Does Your Instruction Rate 5 Stars? First Principles of Instruction M. David Merrill Professor Utah...
-
Upload
kevin-carroll -
Category
Documents
-
view
231 -
download
0
Transcript of Does Your Instruction Rate 5 Stars? First Principles of Instruction M. David Merrill Professor Utah...
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Does Your Instruction Rate 5 Stars?
First Principles of Instruction
M. David Merrill
ProfessorUtah State University
22
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Case Study Elements of Market Strategy
Brief Text
Graphic
Audio -- narrator reads text
Define Marketing
Marketing is a word you hear or use almost daily.
You probably know several ways the term is used. As you focus on writing a strategic marketing plan, be sure your team agrees on some common definitions, so you are all clear about what the plan is to accomplish. How would you define marketing?
33
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Case Study Elements of Market Strategy
Inserted Questions
Because competition changes the market so quickly, the smart move is to have an ongoing process in your business for developing your market strategy for each product or service.
Choose the statement below that's true.
__ Strategic marketing planning is primarily for larger companies.
__ Every business that wants to succeed should make marketing strategy a continuous process.
44
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Course Evaluation Content
– Accurate, appropriate, tools
Design & Delivery Web optimized? Function? Enhance learning? Apply skills in simulations or scenarios? Customize? Relevant assessment? Learning styles? Navigation?
Value Better than alternatives? Worth the time and money?
www.onlinelearningguide.com
55
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Under content they state:
"The information provided in the course is clear, but overall the lesson fails to engage. Although the concepts involved in a marketing strategy are covered, the course fails to give good, concrete steps and detail for when you actually sit down to make a strategic marketing plan. The result is limited retention and limited applicability."
Under Design and delivery they state:
"Interactivity is limited to learner assessments, which include feedback. Assessments are offered before, during, and following lesson units."
Under value they state:
"The course is fair value for managers, who need an introduction to marketing strategy."
They give the course 2 1/2 stars on their 5 star rating system.
Lguide.com evaluation
66
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
My Evaluation
Marketing concepts -- no examples Assessment - remember information not application Based on Effective Instructional Strategies
– Not Problem-based – No Activation of previous experience– No Demonstration– No Application– No Integration
No stars!
Introduction to Marketing is ineffective instruction.
77
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
First Principles of Instruction
Many instructional design theories and models have fundamental underlying principles in common?
A principle is a relationship that is always true under appropriate conditions
regardless of program or practice.
88
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Levels of Design Theory
Instructional design theory, as represented in Reigeluth (1999), varies from basic descriptive laws about learning to broad curriculum programs that concentrate on what is taught rather than on how to teach.
Do all of these design theories and models have equal value?
Are all of these design theories and models merely alternative ways to approach design?
Do these design theories and models have fundamental underlying principles in common?
If so, what are these underlying principles?
99
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Principles, Programs, Practices
Practice -- a specific instructional activity
Program -- an approach consisting of a set of prescribed
practices.
Principle -- a relationships that is always true under
appropriate conditions regardless of program or practice.
Practices always implement or fail to implement underlying
principles whether they are specified or not.
1010
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Instructional Practice
What is an instructional practice? It is what a given designer or trainer/teacher does to implement instruction.
A given instructional principle can usually be implemented via a wide variety of practices.
If a given practice fails to implement the relevant underlying principle there will be a decrement in learning.
1111
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Instructional Programs
What is an instructional program? – It is prescribed set of instructional practices.
Instructional approaches may facilitate the implementation of one or more instructional principles.
If the practices prescribed by the program do not implement underlying principles, then there will be a decrement in learning.
1212
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Example Program with Practices
Lewis, Watson, Schaps (In Reigeluth) Social, Ethical, and Intellectual Development -- Education’s Full Mission
Program– Literature Based Reading
Practices– Select books rich in social and ethical themes (content)
– Partner Reading
– Read aloud
– Promote values (e.g. Ask “How can we help our partners?”)
What are the prescriptive principles required?
1313
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Example Program with Practices
Kovalik & McGeehan (In Reigeluth)
Program– Integrated Thematic Instruction (ITI)
Practices– Create a year long theme, monthly components, weekly topics
– Select a physical location or event (field trip)
– Identify key points (statement of concept, significant knowledge or skill)
– Write inquiries and assessment
• “Using a topographical map of our area, determine the boundaries of our watershed. Draw a map to scale. Include our school, major roads, and a dozen other well known reference points.”
Very broad setting for learning. What are prescriptive principles involved?
1414
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Instructional Principles
What is a principle? It is a relationship that is always true under appropriate conditions regardless of program or practice.
Parsimony would dictate that there should be only a few
instructional design principles that can support a wide variety of instructional programs and practices.
1515
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
First Principles of Instruction
Premise: Many instructional design theories and models have fundamental underlying principles in common?
Agenda: Identify these underlying first principles?
A principle is a relationship that is always true under appropriate conditions
regardless of program or practice.
1616
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Hypotheses
Learning from a given program will be facilitated in direct proportion to the implementation of these first principles.
Learning from a given program will be facilitated in direct proportion to the degree that these principles are explicitly implemented rather than haphazardly implemented.
1717
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Method of Inquiry
Analyze instructional theories and models to extract general first
principles.
Identify the cognitive processes associated with each principle.
Identify empirical support for the principles.
Describe the implementation of the principles in a variety of different instructional theories and models.
Identify prescriptions for instructional design associated with these principles.
1818
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Areas of Investigation
Instructional Design Models
Knowledge Objects
Cognition & Mental Models
Automated Instructional
Design
First Principles of Instruction
Meta-Mental Models
1919
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Cognition -- A Simplified View
Associative Memory– Propositions– Rules– Automation
Schematic Memory– Schemata– Mental Models– Problem Solving
Data Structures + ProcessesDeclarative + Procedural
2020
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Some Cognitive Principles
Isolated actions and operations processed by associative memory. Information-about processed by associative memory.
Problem solving requires schematic memory New schema are built by tuning and restructuring existing schema. Mental models operate on tasks and problems. Problem solving is selecting a mental model and processing the new
information via the mental model. Mental models develop slowly via successive tuning and restructuring Problems of conceptualization, planning, and interpretation are
processed via mental models.
2121
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Cardinal Principles of Instruction
The Cognitive Structure Principle• … the development of that cognitive structure that is
most consistent with the desired learned performance.
The Elaboration Principle• … incremental elaboration for increased generality
and complexity
The Learner Guidance Principle• … active cognitive processing
The Practice Principle• … monitored learner performance with feedback
2222
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
First Principles of Instruction
Learning is facilitated when …
the learner is engaged in solving a real-world problem.
new knowledge builds on the learner’s existing
knowledge.
new knowledge is demonstrated to the learner.
new knowledge is applied by the learner.
new knowledge is integrated into the learner’s world.
2323
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
First Principles of Instruction
Problem
Activation
DemonstrationApplication
Integration
2424
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Bransford -- Star Legacy
The Challenges
Generate Ideas
Multiple Perspectives
Research & Revise
Test Your Mettle
Go Public
Look ahead
Reflect back
2525
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
McCarthy 4-MAT
11
223344
MeaningMeaning
ConceptualizingConceptualizingOperationalizingOperationalizing
RenewingRenewingConnect, Examine
Image, DefineTry, Extend
Refine, Integrate
share, dialogue, reflect
acquire knowledge, understand theoryact, practice, tinker
adapt, re-present, share, renew
WHY?WHY?IF?IF?
WHAT?WHAT?HOW?HOW?
2626
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Andre -- Instructional Episode
Activate phase– activate preexisting knowledge or motivational structures
Instruction phase– types of information provided
– how learners are encourages to process information and relate it to preexisting knowledge
Feedback phase– types of performances that are encouraged
– types of information provided as a result of the learner’s performance
2727
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Problem
Learning is facilitated when … the learner is engaged in solving a real-world problem. The learner is engaged at the problem or task level not just
the operation or action level. the learner solves a progression of problems.
the learner is guided to an explicit comparison of problems.
Problems promote acquisition, elaboration, and use of mental
models rather than only associative memory.
2828
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Activation
Learning is facilitated when … the learner is directed to recall, relate, describe, or apply
knowledge from relevant past experience that can be used as a foundation for the new knowledge.
the learner is provided relevant experience that can be used as a foundation for the new knowledge.
Activates a mental model appropriate for restructuring or tuning.
2929
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Demonstration
Learning is facilitated when … the learner is shown as well as told. the demonstration is consistent with the learning goal. the learner is directed to relevant information. the learner is shown multiple representations. the learner is directed to explicitly compare alternative
representations. media plays a relevant instructional role.
Instantiates the mental model.
3030
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Application
Learning is facilitated when … the learner is required to use his/her new knowledge to solve
problems. this problem solving activity is consistent with the learning
goal. the leaner is shown how to detect and correct errors. the learner is guided in his/her problem solving by appropriate
coaching that is gradually withdrawn.
Enables the student to restructure and tune the mental model.
3131
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Integration
Learning is facilitated when …
the learner can demonstrate his/her new knowledge and skill.
the learner can reflect-on, discuss, and defend his/her new
knowledge.
the learner can create, invent, and explore new and personal
ways to use his/her new knowledge.
Promotes association among mental models and increased
generalizability.
3232
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Gardner -- Multple Approches to Understanding --
“You’ll never understand the theory unless you [publicly] apply it.” p. 74
Activation– Entry points. “… one begins by finding a way to engage the
students and to place them centrally within the topic.” p. 81 Defines different types of entry points.
– Telling analogies. “..come up with instructional analogies, drawn from material that is already understood.” P. 82
3333
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Gardner (cont.)
Demonstration – “… portray the topic in a number of ways.” p. 85
Application– … [provide] many [and varied] opportunities for
practice.” p. 86 Integration
– “… display one’s comprehension … in a publicly justified manner.”
3434
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Nelson Collaborative Problem Solving
Build readiness -- (Activation)– Form and norm groups
– determine a preliminary problem definition
– define and assign roles
Engage in an iterative collaborative problem solving process -- (Application)– finalize the solution
Synthesize and Reflect -- (integration)– Assess products and processes
3535
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Jonassen --Constructivist Learning Environments The model conceives of a problem … as the focus of the
environment, … Jonassen, 1999– Modeling -- demonstration– Coaching -- application– Scaffolding -- sequence of cases
• Related cases • worked examples• multiple perspectives• selectable information just-in-time• cognitive (knowledge construction tools)
– task representation tools
– performance support tools
– information gathering tools
– Provoke reflection, Perturb Learner’s models -- integration
3636
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
van Merriënboer -- 4C/ID
Principled Skill Decomposition
Development of Learning Environment
Algorithmic Methods
Prerequisite Knowledge
Heuristic Methods
Supportive Knowledge
Part-Task Practice
Prerequisite Information
Whole-Task Practice
Supportive Information
Rule Automation Schema Acquisition
Analysis
Design
recurrent skills non-recurrent skills
procedures specific rulesfacts
conceptsplans
principlesHeuristics
SAPsconceptual models
goal-plan hierarchiescausal modelsmental models
available during practiceavailable before practice
3737
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Schank --Learning by DoingThe first step … is determining ... a mission that will be motivational for
the student to pursue. Shank, et al, 1999
Goal Based Scenarios
Goals -- process and content
Mission -- real-world problem
Cover story -- the problem to be solved
The role --
Scenario operations -- application
Resources -- stories -- contextualized demonstration
Feedback -- learner guidance
3838
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Findings to date
Are the theories we have reviewed fundamentally different?
NO!
All theories incorporate some of these principles. No theory includes all of these principles. Some theories include principles or prescriptions not on our
list of first principles. (Area for further investigation).
No theory includes a contrary principle or prescription.
3939
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
How do these theories differ?
Implementation details differ.– Detailed discussion beyond scope of this presentation.
Principle(s) emphasized differs– Bransford -- phases of learning– McCarthy -- phases of learning and learning styles– Andre -- learning episodes– Gardner -- public exhibition of understanding
& kinds of intelligence– Nelson -- collaboration– Jonassen -- problem solving in learning environments– van Merriënboer -- problem solving sequence of cases & sequencing
of supporting information– Schank -- problem solving (cases) & stories
4040
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Conclusion
There are first principles of instruction that are similarregardless of theory or philosophical orientation.
Hypothesis: failure to implement these first principles in the programs and practices will cause a decrement in learning.
Much remains to be done in articulating these first principles and tracing their role in different theories.
4141
Utah State UniversityUtah State University © M. David Merrill© M. David Merrill
Ask me a question.Ask me a question.
Visit our web site Visit our web site www.id2.usu.eduwww.id2.usu.edu
Join our web conference Join our web conference www.webconf.orgwww.webconf.org