegradable pots, greenhouse, colour

AbstractNowadays, people give much interest to the utilization of seasonal ornamental pot-plants such as Poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima). This plant is particularly appreciated for the shape and colour of its bracts (modifi ed leaves), that in the late Autumn become red, pink, yellow or assume some gradations of these colours, that in contrast with the deep green of its leaves makes the Poinsettia plants highly coloured and much more attractive. Euphorbia pulcherrima is a typical example of winter ornamental pot-plant because of its strong demand concentrated just in the Christmas period; in fact, for that time in Italy about 20 million of Poinsettia plastic pots are produced per year. At the end of their utilization, this huge number of pot plants become waste to be disposed. Recent calculations show that in Italy every January 55,000 m3 of waste (plastic pots, substrate and vegetative compound) have to be treated, causing environmental problems especially for PP (polypropylene) pots, that must be separated from the substrate and the vegetative compound before disposal, representing a great quantity of plastic to be managed. A solution of this environmental problem could be in the use of biodegradable and compostable pots instead of traditional ones. However, research is needed to verify whether these materials, although biodegradable, can ensure comparatively levels of technical use as high as those found in traditional plastic materials.In this paper, 3 diff erent biodegradable pots, plus a traditional pot (PP), were studied in the cultivation of Poinsettia (cv Premium red) in a heated greenhouse located in

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Southern Italy (Montecorvino Pugliano – SA; 40° 38’ 27’’ N, 14° 55’ 29’’ E, 80 m asl). In particular, innovative pots were made of plain biodegradable polymers and with 3 combinations of biodegradable polymers variously additionated of organic materials. Each kind of pot has been investigated empty, with only substrate, and with Poinsettia plants, leading to 12 experimental theses plus a traditional PP pots as a control, arranged in a randomized block design replicated three times. Trials have been conducted both regarding pots mechanical behaviour over time and the agronomical response of Poinsettia cultivated in the diff erent pots; pot colour change has been monitored by using an electronic colorimeter.Results have showed that plain biodegradable pots have a good mechanical resistance and a fi xed colour over time assuring a good performance during commercialization. On the contrary, pots made of biodegradable polyesters variously additionated of organic materials does not look like to be appropriate for Poinsettia cultivation. The study need some more observations to better fi x the obtained results before disseminate them to the interested growers.

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GROWTH OF ORNAMENTAL SHRUBS IN WOOD FIBRE-BASED GROWING MEDIAPiero Frangi1, Gabriele Amoroso1, Francesco Ferrini2, Alessio Fini2

1Fondazione Minoprio – Centro MiRT, Vertemate con Minoprio (CO), Italy frangi@fondazioneminoprio.it2Department DOFI, University of Florence, Florence, Italy francesco.ferrini@unifi .it

KeywordsPeat replacement, Prunus laurocerasus, substrates, Thuja plicata

Abstract The use of wood fi bre as constituent of growing media for containerized ornamental shrubs production has been evaluated in order to reduce the amount of peat in the mixes. For two years Prunus laurocerasus ‘Rotundifolia’ and Thuja plicata ‘Atrovirens’ plants were cultivated in substrates containing 25% or 50% (V/V) of two types of wood fi bre (Bio-Culta®-Faser and Toresa®), mixed with white peat and clay. Tested substrates were analysed for physical and chemical traits, while plant growth was periodically assessed during the trial. Results show that wood fi bre can partially substitute peat in the composition of growing media for container grown nursery crops. When wood fi bre increases in the growing medium, a proportional addition of clay has to be made, in order to ensure good water retention properties to the media, thus avoiding water stresses to plants during summer months.

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SUBSTRATE REUSE IN TOMATO SOILLESS CULTIVATIONFrancesco Giuff rida1, Oriol Marfà2, Cherubino Leonardi1

1Dipartimento di OrtoFloroArboricoltura e Tecnologie Agroalimentari, University of Catania, via Valdisavoia 5, 95123 Catania, Italy francesco.giuff rida@unict.it2Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàires, IRTA de Cabrils, ctra de Cabrils km 2, 08348 Cabrils (Barcelona), Spain oriol.marfa@irta.es

KeywordsPerlite, mineral substrate, reutilization, closed system, environment

AbstractAmong soilless cultivation systems, those based on the use of artifi cial substrates are the most adopted. The environmental and economical consequences related to their utilization during successive growing cycles are highly signifi cant. Reducing the amount of substrates released into the environment and the cost for their supply could be achieved by using them over more than one cultivation cycle.The aim of this investigation was to compare a crop grown on perlite already used during three cultivation cycles and a crop grown on new, unused perlite. For both treatments, irrigation management was related to the characteristics of the new perlite; the recycling of the nutrient solution was carried out.The analysis of physical characteristics showed diff erences on the main hydrologic properties between the reused and new perlite; though the total porosities were similar in both substrates, we observed a reduction in air capacity in the reused one while the easily available water doubled. In spite those diff erences, no signifi cant eff ects were observed on plant dry matter production, yield level and qualitative characteristics of berries. Similarly, only slight variations were observed on water use effi ciency.

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THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF GREENHOUSE VEGETABLE CROP PRODUCTION UNDER MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATEA. Marucci1*, E. Campiglia2, G. Colla3, B. Pagniello1, Y. Rouphael3

1Dipartimento DAF, Università della Tuscia, via S. C. De Lellis snc, 01100 Viterbo, Italy 2Dipartimento DIPROV, Università della Tuscia, via S. C. De Lellis snc, 01100 Viterbo, Italy 3Dipartimento GEMINI, Università della Tuscia, via S. C. De Lellis snc, 01100 Viterbo, Italy *marucci@unitus.it

KeywordsVegetable crops, greenhouse, environmental impact, chemicals.

AbstractThe cultivation of plants under greenhouse conditions requires a high quantity of chemicals to satisfy the high nutrient requirement and to control the diseases due to the favorable microclimatic conditions and the numerous growing cycles. Moreover, greenhouses utilize high level of input and generate more waste as a result of intensive production. In order to understand the environmental impact of greenhouse vegetable crop production, a research was undertaken in the coastal area of Northern Lazio region (Central Italy) to determine the inputs of the most commonly grown vegetable growth under greenhouse and open-fi eld cultivation. The quantity of fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides and fungicides were monitored. Our results showed that the quantity of nitrogen, when averaged over all selected crops used under greenhouse conditions, were signifi cantly lower by 34% in comparison to those used under open-fi eld conditions. The reduction in nitrogen utilization was mainly attributed to the ammoniacal form (58%) and to a lesser degree to the nitrate form (12%). Concerning the quantity of phosphorus and potassium, the supply under greenhouse conditions was signifi cantly higher by 19% and 30%, respectively compared to those required under open-fi eld conditions. Our results also showed that the use of fungicides was higher under protected cultivation, while an opposite trend was recorded for herbicides, and no signifi cant diff erence was observed for insecticide between the two growing conditions. Moreover, in order to quantifi ed the environmental impact of vegetable crop production under greenhouse and open-fi eld conditions, specifi c models were adopted to study the interaction between the chemicals used and the quantity recorded in the soils and the ground water table. The elaboration of data with GIS software permitted to identify the areas with high risk of pollution due to the non-rational used of chemicals.

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COMPARING ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF GREENHOUSE VERSUS OPEN-FIELD TOMATO PRODUCTION IN THE MEDITERRANEAN REGIONPere Muñoz1, Assumpció Antón1, Montserrat Nuñez1-2, Ashwin Paranjpe1, Jordi

Ariño3, Xavier Castells4, Juan I. Montero1, Joan Rieradevall2

1IRTA. Ctra. Cabrils Km 2, 08348 Cabrils, Barcelona, Spain pere.munoz@irta.es2ICTA-UAB. Edifi ci Ciències – Campus de la UAB – 08193 Bellaterra, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain 3Federació SELMAR Masia Can Ratés s/n. 08398 Santa Susanna, Barcelona, Spain4Agrícola El Progrés-Garbí. Camí del Pla s/n. 08380 Malgrat de Mar, Barcelona, Spain

KeywordsLCA, environmental burden, water use, fertilizer, pesticides

Abstract Greenhouse production is often perceived as an artifi cial process, characterized by low nutritional quality of product and heavy use of chemical inputs. Moreover, large areas covered with greenhouses create a big visual impact, a factor which is especially important in the highly touristic Mediterranean coastal regions. On the other hand, open-fi eld cultivation is generally perceived as an ‘eco-friendly’ activity, and creates a much smaller visual impact. Regardless of these ‘apparent’ perceptions of the two cultivation systems, it is necessary to make an objective assessment and quantify their relative impacts on the environment. Life cycle assessment (LCA) was used for comparing environmental burdens associated with greenhouse versus open-fi eld production processes for a spring season tomato crop grown in the Maresme region near Barcelona. Greenhouse structure, irrigation equipment, fertilizers, pesticides, cultural tasks and irrigation were analyzed as subsystems. All inputs for each subsystem were traced back to primary resources. For each subsystem, emissions were quantifi ed and aggregated into impact categories defi ned by CML 2001, using yield (kg) of tomato as functional unit. Preliminary results revealed that environmental burden for 1 kg of tomato grown in open-fi eld production with respect to factors such as water use, fertilizers and pesticides was greater than for 1 kg of tomato from greenhouse production. Ratios of open fi eld to greenhouse production were close to 30% higher in open fi eld tomatoes for impact categories such as eutrophication or acidifi cation. Greenhouse structure

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had importance mainly for climate change category, almost 40% higher due to production of this structure, steel and plastic.Notwithstanding the diff erences in environmental burden associated with the two production systems, if one considers the higher economic returns obtained from greenhouse production, could the existence of greenhouses constitute a reasonable trade-off ?.

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MINERALIZATION RATE AND CO2 RELEASE FROM ORGANIC GREENHOUSE SOILS INCUBATED UNDER TWO DIFFERENT CULTURAL CONDITIONSSteeve Pepin1, Martine Dorais2, Claudine Ménard2

1Horticulture Research Centre, Département des sols et de génie agroalimentaire, Laval University, QC, Canada, G1K 7P4 steeve.pepin@sga.ulaval.ca2Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Envirotron bldg, Laval University, QC, Canada, G1K 7P4 doraisma@agr.gc.ca

KeywordsSoil respiration, moisture content, biological activity, soil temperature

AbstractIn organic greenhouse vegetable productions, the turnover rate of organic amendments may be a limiting factor for optimal crop productivity and quality. Hence, a better understanding of mineralization processes under greenhouse conditions is essential for optimizing crop nutrient supply, while minimizing losses to the environment. The objective of this study was to determine the mineralization potential of several organic greenhouse soils maintained at two temperatures (17°C, 23°C) and water potentials (–3.5, –25 kPa). Replicate 196-cm3 soil cores of structurally intact soils (0–10 cm depth) were sampled in plastic cylinders (Ø=5 cm), saturated with water and then adjusted to the appropriate matric potential. Additional soil samples (60 cm3) were screened through a 6-mm sieve, placed in sealed jars and incubated under the same treatment conditions. Soil nutrients, gas concentration (O2, CO2, N2O) and microbial activity (CO2 release) were measured over a 25-week period during aerobic incubation (4 to 8-week intervals; fi ve destructive samplings). Large variations in nutrient content and soil organic matter content were observed among intact soil samples. Soil CO2 effl ux declined exponentially with time, decreases being most apparent in soils having high organic matter content. Increase in substrate temperature lead to enhanced soil respiration rates, particularly during the fi rst weeks of incubation. Overall, mineralization rates were not signifi cantly aff ected by moisture level or temperature. The presence of plants is known to stimulate and regulate microbial activity in the rhizosphere via root exudates, likely resulting in greater mineralization rates than those observed here. Gas diff usion, and hence soil activity, may be momentarily hindered during frequent irrigations. However, our fi ndings indicate that matric potentials of –3.5 and –25 kPa both result in similar nutrient mineralization rates in these soils.

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ENVIRONMENTAL EVALUATION OF ORNAMENTAL NURSERY PRODUCTION IN ROSE AND SOWBREAD GREENHOUSE CULTIVATION BY MEANS OF LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT (LCA)Giovanni Russo1, Barbara De Lucia Zeller2

1Dept. Progesa University of Bari, Via G. Amendola 165/a, Italy giovanni.russo@agr.uniba.it 2Dept. S.P.V., University of Bari, Via G. Amendola 165/a, Italy barbara.delucia@agr.uniba.it

KeywordsNursery, L.C.A., greenhouse cultivation, grafted plant, Seed F1

Abstract The environmental analysis of agricultural productions by using LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) is a necessary practice in a view of an increased environmental compatibility of the production systems that allows for a quantative analysis of the fl ows of energy and resources utilised in the production process. This practice is a powerful tool for those growers that want to use the ecological quality trademarks (Ecolabel).This research has been carried out within the EU funded project “Ecofl ower Terlizzi” (LIFE04 ENV/IT/000480) with ISO standardization guidelines, with the participation of Italian fl ower growers and breeders, in order to gather information regarding the fl oricultural production process.The applications of LCA methodology to greenhouse crops highlight diffi culties in analysing an agricultural production with large use of energy, raw materials, structures and equipments, but also depending on the biology of vegetables, cultivation systems and the economic options that growers choose.The goal and scope defi nition of an LCA provides a description of the product system in terms of the system boundaries, functional unit, and all input and output of energy and resources. The evaluation of baby-plants, in term of energy and materials consumptions, is very important for LCA of the greenhouse fl owers cultivation because the baby-plants are an input of this production.With this aim, an LCI (Life Cycle Inventory) has been realised near breeding farms in order to gathering production data on grafted baby-plants of rose and seedlings F1 of sowbread. These baby-plants and seedlings F1 have quality certifi cation and are licensed with royalties.

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In the South of Italy, rose and sowbread species, have been selected because represent the most common commercial typologies of cut fl ower and pot plant respectively. The information about the production of baby-plants have been collected in a database and processed using a specifi c LCA software. Further investigation have been realized in order to analyze and evaluate the fertilisers and pesticides used in the nursery. The results of LCA analysis have been expressed by means of the environmental burdens produced by energy consumptions, structures and equipments, packaging, fertilisers and pesticides used in the production of baby-plants. The results of this research point out that the environmental burdens of the production of baby-plants are negligible in the rose production and considerable in the pot sowbread production, principally because of the contributions of polystyrene plateaux and Polyvinylchloride plastic pots.

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ELECTRONIC SPREADSHEET TOOLS FOR LAYOUT DESIGN OF GREENHOUSESMoshe Eben-Chaime1*, Avital Bechar1-2, Ana Baron1

1Department of Industrial Engineering & Management, Ben-Gurion University, P.O. Box 653, 84105 Be'er Sheva, Israel even@bgu.ac.il2The Institute of Agricultural Engineering, ARO, Bet Dagan, ISRAEL*Corresponding author.

KeywordsGreenhouses, Protected horticulture, layout design, structure, confi guration

AbstractAs noted by one author, "Far to often, the grower, fi nd himself locked into an ineffi cient operation if he has not spent some time to arrange structures properly," but "explanation of suitable layouts is diffi cult to fi nd in the horticulture literature." In response to this need, tools have been developed for layout design purposes and are presented herein. These tools are based on models that estimate the annual operational profi t associated with a specifi c layout - yield and sales income less operational cost and return of investment in infrastructure. Alternative layouts can be evaluated and the most profi table is selected. The tools have been designed to be highly accessible, and to this end they are implemented with any spreadsheet software and any computer. Further, the design facilitates WHAT-IF analyses via the changing of parameter values. The applicability of design tools is demonstrated via numerical analyses of the layout design of a 1-hectare greenhouse for pepper growing using the Holland method. Evidently, the layout design can have signifi cant eff ect on the economical effi ciency of the greenhouse - annual profi t increases by, at least 12%, and up to 40%!

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RETRACTABLE ROOF GREENHOUSE SYSTEMS FOR SLOPED AREAS: COMPARISON OF TWO SYSTEMSRemigio Berruto1, Patrizia Busato1, Antonio Debenedetti2

1DEIAFA, University of Turin, Via L. Da Vinci, 44, 10095 - Grugliasco (TO), Italy remigio.berruto@unito.it2Azienda Florovivaistica Debenedetti - 18038 SANREMO (IM) Sanremo, Italy antonio@fl ordebenedetti.it

Keywords Retractable roofs, sloped area, fl ower production, prototypes

Abstract The economy of the West of Liguria Region, and more precisely in the Province of Imperia, is characterized by a general decline of the productive activities, due to international competition originated from the economy globalisation. The Mediterranean climate, however, with mild weather and respectively high temperatures during the winter is the ideal climate for the cultivation many fl owers and horticultural productions. The perspective of increase of the energetic costs for heating and transportation will potentially widen the productive area for the Mediterranean area next to the Center of Europe.For these reason it is possible to foresee an increase of demand of protective systems suitable for the Mediterranean climate. There are over 4.000 farmers just in the region that will be interested to use a protection system, with a prevailing function of help in case of meteoric adversity to face the diminution of the profi tability of the outside crops.Up to now, a protection structure that has the necessary constructive and functional requisite to be adopted for protection of the outside crops of West of Liguria Region is not available. One king of protection structure that allows to protect outside crops is represented by the retractable roof greenhouses. Compared to growing outside, in the fi eld, or inside conventional greenhouses, retractable roof greenhouses could allow for some advantages likes reduction of water usage, chemicals and electrical consumptions (source: CRAVO). The aim of the research was to set-up two prototypes with a retractable roof able to: fi t the inclination of the cultivated terraces; withstand the wind typical of these areas; seal the environment in case of cold weather to practice the emergency heating; allow the complete opening to profi t of the direct solar radiation. The fi rst structure is made of carrying cables, within which the shading

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screens or the plastic fi lm could move. The screen is pulled either far or close to the pole by another cable, and so the structure will be respectively completely close or completely open. In this case the partial opening of the roof is not suitable. In the second prototype, the fi lm is rolled up, along the maximum dimension, on a central pipe with a particular system that also allows the tension of the screen/fi lm with partial closing. In the paper will be presented the characteristics of the two systems, the environment conditions inside the structures and the problems encountered during the fi rst six months of use.

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NATURAL VENTILATION PERFORMANCE OF A GREENHOUSE FOR INDIAN CLIMATEA. Ganguly1*, S. Ghosh1

1Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bengal Engineering & Science University, Shibpur, Howrah-711103, India*Ph +91 33 26684561 63 - aritra78@rediff mail.com

KeywordsGreenhouse, natural ventilation, wind eff ect, temperature eff ect

AbstractGreenhouse technology is an eff ective method of cultivation of fl owers, crops, etc under controlled environment. For any greenhouse, ventilation performance is a major factor in production, infl uencing the yield and quality of products. Natural ventilation uses no energy and thus can be used to maintain suitable inside microclimate when the ambient temperatures are not very high. This paper discusses the modeling aspects of a fl oriculture greenhouse suitable for operation in typical Indian climate under natural ventilation. The results predicted by the model are validated against the results of an experimental greenhouse established at Bagnan near Kolkata (India). The study reveals that the results predicted by the model are in good agreement with that obtained from experimental greenhouse. The paper indicates that natural ventilation can be an eff ective solution to control temperature and humidity for Indian greenhouses in those parts of the year when the thermal loads are not very severe.

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THE INTRODUCTION OF VENTILATED LATENT HEAT CONVERTERS (VLHC) DEHUMIDIFIERS IN TOMATOES AND POT PLANT GREENHOUSES G. Assaf1,Y. Kapiluto2, D.Tubiana3

1Agam Energy Systems. Kfar Saba ,Israel agamga@netvision.net.il2AB Seeds Netiv Hassara, Israel yanki.kapiluto@ab-seeds.com 3Savenertech LTD. Milan, Italy dino.tubiana@savenertech.it

KeywordsEnergy saving, heat conductivity, relative humidity

Abstract Assaf (1990) and Assaf & Zieslin (1996,2002) disclosed the eff ects of Latent Heat Converters (LHC) dehumidifi ers on energy and climate of rose plants Greenhouses (GH). Since than 9 VLHC units introduces in pot Greenhouses in northern and central Italy and 3 units introduces into tomatoes Greenhouses in Israel. It is shown that introduction of VLHC as the only heating element in glass Greenhouses with thermal screen or in Infl ated roof of PE GH reduces the heat conductivity from 5.5 to 2.2 Watt per square meter per degree. The relative humidity in the pot greenhouses reduces from 85%-90% to 75%-80%. These GH was kept close in winter nights with VLHC and with conventional hot pipe heating. The tomatoes GH consists on 4000 square meter GH with tooth’s saw roof and thermal screen. The average natural ventilation in that GH varied between 1 to 2 gram air/m^2 s. pending on winds and thermal gradient between the GH and the ambient. The GH equipped with Fin pipes at maximum heating capacity of 140 watt/m^2. The conventional heating was controlled by hot water pumps. At nights where the heating consists on VLHC the hot water fl ow to the pipes stop. Small hot water heater at maximum capacity of 164 kW (41Watt/m^2) submitted the heat to the three VLHC units. The average heat conductivity heated by Hot Water pipes was 12 Watt/m^2 degree. And it reduces to 4.6Watt/m^2 degree when the GH was heated by VLHC’s. The night average humidity in the tomatoes GH was 85% with conventional heating and 83% with VLHC heating. Note that continuous air infi ltration was found with conventional and with VLHC heating. All in All the introduction of VLHC as the only heating element reduces relative humidity by 10% in Pot GH and by 2% in tomatoes GH. The energy saving amount to 60% of the conventional hot water heating. It is shown that usually the VLHC reduces dew point bellow the screen temperature. In this way the thermal screen remains dry.

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ENERGY

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ENERGY CONSUMPTION FOR DIFFERENT GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTIONSMilan Djevic, Aleksandra Dimitrijevic

Department for Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Univeristy of Belgrade, Nemanjina 6, 11080 Zemun, Serbia mdjevic@agrifaculty.bg.ac.yu saskad@agrifaculty.bg.ac.yu

KeywordsPlastic covered greenhouses, tunnels, gutter connected structures, lettuce, energy

consumption

AbstractIn this paper infl uence of greenhouse structure was estimated for four diff erent double plastic covered greenhouses in winter lettuce production in Serbia region. Plastic coverings were introduced as mean of making this kind of plant production more effi cient. Also, as a mean of lowering energy consumption, tunnel structures were proposed. Four diff erent double plastic covered greenhouses were used for energy analysis. Two tunnel types, 9 x 58 m and 8 x 25 m covered with double PE folia, and two gutter connected plastic covered greenhouses. One greenhouse was 2 x 7 m wide and 39 m long and the other 20 x 6.4 m wide and 42 m long. The method used, is based on energy input analysis (defi nition of direct and indirect energy inputs), energy consumption for given plant production, and energy effi ciency. On the basis of lettuce production output (kg of lettuce) and energy input, energy input/kg of product, energy out/in ratio and energy productivity were estimated. Results show lowest energy consumption for gutter connected greenhouses. Energy out/in ratio was also higher in gutter connected greenhouse. Highest energy consumption was obtained in tunnel greenhouse 8 x 25m.

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ENERGY

414

SOLAR THERMAL COLLECTORS FOR GREENHOUSE HEATING Giuliano Vox1, Evelia Schettini1, Alessandra Lisi Cervone1, Alexandros Anifantis1

1Department PROGESA-University of Bari, via Amendola 165/A - 70126 Bari, Italy giulius.vox@agr.uniba.it

KeywordsHeating pipes, hot water, renewable energy sources

Abstract Energy consumption is one of the main cost factors in commercial greenhouses since high amounts of energy are used for heating and cooling systems. Oil and natural gas are generally used as fuel of heating systems, increasing the environmental impact of the greenhouse production. The recent raise of prices of energy produced by fossil fuels has further increased productive costs of fl oricultural and horticultural protected cultivation. This has increased interest in alternative energy sources, which include renewable energy sources such as wind, solar and biomass. Among the renewable energy sources, solar thermal systems have higher energy exchange ratio and a better cost-eff ectiveness with relatively lower installation price. The paper presents the preliminary results of a research fi nalized to use solar thermal collectors to heat the water circulating in the pipes of a greenhouse heating system. A surface of 12 m2 of solar thermal fl at plate collectors, a thermal insulated tank for the storage of the hot water, circulators and plastic pipes, an electronic control unit were used in the experiment. Aim of the research is to evaluate the suitable surface of the solar thermal collectors, the need of auxiliary heat sources, the size of the insulated tank for hot water storage, the integration of solar collectors in the greenhouse structure. The test was realized at the experimental farm of the University of Bari, Southern Italy, in a vaulted roof steel greenhouse covered with plastic fi lm where a soil-less tomato cultivation was carried out. Solar radiation incident on the solar thermal collectors, air temperature over the heated cultivated surface, growing media temperature, water temperature of the heating pipes and of the hot water storage tank were measured and recorded continuously by a system composed of data loggers and sensors. Results of the experiment showed that the use of the solar thermal collectors must be integrated with auxiliary heat sources, such as burners or heat pumps, when cumulative solar radiation is low. Data measured during the test showed that more than 40% of the incident solar radiation was transferred as heat to the cultivation, warming both the plants and the growing substrate.

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ENERGY

415

GLOBALIZING HIGHER EDUCATION THROUGH ICT - CHANCE & CHALLENGEJana Tietze1, Uwe Schmidt2

1Multimedia Teaching and Learning Centre, Humboldt University of Berlin, Ziegelstr. 10, 10117 Berlin, Germany jana.tietze@cms.hu-berlin.de2Institut for Horticultural Science, Humboldt University of Berlin, Lentzeallee 55/57, 14195 Berlin, Germany u.schmidt@agrar.hu-berlin.de

KeywordsE-Learning, networks, Bologna, ICT

AbstractThe Bologna process has come a long way and formal regulations have largely now been adopted in many national systems of higher education. Reforms now have to become a reality for students and academic staff in their professional experience and everyday life. New study programs connected with digital technologies off er a valuable opportunity for fl exible education suited to a wide variety of lifestyles and careers, enabling true lifelong learning. The challenge of “Bologna” though is, that educational content and strategies are not readily transferable across national boundaries and must, therefore, be adapted to cultural and social contexts. To ensure high quality education and research across borders this presentation explores necessary approaches to networking, course design and curriculum development. There are three levels at which these issues should be addressed: Local Network: The simplest model of an e-learning system implementation is coordinated by one primary institution through the adoption of a single system. Typically, this approach would be characterised by one technical system, one content-generating community, one administration and a single (or dominant) learning culture within the community. National Network: Partnerships between universities, colleges, research institutions and commercial partners can provide didactic frameworks for higher education. This could allow a range of diff erent approaches of experiential learning opportunities with the external partner organisations. This opens up a broader network of expertise but requires high levels of coordination and planning, collective understanding and eff ective use of online tools and a shared knowledge base. International Network: The participation and integration of a range of international partners in the design

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of curricula pose signifi cant challenges, but is emerging as a key development in the Bologna process and beyond. ICT is essential in making the internationalisation of the curriculum a reality. However, content and services must also be responsive to local cultures in order to bridge the gap between the national and international arenas. These three levels act as a framework for an exploration of the requirements and necessary competencies (social, technological and cultural) for eff ective, practical implementations of international study programmes. A case-study at the Agrarian Faculty @ Humboldt Univer-sity will investigate the aspects of networking in higher education with special concern for interests of agrarian and horticultural education. Diff erent international study programs will be examined for their use of ICT and the challenges, opportunities and individual benefi ts for students and teachers. The fundamental questions are: (a) how do aspects of diff erent learning cultures, technology settings and networks infl uence the success of international study programmes; and (b) how might virtual collaboration and knowledge construction be enhanced by relating ICT to the social background of all stake-holders? Social competencies and cultural awareness are keys attributes of eff ective and successful learning and teaching strategies.

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EDUCATION AND TRAINING

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AN ON-LINE KNOWLEDGE CENTER FOR WATER AND NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT FOR THE NURSERY AND GREENHOUSE INDUSTRYJohn D. Lea-Cox1, Cindy Zhao2, David S. Ross3, Theodore E. Bilderback4, J. Roger

Harris5, Chuanxue Hong6, Thomas H. Yeager7, William L. Bauerle8, Susan D. Day9,

Andrew G. Ristvey10, Richard C. Beeson Jr.11, John Ruter12

1University of Maryland, Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture, 2120 Plant Sciences Building, MD. 20742, USA jlc@umd.edu2University of Maryland, Maryland Cooperative Extension, 330 Montevue Lane, Frederick, MD. 21702, USA cindzhao@umd.edu3University of Maryland, Department of Environmental Science and Technology, 1431 AgEngineering Building, MD. 20742, USA dsross@umd.edu4North Carolina State University, Department of Horticultural Science, 64 Kilgore Hall, Raleigh, NC. 27695, USA ted_bilderback@ncsu.edu 5Virginia Tech and State Polytechnic University, Department of Horticulture, 401C Saunders Hall, Blacksburg, VA. 24061, USA rharris@vt.edu 6Virginia Tech and State Polytechnic University, Depart.ment of Plant Pathology, Physiology and Weed Science, 1444 Diamond Springs Road, Virginia Beach VA. 23455, USA chhong@vt.edu7University of Florida, Department of Environmental Horticulture, 2517 Fifi eld Hall, Gainesville FL. 32611. USA yeagert@ufl .edu 8Clemson University, Department of Horticulture, 150 Poole Agricultural Center, Clemson, SC. 29634. USA bauerle@clemson.edu 9Virginia Tech and State Polytechnic University, Department of Forestry, 228 Cheatham Hall, Blacksburg, VA. 24061, USA sdd@vt.edu10University of Maryland, Wye Research and Education Centre, 124 Wye Narrows Drive, Queenstown, MD. 21658. USA aristvey@umd.edu11University of Florida, Apopka Research and Education Center, 2725 Binion Rd. Apopka FL 32703. USA rcbeeson@ufl .edu 12University of Georgia, Coastal Plains Research Centre, 0224 Horticulture Building, Tifton GA. 31794. USA ruter@uga.edu

KeywordsSubstrate, irrigation, fertilization, Moodle, distance-learning

Abstract We have developed a web-based Knowledge Center for Water and Nutrient Management

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and Conservation, for the Nursery and Greenhouse Industries. This distance learning resource provides access to more than twenty intensive learning modules over the internet, using a Moodle learning management framework. Increasing environmental concerns and legislation in the Unites States and other countries require that we take a more comprehensive approach to improving cultural best management practices, since these operations are typically intensive users of resources in relatively confi ned areas. We provide the learner with an integrated knowledge base, not only of best management practices for water and nutrient management, but a comprehensive approach to surface water, pathogen and substrate related management issues. As information providers from six Universities in the United States, we are also using this knowledge base to identify gaps in our research programs that will feed back directly into our extension education programs for growers. One example of our current group research interest is in coupling sensing substrates and aerial environmental data for more precise irrigation scheduling, by using robust wireless network capabilities. Another example is integrating surface water management issues, to provide growers with better information on seasonal and spatial pathogen dynamics in containment ponds, which is a major concern for those operations that recycle irrigation water. By providing on-line access to in-depth learning modules though the Knowledge Center, we intend to reach out to producers and provide them with a comprehensive information and learning resource.

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“VIRTUAL” GREENHOUSE FOR TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE EDUCATION, K-12Al Wicks1, Jerzy Nowak2

1Department of Mechanical Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 114U Randolph Hall, Blacksburg, VA 24061 awicks@vt.edu2Department of Horticulture, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 301 Saunders Hall, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA jenowak@vt.edu

KeywordsHigh-speed links, remote control greenhouse, K-12 education

AbstractAccess to state-of -the-art research facilities is limited to relatively few major universities and research institutes. The recent advances in technology can expand the range of users of these facilities by providing direct links via the Internet. High-speed data links are now comprised of bandwidth of suffi cient capacity to accommodate command and control ability to experiments as well as transmit imaging and live video in real time.The departments of Horticulture and Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech, in conjunction with the Institute of Advanced Learning and Research in Danville, VA, have assembled the tools to create a remote control research greenhouse capability to connect K-12 students to a wide variety of educational opportunities. Within the context of horticultural education through research, is the broader expectation of providing the participants with training in biology, chemistry, mathematics and physics, as well as advanced instrumentation, signal processing, and imaging scienceThe facility consists of four remote controlled X-Y tables with a Z axis for an instrument head. A broad range of transducers and imaging hardware has been assembled to support the horticultural research activities. We plan to link these systems to a server via LabVIEW software for direct access to classrooms across the State.

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