Does Small Scale Sustainable Urban Agriculture (SUA ... · One proposed solution is urban...

MALAYSIAN JOURNAL OF CONSUMER AND FAMILY ECONOMICS Vol 24 (S2), 2020

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Does Small Scale Sustainable Urban Agriculture (SUA) Alleviate The Economic Burdens of Low- And Middle-

Income Households?

N.N.M. Shariff1, 2, Z.S. Hamidi2,3, M.R. Osman1 1Academy of Contemporary Islamic Studies

Universiti Teknologi MARA Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia 2Institute of Science, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Selangor Malaysia

3Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor Malaysia

Abstract The aim of this paper is to investigate available evidence concerning how sustainable urban agriculture (SUA) may alleviate the economic burdens of low- and middle-income households. Issues of food security and nutrition have wide reaching implications for people and their environments, particularly in low and middle-income countries. One proposed solution is urban agriculture, which has been widely upheld as a solution to the food-crisis facing increasingly metropolitan populations. Data were collected in an urban area of Selangor, Shah Alam, with semi-structured interviews, observations and questionnaires. By adopting SUA, they can save around RM50-RM200 per month on kitchen provisions. This is due to farmgate price often being cheaper than market price. There are two (2) interconnected factors identified that contribute in alleviating economic burden in low- and middle-income household: 1) adopting sustainable agriculture practices; and 2) systematic operation of farming program by multiple players. In future, small scale sustainable urban agriculture can be used as coping strategy by local authorities to secure a food supply and serve as a step towards Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Keywords: economic burden; food security; household income; sustainable urban agriculture.

1.0 Introduction Malaysia shifted from an agriculture-based economy to a more

industrial sector in the 1970s. Since then, industry has become the fastest growing and most dynamic sector with a high level of investment and has led Malaysia’s economic growth (Osman-Rani, Toh, & Ali, 1986). Despite that, agriculture continues to be a fundamental


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instrument for sustainable development and poverty reduction (World Bank, 2008). Along these lines, the Agriculture and Agro-based Industry Ministry of Malaysia announced five plans for agriculture that emphasize sustainable agriculture (BERNAMA, 2019).

Sustainable agriculture has become an alternative to conventional agriculture (Aune, 2012; Nemes, 2009; Scialabba, 2000; Wynen, 1998). Logically, this is because sustainable agriculture has a different polarity than conventional agriculture and the capabilities to resolve problems created by conventional agriculture. Moreover, sustainability is not achievable without the major involvement of agriculture and vice versa. That is why some consider sustainable agriculture to be an implementation of the concept of sustainability (or sustainable development) that has gained popularity since its global recognition in 1987 by the Brundtland Commission.

According to Jahroh (2010), sustainable agriculture must meet three approaches or objectives, including: 1) a developmental approach for subsistence/self-reliance communities; through this approach, communities know and are assured about their agricultural products; 2) an income generating approach emphasizes the development of sustainable agriculture based on high margin profits from premium prices and niche markets; and 3) a nature conservation approach underscores conserving nature, including living creatures. On the same note, Schmidheiny (1992) said that it is essential to achieve the goal of sustainable agriculture by outlining three components: 1) feeding a growing population; 2) sustaining farm incomes to keep farmers in businesses that actually help alleviate poverty; and 3) protecting the earth’s ability to continue providing food.

Sustainable agriculture is an equilibrium of food production, safety, profitability, social responsibility and environmental care (Christen & O'Halloranetholtz, 2002). In a way, this can be attributed to the ability of an agro-ecosystem to maintain productivity when subject to a major disturbing force, such as frequent pesticide applications or invasion by a new pest (Conway, 1987). Moreover, sustainable agriculture can improve the income of farmers by reducing the marginal cost of producing one unit of output (Shariff, Hamidi, & Muhammad, 2013). The challenge of sustainable agriculture is to achieve the integral objective of being productive, profitable, sustainable and non-polluting (Rivera, Qamar, & Mwandemere, 2005). Perceived profitability is the most important factor affecting the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices involving intense management and


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those requiring fewer purchased inputs (Saltiel, Bauder, & Palakovich, 1994).

The Urban Agriculture Program was started in 2014 by Department of Agriculture. Through this program, urbanites are encouraged to involve in agricultural activities in order to self-produce/self-sufficient certain food and at the same time able to minimize cost of living per household. The government also promote “one house, one farm” (DOA, 2019). This program helps urban households ease the cost of living through production of some food through the guidance of the Department of Agriculture. This program involves residents in urban and suburban areas with the cooperation and involvement of various relevant departments and agencies at state and federal levels. Integration of agriculture into urban planning and development is essential for sustainable development in terms of various aspects of life and urban living needs, including food supply, environmental reforestation, water management and urban waste, education and leisure.

There are four (4) objectives of this program: 1) Encourage locals to plant and produce foodstuffs to meet daily needs and reduce the cost of living; 2) increase urban community side income through excess production of agricultural produce; 3) support the Government's efforts in ensuring the quality and national food security; and 4) create awareness and interest in the importance of agriculture as a direct contributor to the prosperity and cheerfulness of the urban community environment (DOA, 2019; Shariff et al., 2013). Diversifying farming activities by growing food crops for their own consumption and non-traditional cash crops (vegetables, fruit, vanilla), as well as raising livestock, helps moving out of poverty (World Bank, 2008).

The Brundtland Commission noted that “urban agriculture could become an important component of urban development and make more food available to the urban poor”. Hence, this program is a good start in cultivating urban agriculture praxis. Despite the acceptance level of sustainable agriculture being low and the progress being very slow (D’Silva, Man, Shaffril, & Samah, 2011), the number of successful sustainable agriculture initiatives is growing. Most of these are still only “island's success” episodes, especially in Malaysia.

The impacts of sustainable urban agriculture on low and middle-income households is unknown yet. The aim of this paper is to investigate available evidence on how sustainable urban agriculture


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(SUA) may manage to alleviate the economic burdens of low- and middle-income households.

2.0 Methodology

This study is a part of larger research project and focuses only on communal practices. Data were collected in the urban areas of Shah Alam that employed triangulation technique (qualitative) which includes semi-structured and open-ended interview and observation. The observations were performed over a duration of nine months by interviewing 21 respondents including key stakeholders and community producers cum consumers. A total of three sites at Shah Alam were selected for the study: 1) Section 17; 2) Section 20; and 3) Section 24.

3.0 Result and Discussion

This study was conducted in the residential areas of Section 17, Section 20 and Section 24, Shah Alam, Selangor. Important demographic information included eligibility criteria such as household income and location. Basic information such as name, race, nationality, sex, age, employment status, marital status was also important as well in order to understand the context. The details were as follows:

Table 1 : Basic Information

CRITERIA INFORMATION HOUSEHOLD INCOME PER MONTH

80.95% <RM4,000 ~ B40 19.05% RM4,000-RM6,000 ~ M40

LOCATION Jalan Senangin, Section 17 Jalan Tungtung, Section 20 Section 24 Setia

RACE 100% Malays NATIONALITY 100% Malaysians SEX 62% male and 38% female AGE 14.3% 20-40 years old

52.4% 40-60 years old 33.3% 60 years old and above

EMPLOYMENT STATUS 28.6% employed 28.6% housewives 42.90% retired

MARITAL STATUS 5% single and 95% married


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After building rapport with the respondents, the researchers had to ensure that the respondents met the eligibility criteria. Approximately 81% of the respondents had low household incomes of below RM4,000 (~B40) and the rest had middle household incomes (RM4,000-RM6,000 ~M40).

All the interviewed respondents were Malays and held Malaysian citizenship. Males made up 62% of the sample and 38% were females. Respondents aged 40-60 years old (52.4%) were the most interviewed followed by 60 years old (33.3%) and 20-40 years old (14.3%). A majority of respondents were retired at 42.9% and housewives and workers were both 28.6% of respondents. 5% were single and another 95% were married. All respondents were member of community farms.

There are at least 10 active community farms in administrative area of Shah Alam, including Section 19A, Surau al-Husna Section 20, Sri Nirvillia Kota Kemuning, Section 17/2, Section 8 Phase 1, Section 24, Melati Apartment Taman Bukit Subang, Bukit Cerakah U15 and Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah Polytechnic. Three (3) active sites were chosen for this study: Section 17, Section 20 and Section 24 Setia. Most started as a hobby that later attracted the Shah Alam City Council (MBSA) to contribute.

3.1 Contributing Factors in Alleviating Economic Burden

In this paper, two (2) interconnected factors in small scale sustainable urban agriculture (SUA) were identified as contributing to alleviating economic burden in low- and middle-income household: 1) adopting sustainable agriculture practice; and 2) systematic operation of farming program by multiple players.

3.1.1 Adopting Sustainable Agriculture Practice

In all three cases, we have investigated their sustainable agriculture practice (SAP) system, including fertilizers, irrigation, natural –cides management, farming technique and crop heterogeneity, as shown in Figure 1. Combining the mentioned SAP will increase efficiency by way of minimizing the quantities required. The blue arrows in Figure 1 show interrelatedness.


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Figure 1 : Sustainable Agriculture Practice (SAP)

Fertilizers provide plants with the nutrients they need for their growth and enhance aeration and water retention (fertilizer strategies). In developing countries, fertilizer costs are a growing share of production costs (world). There are three sub-groups of nutrients: 1) primary – nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P) and potassium (K); 2) secondary – calsium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and sulphur (S); and 3) micro nutrients – chlorine (Cl), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), boron (B), selenium (Se), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu) and molybdenum (Mo) etc. (Yara International, 2018). Additionally, three methods for fertilizing the land were identified: 1) the application of liming was suggested by Shah Alam City Council (MBSA) as the previous state of the land is not suitable for agriculture. Liming is made of pulverized limestone is important to neutralize the soil and to maximize crop yield; 2) using poultry manure such as rabbit droppings and chicken manure; and 3) repurpose used water from catfish breeding. They breed catfish in tanks for sale that provide another side income for the community. To this point, they managed to sell more than 30 kg of catfish within one year.

Irrigation system depends on water sources, for instance, groundwater, surface water and recycled wastewater. This includes rainfall suitable for small scale SUA. An organised and manageable irrigation system is important for crop growth and to revegetate dry areas during drought. Section 24 used recycled wastewater rich with nutrients from catfish breeding.

The importance of farming technique includes decreased use of fertilizer, water and -cides, driving prices down. Among farming techniques adopted in all cases, the first is low/zero tillage or conservation tillage is adopted by which eliminating or minimizing


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tillage as it maintains crop residues as ground cover. This technology is adopted because it helped to conserved soil, reduced greenhouse emissions, increased tolerance to drought and of course increased profitability from savings in labour and energy. That is why it is regarded as one of the most dramatic technological revolutions in crop management (World Bank, 2008). Nevertheless, it also has drawbacks such as making the control of pests, weeds and diseases even complex. This can be overcome by applying natural-based –cides.

Second is crop heterogeneity through crop rotation and intercropping. Crop heterogeneity or crop diversification is vital in practicing crop rotation and intercropping. Moreover, it promotes crop pollination by insect and avian (Lee & Goodale, 2018). Crop rotation is a process that helps to maintain nutrients in the soil, prevents pests and plant disease and reduce soil erosion. While intercropping is a practice of planting different species in alternate rows to benefit other crops. Examples also include attracting insects for pollination, nitrogen fixation, providing shades, and insect repellent (inter-related with natural pesticide).

In the case of Section 20, as much as 65 rows or beddings in 5 acres were planted through both joint efforts among the community and individual efforts, phase by phase. More than 30 plants were planted according to the season. These can be categorized into vegetables, herbs, fruits and ornamental; of course, the produce cannot be categorized as cash crops, because they are not grown for profit. The list of produce grown is as follows:

Table 2 : Type of crop

Types Crops/Plants VEGETABLES Brown mustard (Brassica juncea), water spinach (Ipomoea

aquatica), bird’s eye chili (Capsicum annum), Chinese kale (Brassica oleracea alboglabra), aubergine (Solanum melongena), okra (Abelmoschus esculentus), garlic chives (Allium tuberosum), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), luffa (Luffa acutangula), vegetable fern (Athyrium esculentum), cucumber (Cucumis sativus), tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), string beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), spinach (Amaranthus Sp), chilli (Capsicum annum), pak choy (Nostoc Flagelliforme), long beans (Vigna unguiculata ssp. Sesquipedalis), winged beans (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus), yam (Caladium), cassava (Manihot Esculenta), calabash (Lagenaria Siceraria)


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Table 2 : Type of crop - continue

Types Crops/plants FRUIT Papaya (Carica papaya), banana (genus Musa), pineapple

(Ananas comosus), maize (Zea mays), jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus), pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo/maxima), honey lime (Citrus suhuensis), soursop (Annona muricata), noni (Morinda citrifolia)

HERBS King’s salad (Cosmos caudatus), lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus), pandan (Pandanus amaryllifolius), kesum (Polygonum minus), curry (Murraya koenigii), galangal (Alpinia galangal), kaffir lime (Citrus hystrix), turmeric (Curcuma longa), ginger (Zingiber officinale), torch ginger (Etlingera elatior), Asiatic pennywort (Centella asiatica), belalai gajah (Clinacanthus nutans), jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana), butterfly tea (Mariposa Christia Vespertilionis), calamansi (Citrofortunella Microcarpa), snake grass (Andrographis Paniculata), betle leaf (Piper betle), aloe vera, God’s crown (Phaleria macrocarpa)

ORNAMENTAL Orchid (Orchidacea), sunflower (helianthus annuus) Natural -cide management is similar but not same with

integrated pest management (IPM). Etymologically, the word “-cide” denotes “act of killing” – borrowed from Latin. Therefore, “-cide” is used as suffix for pesticides and herbicides. Natural -cide management still can help prevent, monitor and control pests and weeds (unwanted vegetation). For instance, sunflower is used to attract beneficial insect like bees for pollination, get rid of pests and for mulching purposes (Debaeke et al., 2017).

Figure 2 : From left: barrel with organic fertilizer, sunflower plant and catfish

breeding tank

According to United States Department of Agriculture or USDA (2000), composting is “the controlled aerobic biological decomposition of organic matter into a stable, humus-like product called compost. It is essentially the same process as natural decomposition except that it is enhanced and accelerated by mixing organic wastes with other


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ingredients to optimize microbial growth”. In the cases examined here, composting has several reasons, such as providing beneficial microorganisms that will encourage growth and replenish soil nutrients, being a cheaper option for fertilizer and most importantly upholding the 3R concept (reduce, reuse and recycle). Respondents made compost from bagasse, food scraps, chicken manure, cow dung and probiotic drinks.

Adopting SAP helps to reduce produce price, in terms of comparison between farmgate price and market price. Maximum savings are up to RM7 whilst minimum savings are RM0.50, as shown in Table 3 below:

Table 3 : Crop price comparison

Vegetables Scientific Names

Farmgate Price (rm)

Market Price (rm)

Saving (RM)

1 Okra Abelmoschus Esculentus

5.00 8.00 3.00

2 string beans Phaseolus Vulgaris

5.00 4.00 / pkt 1.00

3 Spinach Amaranthus Sp 5.00 6.00 1.00 4 Papaya Carica Papaya 3.50 4.50 1.00 5 Chilli Capsicum

Annum 12.00 14.00 2.00

6 Cili Akar Capsicum Sp. 10.00 15.00 5.00 7 Turmeric leaf Curcuma Longa 0.50 1.00/bunch 0.50 9 Pak Choy Nostoc

Flagelliforme 4.50 9.00 4.50

10 Ginger Zingiber Officinale

6.00 10.00 4.00

11 Corn Zea Mays 1.00 2.50/bunch 1.50 12 Torch ginger Etlingera Elatior 1.00 1.50 0.50 15 Sweet potato Ipomoea Batatas 3.00 5.00 2.00 16 Long beans Vigna

Sesquipedali 5.50 8.00 2.50

17 Winged beans Psophocarpus Tetragonolobus

5.00 12.00 7.00

18 Water spinach Ipomea Reptans 5.00 6.00 1.00 19 Pumpkin Cucurbita

Moschata 3.00 6.50 3.50

20 Calabash Lagenaria Siceraria

3.00 6.00 3.00


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Table 3 : Crop price comparison - continue

Vegetables Scientific Names

Farmgate Price (rm)

Market Price (rm)

Saving (RM)

21 Calamansi Citrofortunella Microcarpa

5.50 12.00 6.50

22 Yam Caladium 4.00 6.00 2.00 23 Luffa Luffa 3.00 8.00 5.00 25 Lemongrass Cymbopogon 0.10 1.00/bunch 0.90 26 Brown mustard Brassica Juncea 4.50 7.00 2.50 27 Aubergine Solanum

Melongena 5.00 10.00 5.00

30 Cassava Manihot Esculenta

3.00 4.90 1.90

Based on the preliminary data, we found that the small scale

sustainable urban agriculture helps low- and middle-income households alleviate their economic burdens from RM50-RM200 per month, solely from their monthly grocery budgets. Some community farms that focus on periodical sales can generate a side income of RM500-RM1000 per month.

3.1.2 Systematic Operation of Farming Program by Multiple Players

In the early phase of these community farms, they started as a hobby/recreation due to most of the population being retirees with a sense of responsibility to revive abandon land (ihyā’ al-mawāt). Numerous factors need to be considered for farm site selection, such as suitability of location, soil quality, slope gradient, land size, wind flow (direction and velocity), sunlight and precipitation which is required for early preparation. From these cases, we can identify several players/drivers in making this effort a success as shown in Figure 2: 1) local community farm members; 2) MBSA; 3) the Department of Agriculture; 4) higher learning institutions; and 5) the general public.


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Figure 3 : Key players/drivers in community farm

Each of the community farm has their own structured organization and committees/members to coordinate their activities according to a designated unit, such as planning, cleanliness, maintenance, property management and income generation unit. For instance, they implement task scheduled rotations once every three months for management and planting purposes, allowing each member to understand each unit better and make improvements from time to time. They also have self-help groups for support and advice through various media, including social media. Sometimes, they arrange intensive mutual assistance that not only for the sake of the farm but also to strengthen social relationships. Some of the community farms even have their own mottos, such as “be kind to the Earth, ask Allah’s blessings” (berbudi pada tanah, mohon redha Allah). To ensure total participation from the community, they charge a RM33/member annual fee.

MBSA continuously helps without making them too dependent on assistance. In the case of Section 20, the land was full of bushes and was left idle. After that, clearing of the land was done by the local community for a soccer field. Then, MBSA repurposed it for landfill disposal. In April 2016, MBSA offered the local community through Persatuan Penduduk (residential association) to join Urban Agriculture Program (UAP). As many as 59 people became involved in this program through six (6) phases.

In order to ensure the sustainability of the program, MBSA is cooperating with Selangor Department of Agriculture and Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI) by providing basic farming course (planting and fertilizing). Higher learning


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institutions such as the University of Malaya also contribute by sharing information and reformation on farming techniques.

Contributing to the success of this program, MBSA offers nominal annual land rental fees to local communities. This kind of land rental practice has led to community-driven land certification that emphasizes the optimization of land usage. The land remains state-owned with restrictions on transfer, as some of the land is located near riverbanks or reserves. Rental fees reach up to RM400 per year.

Another crucial factor is financial support, MBSA had granted them with capital funding or seed funding to run the community farm. MBSA provides provision like organic seeds, soils and fertilizers as well. In an effort taken by MBSA to ensure the community farm is sustainable, they conduct regular monitoring of farming practices to make sure that there are no chemical fertilizers used. Furthermore, MBSA had run a Green Neighbourhood Award competition since 2013 as part of Shah Alam Low Carbon 2030.

With concerted effort, as a result, every Tuesday from 9am till 11am they hold crop sale that open for public. This farmgate price reduces handling, storage and transport costs, and commission and marketing fees such as wholesale agent fees and profit. They have also developed their own roselle-based products such as cordial and jam. The members control 100% of sales revenue. Even though they hold crop sales, the local community members can pick the produce without any charge – this has helped reduce grocery expenses. Moreover, farm produce is distributed free of charge to the nearest surau, especially organize community programs. Another thing that contributes to mark the price down is they have been using solar panel and managed to get around 30% saving of electricity (~RM300-500).

4.0 Conclusion

The answer to the question, “Does small scale sustainable urban agriculture manage to alleviate the economic burdens of low- and middle-income households?”, is a conditional yes, only if mutual and concerted efforts are taken by all stakeholders. As for now, it is sufficient to say that the stakeholders have foster good coordination. Apparently. SUA is able to strengthen the community-driven development by 1) implementing agriculture for development agendas locally; 2) developing community-level accountability; and 3) encouraging evaluation and learning. Based on our observations, SUA is a promising sector to be developed and promoted in order to help


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eliminate poverty. Direct proof from it can be seen from price saving in most of the vegetables. As a conclusion, community agriculture is about making the best possible use of our resources and potential. In future, we hope to see greater public-private partnership, with more home farms for individuals and community groups in order to democratize access to food production.

Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge the generous participation of community farms in Shah Alam, Selangor and our students. This project was funded by Bestari Perdana grant (600-IRMI/DANA 5/3/BESTARI (P) (034/2018)) Universiti Teknologi MARA.

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