Archaeology Archaeology

BibleBible

and and thethe

ContentsContents

• Understanding Archaeology• Archaeologists and Historians

• Ancient Writing• Reign of the Kings

• Old Testament Archaeology• Dead Sea Scrolls

• Reliability of the New Testament• New Testament Archaeology

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UnderstandingUnderstandingArchaeologyArchaeology

Definition of ArchaeologyDefinition of Archaeology TThe termhe term archaeology archaeology is a compound word from theis a compound word from theGreekGreek “Archaios” “Archaios” andand “Logos,” “Logos,” meaning the “studymeaning the “studyof ancient things.”of ancient things.” TheThe Greeks, Romans, and JewsGreeks, Romans, and Jewsused used ArchaiologiaArchaiologia::

Plato:Plato: describes the Lacedaemonians as archaeologists since describes the Lacedaemonians as archaeologists since they were fond of genealogies and foundations of cities they were fond of genealogies and foundations of cities

Thucydides:Thucydides: used it to summarize the early used it to summarize the early historyhistory of Greece of Greece

Denis of Halicarnassus:Denis of Halicarnassus: used it to describe used it to describe historyhistory of Rome of Rome

Josephus:Josephus: employed the term to describe employed the term to describe historyhistory of the Jews of the Jews

Definition of ArchaeologyDefinition of Archaeology

AArchaiologiarchaiologia was used in English for the first was used in English for the first time:time:

Bishop Hall of Norwich used it to describe Bishop Hall of Norwich used it to describe the Bible narratives (1607)the Bible narratives (1607)

““Archaeology” used in early 19th century to Archaeology” used in early 19th century to describe the “digging up” of objectsdescribe the “digging up” of objects

Definition of Definition of ArchaeologyArchaeology

John Currid:John Currid: The study of objects The study of objects used by past societies….The aim of used by past societies….The aim of archaeology is to discover, rescue, archaeology is to discover, rescue, observe, and preserve buried observe, and preserve buried fragments of antiquity and to use fragments of antiquity and to use them to help reconstruct ancient lifethem to help reconstruct ancient life

Roland De Vaux:Roland De Vaux: Archaeology seeks, Archaeology seeks, describes, and classifies these describes, and classifies these materialsmaterials

Stuart Piggott:Stuart Piggott: Archaeology is the Archaeology is the science of rubbishscience of rubbish

Definition ofDefinition of ArchaeologyArchaeology

D.J. Wiseman and Edwin Yamauchi:D.J. Wiseman and Edwin Yamauchi: Archaeology is an auxiliary science of Archaeology is an auxiliary science of history, helping its study by history, helping its study by revealing informationrevealing information

Randall Price:Randall Price: Archaeology is Archaeology is understood as a branch of historical understood as a branch of historical research that seeks to reveal the research that seeks to reveal the past by a systematic recovery of its past by a systematic recovery of its surviving remainssurviving remains

Rise of ArchaeologyRise of ArchaeologyTThe he earliest systematic interestearliest systematic interest in in archaeology is found inarchaeology is found in Nabonidus Nabonidus, the last , the last king of Babylon (6th century BC). He sought king of Babylon (6th century BC). He sought out past inscriptions and material structural out past inscriptions and material structural remains most likely to legitimize remains most likely to legitimize his claim to the Babylonian throne since he his claim to the Babylonian throne since he was not a blood heir.was not a blood heir.

Clay Cuneiform Cylinder of NabonidusClay Cuneiform Cylinder of NabonidusCC-Art.com

Rise of ArchaeologyRise of ArchaeologyIInitially,nitially, archaeology was associated with archaeology was associated with grave grave robbingrobbing and and treasure seekers. treasure seekers. The images below The images below depict a looted 2500 BC tomb at depict a looted 2500 BC tomb at Bab-adh-Dhra Bab-adh-Dhra cemeterycemetery (Sodom, Jordan)(Sodom, Jordan) at the southeastern end of at the southeastern end of the Dead Sea.the Dead Sea. Tomb Entrance 2x2 ftTomb Entrance 2x2 ft Inside View of 10x6 ft Oblong Cave Inside View of 10x6 ft Oblong Cave

TombTomb

Rise of ArchaeologyRise of Archaeology EEventually, excavations at theventually, excavations at the Bay of Naples Bay of Naples (below),(below), Italy, commenced in 1738, officially highlightingItaly, commenced in 1738, officially highlighting archaeology as a legitimate scientific discipline. archaeology as a legitimate scientific discipline.

Rise of ArchaeologyRise of Archaeology

Society of AntiquariesSociety of Antiquaries established in London established in London

(1751)(1751)

MMajor excavations began atajor excavations began at Pompeii Pompeii, Italy, in , Italy, in 1748 to uncover the ash laden (20 ft) city 1748 to uncover the ash laden (20 ft) city destroyed by destroyed by

the the volcanic eruption ofvolcanic eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in AD 79Mt. Vesuvius in AD 79. . Work at this site continues to the present day.Work at this site continues to the present day.

Charred Ruins with Mt. VesuviusCharred Ruins with Mt. VesuviusBurnt Remains of Temple of ApolloBurnt Remains of Temple of Apollo

Rise of ArchaeologyRise of Archaeology NNapoleon’s army officer, apoleon’s army officer, Lt. Bouchard, discovers Lt. Bouchard, discovers the the trilingualtrilingual black basalt black basalt Rosetta StoneRosetta Stone in Egypt in in Egypt in 1799, which led to1799, which led to the the publicationpublication ofof thethe Description de L’Egypte Description de L’Egypte (1809-13)(1809-13)

AArchaeology rises in 19rchaeology rises in 19thth/ / 20th centuries20th centuries with with Paul Paul Botta Botta andand Austen H. Austen H. Layard’sLayard’s excavations at excavations at Khorsabad, Nimrud, and Khorsabad, Nimrud, and Nineveh (Iraq)Nineveh (Iraq) Rosetta Stone (1700 lbs)Rosetta Stone (1700 lbs)

Hieroglyphics

Greek

Demotic

Archaeology as Biblical Archaeology as Biblical ProofProof

AArchaeology as “Proof” of Historical Narrative: rchaeology as “Proof” of Historical Narrative: Minimalist:Minimalist: very little evidence and certainty very little evidence and certainty Maximalist:Maximalist: overwhelming evidence and overwhelming evidence and

certaintycertainty Moderate:Moderate: sufficient evidence and certainty, sufficient evidence and certainty,

without contradiction with the biblical without contradiction with the biblical narrativenarrative

OObjective of Archaeological Research:bjective of Archaeological Research: To clarify and illumine the Bible recordTo clarify and illumine the Bible record To discover whether the events of Scripture To discover whether the events of Scripture

are historicalare historical To build confidence (give assurance) in God’s To build confidence (give assurance) in God’s

revealed Scripturerevealed Scripture

Objections to Objections to ArchaeologyArchaeology

History can’t be known (self defeating)History can’t be known (self defeating)(relies on one’s historical knowledge to say it can’t be known)(relies on one’s historical knowledge to say it can’t be known)

Worldview skews the data (self-defeating)Worldview skews the data (self-defeating)(all employ a worldview to interpret data, including the objector. The (all employ a worldview to interpret data, including the objector. The real question is whether one’s worldview is true or not)real question is whether one’s worldview is true or not)

Fragmentary evidence (impractical)Fragmentary evidence (impractical)(All knowledge, including the objection, is based on less than (All knowledge, including the objection, is based on less than exhaustiveexhaustiveevidence, e.g. newscasters)evidence, e.g. newscasters)

Archaeology Archaeology is not is not sciencescience (Yes it is!)(Yes it is!)(Archaeology is (Archaeology is originorigin science testing unrepeatable singularities much science testing unrepeatable singularities much like crime scene investigation which uses like crime scene investigation which uses forensicforensic science) science)

History & faith have no connection (Yes it History & faith have no connection (Yes it does!)does!)

(Can’t separate the historical nature of Christ’s death and resurrection (Can’t separate the historical nature of Christ’s death and resurrection from the spiritual forgiveness of sin. Cannot have one without the from the spiritual forgiveness of sin. Cannot have one without the other, Jn 3:12)other, Jn 3:12)

Limitations of Limitations of ArchaeologyArchaeology

By its very nature archaeological evidence is By its very nature archaeological evidence is fragmentary and is often disconnectedfragmentary and is often disconnected

Only a fraction of the evidence has survived, has Only a fraction of the evidence has survived, has been excavated, surveyed, examined, and been excavated, surveyed, examined, and publishedpublished

Although archaeology in its descriptive phase deals Although archaeology in its descriptive phase deals with concrete objects and employs exact with concrete objects and employs exact measurements, we cannot claim it is an exact measurements, we cannot claim it is an exact sciencescience

Archaeology’s interpretive aspects involve too Archaeology’s interpretive aspects involve too many judgments of probabilities to secure the many judgments of probabilities to secure the certainty of chemical experiments. On the other certainty of chemical experiments. On the other hand, certain principles of excavation command hand, certain principles of excavation command general acceptancegeneral acceptance

~Edwin ~Edwin YamauchiYamauchi

The Stones and the The Stones and the ScripturesScriptures

Kinds of RemainsKinds of Remains Tel:Tel: Earthen debris mound of cities built on top Earthen debris mound of cities built on top

of a previous city. Each layer containing remains of a previous city. Each layer containing remains of one period is known as a “stratum”of one period is known as a “stratum”

Glacis:Glacis: Sloping fortification running from bottom Sloping fortification running from bottom to top of defensive walls to slow intrudersto top of defensive walls to slow intruders

Artifacts:Artifacts: Portable objects made by man such as Portable objects made by man such as tools, arrowhead, Jewelry, knife, jar, etctools, arrowhead, Jewelry, knife, jar, etc

Feature:Feature: Non-portable architectural structures Non-portable architectural structures such as fireplaces, walls, hearths, gates, and such as fireplaces, walls, hearths, gates, and foundationsfoundations

Ecofacts:Ecofacts: Used, but not made by humans such as Used, but not made by humans such as bones, seeds, wood, etcbones, seeds, wood, etc

Ostraca:Ostraca: Pottery sherd with writing on itPottery sherd with writing on it

Locus:Locus: Official area of investigation at an Official area of investigation at an excavationexcavation

In Situ:In Situ: Natural setting in which an artifact is Natural setting in which an artifact is foundfound

Tel: Tel: Mound of Debris Layers Mound of Debris Layers

Tel Numera, Jordan (Gomorrah)Tel Numera, Jordan (Gomorrah)

Glacis: Glacis: Sloping Fortification at WallSloping Fortification at Wall

Iron Age Foundation of Outside City Wall

Mud Brick Glacis

Loose Surface Rock

Artifacts: Artifacts: Portable, Made and Used by Portable, Made and Used by

HumansHumans Iron Age and Herodian Oil Lamps with JugIron Age and Herodian Oil Lamps with Jug

Feature: Feature: Non-portable Structures Non-portable Structures

Iron Age Wall Structure, JordanIron Age Wall Structure, Jordan

Ecofacts: Ecofacts: Used, Not Made by Humans Used, Not Made by Humans

Human Skeleton, JordanHuman Skeleton, Jordan

Ostraca: Ostraca: Pottery Sherd with Pottery Sherd with

WritingWriting Proto-Canaanite Letters Discovered Tel es-Safi (Gath), IsraelProto-Canaanite Letters Discovered Tel es-Safi (Gath), Israel

Locus:Locus: Specific Area of Specific Area of

InvestigationInvestigation Newly Surveyed Square at a Tel in JordanNewly Surveyed Square at a Tel in Jordan

In Situ:In Situ: The Natural Setting in The Natural Setting in

Which an Artifact is Found Which an Artifact is Found Iron Age Storage Jar in SituIron Age Storage Jar in Situ

Archaeologists Archaeologists and and

HistoriansHistorians

Edwin YamauchiEdwin Yamauchi The Stones and the Scriptures, 36.The Stones and the Scriptures, 36.

““Until the breakthrough of Until the breakthrough of archaeological discoveries, the archaeological discoveries, the stories about the biblical patriarchs-stories about the biblical patriarchs-Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob-were Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob-were subject to considerable skepticism…. subject to considerable skepticism…. In the last thirty years, however, a In the last thirty years, however, a steadily increasing flow of materials steadily increasing flow of materials from Mesopotamia and Syria-from Mesopotamia and Syria-Palestine-from Mari, from Nuzi, from Palestine-from Mari, from Nuzi, from Alalakh-has convinced all except a Alalakh-has convinced all except a few holdovers, of the authenticity of few holdovers, of the authenticity of the patriarchal narratives.”the patriarchal narratives.”

Nelson GlueckNelson Glueck Rivers in the Desert: A History of the Negev, 31Rivers in the Desert: A History of the Negev, 31

““It may be stated categorically It may be stated categorically that no archaeological discovery that no archaeological discovery has ever controverted a biblical has ever controverted a biblical reference. Scores of reference. Scores of archaeological findings have been archaeological findings have been made which confirm in clear made which confirm in clear outline or exact detail historical outline or exact detail historical statements in the Bible.”statements in the Bible.”

Millar BurrowsMillar Burrows What Mean These Stones?, What Mean These Stones?, 176176

““The Bible is supported by The Bible is supported by archaeological evidence again and archaeological evidence again and again. On the whole, there can be no again. On the whole, there can be no question that the results of question that the results of excavation have increased the excavation have increased the respect of scholars as a collection of respect of scholars as a collection of historical documents. The historical documents. The confirmation is both general and confirmation is both general and specific.”specific.”

William F. AlbrightWilliam F. AlbrightThe Archaeology of Palestine,The Archaeology of Palestine, 248248

““Archaeological discoveries of Archaeological discoveries of the past generation in Egypt, the past generation in Egypt, Syria, and Palestine have gone Syria, and Palestine have gone far to establish the uniqueness far to establish the uniqueness of early Christianity as an of early Christianity as an historical phenomenon.”historical phenomenon.”

AncientAncient

WritingWriting

The Development of The Development of WritingWriting TThe earliest known writing, he earliest known writing, pictogramspictograms, came from , came from

Southern Iraq (Sumer) in the 4Southern Iraq (Sumer) in the 4thth millennium BC. These simple millennium BC. These simple pictures were written in vertical columns with a sharpened pictures were written in vertical columns with a sharpened reed plant stalk pressed into soft wet clay. This period is reed plant stalk pressed into soft wet clay. This period is known as the known as the protoliterateprotoliterate age of age of logographiclogographic (pictures (pictures stand for words) writing, rather than stand for words) writing, rather than phonographicphonographic writing writing (pictures stand for sounds) which would develop in the 3(pictures stand for sounds) which would develop in the 3rdrd millennium BC.millennium BC.

44thth millennium BC Pictograms millennium BC Pictograms

The Development of The Development of WritingWriting PPictograms eventually led to the development of ictograms eventually led to the development of

cuneiformcuneiform (from Latin (from Latin cuneuscuneus meaning “wedge”) wedge writing with meaning “wedge”) wedge writing with nearly nearly 300 pictorial signs300 pictorial signs. By the beginning of the 2. By the beginning of the 2ndnd millennium BC it became the standard script in most millennium BC it became the standard script in most Mesopotamian regions.Mesopotamian regions.

Akkadian CuneiformAkkadian Cuneiform

The Development of The Development of WritingWriting IImmediately after pictographic writing was developed in mmediately after pictographic writing was developed in

Sumer, Egyptian pictographic Sumer, Egyptian pictographic hieroglyphics hieroglyphics (lit. “sacred (lit. “sacred engraving”)engraving”) appeared using over 600 pictorial signs. These appeared using over 600 pictorial signs. These could be written vertically or horizontally. Eventually, other could be written vertically or horizontally. Eventually, other script forms of Egyptian writing would be developed such as script forms of Egyptian writing would be developed such as hieratichieratic and and demoticdemotic. These writing forms would be replaced . These writing forms would be replaced by the 1by the 1stst millennium BC by the more simple alphabetic signs millennium BC by the more simple alphabetic signs which gave rise to Aramaic, Hebrew and Greek.which gave rise to Aramaic, Hebrew and Greek.

Egyptian HieroglyphicsEgyptian Hieroglyphics Egyptian Demotic Egyptian Demotic

The Development of The Development of WritingWriting • TThe he alphabetalphabet, which was developed sometime in the 2, which was developed sometime in the 2ndnd

millennium BC, would eventually replace pictograms, millennium BC, would eventually replace pictograms, hieroglyphics, and cuneiform writing during the 1hieroglyphics, and cuneiform writing during the 1stst millennium BC millennium BC

• Aramaic would be received as the official script in Persia, and Aramaic would be received as the official script in Persia, and used in some surrounding territories by the 6used in some surrounding territories by the 6th th century BC.century BC.

• Aramaic became the basis of Hebrew and Arabic writingAramaic became the basis of Hebrew and Arabic writing

• By the 4By the 4thth century BC, Greek became the universal language century BC, Greek became the universal language

AramaicAramaic Hebrew Hebrew Greek Greek

Reign of the Reign of the KingsKings

Kings of Judah and IsraelKings of Judah and Israel Jeroboam (930-909 BC)Jeroboam (930-909 BC) Nadab (909-908 BC)Nadab (909-908 BC) Baasha (908-886 BC)Baasha (908-886 BC) Elah  (886-885 BC)Elah  (886-885 BC) Zimri  (885 BC)Zimri  (885 BC) Tibni (885-880 BC)Tibni (885-880 BC) Omri (885-874 BC)*Omri (885-874 BC)* Ahab (874-853 BC)*Ahab (874-853 BC)* Ahaziah (853-852 BC)Ahaziah (853-852 BC) Joram (852-841 BC)*Joram (852-841 BC)* Jehu (841-814 BC)*Jehu (841-814 BC)* Jehoahaz (814-798 BC)Jehoahaz (814-798 BC) Joash (798-782 BC)*Joash (798-782 BC)* Jeroboam II (793-753 BC)*Jeroboam II (793-753 BC)* Zechariah (753 BC)Zechariah (753 BC) Shallum (752 BC)Shallum (752 BC) Menahem (752-742 BC)Menahem (752-742 BC) Pekahiah (742-740 BC)Pekahiah (742-740 BC) Pekah (752-732 BC)*Pekah (752-732 BC)* Hoshea (732-722 BC)*Hoshea (732-722 BC)*

Rehoboam (933-916 BC)Rehoboam (933-916 BC)Abijah (915-913 BC)Abijah (915-913 BC)Asa (912-872 BC)Asa (912-872 BC)Jehoshaphat (874-850 Jehoshaphat (874-850 BC)BC)Jehoram (850-843 BC)Jehoram (850-843 BC)Ahaziah (843 BC)Ahaziah (843 BC)Athaliah (843-837 BC)Athaliah (843-837 BC)Joash (843-803 BC)*Joash (843-803 BC)*Amaziah (803-775 BC)Amaziah (803-775 BC)Uzziah (787-735 BC)*Uzziah (787-735 BC)*Jotham (749-734 BC)*Jotham (749-734 BC)*Ahaz (741-726 BC)*Ahaz (741-726 BC)*Hezekiah (726-697 BC)*Hezekiah (726-697 BC)*Manasseh (697-642 BC)*Manasseh (697-642 BC)*Amon (641-640 BC)Amon (641-640 BC)Josiah (639-608 BC)Josiah (639-608 BC)Jehoahaz (608 BC)*Jehoahaz (608 BC)*Jehoiakim (608-597 BC)*Jehoiakim (608-597 BC)*Jehoiachin (597 BC)*Jehoiachin (597 BC)*Zedekiah (597-586 BC)Zedekiah (597-586 BC)

IsraelIsrael JudahJudahSaulSaul

David*David* Solomon*Solomon*

*Biblical kings confirmed by extra biblical history and/or archaeology*Biblical kings confirmed by extra biblical history and/or archaeology

Kings of AssyriaKings of Assyria

• Tukulti-Ninurta II (890-884 BC)Tukulti-Ninurta II (890-884 BC)• Ashurnasirpal II (883-859 BC)Ashurnasirpal II (883-859 BC)• Shalmaneser III (858-824 BC)Shalmaneser III (858-824 BC)• Shamsi-Adad V (823-811 BC)Shamsi-Adad V (823-811 BC)• Adad-nirari III (810-783 BC)Adad-nirari III (810-783 BC)• Shalmaneser IV (782-773 BC)Shalmaneser IV (782-773 BC)• Ashur-dan III (772-755 BC)Ashur-dan III (772-755 BC)• Ashur-nirari V (754-745 BC) 2 Kings 13:5?Ashur-nirari V (754-745 BC) 2 Kings 13:5?• Tiglath-pileser IIITiglath-pileser III (Pul) (744-727 BC) 2 Kings 15:19, 29*+ (Pul) (744-727 BC) 2 Kings 15:19, 29*+• Shalmaneser V (727-722 BC) 2 Kings 17:3-6*+Shalmaneser V (727-722 BC) 2 Kings 17:3-6*+• Sargon II (722-705 BC) Isaiah 20:1*+ Sargon II (722-705 BC) Isaiah 20:1*+ • Sennacherib (704-681 BC) 2 Kings 18:13*+Sennacherib (704-681 BC) 2 Kings 18:13*+• Esarhaddon (680-669 BC)+ 2 Kings 19:37*+Esarhaddon (680-669 BC)+ 2 Kings 19:37*+• Ashurbanipal/Osnapper (668-627 BC) Ezra 4:10*+Ashurbanipal/Osnapper (668-627 BC) Ezra 4:10*+

*Those named in the Bible who are mentioned in extra biblical *Those named in the Bible who are mentioned in extra biblical history or archaeologyhistory or archaeology+Mentioned in the Bible by name +Mentioned in the Bible by name

TThough Assyria had limited power from 1300-1000 BC, only the hough Assyria had limited power from 1300-1000 BC, only the time period when Assyria had significant contact with Israel will be time period when Assyria had significant contact with Israel will be listed. The Assyrian Empire fell to Babylon at Nineveh in 612 BC.listed. The Assyrian Empire fell to Babylon at Nineveh in 612 BC.

Tiglath-pileser III Victory Tiglath-pileser III Victory ParadeParade

Kings of BabylonKings of BabylonTThis list of kings is not exhaustive, it reflects the Neo-his list of kings is not exhaustive, it reflects the Neo-Babylonian Empire of the 11Babylonian Empire of the 11thth Dynasty. Babylon fell to the Dynasty. Babylon fell to the Persian Empire in 539 BC (Daniel 7:4). A full list of kings Persian Empire in 539 BC (Daniel 7:4). A full list of kings since the 8since the 8thth century BC can be found in Ptolemy’s century BC can be found in Ptolemy’s Canon Canon of Kings.of Kings.

• Nabopolassar (626-605 BC)Nabopolassar (626-605 BC)• Nebuchadnezzar II (605-562 BC) Nebuchadnezzar II (605-562 BC) Daniel 1:1*+Daniel 1:1*+• Evil-Merodach (562-560 BC) Evil-Merodach (562-560 BC) 2 Kings 25:27*+2 Kings 25:27*+• Nergal-Shar-usur (560-556) Nergal-Shar-usur (560-556) Jeremiah 39:3*+Jeremiah 39:3*+• Labashi-Marduk (556 BC)Labashi-Marduk (556 BC)• Nabonidus (556-539 BC)Nabonidus (556-539 BC)• Belshazzar (co-regent) Daniel 5:22*+Belshazzar (co-regent) Daniel 5:22*+

*Those named in the Bible who are mentioned *Those named in the Bible who are mentioned in extra biblical history or archaeologyin extra biblical history or archaeology+Mentioned by name in the Bible+Mentioned by name in the Bible

Ishtar Gate, Babylon Ishtar Gate, Babylon (Iraq)(Iraq)

Kings of PersiaKings of Persia

• Achaemenes (700-675 BC)Achaemenes (700-675 BC)• Cyrus I (640-600 BC)Cyrus I (640-600 BC)• Cyrus II (559-530 BC)*+Cyrus II (559-530 BC)*+• Cambyses II (530-522 BC)Cambyses II (530-522 BC)• Darius I (522-486 BC)*+Darius I (522-486 BC)*+• Xerxes I (486-465 BC)*+Xerxes I (486-465 BC)*+• Artaxerxes I (465-424 BC)*+Artaxerxes I (465-424 BC)*+• Darius II (424-404 BC)Darius II (424-404 BC)• Darius III (336-330 BC)Darius III (336-330 BC)

*Those named in the Bible who are mentioned *Those named in the Bible who are mentioned in extra biblical history or archaeologyin extra biblical history or archaeology+Mentioned by name in the Bible+Mentioned by name in the Bible

TThe Persian Empire fell in 330 BC to Alexander the he Persian Empire fell in 330 BC to Alexander the Great’s much smaller Greek army (Daniel 7; 8:3, 20-21).Great’s much smaller Greek army (Daniel 7; 8:3, 20-21).

Limestone Wall Relief of Darius I and XerxesLimestone Wall Relief of Darius I and Xerxes (Persepolis, Iran)(Persepolis, Iran)

Kings of EgyptAAn exact listing of Egyptian kings is difficult, with the n exact listing of Egyptian kings is difficult, with the margin of error being up to 100 years. Only those kings margin of error being up to 100 years. Only those kings associated with associated with biblical events/figures beginning with Joseph with be biblical events/figures beginning with Joseph with be listed. listed.

• Sesostris II (1880-1874 BC) (Joseph)Sesostris II (1880-1874 BC) (Joseph)• Sesostris III (1874-1855 BC)Sesostris III (1874-1855 BC)• Tuthmosis III (1479-1425 BC) (early exodus)Tuthmosis III (1479-1425 BC) (early exodus)• Amenhotep II (1427-1400 BC)Amenhotep II (1427-1400 BC)• Ramesses II (1279-1213 BC) (late exodus)Ramesses II (1279-1213 BC) (late exodus)• Shoshenq I (945-924 BC) 1 Kings 14:25Shoshenq I (945-924 BC) 1 Kings 14:25*+*+• Taharqa (690-664 BC) 2 Kings 19:9Taharqa (690-664 BC) 2 Kings 19:9*+*+• Tantamani (664-656 BC)Tantamani (664-656 BC)• Necho II (610-595 BC) 2 Kings 23:29-35Necho II (610-595 BC) 2 Kings 23:29-35*+*+• Hophra/Apries Jeremiah 44:30Hophra/Apries Jeremiah 44:30*+*+

The historian Herodotus (5The historian Herodotus (5thth century BC): century BC):"So when "So when ApriesApries [Hophra] leading his foreign [Hophra] leading his foreign mercenaries…had reached the city of Memphis, mercenaries…had reached the city of Memphis, they [Apries and Amasis] engaged in battle.“they [Apries and Amasis] engaged in battle.“

~~HistoriesHistories, 2.161ff, 2.161ff

*Those named in the Bible who are mentioned in extra biblical *Those named in the Bible who are mentioned in extra biblical history or archaeology. +Mentioned by name in the Biblehistory or archaeology. +Mentioned by name in the Bible

Tablet from Abydos Tablet from Abydos depicts King depicts King Hophra/Apries offering Hophra/Apries offering libation to a godlibation to a god

CC-Art.com

Old Testament Old Testament ArchaeologyArchaeology

Evidence for the Evidence for the ExodusExodusCCritical scholars have denied the Israelite exodus from ritical scholars have denied the Israelite exodus from

Egypt due to lack of direct historical evidence. However, Egypt due to lack of direct historical evidence. However, there are several lines of evidence which make this there are several lines of evidence which make this event plausible:event plausible:

• Beni-Hasan Mural:Beni-Hasan Mural: A tomb dating to A tomb dating to 1900 BC1900 BC at the at the EgyptianEgyptian necropolis at Beni-Hasan (near Cairo) portrays the necropolis at Beni-Hasan (near Cairo) portrays the migrationmigration of bearded Semites (Asiatics) with donkeys and of bearded Semites (Asiatics) with donkeys and colorful attirecolorful attire from Canaan to Egypt, similar in appearance to the from Canaan to Egypt, similar in appearance to the Hebrews. Hebrews.

• SimilarSimilar FeaturesFeatures:: Weapons, clothing, colors, animals, Weapons, clothing, colors, animals, musicalmusical instruments, and migration direction (see photo instruments, and migration direction (see photo below)below)

CC-Art.com

Evidence for the ExodusEvidence for the ExodusSSeveral other lines of evidence support the everal other lines of evidence support the exodus:exodus:

• Hebrew languageHebrew language used in the Bible to describe the used in the Bible to describe the exodus andexodus and Egyptian life was written by someone who had Egyptian life was written by someone who had intimateintimate knowledge of Egypt (i.e. Moses)knowledge of Egypt (i.e. Moses)

• Ipuwer papyrusIpuwer papyrus is a 13 is a 13thth century BC copy of an earlier century BC copy of an earlier periodperiod which describes conditions in Egypt that resemble the which describes conditions in Egypt that resemble the biblicalbiblical account of the plagues including river is blood, trees account of the plagues including river is blood, trees areare destroyed, no light in the land, people everywhere destroyed, no light in the land, people everywhere burying theburying the dead (Exodus 7-12 cf. Ipuwer 2:2, 6, 13; 4:14; 9:11)dead (Exodus 7-12 cf. Ipuwer 2:2, 6, 13; 4:14; 9:11)

• Foreigners have been enslavedForeigners have been enslaved throughout Egypt’s throughout Egypt’s historyhistory

• Evidence of settlementsEvidence of settlements and encampments in the Sinai and encampments in the Sinai and atand at Kadesh Barnea that resemble the HebrewsKadesh Barnea that resemble the Hebrews

• Early exodus datingEarly exodus dating is consistent with the is consistent with the conquest of conquest of JerichoJericho (c. 1400 BC) under Joshua(c. 1400 BC) under Joshua

• To assert the exodus did not occur due to lack of To assert the exodus did not occur due to lack of historicalhistorical evidence is an evidence is an argument from silenceargument from silence

JerichoJericho

• Jericho was a Jericho was a fortified city in 15fortified city in 15thth century BC century BC (Joshua (Joshua 2:5-7,15)2:5-7,15)

• The city was The city was destroyed by firedestroyed by fire (Joshua 6:24) (Joshua 6:24)

• The fortification The fortification walls collapsedwalls collapsed (Joshua 6:20) (Joshua 6:20)

• The destruction was in the The destruction was in the spring due to spring due to grain storagegrain storage (Joshua 2:6, 3:15, 5:10)(Joshua 2:6, 3:15, 5:10)

• The grain stored in the city The grain stored in the city was not consumed indicating was not consumed indicating a a short siegeshort siege (Joshua 6:15,20) (Joshua 6:15,20)

• The The grain was never used grain was never used by the inhabitants or invaders by the inhabitants or invaders (Joshua 6:17-18)(Joshua 6:17-18)

EExcavations at Jericho and the analysis of xcavations at Jericho and the analysis of Canaanite Canaanite pottery samples by archaeologist, Bryant Wood, pottery samples by archaeologist, Bryant Wood, have have demonstrated that Jericho was demonstrated that Jericho was conquered c. conquered c. 1400 BC1400 BC. .

Jericho Brick from WallJericho Brick from Wall

Temptation SealTemptation SealDDiscovered in Sumer, this chlorite seal (drawing) shows iscovered in Sumer, this chlorite seal (drawing) shows two figures seated on thrones reaching towards the two figures seated on thrones reaching towards the tree with a serpent behind each figure. Some view the tree with a serpent behind each figure. Some view the seal as an ordinary banquet scene, others suggest it is seal as an ordinary banquet scene, others suggest it is depicting the Genesis temptation story with Adam and depicting the Genesis temptation story with Adam and Eve. If it is, the Eve. If it is, the temptation and falltemptation and fall was known almost was known almost 800 years prior to the writing of Genesis, implying the 800 years prior to the writing of Genesis, implying the great significance and widespread knowledge of the great significance and widespread knowledge of the temptation story.temptation story.

DDiscovered in iscovered in 1887 by peasant woman in Egypt, the 1887 by peasant woman in Egypt, the Amarna Tablets written in cuneiform describe the Amarna Tablets written in cuneiform describe the “Hapiru,”“Hapiru,” which many understand as a distinct which many understand as a distinct reference to the Hebrews, as the reference to the Hebrews, as the early conquerors of early conquerors of CanaanCanaan. This shows that the Hapiru were well known in . This shows that the Hapiru were well known in Mesopotamia by early 2nd millennium BC which is Mesopotamia by early 2nd millennium BC which is consistent with the Bible’s patriarchal narrative. consistent with the Bible’s patriarchal narrative.

Amarna TabletsAmarna Tablets1400 BC1400 BC

Lachish LettersLachish LettersDDiscovered at Lachish (Tell ed-Duweir) in 1935, iscovered at Lachish (Tell ed-Duweir) in 1935, 18 18

hastilyhastilywritten letters dating to 587 BCwritten letters dating to 587 BC describes the terrifying describes the terrifying

finalfinaldays of Judah under King Zedekiah before its final days of Judah under King Zedekiah before its final

overthrow byoverthrow bythe Babylonians in 586 BC. These the Babylonians in 586 BC. These confirm the fulfillment confirm the fulfillment

ofofprophecies describing Judah’s Babylonian captivityprophecies describing Judah’s Babylonian captivity and andconquest (Jeremiah 25:8-9; 34:7; Daniel 9:2; 2 Chron conquest (Jeremiah 25:8-9; 34:7; Daniel 9:2; 2 Chron

36:15-21).36:15-21).

This note was written This note was written by a Jewish military by a Jewish military officer to his superior:officer to his superior: 'To my lord Ya'osh. 'To my lord Ya'osh. May Yahweh cause my May Yahweh cause my lord to hear the news lord to hear the news of peace, even now, of peace, even now, even now. Who is your even now. Who is your servant but a dog that servant but a dog that my lord should my lord should remember his servant?'remember his servant?'

Babylonian ChroniclesBabylonian Chronicles 600 BC600 BC

DDescribes Nebuchadnezzar’s escribes Nebuchadnezzar’s firstfirst

decade as king along withdecade as king along with his political & military his political & military

exploits,exploits, including his including his invasion of invasion of

Israel in late 7th and early Israel in late 7th and early 6th cent B.C.6th cent B.C.

(Isaiah 39).(Isaiah 39).

TThese activities correspond to hese activities correspond to prophecies and histories prophecies and histories

recorded in Jeremiah, 2 recorded in Jeremiah, 2 Chron 36, and 2 Kings 24, Chron 36, and 2 Kings 24, and and confirm the historicity of confirm the historicity of the biblical figure the biblical figure “Nebuchadnezzar II”“Nebuchadnezzar II” described in the book of described in the book of Daniel.Daniel.

Ishtar GateIshtar GateAAccording to archaeologists, the ccording to archaeologists, the Ishtar Gate was the eighth gate, Ishtar Gate was the eighth gate, located on the north side of the located on the north side of the city, which lead to the inner city city, which lead to the inner city of Babylon (near Baghdad, Iraq). of Babylon (near Baghdad, Iraq). It was constructed by order of It was constructed by order of King King Nebuchadnezzar IINebuchadnezzar II and to and to be be dedicated to the godess Ishtar. dedicated to the godess Ishtar. The gate contained a dedication The gate contained a dedication inscription which confirms inscription which confirms Nebuchadnezzar’s Nebuchadnezzar’s title as king, title as king, Babylon as his place of reignBabylon as his place of reign (605-562 BC), and (605-562 BC), and his historical his historical existence.existence.

It reads in part: It reads in part: “Nebuchadnezzar, King of “Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, faithful prince and Babylon, faithful prince and appointed by the will of Marduk,appointed by the will of Marduk,…the firstborn son of …the firstborn son of Nabopolasser, the King of Nabopolasser, the King of Babylon.”Babylon.”

575 BC575 BC

Nebuchadnezzar BrickNebuchadnezzar Brick

'Nebuchadnezzar, 'Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, … King of Babylon, … eldest son of eldest son of Nabopolassar, king Nabopolassar, king of Babylon'. of Babylon'.

IImmediately after defeating the Assyrians at Nineveh (612 BC) mmediately after defeating the Assyrians at Nineveh (612 BC) Nebuchadnezzar II began large scale building projects at Nebuchadnezzar II began large scale building projects at Babylon. It is estimated that more than 14 million baked bricks Babylon. It is estimated that more than 14 million baked bricks such as this were made and stamped with cuneiform such as this were made and stamped with cuneiform inscriptions identifying the biblical king and his engineering and inscriptions identifying the biblical king and his engineering and architectural exploits which are also confirmed in the 6architectural exploits which are also confirmed in the 6thth century century BC Cylinder of Nebuchadnezzar II. BC Cylinder of Nebuchadnezzar II.

““Is not this great Babylon, that I Is not this great Babylon, that I have built for a royal dwelling by my have built for a royal dwelling by my mighty power and for the honor of mighty power and for the honor of my majesty” (Daniel 4:30)my majesty” (Daniel 4:30)

66thth century BC century BC

Cylinder of NabonidusCylinder of NabonidusTThis mid 6his mid 6thth century BC cuneiform cylinder was century BC cuneiform cylinder was discovered in discovered in the temple of Shamash at Sippar (Iraq). It tells of the temple of Shamash at Sippar (Iraq). It tells of Babylonian King Nabonidus’ reconstruction of pagan Babylonian King Nabonidus’ reconstruction of pagan temples and the discovery of ancient inscriptions of temples and the discovery of ancient inscriptions of former kings. More importantly, however, it offers former kings. More importantly, however, it offers historicalhistorical

• Confirms historical figure of Confirms historical figure of BelshazzarBelshazzar (Daniel 5) (Daniel 5)

• Belshazzar was Nabonidus’ son and Belshazzar was Nabonidus’ son and co-regentco-regent (King, Daniel 5:1) (King, Daniel 5:1)

• Explains why Daniel could rise no Explains why Daniel could rise no higher than higher than 33rdrd ruler ruler in the kingdom in the kingdom (Daniel 5:29)(Daniel 5:29)

confirmation of Belshazzarconfirmation of Belshazzar, who was , who was previously either considered legendary or previously either considered legendary or the the Bible was mistaken to identify him Bible was mistaken to identify him as “king” (Daniel 5:1)as “king” (Daniel 5:1) since he was since he was absent from any official kings list.absent from any official kings list.

Cyrus the GreatCyrus the GreatBBelow is the elow is the 66thth century BC tomb at Pasargadae (Iran) century BC tomb at Pasargadae (Iran) of of thethebiblical figure “Cyrus” prophesied by Isaiah (45:1) 150 biblical figure “Cyrus” prophesied by Isaiah (45:1) 150 years years before his birth. He would eventually bring liberation to before his birth. He would eventually bring liberation to the the Jewish captives in Babylon before his death in 529 BC. Jewish captives in Babylon before his death in 529 BC. According to 1According to 1stst century BC Greek historian, Strabo, century BC Greek historian, Strabo, Alexander the Great visited the tomb before his death. Alexander the Great visited the tomb before his death. The tomb inscription reads:The tomb inscription reads:

““Oh man, I am Cyrus, Oh man, I am Cyrus, who founded the who founded the empire of the Persians empire of the Persians and was king of Asia. and was king of Asia. Grudge me not Grudge me not therefore this therefore this monument."monument."

Cyrus CylinderCyrus CylinderPPersian clay cylinder ersian clay cylinder (6(6thth century BC) century BC) written in Babylonian written in Babylonian cuneiform describes King Cyrus’s victory over Babylon and cuneiform describes King Cyrus’s victory over Babylon and

hishispermission of free worship. The cylinder declares that:permission of free worship. The cylinder declares that:

• Cyrus allowed the Cyrus allowed the returnreturn of foreign gods to their own land of foreign gods to their own land • The The rebuildingrebuilding of destroyed cities and religious buildings of destroyed cities and religious buildings (2 Chronicles 36:22-23; Isaiah 45:1-13; Ezra 1:1-3; 6:1-5)(2 Chronicles 36:22-23; Isaiah 45:1-13; Ezra 1:1-3; 6:1-5)• The cylinder is considered the The cylinder is considered the “first charter of human“first charter of human

rights.rights.” ”

““I returned to sacred cities on the other side of the I returned to sacred cities on the other side of the Tigris, the sanctuaries of which have been in ruins for a Tigris, the sanctuaries of which have been in ruins for a long time, the images which to live therein and long time, the images which to live therein and established for… established for…

them them permanentpermanent sanctuaries. Isanctuaries. I gathered all theirgathered all their inhabitants andinhabitants and returned them toreturned them to

their their habitations.” habitations.”

~Cyrus~Cyrus

Cyrus the GreatCyrus the GreatTThis clay brick (6his clay brick (6thth century BC) was discovered in the biblical century BC) was discovered in the biblical city of Ur and was written in Babylonian cuneiform (Ezra 6:14). city of Ur and was written in Babylonian cuneiform (Ezra 6:14). The inscription reads: The inscription reads: “Cyrus king of the world, king of Anshan…“Cyrus king of the world, king of Anshan…the great gods delivered all the lands into my hands and I made the great gods delivered all the lands into my hands and I made this land dwell in peace” this land dwell in peace”

BBiblical names iblical names recorded on other recorded on other brick discoveries are:brick discoveries are:

• ShalmaneserShalmaneser• SargonSargon• SennacheribSennacherib• EsarhaddonEsarhaddon• NebuchadnezzarNebuchadnezzar

Behistun InscriptionBehistun InscriptionLLocated near the Zagros mountains (Iran), this ocated near the Zagros mountains (Iran), this 55thth century BC century BCtrilingual relief (drawing) written in Persian, Elamite, and trilingual relief (drawing) written in Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian, gives extra biblical reference to the Persian victory Babylonian, gives extra biblical reference to the Persian victory over Babylon and the rise of Darius I (522-486 BC) to power over Babylon and the rise of Darius I (522-486 BC) to power (Dan 5:31; 6:1; Neh 12:22; Ezra 4-6) which is consistent with (Dan 5:31; 6:1; Neh 12:22; Ezra 4-6) which is consistent with the prophecies and persons mentioned in the book of Daniel.the prophecies and persons mentioned in the book of Daniel.

1.1: 1.1: I (am) Darius, the I (am) Darius, the great king, the king of great king, the king of kings, the king in Persia, kings, the king in Persia, the king of countries, the the king of countries, the son of Hystaspes, the son of Hystaspes, the grandson of Arsames, the grandson of Arsames, the Achaemenide…. Achaemenide…. 1.19:1.19: Says Darius the king: Says Darius the king: Afterwards I went to Afterwards I went to Babylon;… there this Babylon;… there this Nidintu-Bel who called Nidintu-Bel who called himself Nebuchadrezzar …himself Nebuchadrezzar …we engaged in battle;…the we engaged in battle;…the army of Nidintu-Bel I army of Nidintu-Bel I smote utterly;smote utterly;

Darius I and XerxesDarius I and XerxesTThis his 55thth century BC century BC wall relief at Persepolis wall relief at Persepolis (Iran) (Iran) pictures biblical Persian King Darius I (Ezra 6:14-pictures biblical Persian King Darius I (Ezra 6:14-15) 15) sitting on the throne and his son, Crown Prince sitting on the throne and his son, Crown Prince XerxesXerxes(Ahasherus, Esther 1:1) facing him with guards (Ahasherus, Esther 1:1) facing him with guards behind.behind.

Silver Bowl of Artaxerxes ISilver Bowl of Artaxerxes I

Rim inscription Rim inscription translates: translates:

'Artaxerxes, the great 'Artaxerxes, the great king, king of kings, king king, king of kings, king of countries, son of of countries, son of Xerxes the king, of Xerxes the king, of Xerxes (who was) son of Xerxes (who was) son of Darius the king, the Darius the king, the Achaemenian, in whose Achaemenian, in whose house this silver house this silver drinking-cup (was) drinking-cup (was) made.' made.'

TThis bowl served as part of the royal table dressing of his bowl served as part of the royal table dressing of the biblical figure Artaxerxes I (464-424 BC) mentioned the biblical figure Artaxerxes I (464-424 BC) mentioned in Ezra 7-8. The cuneiform inscription around the rim in Ezra 7-8. The cuneiform inscription around the rim lists additional biblical figures such as Xerxes lists additional biblical figures such as Xerxes (Ahasuerus, Esther 1:1-19) and Darius the Great (Ahasuerus, Esther 1:1-19) and Darius the Great mentioned in the books of Ezra, Haggai and Zechariah.mentioned in the books of Ezra, Haggai and Zechariah.

55thth century BC century BC

*Also discovered was the tomb of *Also discovered was the tomb of Artaxerxes I near Persepolis (Iran)Artaxerxes I near Persepolis (Iran)

Winged Bull of Sargon IIWinged Bull of Sargon II TThis sculpture (known as an “Iamassu”), weighing over his sculpture (known as an “Iamassu”), weighing over 15 tons was discovered by Paul Botta in 1843 at the 15 tons was discovered by Paul Botta in 1843 at the palace gates of the biblical Assyrian king Sargon II (722-palace gates of the biblical Assyrian king Sargon II (722-705 BC) in Khorsabad (Iraq). 705 BC) in Khorsabad (Iraq).

• Sargon was Sargon was previously previously unmentionedunmentioned in any in any text outside the Bible text outside the Bible (Isaiah 20:1)(Isaiah 20:1)

• An inscription at the An inscription at the palace says Sargon palace says Sargon captured Samariacaptured Samaria his his first year (Isaiah 20:6)first year (Isaiah 20:6)

• Between the legs are Between the legs are cuneiform inscriptions cuneiform inscriptions identifying identifying Sargon’s Sargon’s title, ancestry andtitle, ancestry and achievementsachievements

The Annals of The Annals of SennacheribSennacheribAAlso known as the “Taylor lso known as the “Taylor

Prism,” this six-sided clay prism Prism,” this six-sided clay prism (701 BC) was unearthed by (701 BC) was unearthed by Geoffrey Taylor at Nineveh in Geoffrey Taylor at Nineveh in 1830. 1830.

• Records the campaigns of KingRecords the campaigns of King Sennacherib (705-681 BC) Sennacherib (705-681 BC) againstagainst Judah and King Hezekiah atJudah and King Hezekiah at Jerusalem (Isaiah 19; 36-37; Jerusalem (Isaiah 19; 36-37; 2 Kings 18; 19; 20) 2 Kings 18; 19; 20)

• The annals tell, as does Isaiah The annals tell, as does Isaiah 36-36- 37, of how Sennacherib 37, of how Sennacherib enclosedenclosed Hezekiah in Jerusalem Hezekiah in Jerusalem ‘like a ‘like a cagedcaged bird.’ bird.’

• Reveals how Sennacherib Reveals how Sennacherib returnedreturned home after receiving tribute home after receiving tribute fromfrom Hezekiah, where history says Hezekiah, where history says hehe was assassinated (Isaiah 37:7, was assassinated (Isaiah 37:7, 38)38)

Hezekiah’s WallHezekiah’s WallDDuring the Assyrian invasion in uring the Assyrian invasion in the the 88thth century BC century BC, 2 Chronicles , 2 Chronicles 32:5 says King Hezekiah fortified 32:5 says King Hezekiah fortified the broken down areas of the the broken down areas of the city walls, building towers andcity walls, building towers andadding strength to the existing adding strength to the existing structures. Excavators digging structures. Excavators digging in the Jewish quarter have found:in the Jewish quarter have found:

• Stones for the wall were taken Stones for the wall were taken from Jerusalem homes as from Jerusalem homes as described by Isaiah 22:9-10described by Isaiah 22:9-10

• Wall was reinforced to over Wall was reinforced to over 20 20 feet thickfeet thick and and 27 feet high27 feet high to to withstand Sennacherib’s withstand Sennacherib’s invasion forceinvasion force

• An “outside wall” as described inAn “outside wall” as described in 2 Chronicles 32:52 Chronicles 32:5

Top of the wall

Black Obelisk of Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser IIIShalmaneser IIIFFound by A.H. Layard in the palace of Nimrud, this 9ound by A.H. Layard in the palace of Nimrud, this 9thth

centurycenturyBC obelisk depicts the military victories of Assyrian BC obelisk depicts the military victories of Assyrian

KingKingShalmaneser III (reigned 858-824 BC). The panel belowShalmaneser III (reigned 858-824 BC). The panel belowpictures pictures JehuJehu (king of Israel) making an alliance, or (king of Israel) making an alliance, or

payingpayingtribute, by tribute, by bowing to Shalmaneser (2 Kings 9-10). It bowing to Shalmaneser (2 Kings 9-10). It

reads:reads: “ “Jehu, son [not direct son] of Omri”Jehu, son [not direct son] of Omri”

Code of HammurabiCode of HammurabiTThe law code of Babylonian King, he law code of Babylonian King,

Hammurabi,Hammurabi,(sixth king of the first dynasty), found in (sixth king of the first dynasty), found in

19011901at Susa (Iran) offers at Susa (Iran) offers 282 laws on morality,282 laws on morality,commerce and religioncommerce and religion. Some believed that. Some believed thatIsrael was to primitive to have advancedIsrael was to primitive to have advancedMosaic law codes since it was assumed thatMosaic law codes since it was assumed thatwriting was developed much later. writing was developed much later.

However:However:

• The discovery of the Hammurabi Code The discovery of the Hammurabi Code predates the Mosaic lawpredates the Mosaic law by 300 years by 300 years

• Answers the objection as to whether Answers the objection as to whether writing writing

or or detailed moral laws were possibledetailed moral laws were possible during Moses’ time during Moses’ time

• We now know the earliest form of writing We now know the earliest form of writing (pictograms) appeared in Sumer (pictograms) appeared in Sumer (southern Iraq) dating from the 4(southern Iraq) dating from the 4thth millennium BC and law codes such as this millennium BC and law codes such as this were well establishwere well establish

at the time of the exodusat the time of the exodus

18th century BC18th century BC

Annals of Tiglath-pileser IIIAnnals of Tiglath-pileser III TThe annals are an 8he annals are an 8thth century BC account century BC account

which describes the Assyrian king’s military which describes the Assyrian king’s military campaigns and mentions the kings of Judah campaigns and mentions the kings of Judah which corresponds to the events recorded in 2 which corresponds to the events recorded in 2 Kings 15:29; 16:7, 10; 1 Chronicles 5:6, 26; 2 Kings 15:29; 16:7, 10; 1 Chronicles 5:6, 26; 2 Chronicles 28:20.Chronicles 28:20.

TThis stone relief at his stone relief at the king’s palace in the king’s palace in Nimrud depicts Nimrud depicts Tiglath-pileser III Tiglath-pileser III in his carriage in his carriage during a during a victoryvictoryparadeparade

Ebla TabletsEbla TabletsTThese hese 16,000+ clay 16,000+ clay

tabletstabletswere discovered in Aleppo,were discovered in Aleppo,Syria, at Tel-Mardikh in theSyria, at Tel-Mardikh in thelate 1970’s by Italianlate 1970’s by Italianarchaeologist archaeologist Paolo Paolo

MathiaeMathiae..Epigrapher, Epigrapher, GiovanniGiovanniPettinatoPettinato has discovered: has discovered:

• Biblical Biblical citiescities such as such as Sodom, Zeboim, Admah, Sodom, Zeboim, Admah, Hazor, Megiddo, Hazor, Megiddo,

Jerusalem, and GazaJerusalem, and Gaza

• NamesNames such as Nahor, such as Nahor, Israel, Eber, Michael and Israel, Eber, Michael and Ishmael Ishmael

• Biblical Biblical wordswords thought thought to have developed much to have developed much later such aslater such asTehom Tehom (the (the deep, Gen 1:2); deep, Gen 1:2); CanaanCanaan

Ebla Tablet 2300 BCEbla Tablet 2300 BC

Gilgamesh EpicGilgamesh EpicTThis 7his 7thth century BC fragment of the Babylonian version century BC fragment of the Babylonian version of the flood was found in Meggido, Israel. It shows of the flood was found in Meggido, Israel. It shows remarkable similarities to Genesis, and most likely remarkable similarities to Genesis, and most likely reflects a much earlier record such as the 17reflects a much earlier record such as the 17thth century century BC Atrahasis Epic:BC Atrahasis Epic:

• The god Ea warns UtnapishtimThe god Ea warns Utnapishtim to build a square ship and:to build a square ship and:• A week long deluge ensuesA week long deluge ensues• Waters subside in one dayWaters subside in one day• The gods are saddened andThe gods are saddened and grant Utnapishtim divinegrant Utnapishtim divine immortalityimmortality

TThere are over here are over two dozen flood two dozen flood accountsaccounts worldwide by various worldwide by various people groups, which argues for people groups, which argues for historicity and makes the historicity and makes the Genesis flood the Genesis flood the mostmost documented eventdocumented event in the Bible in the Bible

Atrahasis EpicAtrahasis EpicTThe 17he 17thth century BC Atrahasis century BC Atrahasis Epic is one of the Epic is one of the most complete most complete flood accountsflood accounts coming from coming from Mesopotamian sources. The Mesopotamian sources. The Babylonian story parallels the Babylonian story parallels the biblical account (Genesis 6-9) at biblical account (Genesis 6-9) at several points:several points:

• Humans have Humans have displeased the displeased the godsgods• The gods give Atrahasis sevenThe gods give Atrahasis seven days days warningwarning before the flood before the flood• The gods instruct him The gods instruct him how tohow to survivesurvive the coming deluge the coming deluge • Atrahasis Atrahasis builds a boatbuilds a boat and and gathers animals and birds gathers animals and birds • All All mankind is destroyedmankind is destroyed except except Atrahasis, makes an offering to Atrahasis, makes an offering to god god • The offering is accepted andThe offering is accepted and relations restored relations restored

Gath InscriptionGath InscriptionDDiscovered in 2005 at Tel es-Safi (Gath), also known iscovered in 2005 at Tel es-Safi (Gath), also known as the “Goliath Inscription,” this 9as the “Goliath Inscription,” this 9thth century BC ostraca century BC ostraca is the earliest deciphered Philistine inscription ever is the earliest deciphered Philistine inscription ever found. It demonstrates that names similar to found. It demonstrates that names similar to “Goliath” were being used around the time (and after) “Goliath” were being used around the time (and after) David slew Goliath in 1 Samuel 17. David slew Goliath in 1 Samuel 17. • Two names inscribed on Two names inscribed on

the shard were written the shard were written with with Semitic lettersSemitic letters ( (TWLATWLA and and WLTWLT;; read right to left)read right to left)

• They are Philistine namesThey are Philistine names etymologically equivalentetymologically equivalent to “Goliath” to “Goliath”

• Because Semitic letters Because Semitic letters are used to identify are used to identify Indo-Indo- European namesEuropean names related related to Goliath, it suggests theto Goliath, it suggests the reliability of the Philistine reliability of the Philistine name “Goliath”name “Goliath”

Proto-Canaanite Goliath InscriptionProto-Canaanite Goliath Inscription

Hittite Seal RingHittite Seal RingTThough previously unmentioned in extra biblical literature, hough previously unmentioned in extra biblical literature, scholars believed the Hittites (from the Indo-European scholars believed the Hittites (from the Indo-European region) were legendary people. However, in 1905 the region) were legendary people. However, in 1905 the Hittite Hittite librarylibrary (10,000 tablets)(10,000 tablets) was discovered by was discovered by Hugo Winckler in Hugo Winckler in TurkeyTurkey. The tablets consist of law codes, legends, . The tablets consist of law codes, legends, covenants and myths, giving scholars ample evidence for covenants and myths, giving scholars ample evidence for the belief that the Hittites were a real people as mentioned the belief that the Hittites were a real people as mentioned in Genesis 15:20 (1Kings 10:29; 23). This dome shaped in Genesis 15:20 (1Kings 10:29; 23). This dome shaped Hittite stamp seal (1400-1200 BC) is with silver ring, Hittite stamp seal (1400-1200 BC) is with silver ring, decorated with Hittite hieroglyphic characters, a script decorated with Hittite hieroglyphic characters, a script which remains elusive to the epigrapher’s understanding to which remains elusive to the epigrapher’s understanding to this day (Joshua 1:4).this day (Joshua 1:4).

House of God InscriptionHouse of God Inscription

TThis clay shard his clay shard (7(7th th

century BC)century BC) was used as was used as a a receipt for silverreceipt for silver donated to Solomon’s donated to Solomon’s templetemple. It is the earliest . It is the earliest evidence outside the evidence outside the biblical text referencing biblical text referencing the first temple as the first temple as “Beth “Beth Yahw’h”Yahw’h” or “House of or “House of God.”God.”

Merneptah SteleMerneptah Stele

EEgyptian hieroglyphic slab discovered gyptian hieroglyphic slab discovered inin

Pharaoh Merneptah’s funery temple inPharaoh Merneptah’s funery temple inwestern Thebes. It contains Merneptah’swestern Thebes. It contains Merneptah’sexploits and the exploits and the earliest earliest mention of mention of

“Israel”“Israel”from any from any official official documents outside the documents outside the Bible.Bible.

SSome have said Israel did not enterome have said Israel did not enterCanaan until the 9Canaan until the 9thth century BC, century BC,

however,however,this stele recognizes Israel as a socialthis stele recognizes Israel as a socialentity in Canaan by 1209 BCentity in Canaan by 1209 BC, they must, they musthave have enteredentered the landthe land by early 13 by early 13thth

century.century.

Line 27: Line 27: “Israel is laid waste; its seed is not”“Israel is laid waste; its seed is not”

Mesha StelaMesha StelaOOften called the “Moabite ften called the “Moabite

Stone,” the Stone,” the 99thth century century slab slab was found east of Dead Sea in was found east of Dead Sea in 1868 at Dibon (Jordan) by F.A. 1868 at Dibon (Jordan) by F.A. Klein. It records:Klein. It records:

• Conflict between Conflict between Moab’s King Moab’s King Mesha and King OmriMesha and King Omri of Israel, of Israel,

and Omri’s son (Ahab; 2 Kings and Omri’s son (Ahab; 2 Kings 3),3),

• Mesha’s Mesha’s successful liberationsuccessful liberation and rule of the landand rule of the land

• Appears consistent with the Appears consistent with the political and military climatepolitical and military climate that existed in the 9that existed in the 9th th century century BC according to 2 Kings 1-3BC according to 2 Kings 1-3

• Biblical figures Biblical figures Mesha, Omri, Mesha, Omri, Yahweh,Yahweh, and epigrapher, and epigrapher, Andre’ Lemaire, says possibly Andre’ Lemaire, says possibly the the “house of D[avid]”“house of D[avid]” (Genesis 19:37).(Genesis 19:37).

Nuzi TabletsNuzi Tablets 1500-1400 BC1500-1400 BC

EExcavated in Nuzi (Iraq), xcavated in Nuzi (Iraq), these cuneiform tablets these cuneiform tablets (drawing) describe society, (drawing) describe society, laws and customs, that laws and customs, that parallel biblical patriarchs as parallel biblical patriarchs as late as 1late as 1stst mill B.C. mill B.C. It could explain why Abraham It could explain why Abraham was reluctant to expel Hagar was reluctant to expel Hagar and Ishmael (Genesis 21:10-and Ishmael (Genesis 21:10-11) and how a man may adopt 11) and how a man may adopt a slave (Eliezer), relative or a slave (Eliezer), relative or free-born, to care for an free-born, to care for an elderly man (Abraham) and elderly man (Abraham) and carry on his family name carry on his family name (Genesis 15:2, 24; 24).(Genesis 15:2, 24; 24).

Balaam InscriptionBalaam InscriptionFFound at Deir Alla (Jordan) in ound at Deir Alla (Jordan) in

1967,1967,the 119 fragments (50 lines) ofthe 119 fragments (50 lines) ofplaster in Aramaic text was plaster in Aramaic text was

writtenwrittenin black and red ink. Since thein black and red ink. Since theinscription was discovered in theinscription was discovered in therubble of a building most likelyrubble of a building most likelydestroyed in the great destroyed in the great

earthquake earthquake of the of the 88th th century BCcentury BC during the during thereign of King Uzziah, the text reign of King Uzziah, the text

itselfitselfmust be much older. In addition, must be much older. In addition,

thethefaded ink suggests an older faded ink suggests an older

date. The text opens in red date. The text opens in red ink (for ink (for

emphasis) with:emphasis) with:

““Warnings from the Book of Warnings from the Book of BalaamBalaam

the son of Beor. He was a seer of the son of Beor. He was a seer of the gods.”the gods.”

Numbers 22:5; 23-24; 2 Pet Numbers 22:5; 23-24; 2 Pet 2:15;2:15;

Jude 11Jude 11

Madaba MapMadaba MapThe Madaba Map is a mosaic floor map discovered in he Madaba Map is a mosaic floor map discovered in

18841884 while Greek Orthodox Christians were removing debris while Greek Orthodox Christians were removing debris

fromfrom earlier church in Madaba, Jordan. It is the earlier church in Madaba, Jordan. It is the oldest mosaic oldest mosaic

map inmap inthe world describing the Holy Landthe world describing the Holy Land (Israel, Jordan, Egypt (Israel, Jordan, Egypt

andandSyria), dating to about Syria), dating to about AD 560AD 560, it describes the locations , it describes the locations

ofofsignificant cities and significant cities and landmarks that are consistent with landmarks that are consistent with

thethebiblical narrativebiblical narrative. Its current location is the . Its current location is the St. George St. George

GreekGreekOrthodox ChurchOrthodox Church in Madaba, Jordan. in Madaba, Jordan.

Siloam InscriptionSiloam InscriptionDDiscovered by youths in 1880, this 8iscovered by youths in 1880, this 8thth century BC Hebrew century BC Hebrewinscription tells of the dramatic construction of inscription tells of the dramatic construction of Hezekiah’s 1700Hezekiah’s 1700foot tunnelfoot tunnel the Bible describes was designed to bring water into the Bible describes was designed to bring water intoThe city from the Gihon Spring. This event corresponds withThe city from the Gihon Spring. This event corresponds withwhat is recorded in 2 Kings 20:20; Isaiah 22:9ff; 36-39; what is recorded in 2 Kings 20:20; Isaiah 22:9ff; 36-39; 2 Chronicles 32:30-312 Chronicles 32:30-31

Tel Dan SteleTel Dan SteleFFor decades many Bible critics believed David was a or decades many Bible critics believed David was a

mythologicalmythologicalfigure due to the lack of historical confirmation. However, figure due to the lack of historical confirmation. However,

thisthischanged when this Aramaic inscription, which reads changed when this Aramaic inscription, which reads “house “house

ofofDavid”David” (lit. (lit. bytdwdbytdwd), was discovered by Avraham Biran in ), was discovered by Avraham Biran in

1993 by1993 byaccident in the northern Israel territory known as Dan. accident in the northern Israel territory known as Dan.

Apparently,Apparently,it is a victory stele for an Aramaean (Syrian) king (perhaps it is a victory stele for an Aramaean (Syrian) king (perhaps

Hazael,Hazael,1 Kings 19:15) boasting of his military campaigns over 1 Kings 19:15) boasting of his military campaigns over

Israel. Israel.

• First extra biblical mentionFirst extra biblical mention to to the Davidic line. Mesha Stele the Davidic line. Mesha Stele could contain a could contain a secondsecond Davidic Davidic inscriptioninscription

• Mentions Mentions biblical figuresbiblical figures Joram, Ahab, Ahaz and Hadad Joram, Ahab, Ahaz and Hadad (1 kings 15:20; 2 Kings 8:16)(1 kings 15:20; 2 Kings 8:16)

99thth-8-8thth century BC century BC

D W D T Y B

““House of David”House of David”

Royal Steward InscriptionRoyal Steward InscriptionIIn 1870, Charles Clermont-Ganneau discovered an 1870, Charles Clermont-Ganneau discovered a 7th century BC7th century BC lintel tomb inscription near the Kidron Valley at Silwan (ancient lintel tomb inscription near the Kidron Valley at Silwan (ancient Siloam), east of the old city of Jerusalem. Nahman Avigad recently Siloam), east of the old city of Jerusalem. Nahman Avigad recently deciphered the inscriptiondeciphered the inscription whichwhich gives a partial name which reads gives a partial name which reads ““[Shebna]yahu”[Shebna]yahu” who was the who was the royal steward over the house of King royal steward over the house of King HezekiahHezekiah. Isaiah prophesies against Shebna for hewing out a tomb . Isaiah prophesies against Shebna for hewing out a tomb and living above his means (Isaiah 22:15-25; 1 Kings 4:6; 16:9).and living above his means (Isaiah 22:15-25; 1 Kings 4:6; 16:9).

Inscription reads:Inscription reads: "This is [the sepulcher of . . . ] yahu who is "This is [the sepulcher of . . . ] yahu who is over the house. There is no silver and no gold here but [his over the house. There is no silver and no gold here but [his bones] and the bones of his bones] and the bones of his amahamah with him. Cursed be the with him. Cursed be the man who will open this!" man who will open this!"

Uzziah PlaqueUzziah PlaqueDDiscovered in 1931 by E.L. Sukenik on the Mt. of Olives, iscovered in 1931 by E.L. Sukenik on the Mt. of Olives, the the stone tablet stone tablet (AD 30-70)(AD 30-70) has an ancient Hebrew funery has an ancient Hebrew funery inscription inscription identifying the biblical figure “Uzziah” (Azariah), king of identifying the biblical figure “Uzziah” (Azariah), king of Judah Judah (2 Chronicles 26; Isaiah 6:1). Uzziah is said to have (2 Chronicles 26; Isaiah 6:1). Uzziah is said to have overstepped overstepped

The plaque was copied The plaque was copied from an earlier 8from an earlier 8thth century BC inscription:century BC inscription: “To this place were “To this place were brought the bones of brought the bones of Uzziah, king of Judah, Uzziah, king of Judah, do not open!”do not open!”

his office by offering his office by offering incense in the temple. As incense in the temple. As a result, a result, Uzziah contracted Uzziah contracted leprosyleprosy and was isolated and was isolated until the day he died until the day he died (2 Chronicles 26:21-23). (2 Chronicles 26:21-23).

Hezir Family TombHezir Family TombTThe mausoleum on the left, located in the Kidron valley he mausoleum on the left, located in the Kidron valley

between the Mt. of Olives and temple mount, contains a between the Mt. of Olives and temple mount, contains a Hebrew inscription identifying it as the tomb of the Hebrew inscription identifying it as the tomb of the six sons of six sons of the Hezir family, who are Jewish prieststhe Hezir family, who are Jewish priests. This verifies the . This verifies the existence of this priestly family mentioned in 1 Chronicles existence of this priestly family mentioned in 1 Chronicles 24:15 (first temple period) and Nehemiah 10:20 (second temple 24:15 (first temple period) and Nehemiah 10:20 (second temple period). Though debatable, the tomb on the right, by tradition period). Though debatable, the tomb on the right, by tradition is commonly associated with the is commonly associated with the biblical prophet Zechariahbiblical prophet Zechariah, or , or the the father of John the Baptistfather of John the Baptist. .

Beth ShanBeth Shan 1 1 Samuel 31:10, 12, describes the fate of Israel’s King Saul, Samuel 31:10, 12, describes the fate of Israel’s King Saul, namely, that his death during his battle with the Philistines namely, that his death during his battle with the Philistines eventuated in the eventuated in the fastening of his deceased body to the wallsfastening of his deceased body to the walls of Beth Shan. Later, in New Testament times, the city was of Beth Shan. Later, in New Testament times, the city was known as Sythopolis, one of the 10 cities of the Decapolis known as Sythopolis, one of the 10 cities of the Decapolis ((decadeca = 10; = 10; polispolis = city). = city).

Gates of DanGates of DanOOriginally, the northern city of Dan (Laish shown riginally, the northern city of Dan (Laish shown below) was a fortified below) was a fortified Canaanite settlementCanaanite settlement until the until the tribe of Dan expelled its occupants as described in tribe of Dan expelled its occupants as described in Judges 18; 20:1. Known as a center of idolatry under Judges 18; 20:1. Known as a center of idolatry under Jeroboam I (1 Kings 12:28-31) several Jeroboam I (1 Kings 12:28-31) several pagan altarspagan altars (below) have turned up. This (below) have turned up. This mud brick gatemud brick gate dates to dates to the time of the patriarchs (2the time of the patriarchs (2ndnd millennium BC). millennium BC).

Horned AltarHorned AltarEExcavations across Israel have turned up stone xcavations across Israel have turned up stone horned altars similar to the one below found at horned altars similar to the one below found at Beersheba. The Lord instructed Moses to make Beersheba. The Lord instructed Moses to make a horned altar on which to a horned altar on which to burn sacrificial burn sacrificial animalsanimals (Exodus 27:1-2; (Exodus 27:1-2; 1 Kings 1:50). 1 Kings 1:50).

• God strictly prohibited God strictly prohibited the use of stone cut the use of stone cut altars (Exodus 20:25), altars (Exodus 20:25), making it likely this making it likely this particular particular altar was altar was used for Pagan used for Pagan sacrificessacrifices

Jeroboam II SealJeroboam II SealTThis seal was unearthed during excavations at his seal was unearthed during excavations at Meggido by Meggido by G. Schumacher in the 20G. Schumacher in the 20thth century century. . • It bares the names of King Jeroboam II (787-It bares the names of King Jeroboam II (787-747BC)747BC) (2 Kings 14:23-25), and his minister “Shema”(2 Kings 14:23-25), and his minister “Shema”• Hebrew inscribed seal reads Hebrew inscribed seal reads “belonging to “belonging to Shema,Shema, servant of Jeroboam.”servant of Jeroboam.”• Other seals Other seals found for:found for: • Uzziah Uzziah • Hoshea Hoshea • HezekiahHezekiah

Ahaz BullaAhaz BullaAA bullabulla (singular) is a clay impression of a seal used to (singular) is a clay impression of a seal used to authenticate, like a signature, official documents sent to another. authenticate, like a signature, official documents sent to another. This late This late 88thth century BC century BC bulla with three Hebrew lines reads: bulla with three Hebrew lines reads: ““Belonging to Ahaz [son of] Jehotam, King of Judah.” Belonging to Ahaz [son of] Jehotam, King of Judah.” “Jehotam” “Jehotam” is the correct rendering of is the correct rendering of the biblical King Jotham. the biblical King Jotham.

IIn addition, on the left n addition, on the left side of the photograph a side of the photograph a fingerprintfingerprint is discernable is discernable which could be that of which could be that of King Ahaz (741-726 BC) King Ahaz (741-726 BC) Himself (2 Kings 16; Himself (2 Kings 16; Isaiah 7).Isaiah 7).

Hezekiah BullaHezekiah BullaBBelow is the elow is the 88thth century BC century BC bulla of King Ahaz’s bulla of King Ahaz’s son, King Hezekiah. The blackened clay piece, son, King Hezekiah. The blackened clay piece, perhaps due to fire, is no more than perhaps due to fire, is no more than .50 inches .50 inches widewide. It reads: . It reads: “Belonging to Hezekiah, [son of] “Belonging to Hezekiah, [son of] Ahaz, king of Judah.” Ahaz, king of Judah.” This impression is only one This impression is only one of two royal seals known to date (cf. Ahaz).of two royal seals known to date (cf. Ahaz).

Ahab RingAhab RingTThis bronze ring bares the Hebrew inscription his bronze ring bares the Hebrew inscription which reads which reads “Ahab, king of Israel.”“Ahab, king of Israel.” Ahab is Ahab is mention mention elsewhere in Assyrian records (Kurkh Monolith) as elsewhere in Assyrian records (Kurkh Monolith) as participating in the battle known as Qarqar participating in the battle known as Qarqar against Assyrian king Shalmaneser III. The against Assyrian king Shalmaneser III. The monolith describes Ahab’s troop strength as: monolith describes Ahab’s troop strength as: “2,000 Chariots and 10,000 men of Ahab, king of “2,000 Chariots and 10,000 men of Ahab, king of Israel” Israel” (1 Kings 21:25).(1 Kings 21:25).

Pedayahu SealPedayahu SealDDating from the ating from the 66thth century BC century BC, the Pedayahu Seal , the Pedayahu Seal (drawing) depicts an ionic capital typical of the first (drawing) depicts an ionic capital typical of the first temple architecture, bares the Hebrew inscription temple architecture, bares the Hebrew inscription ““Belonging to Pedaiah son Belonging to Pedaiah son of the king.”of the king.” Pedaiah is Pedaiah is named in the Bible as named in the Bible as one one of the sons of Jehoiachin of the sons of Jehoiachin (Coniah)(Coniah), king of Judah , king of Judah (1 Chronicles 3:18-19)(1 Chronicles 3:18-19)

““And the sons of Jeconiah And the sons of Jeconiah were Assir, Shealtiel his were Assir, Shealtiel his son, and Malchiram, son, and Malchiram, PedaiahPedaiah, Shenazzar, , Shenazzar, Jecamiah, Hoshama, and Jecamiah, Hoshama, and Nedebiah.”Nedebiah.”

Jezebel SealJezebel SealWWhile excavating in Samaria, hile excavating in Samaria, Israel, the Oriental Institute of Israel, the Oriental Institute of Chicago unearthed building Chicago unearthed building structures and temples built to structures and temples built to Asherah and Baal, which was Asherah and Baal, which was commonly associated with commonly associated with Jezebel (1 Kings 18:19). Among Jezebel (1 Kings 18:19). Among these finds was an ornate seal these finds was an ornate seal which reads which reads “JZBL” “JZBL” (Jezebel). (Jezebel).

TThis seal appears to be his seal appears to be consistent with 1 Kings 21:6-8 consistent with 1 Kings 21:6-8 which reveals that Jezebel, which reveals that Jezebel, wife of Ahab, was wife of Ahab, was accustom to accustom to sealing documentssealing documents for her for her husband (1 Kings 21:25).husband (1 Kings 21:25).

Gemaryahu BullaGemaryahu BullaFFound in the city of David, Jerusalem, this 6ound in the city of David, Jerusalem, this 6thth century BC century BC bulla bulla impression is inscribed with two rows of Hebrew letters impression is inscribed with two rows of Hebrew letters reading: reading: ““Gemaryahu son of Shaphan,” Gemaryahu son of Shaphan,” referring to referring to Jehoiakim’s Jehoiakim’s scribescribe named “Gemariah, son of Shaphan” mentioned in named “Gemariah, son of Shaphan” mentioned in Jeremiah 36:10-12, 25 who listened to Jeremiah’s letter Jeremiah 36:10-12, 25 who listened to Jeremiah’s letter that Baruch had penned and read aloud in the temple that Baruch had penned and read aloud in the temple

AAlso discovered during lso discovered during the temple mount dump the temple mount dump excavations was the 7excavations was the 7thth--66thth century BC bulla century BC bulla belonging to belonging to “Galyahu “Galyahu son of Immer.” son of Immer.” Immer Immer was a was a priest associated priest associated with the prophetwith the prophet JeremiahJeremiah (Jeremiah 20:1) (Jeremiah 20:1)

Solomon SealSolomon Seal AA two-sided seal bearing Hebrew letters that spell two-sided seal bearing Hebrew letters that spell ““Shlomo”Shlomo” (Solomon) on one side and a dignified (Solomon) on one side and a dignified bearded man baring a scepter on the reverse which bearded man baring a scepter on the reverse which may be a depiction of King Solomon. The seals date may be a depiction of King Solomon. The seals date from the 9from the 9thth to 7 to 7thth centuries BC. centuries BC.

Brekhyahu BullaBrekhyahu BullaTThis clay bulla was impressed by a Hebrew inscribed his clay bulla was impressed by a Hebrew inscribed seal that read seal that read “Belonging to Barekyahu, son of “Belonging to Barekyahu, son of Neriyahu, the scribe.”Neriyahu, the scribe.” The late bulla specialist, Nahman The late bulla specialist, Nahman Avigad of Hebrew University, identified this late Avigad of Hebrew University, identified this late 77thth century BCcentury BC inscription as baring the name of inscription as baring the name of Jeremiah’s Jeremiah’s scribescribe,, Baruch Baruch, the son of Neriah, mentioned in Jeremiah , the son of Neriah, mentioned in Jeremiah 36:1-32. 36:1-32.

AAlso discovered was the lso discovered was the bulla of bulla of “Jerahmeel, son of “Jerahmeel, son of the king,”the king,” who was sent by who was sent by King Jehoiakim to arrest King Jehoiakim to arrest Jeremiah and Baruch Jeremiah and Baruch (Jeremiah 36:26), and the (Jeremiah 36:26), and the bulla bulla “Belonging to Yehuchal “Belonging to Yehuchal (Jehucal) ben Shelemiyahu (Jehucal) ben Shelemiyahu ben Shovi” ben Shovi” who was sentwho was sent by by King Zedekiah to ask Jeremiah King Zedekiah to ask Jeremiah for prayer (Jeremiah 37:3; for prayer (Jeremiah 37:3; 38:1). 38:1).

Sarsechim Tablet 595Sarsechim Tablet 595 BC BCDiscovered in Sippar (Iraq) in the late 1800’s, this two inch cuneiform tablet was deciphered in 2007 at the British Museum by Assyriologist Michael Jursa of Vienna. It records King Nebuchadnezzar’s chief officer “Sarsechim” (i.e. Nabu Sharrussu-ukin) mentioned in Jeremiah 39:3 as being with the king during the invasion of Jerusalem in

586 BC.

The tablet describesSarsechim giving gold to a Babylonian templeduring the 10th year of of Nebuchadnezzar’sreign (c. 595 BC).

Old Testament Figures Cited in Old Testament Figures Cited in Extra Biblical History and/or Extra Biblical History and/or

ArchaeologyArchaeologyKing AhabKing Ahab King Evil-Merodach King Evil-Merodach King Manasseh King ManassehKing Ahasuerus (Xerxes I) GedaliahKing Ahasuerus (Xerxes I) Gedaliah King Menahem King MenahemKing AhazKing Ahaz Gemariah Gemariah King Merodach-Baladan King Merodach-BaladanKing Artaxerxes IKing Artaxerxes I King Hazael King Hazael King Mesha King MeshaKing Ashurbanipal King Ashurbanipal King Hezekiah King Hezekiah King Nebuchadnezzar King NebuchadnezzarKing BaalisKing Baalis Hezion Hezion Pharaoh Necho Pharaoh NechoBalaamBalaam Hilkiah Hilkiah King Nergal-Shar-usur King Nergal-Shar-usurBaruch (Scribe)Baruch (Scribe) Pharaoh Hophra King Omri Pharaoh Hophra King OmriKing BelshazzarKing Belshazzar King Hoshea King Hoshea King Pekah King Pekah King Ben Hadad IKing Ben Hadad I Jaazaniah Jaazaniah King Tiglath-pileser III King Tiglath-pileser IIIKing Ben Hadad IIKing Ben Hadad II King Jehoahaz King Jehoahaz King Rezen King RezenKing Ben Hadad IIIKing Ben Hadad III King Jehoiachin King Sargon II King Jehoiachin King Sargon IIKing Cyrus IIKing Cyrus II King Jehu King Jehu King Sennacherib King SennacheribKing Darius IKing Darius I Jerahmeel Jerahmeel King Shalmaneser V King Shalmaneser VKing DavidKing David King Jeroboam II King Jeroboam II Shebna (royal steward) Shebna (royal steward)EliakimEliakim Queen Jezebel Queen Jezebel Pharaoh Shishak Pharaoh Shishak ElishamaElishama King Jehoash Pharaoh Tirhakah King Jehoash Pharaoh TirhakahKing EsarhaddonKing Esarhaddon King Jotham King Uzziah and Yahweh King Jotham King Uzziah and Yahweh

*This list is not exhaustive, only major figures were represented*This list is not exhaustive, only major figures were represented

Dead Sea ScrollsDead Sea Scrolls

William F. AlbrightWilliam F. Albright

””II repeat that in my opinion you have maderepeat that in my opinion you have made

the greatest manuscript discovery of modernthe greatest manuscript discovery of modern

times times ─ ─ certainly the greatest biblicalcertainly the greatest biblical

manuscript find...What an incredible find!“manuscript find...What an incredible find!“

William F. Albright to John C. TrevorWilliam F. Albright to John C. Trevor (March 1948) (March 1948)

Discovery of the ScrollsDiscovery of the ScrollsTThe Dead Sea Scrolls are he Dead Sea Scrolls are ancient manuscripts that ancient manuscripts that were discovered in 1947 were discovered in 1947 in 11 caves among the in 11 caves among the limestone cliffs of Qumran, limestone cliffs of Qumran, overlooking the Dead Sea overlooking the Dead Sea

TThe Scrolls were he Scrolls were discovered by a young discovered by a young Arab shepherd boy, Arab shepherd boy, Muhammad edh-Dhib, Muhammad edh-Dhib, as he searched for his as he searched for his lost lost goatgoat

Caves of QumranCaves of Qumran

Dead Sea near QumranDead Sea near Qumran

QumraQumrann

Qumran ExcavationsQumran ExcavationsPPereere Roland de Vaux, a DominicanRoland de Vaux, a Dominicanmonk, was the original archaeologist monk, was the original archaeologist who conducted excavations at who conducted excavations at Qumran from 1951 through 1956.Qumran from 1951 through 1956.

• He posited that a religious sect of He posited that a religious sect of Judiasm inhabited Qumran known Judiasm inhabited Qumran known as the as the EssenesEssenes

• He discovered He discovered structural remainsstructural remains such as aqueducts, ritual purity such as aqueducts, ritual purity baths, dinning rooms, cisterns, baths, dinning rooms, cisterns, meeting halls, scriptorium and meeting halls, scriptorium and evidence of earthquake damagedevidence of earthquake damaged

• From 1994 through 2006 Qumran From 1994 through 2006 Qumran continued to be excavatedcontinued to be excavated

Pere Roland de VauxPere Roland de Vaux

Ruins of Qumran - 250 Ruins of Qumran - 250 BC BC – – ADAD 6868

Wadi QumranWadi Qumran Scroll CavesScroll Caves

Dinning HallDinning Hall

CisternCistern

AqueductAqueduct

NORTHNORTH

Ritual BathRitual Bath

Dead SeaDead Sea

ScriptoriumScriptorium

MassiveMassive TowerTower

MeetingMeeting HallHall

Enclosure Enclosure WallWall

StorageStorage

Store Store RoomsRooms

StablesStables

CisternCistern

KitchenKitchen

Pottery/Pottery/KilnsKilns

PoolPool

POPULATION:POPULATION: 200200

Qumran ExcavationsQumran Excavations

View looking southeast from Qumran toward the Dead Sea View looking southeast from Qumran toward the Dead Sea

TThe narrow he narrow aqueductsaqueducts on the right were used to on the right were used to channel water from the cliffs in the west to the Qumran channel water from the cliffs in the west to the Qumran community to fill there ten ritual baths and cisterns.community to fill there ten ritual baths and cisterns.

CisternCistern

AqueductAqueduct

Qumran ExcavationsQumran ExcavationsVViewing west from Qumran towards the cliffs iewing west from Qumran towards the cliffs which bring which bring spring rainspring rain cascading down cascading down through the central mountain crevasse into the through the central mountain crevasse into the Qumran Wadi and aqueducts.Qumran Wadi and aqueducts.

Limestone CliffLimestone CliffWater ChannelWater Channel

Scroll Cave 4Scroll Cave 4

Wadi QumranWadi Qumran

Qumran ExcavationsQumran Excavations

TThe steps into this ritual he steps into this ritual bath reveal earth shifting bath reveal earth shifting of approximately 6 to 12 of approximately 6 to 12 inches that is consistent inches that is consistent with a major with a major earthquakeearthquake which struck the area inwhich struck the area inabout about 31 BC31 BC. .

Qumran ExcavationsQumran ExcavationsAAccording to the ccording to the Community RuleCommunity Rule, the Essenes would , the Essenes would share a communal meal in this share a communal meal in this dinning halldinning hall (refectory) (refectory) which seated up to which seated up to 300 men300 men..

Qumran ExcavationsQumran ExcavationsTThe Qumran community constructed elaborate water he Qumran community constructed elaborate water systems to supply their numerous systems to supply their numerous ritual bathsritual baths ((miqvaotmiqvaot) and plaster lined ) and plaster lined cisternscisterns. The aqueduct . The aqueduct channel which runs along the left side of the cistern channel which runs along the left side of the cistern was designed to cascade water into the reservoir.was designed to cascade water into the reservoir.

Plaster Lined Water CisternPlaster Lined Water Cistern Ritual Purification BathRitual Purification Bath

Acquisition of the Acquisition of the ScrollsScrolls

BBedouin Shepherds edouin Shepherds delivered seven delivered seven

scrolls scrolls from cave 1 to from cave 1 to KhalilKhalil Sahin (Kando)Sahin (Kando), a , a

ChristianChristian antiquities dealer inantiquities dealer in Bethlehem. Bethlehem.

• Soon after, Soon after, E.L. SukenikE.L. Sukenik of Hebrew University of Hebrew University acquired three of the scrollsacquired three of the scrolls

• In 1949, the remaining four scrolls were sold In 1949, the remaining four scrolls were sold to to MarMar Athanasius SamuelAthanasius Samuel of the Syrian Jacobite of the Syrian Jacobite MonasteryMonastery of St. Mark in Jerusalem, then traveled to of St. Mark in Jerusalem, then traveled to AmericaAmerica

• On June 1, 1954, Samuel runs ad in On June 1, 1954, Samuel runs ad in Wall StreetWall Street JournalJournal offerring for sale offerring for sale “The Four Dead Sea “The Four Dead Sea Scrolls” Scrolls”

KandoKando

Acquisition of the Acquisition of the ScrollsScrolls

Yadin Yadin

SSamuel’s advertisement amuel’s advertisement was brought to the was brought to the attention of attention of Yigael YadinYigael Yadin, , E.L. Sukenik’s son.E.L. Sukenik’s son.

• Yadin, with the help of Yadin, with the help of D.S. Gottesman, D.S. Gottesman, purchased the four scrolls purchased the four scrolls for approximately for approximately $250,0000$250,0000

• The four scrolls were returned to The four scrolls were returned to IsraelIsrael and added and added to Sukenik’s three scrollsto Sukenik’s three scrolls

• Currently, the seven scrolls from cave 1 are housed Currently, the seven scrolls from cave 1 are housed in the Shrine of the Book at the in the Shrine of the Book at the Israel MuseumIsrael Museum (Isaiah A and B, Habakkuk Commentary, Thanksgiving Scroll, (Isaiah A and B, Habakkuk Commentary, Thanksgiving Scroll, Community Rule, War Rule, and the Genesis Apocryphon)Community Rule, War Rule, and the Genesis Apocryphon)

What Scrolls were What Scrolls were Found?Found?OOverall, verall, 11 caves11 caves yielded yielded

over over 900 900 biblical and non-biblical and non-biblical texts, composed biblical texts, composed of tens of thousands ofof tens of thousands ofmanuscript fragments.manuscript fragments.**

• Over Over 220 texts of the 220 texts of the Hebrew BibleHebrew Bible except except the book of Esther the book of Esther

• The scrolls are written in The scrolls are written in Aramaic, HebrewAramaic, Hebrew and and GreekGreek dating from dating from 250 BC 250 BC toto AD 68 AD 68

• Of these texts, over Of these texts, over 400 are apocryphal400 are apocryphal and and pseudepigraphalpseudepigraphal literature literature

• Over 200 texts pertaining to the Qumran sectOver 200 texts pertaining to the Qumran sect*Manuscripts are hand written copies of texts in complete or fragment form*Manuscripts are hand written copies of texts in complete or fragment form

Scriptorium: benches & inkwells foundScriptorium: benches & inkwells found

Scrolls of Cave 1Scrolls of Cave 1

Portion of Isaiah A Portion of Isaiah A

A A complete complete book of Isaiah (A)book of Isaiah (A) was discovered, which was discovered, which now is the oldest complete manuscript of any book of now is the oldest complete manuscript of any book of the Bible. the Bible.

Also found were:Also found were:

• Incomplete book of Isaiah (B)Incomplete book of Isaiah (B)

• Habakkuk CommentaryHabakkuk Commentary

• Various non-biblical books Various non-biblical books such as the Thanksgiving Scrollsuch as the Thanksgiving Scroll and Manual of Disciplineand Manual of Discipline

• Fragments of Genesis, Leviticus, Fragments of Genesis, Leviticus, Deuteronomy, Judges, Samuel, Deuteronomy, Judges, Samuel, Ezekiel, Psalms and Daniel 2:4 Ezekiel, Psalms and Daniel 2:4 where the Hebrew language where the Hebrew language changes to Aramaicchanges to Aramaic

Isaiah ScrollIsaiah Scroll

IIsaiah (1QIsa A) was written in Hebrew on saiah (1QIsa A) was written in Hebrew on parchment (animal skin) dating to parchment (animal skin) dating to 125 BC125 BC and is and is approximately approximately 26 feet long26 feet long. The above scroll is . The above scroll is open to 38:9-40:28 which may indicate that open to 38:9-40:28 which may indicate that scribes believed the book was written by only scribes believed the book was written by only one author (Isaiah)one author (Isaiah). .

CC-Art.com

Scrolls of Cave 2Scrolls of Cave 2TThough cave 2 was not as productive, by 1952 it hough cave 2 was not as productive, by 1952 it produced hundreds of fragments including:produced hundreds of fragments including:

• Two of ExodusTwo of Exodus

• One of LeviticusOne of Leviticus

• Four of NumbersFour of Numbers

• Two of Two of DeuteronomyDeuteronomy

• One of Jeremiah, One of Jeremiah, Job, PsalmsJob, Psalms

• Two of RuthTwo of RuthThe above Fragments of Leviticus The above Fragments of Leviticus 23-24 were purchased in 2005; 23-24 were purchased in 2005; originally found near the Dead Sea originally found near the Dead Sea

23:38-39

24:16-1823:40-44

Scrolls of Cave 3Scrolls of Cave 3TThough of no biblical hough of no biblical significance, a unique significance, a unique discovery in cave 3 produced discovery in cave 3 produced a Hebrew text in two rolls a Hebrew text in two rolls written on copper, known as written on copper, known as the the Copper ScrollCopper Scroll (3Q15). (3Q15).

• Text lists Text lists 60+ sites of buried60+ sites of buried treasuretreasure (gold, ingots) in (gold, ingots) in the area of Judean desertthe area of Judean desert

• No treasureNo treasure has been found has been found

• After the scroll was After the scroll was X-rayedX-rayed to discover its content, it to discover its content, it was opened by cutting the was opened by cutting the fragile material into fragile material into stripsstrips

Fragment of the Copper ScrollFragment of the Copper Scroll

Scrolls of Cave 4Scrolls of Cave 4CCave 4 was perhaps the most productive of all ave 4 was perhaps the most productive of all caves excavated, producing some caves excavated, producing some 100 biblical 100 biblical booksbooks and containing more than and containing more than 50,000 50,000 fragmentsfragments. Among them was partial . Among them was partial copies/fragments of:copies/fragments of: • GenesisGenesis

• Daniel 7:28 toDaniel 7:28 to 8:1 8:1 (Aramaic (Aramaic changes to Hebrew)changes to Hebrew)

• Commentaries Commentaries on Psalms, on Psalms, Isaiah and Isaiah and Nahum Nahum

40,000 fragments 40,000 fragments found beneath the found beneath the floor of cave 4floor of cave 4

MessianicMessianicTT

4Q1754Q175

DDiscovered in cave 4 in iscovered in cave 4 in 1952, 1952, this this 11stst century BC century BC Hebrew Hebrew manuscript (aka manuscript (aka “Testimonia”)“Testimonia”) contains contains messianic passagesmessianic passages from the Hebrew Bible, from the Hebrew Bible, identifying Him as identifying Him as prophet, prophet, priest priest andand king king. In order . In order they are:they are:

• Deuteronomy 5:28-29 Deuteronomy 5:28-29 (Prophet)(Prophet)

• Deuteronomy 18:18-19Deuteronomy 18:18-19

• Numbers 24:15-17 (King)Numbers 24:15-17 (King)

• Deuteronomy 33:8-11 Deuteronomy 33:8-11 (Priest)(Priest)

• Joshua 6:26Joshua 6:26

estimonyestimony

Scrolls of Cave 5-10Scrolls of Cave 5-10• CCave 5ave 5 had produced had produced fragments of up to 50 fragments of up to 50 biblical and non biblical textsbiblical and non biblical texts

• Cave 6Cave 6 yielded fragments yielded fragments Genesis, Exodus, Daniel,Genesis, Exodus, Daniel, Deuteronomy, EcclesiastesDeuteronomy, Ecclesiastes

• Cave 7Cave 7 unearthed Greek fragments (7Q3-18) unearthed Greek fragments (7Q3-18) which may which may be be the earliest portions of nine New Testament books (Mark the earliest portions of nine New Testament books (Mark 6:52-6:52- 53) according to Priest Jose O’Callahan of the University 53) according to Priest Jose O’Callahan of the University ofof Barcelona Barcelona

• Cave 8Cave 8 contained fragments of Genesis and Psalms contained fragments of Genesis and Psalms

• Cave 9 and 10Cave 9 and 10 was unproductive yielding only a single was unproductive yielding only a single ostraca along with leather materials used for storing andostraca along with leather materials used for storing and bundling scrollsbundling scrolls

Cave 5 in foregroundCave 5 in foreground

Scrolls of Cave 11Scrolls of Cave 11

IIn 1956, a partial copy of n 1956, a partial copy of LeviticusLeviticus and an and an Aramaic Targum of JobAramaic Targum of Job was found. Including: was found. Including:

• Partial copy of Partial copy of Psalms Psalms (above), including 151(above), including 151stst PsalmPsalm

• Scholars now posses nearly Scholars now posses nearly 40 canonical 40 canonical PsalmsPsalms ranging from Psalm 90 to 150ranging from Psalm 90 to 150

• Two of the three non-biblical Two of the three non-biblical Temple ScrollsTemple Scrolls, , thethe longest measuring longest measuring nearly 28 feetnearly 28 feet

Reliability: Copy Reliability: Copy AccuracyAccuracy

Aleppo CodexAleppo Codex Masoretic TextMasoretic Text

BBefore discovering the Dead Sea Scrolls, scholars efore discovering the Dead Sea Scrolls, scholars translated the English Old Testament from Hebrew translated the English Old Testament from Hebrew manuscripts manuscripts (Masoretic Text)(Masoretic Text) that dated from 900 AD that dated from 900 AD (Aleppo Codex) and later, 1300 years from the end of the (Aleppo Codex) and later, 1300 years from the end of the Old Testament (400 BC). How accurate was the copying Old Testament (400 BC). How accurate was the copying process during the 1300 year interval? process during the 1300 year interval?

900 AD900 AD 125 BC125 BC

Dead Sea ScrollsDead Sea Scrolls

• 5% difference is due to spelling differences, word order and 5% difference is due to spelling differences, word order and minor scribal error which effects no major doctrine minor scribal error which effects no major doctrine

Closed interval by Closed interval by 1000+ years1000+ years

95% identical95% identical to Masoretic Text to Masoretic Text

Reliability: Copy AccuracyReliability: Copy AccuracyTThe he Ketef Hinnom Silver ScrollKetef Hinnom Silver Scroll was was found by Gabriel Barkay in 1980 while found by Gabriel Barkay in 1980 while excavating excavating several 6several 6thth century BC tombs century BC tombs overlooking the Valley of Hinnom overlooking the Valley of Hinnom (Jerusalem). (Jerusalem).

• Only Only 4 inches long4 inches long, originally was , originally was rolledrolled up and to be up and to be worn as an amuletworn as an amulet

• Oldest passage containing Oldest passage containing YHWHYHWH

• Oldest passageOldest passage yet found (6 yet found (6thth century BC)century BC)

• Contains Contains priestly benediction priestly benediction ofof NumbersNumbers 6:24-266:24-26.. It reads: It reads:

“ “May Yahweh bless you and watch over you! May Yahweh bless you and watch over you! May May Yahweh make his face shine upon you and Yahweh make his face shine upon you and grant grant you peace”you peace”

• Shows Shows accuracyaccuracy of Scribal copies of of Scribal copies of texttext

10 Rules of the Scribe10 Rules of the Scribe• RRitual cleansing/bathing before writing God’s itual cleansing/bathing before writing God’s namename

• MMust ignore ust ignore allall conversation if writing God’s conversation if writing God’s namename

• NNo copying from memory, must have a o copying from memory, must have a manuscriptmanuscript

• SScrolls must have equal amounts of columns crolls must have equal amounts of columns

• LLetters and columns are countedetters and columns are counted

• PParchment/Papyrus must be lined before archment/Papyrus must be lined before startingstarting

• EEach column must extend downwards 48 to 60 ach column must extend downwards 48 to 60 lineslines

• SScribe dressed in full Jewish attirecribe dressed in full Jewish attire

• OOld/errant copies of Scripture are ritually ld/errant copies of Scripture are ritually destroyeddestroyed

• BBeing aware of the conscious presence of Godeing aware of the conscious presence of God

Kinds of Scribal ErrorsKinds of Scribal ErrorsOOf the f the c. 400,000 variant* readingsc. 400,000 variant* readingsin the Bible there are at least in the Bible there are at least four categoriesfour categories of errorof error reflected in reflected in transmission relating to human transmission relating to human limitations such as eyes, ears, limitations such as eyes, ears, memory, and writing:memory, and writing:

• Fussion:Fussion: Joining words together Joining words together when they should be separatedwhen they should be separated (now here - nowhere)(now here - nowhere)

• Dittography:Dittography: Writing twice what should only be written Writing twice what should only be written onceonce

• HomeoteleutonHomeoteleuton: The eye skips to the same word on a : The eye skips to the same word on a different different line, omitting passagesline, omitting passages

• Transposition:Transposition: The reversal of position of two letters or The reversal of position of two letters or wordswords (Jesus (Jesus ChristChrist - - ChristChrist Jesus or J Jesus or Jseseus - Jesus)us - Jesus)

• Phonetic error:Phonetic error: Confusing words that sound the same Confusing words that sound the same but are but are spelled differently (there - their)spelled differently (there - their)

*Vast majority of variants are minor scribal error which do not do not effect any major *Vast majority of variants are minor scribal error which do not do not effect any major doctrinedoctrine

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Reliability: Historical Reliability: Historical ConfirmationConfirmationTThousands of archaeological and historical finds housands of archaeological and historical finds

have have substantiated the OT narrative. substantiated the OT narrative. • Assyrian Assyrian King Sennacherib’sKing Sennacherib’s invasion invasion of Lachish (of Lachish (Lachish ReliefsLachish Reliefs at Nineveh) at Nineveh) (2 Kings 18:14, 17)(2 Kings 18:14, 17)

• The The murder of Sennacheribmurder of Sennacherib by his two by his two sons (sons (annals of his son Esarhaddon)annals of his son Esarhaddon) (2 Kings 19:37)(2 Kings 19:37)

• Judah’s Judah’s King Jehoiachin’sKing Jehoiachin’s taken captive to Babylon taken captive to Babylon ((Babylonian Ration Documents) Babylonian Ration Documents) (2 Kings 24:15-16)(2 Kings 24:15-16)

• Karnak InscriptionKarnak Inscription describes describes Pharaoh Shishak’sPharaoh Shishak’s ((ShosenqShosenq II in in Egyptian records) 10th century BC Egyptian records) 10th century BC invasion of Israel, invasion of Israel, JudahJudah (1 Kings 14:25-26; 2 Chronicles 12:2-9) and his victory (1 Kings 14:25-26; 2 Chronicles 12:2-9) and his victory overover Solomon’s son, King RehoboamSolomon’s son, King Rehoboam

Karnak Inscription, EgyptKarnak Inscription, Egypt

Reliability Reliability of the of the New New

Testament Testament

Reliability of the New Reliability of the New TestamentTestament

WWhen asking if the Bible is reliable, we are hen asking if the Bible is reliable, we are attempting attempting to discover whether we can to discover whether we can trusttrust it when it it when it speaks about speaks about 1) historical matters1) historical matters and if scribes and if scribes 2)2) copied the text accuratelycopied the text accurately..

Three Tests are Employed:Three Tests are Employed:

• Bibliographical Test Bibliographical Test (checks quantity, quality (checks quantity, quality andand dating of existing manuscript copies)dating of existing manuscript copies)

• Internal TestInternal Test (checks what the Bible says for (checks what the Bible says for itself)itself)

• External TestExternal Test (checks archaeological and (checks archaeological and historicalhistorical record for confirmation)record for confirmation)

Bibliographical Test: Bibliographical Test: QuantityQuantity

• There are There are 5700+ Greek5700+ Greek partial and complete partial and complete manuscripts of the New Testamentmanuscripts of the New Testament

• There are There are 19,000+ non-Greek19,000+ non-Greek manuscripts manuscripts

• Total of Total of 25,000+25,000+ manuscripts in all languages manuscripts in all languages

• The NT has the The NT has the most manuscript supportmost manuscript support of of any any book of ancient historybook of ancient history

GGreat numbers of manuscripts enable scholars reat numbers of manuscripts enable scholars to have a more to have a more accurate reconstructionaccurate reconstruction of the of the biblical text by cross-referencing: biblical text by cross-referencing:

Bibliographical Test: Bibliographical Test: QualityQuality

• Princeton New Testament scholar, Princeton New Testament scholar, Bruce Bruce MetzgerMetzger, , estimated the New Testament was copied at estimated the New Testament was copied at 99.5%99.5% accuracy accuracy

• Textual scholars Textual scholars Westcott and HortWestcott and Hort estimate estimate the NT the NT text is text is 98+% accurate98+% accurate to the original to the original

• Ancient manuscript authority, Ancient manuscript authority, Sir Fredrick Sir Fredrick Kenyon:Kenyon:

“ “The number of manuscripts of the New Testament, of The number of manuscripts of the New Testament, of early early translations from it, and of quotations from it in the translations from it, and of quotations from it in the oldest oldest writers of the Church, is so large that it is practically writers of the Church, is so large that it is practically certain certain that the true reading of every doubtful passage is that the true reading of every doubtful passage is preserved in preserved in some one or other of these ancient authorities. This can some one or other of these ancient authorities. This can be be said of no other ancient book in the world.”said of no other ancient book in the world.”

Bibliographical Test: Early Bibliographical Test: Early DatesDates• NT manuscripts have the NT manuscripts have the leastleast

time intervaltime interval between the between the original text and the first copies original text and the first copies (30-300 yrs)(30-300 yrs) of any piece of of any piece of ancient literatureancient literature

• Nine fragments found with Dead Nine fragments found with Dead Sea Scrolls could be part of six Sea Scrolls could be part of six NT books dating between NT books dating between AD 30-68AD 30-68 (e.g. Mark 6:52-54) (e.g. Mark 6:52-54)

• Earliest complete copy of NTEarliest complete copy of NT dates to dates to AD 350 AD 350 (i.e. Codex (i.e. Codex Sinaiticus and Vaticanus)Sinaiticus and Vaticanus)

• Earliest manuscript of a NT book Earliest manuscript of a NT book (Gospel of John) dates from (Gospel of John) dates from AD 125AD 125

John Rylands John Rylands FragmentFragment John 18:31-33, 37-John 18:31-33, 37-38 38

Bibliographical Test: Early Bibliographical Test: Early DatesDatesDDiscovered by iscovered by Constantine TischendorfConstantine Tischendorf in the 19 in the 19thth century at century at

St. Catherine’s Monastery on Mt. Sinai, St. Catherine’s Monastery on Mt. Sinai, Codex SinaiticusCodex Sinaiticus (AD 350) (AD 350)(facsimile) contains the entire NT in Greek uncials and half the OT. (facsimile) contains the entire NT in Greek uncials and half the OT.

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Scripture Quotations Scripture Quotations from the Church from the Church

FathersFathersTThe numerous patristic quotationshe numerous patristic quotationsfrom the New Testament aid from the New Testament aid scholars in reconstructing the scholars in reconstructing the biblical text due to their quantity biblical text due to their quantity and early date:and early date:

• 36,200+ quotes36,200+ quotes of the New of the New TestamentTestament

• There are enough quotes to offer There are enough quotes to offer a a reconstructionreconstruction of nearly the entire New of nearly the entire New TestamentTestament

• AllAll New TestamentNew Testament books were citedbooks were cited, except 2 , except 2 JohnJohn and Jude, by the collective citations of and Jude, by the collective citations of Clement ofClement of Rome, Ignatius and Polycarp Rome, Ignatius and Polycarp by c.by c. AD 110AD 110

Coptic Church MuralCoptic Church Mural

Bruce MetzgerBruce Metzger

““IIndeed, so extensive are these ndeed, so extensive are these citations citations [i.e. of the church fathers] that if all [i.e. of the church fathers] that if all other sources for our knowledge of the other sources for our knowledge of the text of the New Testament were text of the New Testament were destroyed, they would be sufficient destroyed, they would be sufficient alone for the reconstruction of alone for the reconstruction of practically the entire New Testament.”practically the entire New Testament.”

The Text of the New Testament, The Text of the New Testament, 8686

F.F. BruceF.F. Bruce

““PPerhaps we can appreciate how erhaps we can appreciate how wealthy the wealthy the New Testament is in manuscript New Testament is in manuscript attestation attestation if we compare the textual material for if we compare the textual material for other other ancient works”ancient works”

The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable? The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable? 1616

New Testament Compared New Testament Compared to other Ancient Literatureto other Ancient Literature

Gap fromGap from Ms Ms AuthorAuthor Literary Work Literary Work Original Original CopiesCopies__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

• Plato Plato Dialogues Dialogues 1,250 yrs1,250 yrs 2020• Homer’sHomer’s Illiad Illiad 500 yrs500 yrs 643643• HerodotusHerodotus The Histories The Histories 1,350 yrs1,350 yrs

88• AristotleAristotle Assorted WorksAssorted Works 1,400 yrs 1,400 yrs 5 5• Thucydides Thucydides Pelopennesian Wars Pelopennesian Wars 1,300 yrs1,300 yrs 8 8• Aristophanes Assorted WorksAristophanes Assorted Works 1,300 yrs 1,300 yrs 1010• Sophocles Assorted WorksSophocles Assorted Works 1,400 yrs 1,400 yrs 193193• Julius Caesar Julius Caesar The Gallic WarsThe Gallic Wars 950 yrs950 yrs 1010• Tacitus Tacitus AnnalsAnnals 1,000 yrs1,000 yrs

2020• Pliny (Ygr) Pliny (Ygr) History of RomeHistory of Rome 750 yrs750 yrs 77• Suetonius Suetonius The Twelve CaesarsThe Twelve Caesars 900 yrs900 yrs 88________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

NT WritersNT Writers - - Greek NTGreek NT ManuscriptsManuscripts - - 30-300 yrs30-300 yrs - -

5,700+5,700+

Internal TestInternal TestTThe Bible contains he Bible contains unflattering statementsunflattering statements about the followers of Christ which appear to be about the followers of Christ which appear to be at odds with the general purpose of the book, at odds with the general purpose of the book, indicating the writers were reporting historical indicating the writers were reporting historical truth. truth. These These counterproductive features counterproductive features include:include:• Testimony of womenTestimony of women in an era when it is not valued in an era when it is not valued

• The apparent The apparent triumph of the enemiestriumph of the enemies of Christ of Christ• The weakened and The weakened and helpless appearancehelpless appearance of the of the Messiah at crucifixionMessiah at crucifixion• The portrayal of the The portrayal of the disciples as fearfuldisciples as fearful of their of their enemiesenemies• The characterization of The characterization of failure and denialfailure and denial (Peter) (Peter)• The constant admission of the disciples’ The constant admission of the disciples’ slow slow understandingunderstanding

Internal TestInternal Test• There are There are eyewitnesseseyewitnesses to the biblical to the biblical accountsaccounts (John 19:35)(John 19:35)

• The Bible The Bible lacks the mythological tonelacks the mythological tone usually usually associated with other Mesopotamian or associated with other Mesopotamian or gnostic gnostic literature (2 Peter 1:16)literature (2 Peter 1:16)

• Jesus Jesus performed miraclesperformed miracles to substantiate His to substantiate His claimsclaims (Hebrews 2:3-4)(Hebrews 2:3-4)

• Jesus fulfilled over Jesus fulfilled over 300 Prophecies300 Prophecies (Luke (Luke 24:27, 44)24:27, 44)

• Jesus said the Jesus said the Bible is reliableBible is reliable (Matthew (Matthew 26:54),26:54), historicalhistorical (Matthew 12:40; John 3:12), (Matthew 12:40; John 3:12), inerrantinerrant (John 17:17), and (John 17:17), and scientifically accurate scientifically accurate (Matthew(Matthew 19:2-5)19:2-5)

• Bible is Bible is innocentinnocent until proven guilty until proven guilty

External TestExternal Test• TThousands ofhousands of archaeological discoveries archaeological discoveries have confirmed have confirmed aspectsaspects of the Bible either explicitly or implicitly without of the Bible either explicitly or implicitly without contradiction contradiction

• Over Over 30 people in the New Testament30 people in the New Testament have been cited by have been cited by non-non- Christian writers through historical documents and/or Christian writers through historical documents and/or confirmed confirmed by archaeological research by archaeological research

• Over Over 60 confirmed historical 60 confirmed historical detailsdetails in the Gospel of John in the Gospel of John listed in Craig Blomberg, listed in Craig Blomberg, The Historical Reliability of The Historical Reliability of John’s GospelJohn’s Gospel

• Over Over 80 confirmed historical details80 confirmed historical details in the book of Acts in the book of Acts thatthat have been enumerated by Colin J. Hemer, have been enumerated by Colin J. Hemer, The Book of The Book of Acts inActs in the Setting of Hellenistic Historythe Setting of Hellenistic History, which in some cases , which in some cases havehave caused modern historians to revise their perspectivecaused modern historians to revise their perspective

Widow’s Mite Bronze CoinWidow’s Mite Bronze Coin Mark 12:42; Luke21:2Mark 12:42; Luke21:2

Joseph P. FreeJoseph P. Free Archaeology and Bible HistoryArchaeology and Bible History, 1, 1

““In addition to illuminating the Bible,In addition to illuminating the Bible, archaeology has confirmed countless pages archaeology has confirmed countless pages which have been rejected by critics aswhich have been rejected by critics as unhistorical or contradictory to known facts.”unhistorical or contradictory to known facts.”

New Testament New Testament ArchaeologyArchaeology

Roman EmperorsRoman Emperors • AugustusAugustus (27 BC-AD14)* Birth of Christ (Luke 2:1) (27 BC-AD14)* Birth of Christ (Luke 2:1)

• TiberiusTiberius (14-37)* (14-37)* Life and death of Christ (Luke 3:1) Life and death of Christ (Luke 3:1)

• GaiusGaius (Caligula) (37-41) Paul converted (Caligula) (37-41) Paul converted

• ClaudiusClaudius (41-54)* (41-54)* Jews Expelled from Rome (Acts Jews Expelled from Rome (Acts 18:2), severe famine (11:28)18:2), severe famine (11:28)

• NeroNero (54-68) Peter, Paul martyred, Rome (54-68) Peter, Paul martyred, Rome burnsburns

• VespasianVespasian (69-79) (69-79) Temple destroyed by Titus Temple destroyed by Titus (AD 70)(AD 70)

• TitusTitus (79-81) (79-81) Pompeii destroyed by Mt. Vesuvius Pompeii destroyed by Mt. Vesuvius eruption, Colosseum eruption, Colosseum completedcompleted

• DomitianDomitian (81-96) (81-96) John exiled to Patmos, persecution John exiled to Patmos, persecution

• HadrianHadrian (117-138) (117-138) Builds defensive wall in Builds defensive wall in England England

• Septimus SeverusSeptimus Severus (193-211) Persecution of Christians (193-211) Persecution of Christians

• DiocletianDiocletian (284-305) Persecution of Christians (284-305) Persecution of Christians•

• ConstantineConstantine (306-337) (306-337) Edict of Toleration/Milan and Edict of Toleration/Milan and the Council of Nicea (AD 325)the Council of Nicea (AD 325)

*Mentioned by name in the Bible and confirmed by extra biblical history or archaeology*Mentioned by name in the Bible and confirmed by extra biblical history or archaeology

James OssuaryJames OssuaryTThe James Ossuary he James Ossuary (drawing) is a 1(drawing) is a 1stst century AD century AD limestone limestone bone boxbone box which which contains a ancient contains a ancient Hebrew inscription Hebrew inscription baring th the names baring th the names of of James, Joseph, and James, Joseph, and JesusJesus. .

• Though no one Though no one doubtsdoubts the the authenticity of authenticity of thethe box itselfbox itself, scholars , scholars havehave

““James, son of Joseph, brother of James, son of Joseph, brother of Jesus.”Jesus.”

debateddebated whether whether the inscription is authentic. the inscription is authentic. • If authentic, it becomes the If authentic, it becomes the earliest findearliest find directly related to directly related to Christ Himself Christ Himself • German professor and leading geomicrobiologist, German professor and leading geomicrobiologist, Dr. Wolfgang Dr. Wolfgang KrumbeinKrumbein, has offered a scientific challenge to the Israeli , has offered a scientific challenge to the Israeli Antiquities Authority decision to pronounce the inscription Antiquities Authority decision to pronounce the inscription inauthentic (Matthew 13:55; Galatians 1:19)inauthentic (Matthew 13:55; Galatians 1:19)

*Inscription on drawing not the actual lettering, used for illustrative purposes

Caiaphas OssuaryCaiaphas OssuaryTThis ornate 1his ornate 1stst century AD limestone ossuary was century AD limestone ossuary was discovered in 1990 south of Jerusalem. discovered in 1990 south of Jerusalem.

• It contained the bones It contained the bones of a man approximately of a man approximately 60 years old 60 years old

• Bares an inscription Bares an inscription which reads:which reads: “ “Joseph, son of Caiaphas,”Joseph, son of Caiaphas,” which most likely is the which most likely is the High Priest mentioned High Priest mentioned in the Gospels in the Gospels (Mt 26:57; Jn 18:13f) (Mt 26:57; Jn 18:13f) who brought Jesus to who brought Jesus to trial trial

Yehohanan CrucifixionYehohanan Crucifixion IIn 1968, excavators found ann 1968, excavators found aninscribed 1inscribed 1stst century AD century AD limestone bone box (ossuary)limestone bone box (ossuary)in Jerusalem containing thein Jerusalem containing thebones of a male crucifixionbones of a male crucifixionvictim named victim named “Yehohanan ben“Yehohanan benHagkol.” Hagkol.”

• The wrist and right heel The wrist and right heel bone still had the Roman bone still had the Roman seven inch seven inch crucifixion spikescrucifixion spikes nails in tact nails in tact

• Confirms the Confirms the Romans Romans practicedpracticed

crucifixioncrucifixion in the 1 in the 1stst century century ADAD

in Jerusalem and legitimizesin Jerusalem and legitimizes the manner of Christ’s the manner of Christ’s

death asdeath as described in the Bible described in the Bible

(Psalm 22 (Psalm 22 Mt 27; Mk15; Lk 23; Jn 19) Mt 27; Mk15; Lk 23; Jn 19)

Kidron ValleyKidron ValleyTThe east side of the temple mount, the Kidron (black) he east side of the temple mount, the Kidron (black)

Valley, has distinguished itself for several reasons. Valley, has distinguished itself for several reasons. • It has been considered a It has been considered a place of burialplace of burial by Christians, by Christians,

Muslims and Jews, since before the Babylonian exile (2 Muslims and Jews, since before the Babylonian exile (2 Kings 23:6).Kings 23:6).

• It is known as the Valley of Jehoshaphat, the It is known as the Valley of Jehoshaphat, the traditional site prophesied by Joel (3:2, 12-21) to be traditional site prophesied by Joel (3:2, 12-21) to be the final place of God’s the final place of God’s judgment of the nations.judgment of the nations.

• It is the valley both David (2 Sam 15:23) and Jesus (Jn It is the valley both David (2 Sam 15:23) and Jesus (Jn 18:1) crossed as they were being 18:1) crossed as they were being betrayedbetrayed by their by their inner circle inner circle

Meggido ChurchMeggido Church

DDiscovered in 2005 at Meggido Prison by inmateiscovered in 2005 at Meggido Prison by inmateRamil Razilo, this 3Ramil Razilo, this 3rdrd century AD church has century AD church has

becomebecomethe oldest church in the Holy Land. the oldest church in the Holy Land. Christianity was established Christianity was established early in the common eraearly in the common era

The Greek mosaic floor The Greek mosaic floor (16x32 ft) inscription (16x32 ft) inscription confirms Jesus was being confirms Jesus was being worshipped as “God”worshipped as “God” in the in the early church rather than early church rather than being a later development. being a later development. It reads: It reads:

“ “The God-Loving Akeptous [name of the female The God-Loving Akeptous [name of the female worshipper] has offered this table to the God Jesus Christ worshipper] has offered this table to the God Jesus Christ as a Memorial.”as a Memorial.”

Apparently, the mosaic floor was financed by a Roman Apparently, the mosaic floor was financed by a Roman military officer named “Gaianus,” and laid by “Brutius.”military officer named “Gaianus,” and laid by “Brutius.”

Meggido Church InscriptionMeggido Church Inscription

Jacobs WellJacobs WellLLocated in ancient Samaria ocated in ancient Samaria within an unfinished Greek within an unfinished Greek orthodox church is Jacob’s Well orthodox church is Jacob’s Well (Bir Ya’qub) identified by the (Bir Ya’qub) identified by the Apostle John and the unnamed Apostle John and the unnamed Samaritan woman (John 4:5, Samaritan woman (John 4:5, 6, 12; Genesis 33:18-19; 48:22).6, 12; Genesis 33:18-19; 48:22).

• Over Over 200 ft deep200 ft deep in 7 in 7thth century century AD, today, c. 125 feet deep AD, today, c. 125 feet deep (John 4:11)(John 4:11)

• Still produces Still produces fresh cool waterfresh cool water (“living water”) from an (“living water”) from an underground springunderground spring

• Short distance from Short distance from Mt. GerazimMt. Gerazim and the ruins of the and the ruins of the Samaritan templeSamaritan temple

Prohibition of Temple Prohibition of Temple EntryEntryTThis slab contains a 1his slab contains a 1stst century AD Greek warning to century AD Greek warning to

Gentiles that certain areas of the temple were off limits Gentiles that certain areas of the temple were off limits with the possibility of violators being punished by death. with the possibility of violators being punished by death. This inscription helps one understand the tumultuous This inscription helps one understand the tumultuous actions taken against the Apostle Paul in Acts 21:27-29. actions taken against the Apostle Paul in Acts 21:27-29.

““No foreigner shall No foreigner shall enterenter

within the balustrade within the balustrade ofof

the temple … andthe temple … and whosoever shall bewhosoever shall be caught shall becaught shall be

responsible for his responsible for his ownown

death that will follow death that will follow inin

consequence (of) hisconsequence (of) his trespassing.”trespassing.”

Aerial view looking westAerial view looking west

AltarAltar

EASTEAST

Temple MountTemple Mount

RRitmeyer’sitmeyer’s proposed proposed situationsituation of the Holy of of the Holy of Holies and Dome of the Holies and Dome of the Rock in relation to Rock in relation to Herod’s Temple (John Herod’s Temple (John 2:19-20).2:19-20).

Holy of Holies on Temple Holy of Holies on Temple MountMount

AAccording ccording to to Leen Leen RitmeyerRitmeyer,, the the leadingleading archaeologistarchaeologist researching the temple researching the temple mount, the Holy of Holies is mount, the Holy of Holies is situated beneath the Muslim situated beneath the Muslim Dome of the Rock (Mosque of Dome of the Rock (Mosque of Omar, 691 AD) upon the Omar, 691 AD) upon the exposed rocky tip exposed rocky tip ((SakhraSakhra)) of of Mt. Moriah. This conclusion Mt. Moriah. This conclusion was based on was based on the discovery of foundation the discovery of foundation trenches, historical details trenches, historical details (Josephus and Mishna (Josephus and Mishna MiddotMiddot), measurements, ), measurements, biblical data, biblical data, and the rock impressions and the rock impressions (1 Kings 6:19). (1 Kings 6:19).

Flat rectangularFlat rectangular location for the location for the Ark during first temple Ark during first temple periodperiod

V

eil/W

ood

en

Part

itio

nV

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ood

en

Part

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n--

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West

wall o

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West

wall o

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oly

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Holies

Holies

Flat channel for Flat channel for foundation trenchfoundation trench

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Holy of Holies

Holy

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lace

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Place of TrumpetingPlace of Trumpeting TThe Hebrew inscription (replica) was discovered in 1969 he Hebrew inscription (replica) was discovered in 1969

bybyBenjamin Mazar at the southwest corner of the temple Benjamin Mazar at the southwest corner of the temple

mount. Itmount. Itis believed to be from one of the temple towers is believed to be from one of the temple towers

designating thedesignating thearea where the trumpets would be sounded to signal thearea where the trumpets would be sounded to signal thebeginning and end of the Sabbath (Josephus, beginning and end of the Sabbath (Josephus, Jewish WarJewish War

4.582-4.582-83). Some suggest that the inscription is a message to 83). Some suggest that the inscription is a message to

thethetemple builders designating where the stone slab should temple builders designating where the stone slab should

bebeplaced (2 Chron 5; 13; 15; 20; 23; 29; Ps 81:3; Joel 2:15). placed (2 Chron 5; 13; 15; 20; 23; 29; Ps 81:3; Joel 2:15).

ItItreads:reads: “…[of]/to the place of trumpeting.” “…[of]/to the place of trumpeting.”

Herod InscriptionHerod InscriptionDDuring renewed excavations in 1996 at uring renewed excavations in 1996 at Herod’s hilltop palace, Herod’s hilltop palace, MasadaMasada, Israel, , Israel, archaeologist, Ehud Netzer, discovered a three archaeologist, Ehud Netzer, discovered a three line line Latin inscriptionLatin inscription on a piece of pottery (19 on a piece of pottery (19 BC) giving the full BC) giving the full name, title and place of rulename, title and place of rule of Herod the Great (reigned 37-4 BC) (Mt 2:1-of Herod the Great (reigned 37-4 BC) (Mt 2:1-18).18).

““Herod, King of Judea”Herod, King of Judea”

Herod’s Wine Jug (Amphora) 19 Herod’s Wine Jug (Amphora) 19 BC BC

Date Wine MadeDate Wine Made Kind of WineKind of Wine King Herod King Herod

LithostratosLithostratosLLocated under the modern streets of ocated under the modern streets of Jerusalem near the temple mount, the Jerusalem near the temple mount, the “Gabbatha” (i.e. place/seat of judgment) “Gabbatha” (i.e. place/seat of judgment) mentioned in John 19:13 and Matthew 27:27 is mentioned in John 19:13 and Matthew 27:27 is the the location of Christ’s judgmentlocation of Christ’s judgment by Pontius by Pontius Pilate. It was found at the Roman military Pilate. It was found at the Roman military headquarters known as the Tower of Antonia.headquarters known as the Tower of Antonia.

Tomb of LazarusTomb of Lazarus OOn the east side of the Mt. of Olives is the n the east side of the Mt. of Olives is the traditionally recognized tomb of Lazarus. It appears traditionally recognized tomb of Lazarus. It appears that by the 2that by the 2ndnd century AD the location had been century AD the location had been identified as such. The church historian, Eusibius (4identified as such. The church historian, Eusibius (4thth century), says that the city was renamed the “Place of century), says that the city was renamed the “Place of Lazarus.” Currently, there is a mosque built over the Lazarus.” Currently, there is a mosque built over the site preventing access through the traditional site preventing access through the traditional entrance, an alternative entrance was created (Lk entrance, an alternative entrance was created (Lk 19:28-29; Jn 11:1-17, 18, 28-44 ) 19:28-29; Jn 11:1-17, 18, 28-44 )

Destruction of the Destruction of the TempleTempleTThis massive heap of hewn boulders lay beneath the his massive heap of hewn boulders lay beneath the

southwest corner of the temple mount in Jerusalem upon southwest corner of the temple mount in Jerusalem upon a crushed and a crushed and buckled 1buckled 1stst century pedestrian pathway century pedestrian pathway. . The stones were tossed from the temple mount during The stones were tossed from the temple mount during the Roman invasion in 70 AD and serve as evidence of the Roman invasion in 70 AD and serve as evidence of the total destruction wrought upon the second temple, the total destruction wrought upon the second temple, just as Jesus had prophesied (Mt 24:1-2).just as Jesus had prophesied (Mt 24:1-2).

Jordan RiverJordan RiverTThe Jordan river is identified in both Old and New he Jordan river is identified in both Old and New Testaments as the river Joshua crossed into the Testaments as the river Joshua crossed into the promised land with the children of Israel (Joshua 3-4) promised land with the children of Israel (Joshua 3-4) and the location of Jesus’ baptism by John (Mt 3:13).and the location of Jesus’ baptism by John (Mt 3:13).

Tomb of ChristTomb of Christ

Garden TombGarden Tomb Church of Holy SepulcherChurch of Holy Sepulcher

TThere are two Jerusalem locations traditionally held to here are two Jerusalem locations traditionally held to be the tomb of Christ, the Garden Tomb and the Edicule be the tomb of Christ, the Garden Tomb and the Edicule at the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. Both sites were at the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. Both sites were historically located outside the city walls and previously historically located outside the city walls and previously had churches built over them signifying the special had churches built over them signifying the special nature of the locations (John 19:41). nature of the locations (John 19:41).

Pontius Pilate InscriptionPontius Pilate Inscription

FFound by Antonio Frova atound by Antonio Frova atCaesarea Martima, this 1Caesarea Martima, this 1stst

century AD slab century AD slab inscription gives inscription gives the name and title of the biblical the name and title of the biblical figure Pontius Pilatefigure Pontius Pilate who who condemned Jesus to the crosscondemned Jesus to the cross(Matthew 27:2; Luke 3:1)(Matthew 27:2; Luke 3:1)

It reads:It reads:

……]sTiberievm]sTiberievm……pon]tivsPilatvspon]tivsPilatvs……praef]ectvsIvda[ea]epraef]ectvsIvda[ea]e

““Tiberium Pontius Pilate Tiberium Pontius Pilate Prefect of Judea”Prefect of Judea”

Caesar AugustusCaesar AugustusCCaesar Augustus (Gaius Octavius) is mentioned in the aesar Augustus (Gaius Octavius) is mentioned in the Bible asBible asthe reigning Roman Emperor (27 BC-AD 14) at the time the reigning Roman Emperor (27 BC-AD 14) at the time of of Christ’s Birth (Luke 2:1). Several lines of archaeological Christ’s Birth (Luke 2:1). Several lines of archaeological evidence have evidence have confirmed confirmed his title, date of reign and his title, date of reign and historical existencehistorical existence..

• Numerous Numerous coinscoins bearing bearing his image with inscriptionshis image with inscriptions

• Priene InscriptionPriene Inscription declares declares the birthday celebration of the birthday celebration of Caesar AugustusCaesar Augustus

• Roman/Greek historiansRoman/Greek historians write of Augustus: write of Augustus: Suetonius, Tacitus, Velleius, Suetonius, Tacitus, Velleius, Cicero, Dio Cassius and Cicero, Dio Cassius and Plutarch Plutarch

““Divine Father Caesar Augustus”Divine Father Caesar Augustus”

Sergius Paulus InscriptionSergius Paulus InscriptionDDiscovered near Paphos, Cyprus, the inscription contains the iscovered near Paphos, Cyprus, the inscription contains the title and name of Sergius Paulus, one of Paul’s first converts to title and name of Sergius Paulus, one of Paul’s first converts to Christianity during his first missionary journey (Acts 13:6-12). Christianity during his first missionary journey (Acts 13:6-12). A A second inscription was found in Romesecond inscription was found in Rome where Paulus returned where Paulus returned after his term as proconsul expired. after his term as proconsul expired.

Gallio InscriptionGallio Inscription TThe 1he 1stst century AD inscription (drawing) by Claudius, found in century AD inscription (drawing) by Claudius, found in Delphi, Greece, in 1908, describes the biblical figure “Gallio” Delphi, Greece, in 1908, describes the biblical figure “Gallio” (Acts 18:12-17) the “proconsul” of “Achaia” in office from (Acts 18:12-17) the “proconsul” of “Achaia” in office from 51-53 AD to whom the Apostle Paul was brought for judgment 51-53 AD to whom the Apostle Paul was brought for judgment by the Jews while in Corinth. “Gallio” is highlighted below.by the Jews while in Corinth. “Gallio” is highlighted below.

Erastus InscriptionErastus Inscription UUncovered at Corinth, Greece, in 1929, this ncovered at Corinth, Greece, in 1929, this

piece of pavement records the name of the piece of pavement records the name of the biblical figure “Erastus” mentioned in Acts biblical figure “Erastus” mentioned in Acts 19:22, Romans 16:23 and 2 Timothy 4:2. John 19:22, Romans 16:23 and 2 Timothy 4:2. John McRay translates the inscription as McRay translates the inscription as “Erastus, “Erastus, curator of public buildingscurator of public buildings

laid (this pavement) at his own expense.”laid (this pavement) at his own expense.”

New Testament Figures Cited by New Testament Figures Cited by Extra Biblical History and/or Extra Biblical History and/or

ArchaeologyArchaeology Agrippa I Agrippa I Herod Archelaus Herod ArchelausAgrippa IIAgrippa II Herod the Great Herod the Great AnaniasAnanias Herod Philip I Herod Philip IAnnasAnnas Herod Philip II Herod Philip IIKing Aretas IVKing Aretas IV Herodias HerodiasBerniceBernice Salome Salome Ceasar AugustusCeasar Augustus James and Jesus James and JesusCaiaphasCaiaphas John the Baptist John the Baptist ClaudiusClaudius Judas (Galilean) Judas (Galilean)DrusillaDrusilla Lysanias Lysanias ErastusErastus Pontius Pilate Pontius Pilate FelixFelix Quirinius QuiriniusGallioGallio Porcius Festus Porcius FestusGamalielGamaliel Segius Paulus Segius PaulusHerod AntipasHerod Antipas Tiberius Caesar Tiberius Caesar

Pontius Pilate Bronze CoinPontius Pilate Bronze Coin AD 29-36AD 29-36

Denarius of Denarius of TiberiusTiberius

11stst century AD century AD Mt 22:15Mt 22:15

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Politarch InscriptionPolitarch InscriptionSSome thought Luke was mistaken when he called the ome thought Luke was mistaken when he called the “rulers of the city” at Thessalonica “politarchs” (Acts “rulers of the city” at Thessalonica “politarchs” (Acts 17:6). This criticism was due to the absence of any extra 17:6). This criticism was due to the absence of any extra biblical Greek literature using the term. Recently, several biblical Greek literature using the term. Recently, several politarch inscriptions were found in Thessalonica, Greece.politarch inscriptions were found in Thessalonica, Greece.

• 19 of the 32 “politarch” inscriptions come from 19 of the 32 “politarch” inscriptions come from Thessalonica,Thessalonica, with 3 of these dating to the 1with 3 of these dating to the 1stst century AD century AD• Elsewhere in Acts, Luke correctly names officials as Elsewhere in Acts, Luke correctly names officials as PraetorsPraetors at at Philippi (Acts 16:20)Philippi (Acts 16:20)

Luke’s Precise Use of Luke’s Precise Use of Vocabulary in the Book of Vocabulary in the Book of

ActsActs• CCorrect language spoken at Lystra as orrect language spoken at Lystra as LycaonianLycaonian (14:11) (14:11)• Proper form of the name Proper form of the name TroasTroas (16:8) (16:8) • Uses Uses “politarchs”“politarchs” as proper designation as proper designation of magistrates in Thessalonica (17:6)of magistrates in Thessalonica (17:6)• Correct Athenian slang word for Paul Correct Athenian slang word for Paul as as spermologosspermologos (17:18)(17:18)• Uses Uses areopagitesareopagites as the proper title for as the proper title for a member of the Athenian court (17:34)a member of the Athenian court (17:34)• Proper title of Proper title of grammateusgrammateus for the chief executive for the chief executive magistrate magistrate (“clerk”) in Ephesus (19:35)(“clerk”) in Ephesus (19:35)• Uses correct Roman authorized title of honor Uses correct Roman authorized title of honor neokoros neokoros (19:35)(19:35)• Uses the plural Uses the plural anthupatoianthupatoi which could be referring to which could be referring to two men two men functioning as proconsuls at this time (19:38)functioning as proconsuls at this time (19:38)• Uses precise term Uses precise term bolisantesbolisantes for taking soundings and for taking soundings and recordsrecords the correct depth of the water near Malta (27:28)the correct depth of the water near Malta (27:28)• Applies correct title Applies correct title “first man of the Island”“first man of the Island” ( (protos tes protos tes nesounesou)) to Malta’s leader (28:7)to Malta’s leader (28:7)

GrammateusGrammateus at Ephesus at EphesusCC-Art.com

Sir William RamsaySir William Ramsay The Bearing of Recent Discovery on the The Bearing of Recent Discovery on the

Trustworthiness of the New Testament, Trustworthiness of the New Testament, 222222

““LLuke is a historian uke is a historian

of the first rank; not of the first rank; not

merely are his merely are his

statements of fact statements of fact

trustworthy . . . trustworthy . . .

This author should This author should be placed along with be placed along with the very greatest of the very greatest of historians.”historians.”

Tyrannus Inscription at Tyrannus Inscription at Ephesus:Ephesus: shows that the name shows that the name mentionedmentioned in Acts 19:9,“Tyrannus,” was in Acts 19:9,“Tyrannus,” was usedused in Ephesus during 1in Ephesus during 1stst century century ADAD

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A.N. Sherwin-WhiteA.N. Sherwin-White Roman Law and Roman Society in the New Testament, Roman Law and Roman Society in the New Testament,

189189

““FFor Acts the confirmation of or Acts the confirmation of historicity is overwhelming….But any historicity is overwhelming….But any attempt to reject its basic historicity attempt to reject its basic historicity even in matters of detail must now even in matters of detail must now appear absurd. Roman historians have appear absurd. Roman historians have long taken it for granted.”long taken it for granted.”

CorinthCorinth PPaul ministered in Corinth foraul ministered in Corinth for 18 months 18 months (Acts 18:11) (Acts 18:11) and wrote at least two epistles to the church addressing and wrote at least two epistles to the church addressing various theological and moral issues. Below is the various theological and moral issues. Below is the ancient ancient city of Corinthcity of Corinth and the temple of Apollo, which displays and the temple of Apollo, which displays the the oldest style of Doric columnsoldest style of Doric columns in the world. in the world.

Temple of ApolloTemple of Apollo

Bema Seat Bema Seat TThe Corinthian bema seat was discovered in the early he Corinthian bema seat was discovered in the early 2020thth century. It served as the place from which the city century. It served as the place from which the city officials spoke to its citizens, including the Apostle Paul officials spoke to its citizens, including the Apostle Paul who was brought before the proconsul, who was brought before the proconsul, GallioGallio, in Acts , in Acts 18:12-17. It also may have been used to award 18:12-17. It also may have been used to award competing athletes of the Isthmian games. Paul uses competing athletes of the Isthmian games. Paul uses the Greek term (the Greek term (bemabema) to describe the “judgment seat” ) to describe the “judgment seat” of Christ where Christians will receive their of Christ where Christians will receive their heavenly heavenly rewardsrewards in 2 Corinthians 5:10. in 2 Corinthians 5:10.

Arch of TitusArch of TitusTThe Arch of Titus (son of Vespasian) depicts the Roman he Arch of Titus (son of Vespasian) depicts the Roman

victoryvictoryassociated with the destruction of the temple at associated with the destruction of the temple at

Jerusalem in ADJerusalem in AD70 and the 70 and the carrying away the temple articlescarrying away the temple articles such as the such as the Menorah, Table of Showbread, and Scroll of God’s LawMenorah, Table of Showbread, and Scroll of God’s Law. .

The reliefThe reliefoffers a portrayal consistent with Christ’s prophetic offers a portrayal consistent with Christ’s prophetic

words to Hiswords to Hisdisciples concerning the temple’s coming destruction disciples concerning the temple’s coming destruction

(Matthew(Matthew24:1-2; Mk 13:2). 24:1-2; Mk 13:2).

Pool of BethesdaPool of BethesdaPPrior to the pools rior to the pools discovery in 1888 neardiscovery in 1888 nearchurch of St. Anne inchurch of St. Anne inJerusalem adjacent toJerusalem adjacent tothe temple mount, the temple mount,

theretherehad been had been no extra no extra

biblicalbiblicalmention of the sitemention of the site..Subsequent Subsequent

excavationsexcavationshave found the “fivehave found the “fiveporches” (colonnades)porches” (colonnades)located a short located a short

distancedistancefrom the “Sheep Gate” from the “Sheep Gate”

as as described in John 5:2.described in John 5:2.

PPool was associated with the ool was associated with the pagan healing god pagan healing god AsclepiusAsclepius (John 5:3-4).(John 5:3-4).

Pool of SiloamPool of SiloamTThe trapezoid pool (corners greater than 90 degrees), he trapezoid pool (corners greater than 90 degrees),

withwiththree sets of five stairs, was discovered by accident in three sets of five stairs, was discovered by accident in

2005 as2005 ascity workers were digging in the vicinity revealing three city workers were digging in the vicinity revealing three

series ofseries offive ancient steps on each level. Coins found at the site five ancient steps on each level. Coins found at the site

confirmconfirmthis location as the 1this location as the 1st st century Pool of Siloam mentioned century Pool of Siloam mentioned

in Johnin John9:7 as the 9:7 as the place where Jesus healed the man born blindplace where Jesus healed the man born blind..

MacherusMacherusMMacherus is the location of Herod’s 1acherus is the location of Herod’s 1stst century AD hill top century AD hill top

castlecastlewhich overlooks the eastern ridge of Dead Sea (in Jordan) which overlooks the eastern ridge of Dead Sea (in Jordan)

where where Herod Antipas imprisoned andHerod Antipas imprisoned and put to death John the Baptistput to death John the Baptist(Mt 14:1-12; Lk 9:9). Josephus wrote “…he [John] was sent a(Mt 14:1-12; Lk 9:9). Josephus wrote “…he [John] was sent aprisoner, out of Herod’s suspicious temper, to Macherus, theprisoner, out of Herod’s suspicious temper, to Macherus, thecastle,…and was there put to death” castle,…and was there put to death” ((Antiquities of the JewsAntiquities of the Jews

8.5.2)8.5.2)

CapernaumCapernaum (Jn 6:35, 59)(Jn 6:35, 59)BBelow elow are the ruins of Capernaum, are the ruins of Capernaum, Jesus’ Jesus’ headquartersheadquarters during His Galilean ministry (Mk during His Galilean ministry (Mk 1:21-28; 3:1-6; Lk 4:31-37; Jn 6:59) and where 1:21-28; 3:1-6; Lk 4:31-37; Jn 6:59) and where He healed and taught many.He healed and taught many.

CapernaumCapernaumTThis 4his 4thth century century SynagogueSynagogue was built over was built over earlier 1earlier 1stst century AD black century AD black basalt foundations. Most basalt foundations. Most likely, this is where Jesus likely, this is where Jesus said “I am the bread of said “I am the bread of life” (Jn 6:35, 48, 59)life” (Jn 6:35, 48, 59)

WWords scratched on the ords scratched on the walls indicate early walls indicate early Christians believed this was Christians believed this was Peter’s housePeter’s house which may which may have led to the early have led to the early octagonal church built over octagonal church built over the site (Mt 8:14; Mk 1:29; the site (Mt 8:14; Mk 1:29; Lk 4:38)Lk 4:38)

Cities of the DecapolisCities of the DecapolisTToday, nearly all the cities of the Decapolis (oday, nearly all the cities of the Decapolis (decadeca = 10; = 10; polispolis = city) mentioned in the gospels (Mt 4:25; Mk 5:20; = city) mentioned in the gospels (Mt 4:25; Mk 5:20; 7:31) have been identified through archaeological 7:31) have been identified through archaeological research. Pliny (1research. Pliny (1stst century) identified the cities as century) identified the cities as Gerasa (Jarash), Gadara (Umm Qais), Scythopolis (Beth Gerasa (Jarash), Gadara (Umm Qais), Scythopolis (Beth Shan), Damascus, Dion, Hippos, Raphana, Pella, Shan), Damascus, Dion, Hippos, Raphana, Pella, Philadelphia (Amman), and Abila.Philadelphia (Amman), and Abila. Hadrian’s Arch at GerasaHadrian’s Arch at Gerasa Temple of Hercules at PhiladelphiaTemple of Hercules at Philadelphia

AreopagusAreopagus TThe Areopagus (Mar’s Hill) is a polished rocky outcropping he Areopagus (Mar’s Hill) is a polished rocky outcropping just below the Acropolis in Athens, Greece, where Paul just below the Acropolis in Athens, Greece, where Paul delivered delivered his well-known sermon to the ethical court at the invitation his well-known sermon to the ethical court at the invitation of of the Stoic and Epicurean philosophers (Acts 17:16-34). Paul the Stoic and Epicurean philosophers (Acts 17:16-34). Paul spoke spoke and said “for in Him we live and move and have our being” and said “for in Him we live and move and have our being” (Acts 16:28).(Acts 16:28).

Caesarea by the SeaCaesarea by the SeaSSince the 1950’s, archaeologists have uncovered ince the 1950’s, archaeologists have uncovered

Herod’s Herod’s harbor, market, streets, aqueducts, hippodrome and harbor, market, streets, aqueducts, hippodrome and

homes. homes. This is the place where Pontius Pilate made his home, This is the place where Pontius Pilate made his home,

wherewherethe first gentile converts to Christianity (Acts 10) were the first gentile converts to Christianity (Acts 10) were

made, made, and Paul’s imprisonment (Acts 23-26) before going to and Paul’s imprisonment (Acts 23-26) before going to

Rome.Rome.

Amphitheatre Still Used TodayAmphitheatre Still Used TodayAncient Hippodrome for EventsAncient Hippodrome for Events

Caesarea Philippi Caesarea Philippi (Panias)(Panias)TThis site in Northern Israel is the location where Jesus his site in Northern Israel is the location where Jesus

asked His disciples “Who do men say that I, the Son of asked His disciples “Who do men say that I, the Son of Man, am?” Man, am?” Peter’s infamous responsePeter’s infamous response was “You are was “You are the Christ, the Son of the Living God” (Mathew 16:13-the Christ, the Son of the Living God” (Mathew 16:13-20). It was also an dedicated to the worship of the god 20). It was also an dedicated to the worship of the god Pan (city named Pan (city named PaniasPanias), Zeus, and Caesar, as well as ), Zeus, and Caesar, as well as the location of one of the the location of one of the largest water sources largest water sources feeding the Jordan Riverfeeding the Jordan River. .

PhilippiPhilippiTThe Roman colony at Philippi, named after Philip of Macedon he Roman colony at Philippi, named after Philip of Macedon (father of Alexander the Great), was the site of several(father of Alexander the Great), was the site of severalmemorable events, including Paul’s memorable events, including Paul’s first European convertsfirst European converts to to Christianity (Acts 16:11-15), his imprisonment with Silas Christianity (Acts 16:11-15), his imprisonment with Silas (16:16-24), and the (16:16-24), and the conversion of the jailorconversion of the jailor (16:25-34). The (16:25-34). The church there would eventually be the recipient of one of his church there would eventually be the recipient of one of his prison epistles (Philippians) praising their generosity (4:10-20). prison epistles (Philippians) praising their generosity (4:10-20). Below is the amphitheater built by Philip and the city ruins Below is the amphitheater built by Philip and the city ruins

PPaul spent at least three years ministering at Ephesus (Acts aul spent at least three years ministering at Ephesus (Acts 18:19-21; 19:1-41), an economic and religious hub during the 18:19-21; 19:1-41), an economic and religious hub during the 1st century AD, only to be abandoned later due to the excess 1st century AD, only to be abandoned later due to the excess harbor silting. The city is also well-known as the site where harbor silting. The city is also well-known as the site where Paul’s traveling companions Gaius and Aristarchus (19:29) were Paul’s traveling companions Gaius and Aristarchus (19:29) were brought into the brought into the 25,000 seat theater25,000 seat theater (below) as the rioting (below) as the rioting Ephesians were chanting “Great is Diana of the Ephesians”Ephesians were chanting “Great is Diana of the Ephesians”(19:27-28). The (19:27-28). The temple of Artemistemple of Artemis (Diana) which has been (Diana) which has been discovered here is considered a wonder of the ancient world.discovered here is considered a wonder of the ancient world.

Ephesus

Diana of EphesusDiana of Ephesus

Non-Christian Testimony to Non-Christian Testimony to ChristChrist

EExtra biblical historians have offered a clear xtra biblical historians have offered a clear picture picture of the essential elements of Christ’s life which of the essential elements of Christ’s life which are consistent with the Gospel accounts:are consistent with the Gospel accounts:• Jesus lived during Tiberius CaesarJesus lived during Tiberius Caesar• He lived a virtuous lifeHe lived a virtuous life• He was a wonder workerHe was a wonder worker• He had a brother names JamesHe had a brother names James• He was acclaimed to be the MessiahHe was acclaimed to be the Messiah• He was crucified under Pontius Pilate He was crucified under Pontius Pilate • He was crucified on the eve of PassoverHe was crucified on the eve of Passover• Darkness and Earthquake occurred when He diedDarkness and Earthquake occurred when He died• His disciples believed He rose from the deadHis disciples believed He rose from the dead• His disciples were willing to die for their beliefHis disciples were willing to die for their belief• Christianity spread rapidly as far as RomeChristianity spread rapidly as far as Rome• His disciples denied the Roman gods, worshipped Jesus His disciples denied the Roman gods, worshipped Jesus as Godas God

*Historians:*Historians: Josephus, Tacitus, Suetonius, Talmud, Josephus, Tacitus, Suetonius, Talmud, Celsus, PlinyCelsus, Pliny the Younger, Thallus, Lucian, Phlegon, and Mara Bar-the Younger, Thallus, Lucian, Phlegon, and Mara Bar-SerapionSerapion

Judas’ 30 Silver Tyre ShekelsJudas’ 30 Silver Tyre Shekels Matthew 27:3, 9Matthew 27:3, 9

The EndThe End

IIn recent times the debate over the historical reliability of the Bible has developed newn recent times the debate over the historical reliability of the Bible has developed newimportance and momentum in light of the thousands of archaeological discoveries relatedimportance and momentum in light of the thousands of archaeological discoveries relatedeither directly or indirectly to the people, places, events, customs, and beliefs recorded in theeither directly or indirectly to the people, places, events, customs, and beliefs recorded in theScriptures. As many historians agree, it can no longer be asserted that the Bible is a product ofScriptures. As many historians agree, it can no longer be asserted that the Bible is a product ofhuman invention or the mythological ramblings of men who had ulterior motives. Because ofhuman invention or the mythological ramblings of men who had ulterior motives. Because ofthis, many modern scholars have revisited the archaeological and historical data. However, this, many modern scholars have revisited the archaeological and historical data. However,

thesethesediscoveries often languish in the halls of academia never seeing the light of day, thus leaving discoveries often languish in the halls of academia never seeing the light of day, thus leaving

thethelayperson unaware of the immense body of archaeological information at their disposal. C.S.layperson unaware of the immense body of archaeological information at their disposal. C.S.Lewis once wrote “To be ignorant and simple now, not to be able to meet the enemies on theirLewis once wrote “To be ignorant and simple now, not to be able to meet the enemies on theirown ground, would be to throw down our weapons, and to betray our uneducated brethren whoown ground, would be to throw down our weapons, and to betray our uneducated brethren whohave, under God, no defense but us against the intellectual attacks of the heathen.” This bookhave, under God, no defense but us against the intellectual attacks of the heathen.” This bookoffers a bridge that spans from the classroom to the lay reader, with a view to both educatingoffers a bridge that spans from the classroom to the lay reader, with a view to both educatingand equipping for participation in the reliability debate, which has for too long been relegated and equipping for participation in the reliability debate, which has for too long been relegated

totojournal articles and scholarly discussions. Moreover, this work is intended to fill the gap injournal articles and scholarly discussions. Moreover, this work is intended to fill the gap inknowledge that exists within the church of the historical events recorded in Scripture, and theirknowledge that exists within the church of the historical events recorded in Scripture, and theirvital relationship to Christian doctrine. In John 3:12, Jesus asks Nicodemus a question thatvital relationship to Christian doctrine. In John 3:12, Jesus asks Nicodemus a question thatreminds us of our need to close the gap between history and faith: “If I have told you earthlyreminds us of our need to close the gap between history and faith: “If I have told you earthlythings and you do not believe, how will you believe if I told you heavenly things?” The time forthings and you do not believe, how will you believe if I told you heavenly things?” The time forcompartmentalized thinking that separates history from faith is past, since it would align thecompartmentalized thinking that separates history from faith is past, since it would align thechurch with the assumptions of negative higher criticism which sees no connection between thechurch with the assumptions of negative higher criticism which sees no connection between theJesus of history (who lived in the first-century) and the Christ of Faith worshipped as God inJesus of history (who lived in the first-century) and the Christ of Faith worshipped as God inchurches today. Therefore, this archaeological exploration is offered as a humble beginning inchurches today. Therefore, this archaeological exploration is offered as a humble beginning inconfirming the “earthly things” in hopes the reader would become intimately acquainted withconfirming the “earthly things” in hopes the reader would become intimately acquainted withChrist’s redemptive history, and eventually giving the benefit of the doubt to the “heavenlyChrist’s redemptive history, and eventually giving the benefit of the doubt to the “heavenlythings.” My hope and prayer for the reader is twofold: 1) to recognize that the Christianthings.” My hope and prayer for the reader is twofold: 1) to recognize that the Christianworldview is wholistic, viewing fact and value, faith and history, science and Christianity asworldview is wholistic, viewing fact and value, faith and history, science and Christianity ascomplementary, holding up to the most rigorous scrutiny and 2) to comprehend the height, complementary, holding up to the most rigorous scrutiny and 2) to comprehend the height,

depthdepthand extent of God’s love for mankind as revealed through His redemptive history and Word. and extent of God’s love for mankind as revealed through His redemptive history and Word.

Joseph M. Holden, 2007 Joseph M. Holden, 2007

Archaeology: the Intersection Between Faith and HistoryArchaeology: the Intersection Between Faith and History

AcknowledgementsAcknowledgements

SSpecial thanks to pecial thanks to Sam Capshaw,Sam Capshaw, Technology Administrator at Technology Administrator at Calvary Chapel Bible College, for his computer expertise and Calvary Chapel Bible College, for his computer expertise and assistance in completing this project, assistance in completing this project, Todd BolenTodd Bolen of of BiblePlaces.com ,BiblePlaces.com , H. Wayne House H. Wayne House andand Randall Price Randall Price for their for their generous contribution of photographs. Also, gratitude to my generous contribution of photographs. Also, gratitude to my talented sister and archaeological sketch artist, talented sister and archaeological sketch artist, Lorene Rice,Lorene Rice, for for using her unique gifts to enhance this work with her drawings using her unique gifts to enhance this work with her drawings of key artifacts. of key artifacts.

CreditsCredits• Photograph on slides 12, 22, 31-34, 37-39, 46-47, 49, 52-54, 56, 59, 61-65, 67-71, 75-78, 83-86, Photograph on slides 12, 22, 31-34, 37-39, 46-47, 49, 52-54, 56, 59, 61-65, 67-71, 75-78, 83-86, 88-91, 88-91, 98-99, 103-106, 108, 110-113, 115-117, 125, 138-139, 141-145, 153. 98-99, 103-106, 108, 110-113, 115-117, 125, 138-139, 141-145, 153. © Zev Radovan© Zev Radovan BibleLandPictures.com

• Photograph on slides 48, 50-51, 57, 92, 159. Photograph on slides 48, 50-51, 57, 92, 159. © The Trustees of the British Museum© The Trustees of the British Museum

• Photograph on slide 73 courtesy of Photograph on slide 73 courtesy of © Jordan Archaeological Museum (Amman).© Jordan Archaeological Museum (Amman). Photo by author.Photo by author.

• Photographs on and slides 58, 66, 120, 127, 154. Photographs on and slides 58, 66, 120, 127, 154. Copyright 2005 Daniel Speck Copyright 2005 Daniel Speck FreeStockPhotos.com

• Photograph on slides 44, 81-82, 176. Photograph on slides 44, 81-82, 176. © 2007 H. Wayne House. All Rights Reserved.© 2007 H. Wayne House. All Rights Reserved.

• Photograph on slides 1, 9-11, 17-21, 23-24, 60, 74, 79-80, 96, 100-104, 133, 140, 145-146, 148-Photograph on slides 1, 9-11, 17-21, 23-24, 60, 74, 79-80, 96, 100-104, 133, 140, 145-146, 148-152,152, 157-158, 163-175, 177-178. 157-158, 163-175, 177-178. © 2007 Joseph M. Holden. All Rights Reserved. © 2007 Joseph M. Holden. All Rights Reserved.

• Photograph on slides 107, 114, 144. Photograph on slides 107, 114, 144. © Todd Bolen, © Todd Bolen, BiblePlaces.com

• Photograph on slide 147 Photograph on slide 147 © 2007 Randall Price. All Rights Reserved.© 2007 Randall Price. All Rights Reserved.

• Photograph on slide 97Photograph on slide 97 © Hans Auer/Fotolia.com © Hans Auer/Fotolia.com

• Photograph on slide 10 © Photograph on slide 10 © Pierrette Guertin/Fotolia.com and CD Disc Image © Mary Lane\Fotolia.comPierrette Guertin/Fotolia.com and CD Disc Image © Mary Lane\Fotolia.com

• Drawings on slides 45, 55, 72, 87, 137, 156. Drawings on slides 45, 55, 72, 87, 137, 156. © 2007 Lorene Rice and Joseph M. Holden. All Rights Reserved.© 2007 Lorene Rice and Joseph M. Holden. All Rights Reserved.

• Chart on slide 154, 173 adapted from Norman L. Geisler and Frank Turek, Chart on slide 154, 173 adapted from Norman L. Geisler and Frank Turek, I Don’t Have Enough I Don’t Have Enough Faith to be anFaith to be an AtheistAtheist (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2004). (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2004).

• Chart on slide 127 adapted from H. Wayne House and Joseph M. Holden, Chart on slide 127 adapted from H. Wayne House and Joseph M. Holden, Charts of Apologetics and Charts of Apologetics and ChristianChristian EvidencesEvidences (Nashville, TN: Zondervan, 2006). (Nashville, TN: Zondervan, 2006).

• Photograph on slides 8, 42, 109, 119, 126, 158, 160-161, Photograph on slides 8, 42, 109, 119, 126, 158, 160-161, courtesy of courtesy of CC-Art.com

• Temple Schematic on slide 144 Temple Schematic on slide 144 © Leen Ritmeyer© Leen Ritmeyer

InformationInformation

Archaeology and the Bible: Archaeology and the Bible: A Pictorial Guide to the Amazing Discoveries of the Biblical WorldA Pictorial Guide to the Amazing Discoveries of the Biblical World

© Joseph M. Holden 2007. All Rights Reserved.© Joseph M. Holden 2007. All Rights Reserved.ISBN 978-1-4276-1913-6ISBN 978-1-4276-1913-6