Does spanking lead to better or worse behavior?

© Copyright 2010

Controversial subject

• Spanking elicits strong views

• Research is contradictory– Some studies associate spanking with long-

term emotional and behavioral problems– Others find that spanking can be a useful

disciplinary tool

Most parents spank

• Nearly 2/3 of parents of one- and two-year-olds report using physical punishment*

• 80% of fifth-graders say they’ve been physically punished.**

• 85% of high-school-aged children report having been physically punished; 51% of them say they’ve been hit with a belt or similar object.***

*Regalado et al. Pediatrics. 2004.*Socolar et al. South Med J. 2007.

**Gershoff et al. Psychol Public Policy Law. 2007.***Bender et al. Dev Psychopathol. 2007.

Many doctors endorse spanking

• 800 family physicians and 400 pediatricians randomly selected from Ohio State Medical Board’s roster

• 619 (61%) physicians responded

• Main outcome measure: whether they would tell a parent in their medical practice that spanking would be appropriate in any one of a series of childhood misbehaviors presented in the survey

McCormick KF. JAMA. 1992.

Results

• 70% of family physicians endorse corporal punishment• 59% of pediatricians endorse corporal punishment

• Physicians younger than 40 were much more likely than those older than 40 to support it

McCormick KF. JAMA. 1992.

Most supportive of spanking in dangerous circumstances

McCormick KF. JAMA. 1992.

Spanking is decreasing over time

The proportion of Americans in favor of physical punishment for children was:

94% in the 1960s

84% in 1986

71% in 2004

Many nations have outlawed hitting children under any circumstances

Straus, Mather. Family violence against children: a challenge for society. 1996.Gershoff. Unpublished analysis of General Science Surveys. 2007.

AAP concerns about CP

• Loses its impact• May lead to escalation and, ultimately, child abuse• Models aggression as a solution• Impedes other forms of discipline, like time-out• Alters the parent-child relationship• Makes discipline more difficult as the child grows into an

adolescent• May appeal to parents as a release for their anger

Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health. Pediatrics. 1998.

AAP bottom line - 1998

“Because of the negative consequences of spanking and because it has been demonstrated to be no more effective than other approaches for managing undesired behavior in children, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that parents be encouraged and assisted in developing methods other than spanking in response to undesired behavior.”

Committee on Psychosocial Aspects ofChild and Family Health. Pediatrics. 1998.

Does spanking work?

Numerous studies

Studies try to measure both efficacy and harms: - Does spanking reduce problem behaviors?

- Does spanking cause anti-social behavior?

- Does antisocial behavior lead to spanking?

- Are spanked children better behaved?

- Or do they develop psychological problems?

Contradictory results

Some studies find that spanking leads to long-term

problems

Does spanking improve behavior?

• 807 randomly-selected mothers• Children 6-9 years old• Quantified spanking in month prior to study• Controlled for gender, maternal warmth, maternal

cognitive stimulation, SES, ethnicity • Measured anti-social behavior two years later

Children who were spanked more in the month prior to the study had more antisocial behavior two years later, after controlling for anti-social behavior at baseline, and a number of other predictors

Straus MA et al. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1997.

Risk factors for anti-social behavior

• Being male• Having a history of anti-social behavior• Having a mother of an ethnic minority• Being spanked in the week before the interview

Straus MA et al. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1997.

Conclusions“When parents use corporal punishment to reduce anti-social behavior, the long-term effects tend to be the opposite. The findings suggest that if parents replace corporal punishment by non-violent modes of discipline, it could reduce the risk of anti-social behavior among children and reduce the level of violence in American society.”

Straus MA et al. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1997.

Same data, different conclusions

Ten years later, researchers re-analyzed the same dataset and compared spanking with other disciplinary techniques – including psychotherapy, time-out, grounding and loss of privileges.

Larzelere RE et al. BMC Pediatr. 2010.

Most disciplinary tactics associated with anti-social

behavior

Larzelere RE et al. BMC Pediatr. 2010.

Conclusion

“The strongest causal evidence against customary spanking (Straus study) seems to be due to residual confounding because behaviorally difficult children cause parents to use all disciplinary corrective actions more frequently.

When the measure of initial child differences is improved, the evidence against customary spanking becomes non-significant…”

Larzelere RE et al. BMC Pediatr. 2010.

Perhaps spanking effects are “dose–dependent”

• 2461 children from Fragile Families and Child Well-Being Study (1998-2005)

• Interviews with mothers when children 3 and 5 (spanking measured at 3)

• Controlled for initial aggressive behavior and 8 other confounding variables: maternal child physical maltreatment, psychological maltreatment, neglect, intimate partner aggression, stress, depression, substance use, and consideration of abortion

• Outcome measure: child aggression at 5 years of age

Taylor CA et al. Pediatrics. 2010.

Outcome depends on frequency of spanking

Spanking >2 times in previous month: odds ratio 1.49 for aggressive behavior two years later (p < 0.001)

Spanking 1-2 times in previous month: odds ratio 1.17 for aggressive behavior (not statistically significant)

Taylor CA et al. Pediatrics. 2010.

Two meta-analyses come to different conclusions

• 88 studies done between 1938 and 2000

• 36,309 subjects

• 117 effect sizes

• Outcome measures: seven childhood and four adult behaviors

Gershoff ET. Psychol Bull. 2002.

Gershoff’s outcomes

Child behaviors

- Immediate compliance

- Moral internalization

- Aggression

- Mental health - Delinquent, criminal, antisocial

behavior - Quality of parent-child

relationship - Becoming a victim of physical

abuse

Adult behaviors

- Criminal and antisocial behaviors

- Mental health - Aggression - Adult abuse of own child

or spouse

Results

• Spanking associated with “immediate compliance” – so it works in the short run

• Associated with negative outcomes in the long run:– Aggression– Antisocial behavior– Poor mental health– Adult abuse of own child or spouse

Gershoff ET. Psychol Bull. 2002.

Findings nearly all negative

Gershoff ET. Psychol Bull. 2002.

Limitations of meta-analysis

• The 88 studies did not consistently control for the children’s aggression level at the outset

• Many studies measured corporal punishment and behaviors at the same time, further confounding the issue of cause/effect

• Corporal punishment and physical abuse are not always clearly distinguished. Didn’t distinguish a swat on the bottom from a punch in the face.

Gershoff ET. Psychol Bull. 2002.

Proposed solutions

• Base effect sizes on each study’s strongest data, whenever possible

• Analyze differential effect sizes between physical punishment and alternative disciplinary tactics

Larzelere RE et al. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. 2005

A different meta-analysis supports spanking in

moderation

• Review of 26 studies– All children, on average, 13 or younger when

disciplined– Study looked at one or more alternatives to physical

punishment– At least one child outcome measured

Larzelere RE et al. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. 2005

A different meta-analysis supports spanking in

moderation• Review of 26 studies• All children <13 at time of corporal punishment.• Define four categories of physical punishment:

– conditional (used rarely and under specific circumstances, as when a pre-schooler won’t stay in a time-out chair)

– customary (non-severe) – overly severe (excessive force, hit with object, slapping in face) – predominant (parent’s primary disciplinary method)

• Compared spanking and alternative forms of discipline

Findings

• If administered infrequently and not severely, spanking does no harm, and may even be better than alternatives

• Conditional spanking reduced later noncompliance and antisocial behavior better than 10 of 13 alternative tactics

• Customary spanking never had worse outcomes than the alternatives

• Predominant and overly-severe spanking produced worse results than the alternatives

Larzelere RE et al. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. 2005

Results

• Infrequent, non-severe spanking better than alternatives• Conditional spanking very effective• Customary spanking similar to alternatives• Predominant and overly severe spanking produced bad

outcomes

Predominant and severe spanking are the worst. Customary, conditional spanking not so bad.

Larzelere RE et al. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. 2005

Spanking looks even better when compared to alternatives

Larzelere RE et al. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. 2005

Conclusions

• Spanking can effectively modify behavior if administered rarely and not too harshly

• It is most effective in response to defiant refusal to comply with milder disciplinary tactics, such as time-out

• Physical punishment, as well as other forms of punishment, does not enhance positive development, but only inhibits inappropriate behavior

Larzelere RE et al. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. 2005

Bottom line (no pun intended) • Tough to study the effects of spanking • Studies give conflicting results • Best to start with mild disciplinary tactics • Spanking only effective if infrequent• Spanking can escalate to child abuse• Spanking can deter bad behavior, does

not teach good behavior

• Other disciplinary tactics no better

ResourcesStraus MA, Sugarman DB, Giles-Sims J. Spanking by Parents and Subsequent Anti-Social Behavior of Children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1997 Aug;151:761-767.

Gershoff ET. Corporal Punishment by Parents and Associated Child Behaviors and Experiences: A Meta-Analytic and Theoretical Review. Psychol Bull. 2002;128(4):539-579.

Larzelere RE, Kuhn BR. Comparing Child Outcomes of Physical Punishment and Alternative Disciplinary Tactics: A Meta-Analysis. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 2005 March;8(1).

Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health. Guidance for Effective Discipline. Pediatrics, 1998 April;101(4):723-28.

Gershoff ET. Report on Physical Punishment in the United States: What Research Tells Us About Its Effects on Children. Columbus, OH: Center for Effective Discipline. Horn IB, Joseph JG, Cheng TL. Nonabusive physical punishment and child behavior among African-American children: a systematic review. J Natl Med Assoc. 2004 Sep;96(9):1162-8.