Domestic Forest

8/18/2019 Domestic Forest

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Sumber: Ecology and society, vol. 12 no 2. Hal

Domestic Forests: A New aradigm !or "ntegrating #ocal $ommunities% Forestry into &ro'icalForest Science

(enevi)ve *ic+on 1, Hubert de Foresta 2, atrice #evang and Francois -erdeau 1

1"/D, 2"/D 0*/ A*A , "/D $"F /

• Abstract

• "ntroduction

• 3+ic+ and 3+ose &ro'ical Forest4

• &+e Domestic Forest as an b5ective $ondition o! t+e &ro'ical Forest: From t+e -isibleForests to Silvicultural *odels

o 3+at do domestic !orests +ave in common4

o &+e visible !orest and related silvicultural models

• From t+e b5ect to t+e $once't: Forest Domestication and t+e 0niversal Features o!Domestic Forests

o A close integration wit+ agriculture

o &+e 6!orest 're!erence7: a clear continuity between domestic !orest and natural!orest

o Forest domestication !or t+e maintenance o! social units

o Forest domestication as an arena o! socio8'olitical relations+i' between +uman

grou's• Forest Domestication: &+e "ntangible Dimensions

o De!ining t+e relations+i' between 'eo'le and natural com'onents

o De!ining t+e social organi9ation o! !orest use

http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#AUTHORhttp://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#AUTHORmailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#ABSTRACThttp://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#INTRODUCTION5http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#WHICHANDWHOSETROPICALFOREST?8http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#THEDOMESTICFORESThttp://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#THEDOMESTICFORESThttp://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#THEDOMESTICFORESThttp://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#commonhttp://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#visibleforesthttp://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#FROMTHEOBJECThttp://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#FROMTHEOBJECThttp://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#integrationhttp://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#preferencehttp://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#preferencehttp://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#domesticationhttp://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#domestication2http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#domestication2http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#FORESTDOMESTICATION:THEINTANGIBLEDIMENSIONS%C2%A017http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#relationshiphttp://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#Definingmailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#ABSTRACThttp://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#INTRODUCTION5http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#WHICHANDWHOSETROPICALFOREST?8http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#THEDOMESTICFORESThttp://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#THEDOMESTICFORESThttp://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#commonhttp://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#visibleforesthttp://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#FROMTHEOBJECThttp://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#FROMTHEOBJECThttp://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#integrationhttp://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#preferencehttp://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#preferencehttp://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#domesticationhttp://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#domestication2http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#domestication2http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#FORESTDOMESTICATION:THEINTANGIBLEDIMENSIONS%C2%A017http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#relationshiphttp://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#Defininghttp://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art1/main.html#AUTHOR


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• Domestic Forests: A $+allenge !or t+e Future4

• $onclusion: Ac nowledging t+e Domestic Forest as a New aradigm

• /es'onses to t+is Article

• Ac nowledgments

• #iterature $ited

A;S&/A$&

Des'ite a long +istory o! con!rontation between !orest agencies and !orest 'eo'le, 6indigenous7or 6local7 'ractices are increasingly considered as a viable alternative o! !orest management.&+is 'a'er is a synt+esis derived !rom various long8term researc+ 'rograms carried out by t+eaut+ors in Sout+east Asia and A!rica on !orests managed by !armers. &+ese researc+es loo ed atlocal 'ractices and underlying science, including t+eir social, 'olitical, and symbolic dimensions.&+ey also addressed evolutionary trends and driving !orces, as well as 'otential and limits !or!orest conservation and develo'ment, mitigation o! de!orestation, biodiversity conservation, and 'overty alleviation in a conte t o! global environmental, 'olitical, and social c+ange. 3e discuss+ow !orest management by local communities, contrary to t+e uni!ied models o! 'ro!essional!orest management, e +ibits a +ig+ +istorical and geogra'+ical diversity. &+e analysis we draw!rom t+e various e am'les we studied reveals several invariants, w+ic+ allows 'ro'osing t+euni!ying 'aradigm o! 6domestic !orest.7 &+e !irst universal !eature concerns t+e local managerst+emselves, w+o are, in t+eir vast ma5ority, !armers. *anagement 'ractices range !rom localinterventions in t+e !orest ecosystem, to more intensive ty'es o! !orest culture, and ultimately to 'ermanent !orest 'lantation. ;ut in all cases, !orest management is closely integrated wit+agriculture. &+e second universal !eature concerns t+e conce'tual continuity o! 'lanted !orestswit+ t+e natural !orest, in matters o! vegetation%s structure and com'osition as well as economictraits and ecosystem services. &+e resulting !orest is uneven8aged, com'osed o! several strata,+arboring a large diversity o! s'ecies, and 'roducing a wide range o! 'roducts, wit+ timberseldom being t+e dominant one. &+e term 6domestic !orest7 aims at +ig+lig+ting t+e closerelations+i' t+e domestication 'rocess establis+es between a s'eci!ic +uman grou', including itselementary units, t+e 6domestic units,7 and t+e !orest, trans!ormed and managed to !ul!ill t+eneeds o! t+at grou'. &+e domestic !orest 'aradigm calls !or t+e integration into !orest science o! anew conce't o! land management in w+ic+ 'roduction and conservation are com'atible, and inw+ic+ t+ere is no c+oice to be made between 'eo'le and nature. "t does not aim at contesting t+evalue o! conventional !orest science, but it 'ro'oses domestic !orests as a new scienti!ic domain,!or t+e combined bene!it o! !orest science and o! !orest 'eo'le. "t does not contest t+e value o!conventional !orest management models, but 'us+es towards more e


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=ey words: !orest management 'aradigms> indigenous !orest management> local !orestmanagement> tro'ical !orestry.

"N&/ D0$&" N

All over t+e tro'ics, !orest 'eo'le +ave develo'ed !orest management 'ractices t+at +ave 'rovent+eir e!!iciency and t+eir sustainability in accommodating local users? needs and in maintaining a+ealt+y and dynamic !orest cover over centuries @Noble and Dir9o 1 B, =Cc+li 1 B, ;o!!a1 , 3iersum 2 , $airns 2 B .

Des'ite a long +istory o! con!rontation between !orest agencies and !orest 'eo'le, t+eseindigenous or local 'ractices are increasingly considered as a viable alternative o! !orestmanagement. ;ut to w+at e tent +as t+is ac nowledgement c+anged t+e !orestry 'aradigms43+en t+e normative discourse on local !orest management gives way to real management 'lans,t+ese local !orests are generally considered as being too secondary or too degraded to serveglobal conservation ob5ectives or sustainable 'roduction goals. &+is discre'ancy re!lects t+e!ailure o! most 'ro!essional !oresters, es'ecially in develo'ing countries, to admit t+at !orestsused and trans!ormed by locals +ave a value o! t+eir own and t+at t+e social needs and valuest+roug+ w+ic+ t+ese !orests were designed and s+a'ed are legitimate and deserve consideration.

"n s'ite o! a strong move !or more local 'artici'ation in !orest management in t+e tro'ics, w+yare t+ese !orests still neglected4 ;eyond t+eir diversity, do t+ey re'resent a com're+ensive modeo! !orest management4 "! so, w+at are !orest agencies losing by ignoring t+is ty'e o!management4 3+at can be done to integrate t+ese !orests into global !orest develo'ment andconservation4

&+is 'a'er is a synt+esis derived !rom various long8term researc+ 'rograms carried out by t+eaut+ors on !orests managed by !armers in "ndonesia and #aos !rom 1 2 to 2 G, and in =enya,&an9ania, and Et+io'ia !rom 1 to 2 B. &+ese researc+es involved multidisci'linaryteamwor in et+nobotany and et+noecology, ant+ro'ology, economics, ecology, and botany.&+ey loo ed at local !orest construction 'ractices and underlying science, including t+eir social, 'olitical, and symbolic dimensions. &+ey also addressed evolutionary trends and driving !orceso! t+e resulting !orest systems, as well as 'otential and limits !or !orest conservation anddevelo'ment, mitigation o! de!orestation, biodiversity conservation, and 'overty alleviation in aconte t o! global environmental, 'olitical, and social c+ange.

;y 'ointing out t+e ma5or elements o! continuity and universality be+ind t+e +ig+ diversity o!local !orests, we de!ine t+e conce't o! 6domestic !orest.7 3e 'ro'ose to ado't t+is conce't as anew !orest management 'aradigm. ;eyond t+e common belie! in social 5ustice and e


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rede!inition o! !orest 'olicies and regulations to accommodate t+is neglected but wides'readas'ect o! !orest management and to !ully integrate its bene!its !or t+e society at large.

3H"$H AND 3H SE &/ "$A# F /ES&4

Forests +ave not always been considered as a tract o! wooded land. "n t+e early *iddle Ages inEuro'e, !orests were de!ined as a legal category o! resource management. &+e 6 foresta 7 or 6 silva

forestis 7 'rogressively became a 'ortion o! land reserved !or t+e 'rivilege o! t+e ruler@;ec+mann 1 , t+us +aving little to do wit+ nature or ecology. &+e 'reservation andmanagement o! +ig+ !orests soon became a concern to Euro'ean monarc+ies, as !orests were t+e!avorite +unting grounds o! t+e aristocracy, and were essential !or t+e building o! naval !leets. Anedict o! 12 1 by +ili''e le ;el mentions !or t+e !irst time t+e e istence o! 6masters o! watersand !orests7 @ ardI 1 J . &+e mission devoted to t+ese !orerunners o! modern !orest agencieswas clear: to 'reserve t+e !orest and its sustainable use !or t+e bene!it o! its owner. &+is legalorigin o! t+e conce't o! !orest, instituted as a 'articular domain, !uelled a !orestry ideology inw+ic+ t+e 'er'etuation o! t+e e isting !orest, in com'osition as well as in structure, o!ten becamea dogma @(uillard 1 , resulting in t+e e clusion o! !armlands, 'easants, and local treemanagement 'ractices. #ocal !armers were considered as t+e enemies o! t+e !orest andagriculture as a rival o! !orestry @3estoby 1 B . &+is 'erce'tion was trans!erred t+roug+colonial regimes to most tro'ical countries @;uttoud 1 G, ;arton 2 2, (ui9ol and Ndi umagenge 2 , ret9sc+ 2 G , w+ere it +as been maintained u' to now, es'ecially inareas w+ere agricultural land is still gained to t+e detriment o! t+e !orest. "n t+e tro'ics, !orestagencies still consider t+at !orests s+ould be managed e clusively by 'ro!essionals under acom're+ensive legal, administrative, and tec+nical regulatory !ramewor @Dove 1 2, Fay and*ic+on 2 G . $onse

• tro'ical !orests also re'resent a uni


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and conservationists, active at t+e local level t+roug+ t+e creation o! 'ar s and reserves,and at t+e global level t+roug+ t+e develo'ment o! international conventions>

• last but not least, tro'ical !orests +ave been recently invested wit+ a ey role in t+e 'rotection o! t+e global environment against global warming, as 'otential carbon sin s,

regulated and managed t+roug+ global economic and !inancial instruments @Niesten2 2, $ramer et al. 2 .

From t+e !eudal !orests o! t+e Euro'ean *iddle Ages to t+e tro'ical !orest as a globalenvironmental concern, two abiding !eatures a''ear: t+e re5ection o! local rig+ts on !orests andt+eir a''ro'riation by outsiders @3estoby 1 B , /ibot 2 1, ;arton 2 2, ;on 2 , ret9sc+2 G . -isions, norms, standards, and 'ractices related to local !orest management are ignored,w+ereas t+e reality o! t+e actual !orest is not even ac nowledged @Scott 1 J . &+oug+ !orestry,es'ecially since t+e 6Forests !or eo'le7 3orld Forestry $ongress +eld in 1 BJ in Ka arta,increasingly mentions t+e concern !or sustaining t+e liveli+oods o! !orest8de'endant 'eo'le,!orests in t+e tro'ics are still managed !or timber 'roduction, !or waters+ed 'rotection, !or

biodiversity conservation, or !or carbon storage. &+is multidimensional as'ect o! tro'ical !orestmanagement in t+e name o! 6t+e 'ublic interest7 is de!ined by s'ecialists w+o most o!ten do noteven belong to t+e tro'ical world. However, beyond timber, soil erosion, biodiversity, andcarbon, t+ere is also a tangible !orest, daily visited, +arvested, and res+a'ed by !armers. &+isentity ma es u' a +ig+ly signi!icant 'art o! t+e !orest matri in t+e tro'ics @;o!!a 1 , (ibson etal. 2 , ;elc+er et al. 2 G .

&+e attitude o! 'ro!essional !oresters, environmentalists, and scientists !rom various disci'linestoward local nowledge and !orest8related 'ractices is c+anging @Dove 1 G, -alei 1 .$entral to t+is c+ange is t+e need to incor'orate t+e ob5ectives o! local evelo'ment and o! 'overty alleviation into !orest management, but also t+e +o'e t+at local !orest users could

become t+e guardians o! t+e !orest @Forest &rends 2 2 . &+oug+ commendable, t+is s+i!t +asstill to be cou'led wit+ t+e necessary c+anges in conce'tual nd met+odological tools @Hannam2 , *ayers and ;ass 2 , =umar and =ant 2 , &emu et al. 2 . artici'ation is t+eu99word, w+ic+ is some+ow revolutionary, given t+e centuries o! im'osed !orest regimes.However, management de!ined a 'riori and 'ursuing e ogenous ob5ectives, e.g., biodiversityconservation, timber 'roduction, or environmental services, w+ic+ seldom relate to ocalob5ectives @Dove 1 G, $astro and Nielsen 2 1, Se +ar and Korgensen 2 . Foresters,environmentalists, and scientists always see local !orests t+roug+ t+e 'rism o! an ideal, 'rimary!orest. "! local !orest management is 'raised, t+en e isting local !orests, w+atever t+eir structureand com'osition, are generally considered degraded, transitional, or secondary @Fair+ead and#eac+ 1 . $ontrary to timber concessions and !orest reserves, local !orests are not seen as a

concrete and ob5ective condition o! t+e tro'ical !orest, and are barely considered as resulting!rom a voluntary management system in w+ic+ !armers% ob5ectives and !orest dynamics arecom'lementary. &+ere is not even a s'eci!ic word to designate t+em. Are t+ey local !orests @#ongand Nair 1 , $ol!er and ;yron 2 1, S+err et al. 2 1 , community !orests @;is+o' 1 1,Arnold 1 J, 3ollenberg 2 1, =usel 2 , traditional !orests @Harts+orn 1 G, =ellman and&ac aberry 1 B , sacred !orests @(adgil and -arta 1 B , Ku+I8;eaulaton and /oussel 1 J,;yers et al. 2 1 , 'easant !orests @;alent 1 , "c+i awa 1 J, $inotti and Normandin 2 2 ,!orest gardens @3iersum 2 , ;elc+er et al. 2 G , agro!orests@*ic+on and de Foresta 1 ,


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intermediate systems @Angelsen et al. 2 , 3iersum 2 4 Are t+ey better c+aracteri9ed by t+et+nicity o! t+eir managers: t+e =aya'o !orest @ osey 1 JG , t+e A a 'ygmies !orest @;a+uc+et1 JG , t+e "!ugao !orest @$on lin 1 G 4 &+is lac o! 'ro'er terminology re!lects a lac o!conce'tuali9ation, and i! not+ing generic is said about t+ese 'articular !orests, t+ey willinde!initely remain a nonconce't in !orestry and !orest management. ;ut is conce'tuali9ation

'ossible43e 'ro'ose to call t+ese !orests domestic !orests. Domestic +ere does not re!er to national, but to bot+ t+e 'rocess o! domestication and t+e relation to a +ouse+old or to a grou' o! +ouse+olds.&+e term domestic !orest aims at +ig+lig+ting t+e close relations+i' t+e domestication 'rocessestablis+es between a s'eci!ic +uman grou', including its elementary units, i.e., t+e domesticunits, and t+e !orest, trans!ormed and managed to !ul!ill t+e needs o! t+at grou' @Sc+lai!er 1 B,-erdeau 2 , *ic+on 2 G .

&HE D *ES&"$ F /ES& AS AN ;KE$&"-E $ ND"&" N F &HE &/ "$A# F /ES&:F/ * &HE -"S";#E F /ES&S & S"#-"$0#&0/A# * DE#S

3+at do domestic !orests +ave in common4

Domestic !orests are site s'eci!ic by nature. &o be integrated into global !orest management,some universal !eatures must emerge !rom t+e various tec+nical, structural, economic, and socialdimensions o! t+ese !orests.

&+e !irst universal !eature concerns t+e local managers t+emselves. &+ey are, in t+eir vastma5ority, !armers. &+ey secure t+eir subsistence and income t+roug+ 'roduction, be it o! annualcro's, animal +usbandry, or tree cro's. Forest management is one obvious com'onent o! t+eir!arming system, and we could t+ere!ore tal o! 6!armers6 !orest.7

As an ob5ect, t+e domestic !orest can be de!ined as t+e sum o! t+e di!!erent !orest ecological unitst+at co8e ist in a given landsca'e. &+ese units are derived !rom natural !orests t+roug+ various 'ractices including selective clearing as well as slas+ing and burning, discrete 'rotection o!native !orest s'ecies, as well as 'lantation o! native or introduced s'ecies, monitoring, ormani'ulation o! natural 'roduction 'rocesses, as well as deliberate intervention in natural cycles.

#et us !irst elaborate on t+e visible !orest and s+ow +ow general silvicultural 'atterns and modelscan be drawn !rom t+e multi'le e isting e am'les @*ic+on and de Foresta 1 , 3iersum 2 .

&+e visible !orest and related silvicultural models

A w+ole range o! management 'ractices aims at intervening locally in t+e !orest ecosystem to!avor 'articular s'ecies. &+ese 'ractices are +ig+ly locali9ed and integrated wit+in t+e e isting!orest matri . &+ey can involve slas+ing bus+es orliana around valued s'ecies, o'ening t+ecano'y or !ostering s+ade, t+inning out clum'ing s'ecies, or deliberately 'lanting seedlings orwildlings in suitable locations. &+ere are various degrees in management intensity, in 'ractices,


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and in visible im'acts. &+e resulting !orest can bear only transient signs o! +uman activity, suc+as t+e relatively +ig+ density o! yams in t+e ygmies% !orests in $ameroon @Dounias 1 , or o!ruit trees in t+e =ubu%s !orests in Sumatra @Sandbu t 1 J2 . "t can also a''ear as s'ots o!modi!ied vegetation in a matri o! more or less undisturbed !orest. &+e most !amous e am'le ist+e Euter'e 'alm !orests o! t+e Ama9on estuary, w+ic+ are managed !or t+e 'roduction o! 5uice

and 'alm +eart @Anderson 1 JJ, Em'eraire 1 B . &+e same 'rocess e ists in Sout+east Asia !ort+e sago 'alm, Metroxylon sagu @;arrau 1 G . t+er e am'les include t+e creation o! ;ra9il nutgroves in Ama9onia @#escure 1 G , and o! !ruit tree groves in mainland ;orneo @Seibert 1 J"n #aos, !orests are managed !or cardamom 'roduction @Aubertin 2 , Fo''es and =et'+an+2 , in nort+ern &+ailand !ormiang tea 'roduction @3atanabe et al., 1 , in central ;orneo!or rattan 'roduction @(odoy and Feaw 1 J , (arcLa8FernMnde9 2 1 , in sout+west Et+io'ia !or co!!ee and s'ice 'roduction @Senbeta and Denic+ 2 , etc.

However, more intensive ty'es o! !orest culture can also be !ound. &+ese involve a cultivated '+ase 'ur'osely integrated and maintained wit+in t+e !orest matri , s+owing greater and longer8term interactions between +uman e!!orts and natural !orest cycles. "n t+e e am'le o! ben9oin

cultivation develo'ed by ;ata &oba 'eo'le in Nort+ Sumatra @3atanabe et al. 1 , (arcLa8FernMnde9 et al. 2 , t+e silvicultural 'attern integrates a medium8term '+ase o! !orest 'roduction into a global continuum o! old and successional !orest. ;en9oin tree @Styrax benzoin ,a medium8si9ed tree 'roducing a !ragrant resin, is introduced as seedlings in t+e undergrowt+ o!a 'atc+ o! 'ristine mountain !orest. As ben9oin develo's, cano'y trees and ot+er undergrowt+s'ecies are selectively cut, so t+at t+e mani'ulated !orest turns into a ben9oin garden. As long astrees are ta''ed !rom year 1 to , t+e garden is more or less care!ully maintained. "t is t+engradually abandoned and reverts to a ty'ical successional !orest. Several decades later, t+e !orestcan eventually be reused !or ben9oin 'roduction @Figs 1 and 2 .

"n ot+er cases, t+e integration o! 'lanted trees leads to a 'ermanent agro!orestry system: in +ig+elevation areas o! sout+ern Et+io'ia !or instance, many co!!ee agro!orests @Fig. result !rom t+ere'lacement o! t+e undergrowt+ o! natural !orests by co!!ee trees, 'lanted along wit+ ot+er use!ulcro's suc+ as Ensete ventricosa , w+ereas most trees o! t+e natural !orest cano'y are conserved@Abebe 2 G . &+e same ind o! co!!ee agro!orest system +as been develo'ed in =arnata a,"ndia @De'ommier 2 .

Anot+er e am'le o! domestic !orest, certainly t+e largest in terms o! area covered, is directlylin ed to !ood cro' 'roduction. "t consists o! t+e various stages o! regrowt+ or !orest !allowslin ed to t+e swidden cultivation cycle. 0nli e t+e management models 'resented above, t+eoriginal !orest ecosystem is more8or8less com'letely removed, and a new !orest is allowed toregenerate. &+is !orest is generally classi!ied by biologists as degraded or secondary. For local!armers +owever, it is an integral and essential 'art o! t+e swidden cultivation system @$on lin1 G , $ol!er et al. 1 B, #evang et al. 1 B . *any o! t+ese !orest !allows are actually enric+edt+roug+ 'lantation @;alee and (ely 1 J , $airns 2 B !or !ruit 'roduction, restoration o! soil!ertility or !or +unting 'ur'oses. "n some cases, t+e swidden is totally 'lanted wit+ trees, and t+e!allow becomes t+e main com'onent o! t+e swidden cultivation cycle, as in t+e numerouse am'les o! rotational !orest 'lantations in "ndonesia @*ic+on and de Foresta 1 . "n=alimantan !or instance, rattan is intercro''ed wit+ u'land rice in t+e swiddens, and grows u' int+e regenerating !orest, along wit+ s'ontaneous !allow trees. /attan can be +arvested !rom J yr


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a!ter 'lanting, and 'roduces !or t+e !ollowing 2 to G yr. &+e rattan garden is t+en recycledt+roug+ slas+ing and burning !or a new rice8and8rattan succession. E ce't !or its e ce'tionally+ig+ density o! rattan and ot+er use!ul s'ecies, it structurally resembles a dense, naturallyregenerated secondary !orest @Fried 2 , (arcLa8FernMnde9 2 1 . "n t+e lowlands o! Sumatraand =alimantan, rubber gardens, also nown as rubber agro!orests, constitute anot+er

outstanding e am'le o! rotational !orest 'roduction @(ouyon et al. 1 , Dove 1 , 1 wit+cycles ranging !rom to B yr @Fig. . Due to t+ese long cycles, combined wit+ tending 'ractices t+at encourage enric+ment 'lanting, rubber gardens +arbor a considerable number o! 'lant s'ecies. &+is +al!8managed ric+ness allows !or t+e 'rovision o! 'lant !oods and material,timber, and game @Fig. G , and t+ese com'ensate, at least 'artly, !or a lower late 'roductivity.;eside t+is economic im'ortance !or !armers, rubber gardens 'lay a determining role in t+econservation o! 'lant and animal biodiversity in t+e lowlands. &+is role is dramaticallyincreasing wit+ t+e 'resent de'letion o! t+e last unlogged di'terocar' !orests @de Foresta 1 2 .

#ast but not least are t+e domestic !orests consisting o! 'ermanent !orest 'lantation @*ic+on andde Foresta 1 . As t+e a!orementioned rotational !orest model, t+ese !orests arise !rom t+e

slas+ing and burning o! t+e original !orest ecosystem, wit+ tree seedlings 'lanted wit+in t+eswidden. &+ey evolve t+roug+ gradual !orest reconstruction involving 'lantation, 'rotection,selection, and !acilitation o! t+e natural regeneration 'rocesses. nce develo'ed, t+e 'lanted!orest will re'roduce itsel! wit+out disru'tion in structural or !unctional 'atterns, t+an s to a balanced combination o! antici'ated re'lacement o! decaying individuals, mimetic ga' 'lanting,and res'ect o! natural dynamics, w+ic+ all allow !urt+er diversi!ication t+roug+ t+e coloni9ationo! many !orest s'ecies among t+e cultivated stand. A!ter several decades, t+e !orest 'lantation isstructurally close to an old secondary !orest, wit+ t+e restoration o! t+e global ecological !eatureso! a diversi!ied !orest ecosystem. Some very interesting models o! integral !orest 'lantation +ave been described in "ndonesia @&or


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@Vitellaria paradoxa , baobab @ Adansonia digitata and Faidherbia albida , along wit+ manyot+er s'ecies are !avored, 'lanted, and managed by local !armers, 'er!ectly integratingagriculture and !orestry @ Ilissier 1 , Seignobos 1 J2, /aison 1 JJ, ;o!!a 1 .

All t+ese silvicultural models are not e clusive in t+e sense t+at t+ey usually coe ist wit+ ot+ers

in a single location> t+e domestic !orest being com'osed o! a mosaic o! di!!erent units t+at may be related to one or anot+er o! t+e above models.

F/ * &HE ;KE$& & &HE $ N$E &: F /ES& D *ES&"$A&" N AND &HE0N"-E/SA# FEA&0/ES F D *ES&"$ F /ES&S

&+e various domestic !orest !acets e 'osed above reveal two ma5or underlying 'rinci'les t+at arelac ing in conventional silviculture: a close integration wit+ agriculture, and a conce'tualcontinuity o! 'lanted !orests wit+ t+e natural !orest.

A close integration wit+ agriculture

ro!essional !orestry develo'ed !irst t+roug+ !encing in t+e !orest to 'rotect it !rom !armers@/ietbergen 2 1 . n t+e contrary, t+e domestic !orest did develo' and succeed 'recisely because o! its close articulation wit+ swidden cultivation. &+e 'ractice o! !allowing 'lays +ere acatalytic role !or t+e establis+ment and develo'ment o! t+e !orest, w+ereas t+e dynamics o!cyclic 'roduction su''orts its long8term maintenance and re'roduction, not to mention economicand social com'lementarities. ;eyond t+is tec+nical and socioeconomic articulation, t+ere is alsoa real symbiosis between swidden cultivation and domestic !orest management. Agricultural and!orest8related 'ractices are coevolving and t+is coevolution is usually 'ositive !or bot+ sides, as it+as !acilitated t+e emergence o! a 'ro!itable !orest culture and +as in turn dee'ly c+anged t+edynamics o! swidden agriculture @Dove 1 , #evang et al. 1 B .

Foresters +ave o!ten denied t+at !orest 'lantations can be 'ro!itable at t+e small+older%s scale int+e tro'ics @Dove 1 2, Evans 1 2 . Domestic !orests do 'rove t+e contrary. &+e estimated 2 1 +a o! rubber agro!orests, and G , +a o! Damar agro!orests in Sumatra are brilliante am'les o! small+older?s success in !orest culture @*ic+on et de Foresta 1 . &+e swidden+as been central to t+is success. "n return, t+e develo'ment o! t+e 'lanted !orest +as allowed a


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@S+e'erd et al. 1 , ;o!!a 1 , ;odin et al. 2 .

&+e 6!orest 're!erence7: a clear continuity between domestic !orest and natural !orest

ro!essional !oresters o!ten stress t+at t+e only way to rationali9e costs and ma imi9e bene!its in

modern !orestry, as in modern agriculture, relies on an arti!icial sim'li!ication o! structures, andt+at tree cro' diversity, i! tec+nically !easible, is not economically desirable @Evans 1 2,3ormald 1 2 . "n t+e tro'ics, t+is 'roductivist a''roac+ +as induced a clear dissociation between !orest 'lantations and natural !orests. lantations deal mainly wit+ s+ort8lived trees'ecies @ Acacia Eucalyptus !melina ,


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F /ES& D *ES&"$A&" N: &HE "N&AN(";#E D"*ENS" NS

*odels and conce'ts related to !orest management do not deal only wit+ tec+ni


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elementary units de!ine t+eir relation wit+ !orest elements. "ts modalities are again s'eci!ic toevery local grou', but t+ey 'resent a number o! commonalities:

• Socially, !orest domestication is always de!ined by t+e grou' at t+e grou'%s level, evenw+en it incor'orates norms or rules develo'ed at e tra8local levels. "t is ac nowledged

and res'ected by all t+e members o! t+e grou' @*ic+on et al. 2 , -erdeau 2 . &+iscomes in contrast wit+ t+e various models o! community !orestry and ot+er ty'es o!devolution 'rocesses to local grou's, broug+t !rom outside wit+ im'orted visions o!!orest, community, and management>

• &+e rig+ts system o!ten ac+ieves an integrated balance between t+e rig+ts and needs o!t+e domestic units and t+ose o! t+e w+ole grou'. &+e 'ractices t+at s+a'e t+e !orestlogically induce long8term rig+ts to users, w+ic+ ensure t+e long8term re'roduction o! t+e!orest units w+ile consolidating t+at o! related domestic units. ;ut t+ese rig+ts are bound by collective institutions and rules aimed at ensuring t+e long8term maintenance o! t+ew+ole !orest system as a basis !or t+e social re'roduction o! t+e w+ole grou' @ eluso

1 , *ic+on 2 G . &+ese rules s'eci!y t+at 'ro'erty rig+ts on !orest land and resourcesare inalienable outside t+e grou', and set t+e social norms !or inter8generationaltransmission>

• &+e association between local and collective rig+ts results in t+e 'iling u' o! socials'aces in t+e !orest. As a result, t+e a''ro'riation regime is neit+er 'rivate nor common 'ro'erty. At 'lot level, !orest resources are owned and managed 'rimarily by onedomestic unit !or s'eci!ic 'ur'oses, but ot+er units, or s'eci!ic grou's o! 'eo'le in t+ecommunity, may +ave di!!erent rig+ts on t+e same s'ace, regarding t+e same, or di!!erent,resources @*ic+on et al. 2 , ;ouamrane and *ic+on 2 . &+is 'iling u' may !adeaway in 'lanted !orests w+ere land itsel! +as become a ma5or resource, but t+e multi'le8use multi'le8users as'ect 'ersists !or secondary resources.

Forest domestication !or t+e maintenance o! social units

&+e domesticated !orest is mainly targeted at sustaining t+e liveli+ood o! elementary units. &+is!irst !unction is ac+ieved t+roug+ t+e 'rovision o! subsistence and cas+ bene!its !or consum'tionor distribution. Forest 'lots are always an im'ortant element in +ouse+old economics. &+ey arecommonly associated to ot+er 'roductive activities and contribute to t+eir economicre'roduction. As a trans!erable 'atrimony, t+e a''ro'riated !orest resources also re'resent t+ematerial and symbolic !oundation o! domestic units, and t+e necessary condition o! t+eir socialre'roduction. "n t+e same way, t+e w+ole !orest system, even w+en divided into individual 'lots,

constitutes t+e indivisible material and symbolic !oundation o! t+e grou' and +el's 'reserving broader interests. As it embodies t+e grou'%s social relations+i' system, it is essential to itsco+esion and durability. Forest domestication t+ere!ore lin s t+e biological sustainability o! a!orest8based 'roductive system to bot+ t+e re'roduction o! t+e social system and to t+e economicsustainability o! t+e embedded domestic units. $reating and maintaining t+is lin is not usuallyt+e concern o! conventional !orest management. "n t+e same way, t+e organic bond betweenindividual and collective action and interests contrasts wit+ t+e divide between t+eindividual 'rivate and t+e collective 'ublic s'+eres t+at o!ten c+aracteri9es conventional !orestry.


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Forest domestication as an arena o! socio8'olitical relations+i' between +uman grou's

Forest domestication is closely related to t+e construction o! t+e relations+i' o! t+e local grou'

wit+ outsiders. "t creates modi!ied !orest structures grounded in delineated s'aces t+at can easily be recogni9ed by outsiders, and t+at are associated wit+ easy to e 'ress 'ro'erty rig+ts and ot+erlocally s'eci!ic social attributes. "t t+ere!ore re'resents a ma5or contribution in t+e de!inition andt+e 'er'etuation o! a territory: a 'ortion o! a''ro'riated land belonging to a s'eci!ic grou',w+ic+ is ac nowledged by neig+boring grou's.

&+is notion o! 'ermanent territory is inse'arable !rom t+e notion o! identity. "dentity rein!orcest+e emergence, t+e validation, or t+e re'roduction o! t+e territory. ;ecause t+e domestic !orestconstitutes t+e economic and social !oundation o! t+e domestic units, !orest domesticationre'resents a ma5or element in de!ining t+e identity o! t+e w+ole grou', t+roug+ a double bond:t+e !orest is a''ro'riated, and t+ere!ore belongs to t+e grou' and is 'art o! its own +istory, but in

t+e same time, t+e grou' +as a strong sense o! belonging to t+at 'articular !orest, i.e., it is 'art o!t+e natural +istory o! t+at !orest.

However '+ysically and socially rooted t+ese domestic !orests may be, t+eir very e istence isgenerally denied by global 'olitical institutions w+o neit+er consider domestic !orests as alegitimate and a''ro'riated territory nor as a valuable land8use system. &+is lac o!ac nowledgement constitutes a 'ermanent !eature, bot+ t+roug+ +istory and countries.

D *ES&"$ F /ES&S: A $HA##EN(E F / &HE F0&0/E4

ur studies on t+e evolution o! domestic !orests in "ndonesia @Angelsen et al. 2 , as well asrelated studies in A!rica and Sout+east Asia @-erdeau 1 , Asb5Ornsen et al. 2 +aveillustrated +ow t+e construction, develo'ment, or colla'se o! domestic !orests is o!ten related tot+e 'ower relations+i' between local grou's and 'olitically dominant institutions. t+er studies@Dounias 2 , /u! 2 1 +ave s+own t+e evolution !rom monocro' 'lantations to agro!orestsand domestic !orests, due to tec+nical and economic !actors. ur recent observations in"ndonesia s+ow an o''osite evolution. "n t+e 'resent conte t o! decentrali9ation and strongin!luence o! globali9ation, 'articularly wit+ t+e increasing demand o! $+ina !or raw material,e.g., rubber, 'alm oil, domestic !orests tend to evolve into monocro' 'lantations. /ecently inSumatra t+ere +as been a clear tendency among small+olders to re'lace old rubber agro!orests by 'ure rubber 'lantations and even by oil 'alm 'lantations @E adinata and -incent 2 G . 3+ereastea +as been introduced on all !armlands in #am'ung, isolated or on borders !irst, sometimes asa single cro' on t+e w+ole 'lots, damar agro!orest owners o!ten consider selling t+eir damar treesas timber to recently establis+ed local sawmills. Nowadays many !amilies bene!it !rom regularincome deriving !rom o!!8!arm activities. !ten, !arming is no longer considered !or subsistence but as a source o! additional cas+ income. &+e most !avored o''ortunities are t+ose t+at securet+e land +olding, need little labour and su'ervision, and 'rovide +ig+ returns. *onocro' tree 'lantations su''ly t+ese services better t+an domestic !orests. &+is trend +as also been recently


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observed in ;orneo @ otter 2 1, 2 and Kava @ ari esit et al. 2 . "n t+is era o! agrariatransition, wit+ strong economic as well as 'olitical incentives !or a new develo'ment o!small+olders% 'lantation cro's !or bio!uels or !or carbon storage, domestic !orests are notdisa''earing but c+anging, and it mig+t be too soon to !oresee t+eir !uture.

$ N$#0S" N: A$=N 3#ED("N( &HE 6D *ES&"$ F /ES&7 AS A NE3 A/AD"(*

&+e 'rocess o! !orest domestication by local grou's, t+roug+ its combined material andimmaterial dimensions, results in t+e creation o! a 'articular !orest s'ace structured by bot+ t+ew+ole grou' and its domestic units. &+is !orest s'ace su''orts altoget+er local liveli+oods,culture, and socio8'olitical relations+i's bot+ wit+in t+e grou' and wit+ t+e outside world.Alt+oug+ t+e resulting !orest systems range !rom 'unctual management o! wild resources toentirely reconstructed !orest ecosystems, t+is s'ace, t+at we +ave called domestic !orest, can beanaly9ed as a com're+ensive model e +ibiting invariant !eatures.

&+e domestic !orest constitutes a s'eci!ic category o! !orest management w+ic+ clearly di!!ers!rom classic or more modern 'ro!essional !orestry as e 'osed in te tboo s suc+ as ancel 1 ,or more recently Higman et al. 2 G in terms o! '+ysical and '+ysiognomic com'onents, o!!unctions and bene!its, o! tec+ni


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1 BJ and t+e 3orld Forestry $ongress, social !orestry 'rograms +ave develo'ed everyw+ere andare s+own as 'roo!s t+at !orestry now cares !or t+e rural 'eo'le @Dove 1 G . ;ut t+ese 'rograms+ave been added to ot+er !orestry 'rograms wit+ no ma5or c+ange in t+e organi9ation and!unctioning o! !orest agencies, as i! all 'rograms were o! t+e same nature. -ery !ew too intoaccount t+e s'eci!icities !orestry is con!ronted wit+ in su''orting rural 'eo'les% liveli+oods. Suc+

s'eci!icities were recogni9ed by a +and!ul o! enlig+tened !oresters suc+ as Kac 3estoby w+o, in+is o'ening address to t+e Jt+ 3orld Forestry $ongress in 1 BJ, insisted t+at agriculture8su''ortive !orestry activities 6are activities t+at cannot be carried out on t+e re


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+y'erlin ed to t+e article. &o submit a res'onse, !ollowt+is lin . &o read res'onses alreadyacce'ted, !ollow t+is lin

A$=N 3#ED(*EN&S

"he authors #ant to thank the E$ for the financial support to the F%&&ESAS'A programme ondomestic forests ()**+,-..)/ as #ell as '0&AF (the 1orld Agroforestry 0enter/ and 0'F%&(the 0enter for 'nternational Forest &esearch/ for the material support and the researchenvironment they provided to our successive pro2ects bet#een )**3 and -..45 1e also #ant tothank colleagues #ho provided comments and remarks #hich greatly helped to improve themanuscript #ith a special mention to the t#o anonymous referees for their valuable inputs andcomments5

#"&E/A&0/E $"&ED

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*chro%h, G., &. A. Har8e(, and G. "incen%. 2 a . $om'le agro!orests: t+eir structure,diversity and 'otential role in landsca'e conservation. ages 22B82 in (. Sc+rot+, (. A. ;. daFonseca, $. A. Harvey, $. (ascon, H. #. -asconcelos, and A.8*. N. "9ac, editors. Agroforestryand biodiversity conservation in tropical landscapes5 "sland ress, 3as+ington D.$., 0SA.

*chro%h, G., ". H. ;. Moraes, and M. *. *. da Mo%a. 2 b. "ncreasing t+e 'ro!itability o!traditional, 'lanted rubber agro!orests at t+e &a'a5[s river, ;ra9ilian Ama9on. Agriculture

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*unda a%i, . 1 . &+e Daya garden systems in Sanggau, 3est =alimantan: an agro!orestrymodel. &+esis, (eorg8August 0niversity, (Yttingen, (ermany.

*u(an%o, T. P. To'ich, and 1. ?%su$a. 2 1. #and tenure and !arm management e!!iciency: t+ecase o! small+older rubber 'roduction in customary land areas in Sumatra. Agroforestry Systems

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"/D $entre de *ont'ellier /esearc+ 0nit 1 J, ; G 1,

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Domestic Forest

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