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Georgiades, William, Ed.; Clark, Donald C., Ed.Models for Individualized Instruction.MSS Information Corp., New York, N.Y.Mar 74196p.MSS Information Corporation, 655 Madison Avenue, New

York, New York 10021 ($5.00)

EDRS PRICE MP-$0.75 HC-$9.00 PLUS POSTAGEDESCRIPTORS Educational Change; Evaluation; Evaluation Criteria;

*Individualized Instruction; Organization; *ResourceMaterials; Staff Role; Staff Utilization

ABSTRACTThis book, consisting of five parts, provides a

collection of source materials that will assist in implementingindividualized instruction; provides examples of interrelated systemsfor individualizing instruction; and describes the components ofindividualized instructional systems, including flexible use of time,differentiated staffing, new administrative roles, continuousprogress curriculum, effective facility utilization, and continuousevaluation. Part 1 consists of an article that examines reasons whycurrent innovations are not more productive, suggests methods forimprovement, and describes appropriate criter-a for judging programeffectiveness. Part 2 includes articles designed to give practicalideas for the effective utilization of staff. Part 3 is concernedwith the organization of content in individualized programs,including sequentially organizing matter and packaging it in a formatsuitable for student utilization. Part 4 deals with the role of theprofessional and the paraprofessional. Part 5 examines evaluation asit applies to innovative programs, including traditional andcriterion-referenced evaluation. (PD)

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MODELS FOR

INDIVIDUALIZEDINSTRUCTION

Edited byWilliam GeorgiadesUniversity of Southern California

Donald C. ClarkUniversity of Arizona

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This is a custom-made book of readings prepared for thecourses taught by the editors, as well as for related coursesand for college and university libraries. For informationabout our program, please write to:

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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Georgiades, William, comp.Models for individualized instruction.

Includes bibliographies.1. Individualized instruction. I. Clark, Donald C.

joint comp. II. Title.LB1031.G46 1974 371.39'4'08 73.22495ISBN 0. 8422-5164-2ISBN 0.8422-0384-2

Copyright 1974by

MSS INFORMATION CORPORATIONAll Rights Reserved.

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DEDICATION

To Martha and J. Lloyd Trumpwhose ideas and commitment havechallenged us to make a myth areality the individualization

of teaching and learning.

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CONTENTS

Preface 7

PART I: RATIONALE FOR INDIVIDUALIZING INSTRUCTION

Introduction 9How Excellent Are Teaching and Learning in Your School?

J. LLOYD TRUMP 10

Summary 23

Resources 24

PART II: NEW PATTERNS FOR THE UTILIZATION OF STAFF

Introduction 25

NASSP Model Schools ProjectWILLIAM GEORGIADES and J. LLOYD TRUMP 27

Doing Better with What You HaveJ. LLOYD TRUMP and WILLIAM GEORGIADES 32

The Pontoon Transifaonal Design for Curriculum ChangeWILLIAM GEORGIADES 56

Practical Considerations for Implementing the PontoonTransitional Design

JOHN J. GYVES 63

Summary 90

Resources 91

PART III: ORGANIZING THE CURRICULUM FORINDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION: CONTINUOUSPROGRESS AND PACKAGING

Introduction 93

A Continuous Progress Approach to the Teaching of Language Artsin the Secondary School: A Step Toward the Individualization

of InstructionCONSTANCE GEORGIADES 94

The Advent of PackagesWILLIAM GEORGIADES 103

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What Is "An instructional Package?"h. HERBERT RINGIS 105

Summary 111Resources 112

PART IV: INSERVICE PROGRAMS FOR THE CHANGE PROCESS

Introduction 115Ways in Which Teams May Function

WILLIAM GEORGIADES 116Practical Considerations in Large Groups, Small Groups, and

Independent Study SituationsWILLIAM GEORGIADES 120

Preparation of the Professional Staff for Utilizing the PontoonTransitional Design

DONALD C. CLARK and SALLY N. CLARK 128An Effective Instructional Aide Program: Training for Both

Teachers and AidesDONALD C. CLARK and SALLY N. CLARK 139

Summary 146Resources 147

PART V: EVALUATING INNOVATIVE PROGRAMS

Introduction 149Team Teaching: A New Star, Not a Meteor

WILLIAM GEORGIADES 150Evaluating New Strategies in Teaching and Learning

WILLIAM GEORGIADES 154Which Elements of School Programs Are Easier to Change and

Which Are Most Difficult and Why?J. LLOYD TRUMP and WILLIAM GEORGIADES 161

Evaluating the Pontoon Transitional Design: Findings andStrategies

DONALD C. CLARK 176An Emerging Model: Criterion-Referenced Evaluation

JACK L. HOUSDEN and LANNIE LeGEAR 190Summary 197Resources 198

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PREFACE

The individualization of instruction is a common goal of most con-temporary educators The processes and procedures utilized to ac-complish this complex goal are many and varied. In our work withschools throughout the country we have found and developed re-source materials and strategies that have been of assistance to teachersand administrators as they begin to individualize instruction. It is,therefore, our hope to present in this publication resource materialsand systems that we have found to be particularly effective. No at-tempt has been made to provide a definitive, comprehensive overviewof individualized instruction.

The basic goals of this book are as follows:

1. To provide a collection of source materials that will assistdistricts and schools in implementing individualized instruc-tional systems.

2. To provide examples of interrelated systems for individual-izing instruction (i.e., Pontoon Transitional Design, ModelSchools Project).

3. To describe the components of individualized instructionalsystems. These components include flexible use of time,differentiated staffing, new administrative roles, continu-ous progress curriculum, effective facility utilization, andcontinuous evaluation.

A dynamic growing system of education is our hope. No one col-lection of ideas and plans will in and of themselves assure such a sys-tem (these materials are but a beginning). It is our desire that theymay offer additional alternatives for the implementation of individu-alized instructional programs. These efforts reflect our commitmentand that of our colleagues as we pursue the goal of excellence ineducation.

William aeorgiadesDonald C. Clarr

Los Angles, CaliforniaFebruary, 1974

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PART I

RATIONALE FOR INDIVIDUALIZING INSTRUCTION

Introduction

Much has been said and written about the inevitabil-ity of change in our modern and complex society. Educa-tional journals are filled with descriptions of majorchanges that are taking place in schools across thecountry. Yet, when one examines closely the programs ofmost of these "so called" innovative schools, there isvery little evidence that meaningful change has or istaking place. To be sure, courses have been periodicallyupdated, dropped, or added, and instructional aides,modular scheduling, differentiated staffing, and otherinnovations have been implemented. Unfortunately, theseinnovations often reflect little change in basic philos-ophy and objectives of the school with regard to teachingand learning. As a consequence, many of these programshave done little to alter the educational experience ofthe student.

In the initial article in this book, Dr. J. Lloyd Trump,Associate Secretary of the National Association ofSecondary School Principals and Director of the NASSP--Danforth Model Schools Project, examines some of thereasons why current innovations are not more productive.He then suggests methods for improvement and describesappropriate criteria for judging program effectiveness.Dr. Trump has been a teacher, principal, superintendent,

and college professor. His work is well known and has hada great impact on secondary education throughout the UnitedStates.

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HOW EXCELLENT ARE TEACHING AND LEARNING IN YOUR SCHOOL?

(ARE TODAY'S EDUCATIONAL INNOVATIONS WORTHWHILE? - CHANGEWITHOUT RATIONALE IS IMPOTENT)

By J. Lloyd Trump

Innovations such as team teaching, independent study,large-group instruction, small group discussion, flexiblescheduling, use of teacher assistants, new or revisedcurriculum content, and the application of newer technicalaids to teaching and learning are widespread. We know nowhow to overcome the barriers of the educational setting.Actually, it is relatively simple to organize a schooldifferently. Curriculum content can be arranged logicallyin a nongraded, continuous progress sequence. Teachers canwork in a variety of types of teams to break the isolationof the self-contained classrooms. Rigid time divisions arereplaced easily by flexible schedules; some schools evenmake up their timetables daily or weekly. Students caneasily be regrouped into classes of 100 or more for somepurposes and into other classes of 15 or fewer for differ-ent activities. Pupils also can be scheduled for extendedperiods of time into resource centers for independentstudy. Teachers can use clerks, instruction assistants,general aides, and technical devices effectively.All of these modifications are occurring in schools.

Although it takes knowledge and courage to make thechanges, the big problem lies elsewhere. The challenge isfor teachers to learn new instructional roles and evalua-tion procedures to go with the changes. Some persons useother terms such as teaching styles or teacher tasks; Iinclude those meanings in the term, teacher roles. Unlessteachers learn and adopt new roles, their teaching and theresultant pupil learnings will be little better or dif-ferent than in the past. No wonder that the evaluation ofmost of these innovations fails to reveal significant dif-ferences in pupil learning one way or the other. Actually,in most cases, teaching methods and schools have notchanged basically--just some superficial trappings arealtered, even though at considerable effort.How do you judge the quality of teaching and learning--

and school excellence--in any school, innovative orconventional? The usual bases are inadequate. Suchmatters as size of class, number of minutes that classesmeet per week, the number of credits in pedagogy or subjectcontent possessed by teachers, the number of books in theschool library, the cost of the school building, and a hostof others, are quite meaningless as measures of excellence.

In contrast to the foregoing criteria, I suggest heresome measures that are crucial in judging the excellence ofteaching and learning, and therefore the entire schoolprogram. In doing so, I will discuss at some length three

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educational goals that are crucially important. The threeterms that categorize these objectives are almost educa-tional clic.nes. They have been urged and described formany years. Unfortunately, too much hazy thinking andtimid efforts have blocked progress towards reaching thegoals. Moreover, existing school settings and practicesget in the way. The three goals are: individualizingpupil learning, professionalizing teaching, and refiningcurricular content.

INDIVIDUALIZING PUPIL LEARNING

Here are five essential ingredients that are necessary ifthe school truly individualizes pupil learning. I use theadjective, "essential," because anything less than thealterations described in the subsequent paragraphs consti-tutes only gestures in the right direction--of some value,but necessarily limited. In order to evaluate teaching andlearning in either a conventional school or one with teamteaching, television, auxiliary personnel, computer-assisted instruction, flexible scheduling, or any otherinnovation, we need first to analyze the school's provi-sions for independent study.

Quantity and Quality of Independent Study. I defineindependent study very simply: it is what pupils do whentheir teachers stop talking. Teachers need to remind them-selves constantly that their goal is not for themselves tocover the subject, but to get their pupils to do so. Thepurpose of teacher talk (done either personally or by meansof a film, TV program, or otherwise) is to motivate pupilsto learn ',hat they need to learn, and to challenge thecreativity and the special interests of pupils to go beyondthe required minimums. Teacher talk also provides pupilswith information not readily available to them elsewhere,and makes assignments so that each pupil may engagesuccessfully in independent study.

Teachers need to understand that independent study hastwo dimensions. The pupils' first priority is to coverwhat the school requires anyone who is educable to learn,a matter that will be discussed later. The second dimen-sion relates to creativity and depth studies, matters alsodiscussed subsequently in this statement. Independentstudy is sometimes done by a pupil working alone, and oftenin various sized groups. It may be remedial or advanced.

Recognition of individual differences among pupilsrequires the school to give them much more time than nowoutside of regular class groups to engage in independentstudy. This activity aims to develop personal responsi-bility in pupils as they experience learning with maximumself-direction. Although pupils engaged in independentstudy may work individually or in groups of two, three,ten, or whatever number is appropriate for a givenactivity, the purpose is still individual progress.

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Teachers pr(Nido pupils with the time and varied placesfur produetivo ind,pondent study. This arrangement neces-sitates greatly r..ducod pupil time in organized groups.Instead of teachers meeting with 25 to 35 pupils for eachsubject, each day, such meetings needonot occur more thantwice a week. Pupils spend the rest of the time in inde-pendent study. Each pupil at a level good for him--withmaterials and in places that especially stimulate :.ire.Thus the amount of independent study determines the degreeof the school's attention to individual differences amongpupils. References listed at the end of this paper andsubsequent statements provide more specifics for thechanged teacher roles and other arrangements that indepen-dent study requires.Provisions for Continuous Progress. Individualized

learning requires that each pupil be placed in a situationwhere he car, successfully complete each stage in thelearning process and go on to the next without delay. Thisarrangement contrasts with the situation in conventionalclassrooms where bright pupils often are bored because theyhave to wait too often for others to catch up, or whereless talented pupils are frustrated because the pace is toofast and 'he materials too difficult for them.A ncni-raded program not only requires administrative

changes in a school, but also a different arrangement ofcurricular content--as I will point out later--and varia-tions in the nature of the teacher's assignments to pupils.Their Luidesheets and oral instructions indicate to pupilswith varied talents and interests what each of them needsand can do. Their accompanying worksheets provide alter-native ways for doing it. Programme instruction devicesmake continuous progress easier. Teachers then analyzepupil progress to evaluate the effectiveness of theirassignments and the other provisions for independent study.Discussion Skills and Interpersonal Relations. Different

reacher roles and class organization are needed to teacheach pupil how to express ideas orally in an effectivemanner, to listen to the ideas of others in order to reactpositively to them, to argue and to identify areas ofagreement, and to respect other pupils and to gain theirrespect in the process. Nothing is more individual thanour personal oral communication with others. With the oneexception of "choral reading," it is the individual whospeaks alone to someone else or to a group. The need forimprovement in personal dialogues is documented by thedifficulties individuals have incr_"Imunicating, arguing,and reaching revised decisions and accords with others.

Today's conventional classrooms cannot provide theoptimum setting or the right teacher roles for these goals.The maximum number of pupils in such discussion groups maynot exceed 12 to 15 if each pupil has an opportunity toexpress himself in the reasonable length of time that thegroup meets.

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The teacher role change:, from lecturing, quizzing,teacher-pupil planning, and engaging in other activitieserroneously considered A5 classroom discussion. Instead,the teaching role is that of an observer, a critic of theeffectiveness of the discussion, a helper by teaching dis-cussion techniques and evaluating the rest..ts, and byreconstituting the groups from time to time, n.t. only toimprove interpersonal relations among pupils, but to pro-vide each pupil with the optirum opportunity to learn howto express ideas and to listen to ushers. Such goalssimply cannot be achieved effectively in conventionalclasses. The focus in those classes cannot be placedadequately on the individual because the group is too largeand the teacher is too much in charge.

Individualized Evaluati. n. If we believe in individual-i.-4=KMTE77FS7FTRITTraualized evaluation is axiomatic.Present evaluation practices get in the way of individual-ized pupil learning. Let me illustrate this need bysuggesting negatively three present practices that teachersshould stop immediately.

The first, and most crucial, practice to abandon is theconstant comparison of the individual with other pupils inwhatever group he happens to be in at the moment. Instead,the evaluation to be emphasized is the individual pupil'sprogress or lack of it. The comparisons needed are betweenwhat the individual is doing or knows today as related tocomparable a,:complishments earlier--a month, six months, ora longer period. Comparing an individual pupil with othersin his group may give the top pupils a false sense ofsecurity; it is almost certain to give the bottom pupils acontinuing sense of frustration and defeat.

A second practice to stop immediately is the oral quiz-zing of pupils in groups in order to find out whetherindividual pupils know what they are supposed to know.This practice embarrasses some individuals and converselyenhances the already-felt superiority of others. Moreover,teachers now spend one-fourth or more of class time on thisactivity--time that would be better spent by pupils inindependent study and by teachers in professional activi-ties that I will emphasize later. Better ways than oralquizzing are available to find out if pupils know what theyare supposed to know. Teachers may observe progress aspupils work through programmed materials and when two orthree pupils work and evaluate together. The teachers willgive occasional written tests or engage in personal conver-sations with pupils to appraise progress.A third practice for teachers to stop immediately is

giving pupils multipurpose, single letter grades. What apupil knows should not be combined with what he does. Hispunctuality and attendance record should not be combinedwith appraisal of his good behavior, style of dress, andcreativity in special projects. The combined gradeviolates the recognition of individual differences as allof the foregoing and other factors become one grade which

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in turn letermines such matters as rank in class, collegeattendance, suoceus in job applications, and participationin school activities. instead, the school needs to evalu-ate and report each goal separately.The teacher roles required in individualizing evaluation

are quite different from the foregoing three practiceswhich they should abandon. Teachers in every subject needto state their most important purposes in pupil-performanceterms that can be quantified, measured, and reported--eachpurpose described separately from the others. For example,what does a person who appreciates music do that is dif-ferent from one who does not? What standards in physicalfitness, recreation, and health will the school measure andreport for each pupil? How many words per minute can apupil type--with how many errors on an average? In all ofthese matters, and others, what progress is each individualmaking? Since the teacher lacks time to evaluate every-thing, what are the highest priori'ies for this gradingperiod? Will a given purpose be elated by one teacheronly--or by a team of teachers? latter procedure ispreferable in many instances.Some readers may object to the omission of group stan-

dards. Teachers, of course, know group standards andgoals. Standardized tests also provide group measures.Until higher institutions develop better bases for admis-sion, the school may have to compute rank in class orreport rank on examinations. However, these matters neednot be in the public domain where all may see--and wherethe individual is unnecessarily punished or praised.Again, if we believe in individualized learning, then wemust believe in individualized evaluation as outlined here.The determination of school excellence requires broadanalysis of what is happening to each individual pupil inthe school.Relationships with Teachers. Individualizing pupil

learning also requires that each pupil has an opportunityto r.' .te t- a teacher that is good for him. Today'sschools deny pupils that privilege when try require apupil t.) be with one teacher in junior or seninr highschools -ill year to complete the subject, or all day for ayear in the case of elementary schools. To require a pupilto spend that much time with one teacher whom he may notlike, or a teacher who does not like him, interferes withthe goal of individualizing learning. No condemnation ofteacher talents is implied. A teacher who is bad for onepupil may be good for another.Today's school counselors often deny this principle when

they refuse :o change a pupil's class assignment, tellinghim he must learn to get along with all kinds of people.So does the school principal err when he refuses to changea pupil's assignment because he fears many other pupilswill wish to escape from a given teacher. The problem isattacked, as shown in the next section of this presenta-tion, by recognizing the need for different tasks for the

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teachers rather than h.rolnp them to do tasks they are illequipped to do. linfot,tunately, in today's schools the mainplace where teachers and pupils have choices in determiningtheir preferred relationships to each other is in extra-class (co-curricular) activities.This need for oelating to a teacher good for the individ-

ual pupil requires the abolition of the self-containedclassroom. In its place, pupils are in contact withseveral teachers, both in group situations and during theirindependent study. Teachers also need to be free from fulltime classroom assignments so a pupil can find and talk tothe teacher he needs at a given time.The question in determining school excellence is, what

arrangements produce the best relatedness between individ-ual pupils and teachers? Are these relationships enhancedby flexible schedules, independent study and the like? Ispupil attendance better and are referrals for disciplinaryinfractions fewer? What changes occur in pupil dropouts?

Do really believe in individualized learning andaccept the -individual differences among pupils? If so, thefive foregoing conditions must be analyzed in determiningschool excellence. What are the effects of the conven-tional program--or of any innovation--on independent study,continuous progress, oral communication and interpersonalrelations, individualized evaluation, and relationshipsbetween individual teachers and individual pupils?

PROFESSIONALIZING TEACHING

Teacher organizations today seek more vigorously certaingoals they have identified for a long time. Unfortunately,their emphasis sometimes is misplaced. For example, highersalaries and smaller classes are not the two most crucialmatters in improving teaching and learning. Highersalaries help teachers to live better. They also bring asense of community And national appreciation. I am infavor of higher salaries, but let us not confuse the issue.Higher salaries do not automatically improve teaching and

learning. The same can be said for smaller classes.Reducing class size or the teacher-pupil ratio in conven-tional schools--from 35 to 32 or 28.5 to 24.4, or what not- -automatically will not improve what pupils learn or theirsuccess in college, as shown by many investigations forgenerations in this country and in many others. Reducingpupil numbers makes life somewhat easier for teachersbecause there are not so many papeis to grade and not somany persons to contend with, but it does not changematerially the quality of pupil learning.

There are at least four change: in teacher roles andschool organization that can add not only to the pro-fessionalization of teaching, but to the improvement ofpupil outcomes. The determination of school excellencerequires evaluation of the following four conditions thataffect the professionalization of teaching.

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Attenti(al t- Individual nifferenees. Everyone knows thatindivldual differenees among teachers exist, but today'sschools largely ignore the rect. There are uniform salaryschedules, uniform teaching loads, uniform criteria used tomeasure teacher success, uniform retirement policies, and

on. All Ld those standardised administrative relation-ships deny individual differences among teachers. No otherprofessioral group worthy of the term expects all of itsmembers to be general practitioners, all doing, about thesame tasks and all paid the same salaries based on trainingand years of experience.Each teacher needs a situation in school where he may

exercise best his individual talents and interests. Nolonger should teachers be expected to do everything that isneeded for a given group of pupils. This requirementsuggests team teaching with differentiated functions amongteachers just as the school emphasizes individual dif-ferences Among pupils. However, this suggestion does notimply a hierarchy of teachers. For example, I have neverused the term, "master teacher," because that term impliesthat a teacher is superior in everything and, therefore,should be in charge. Such a concept still denies individ-ual differences because a teacher is not superior in every-thing.The Jetetmination of school excellence requires first

that the school learns the special interests and talents ofteachers. Also, the school deliberately employs a staffwith divergent training, competencies, and interests.School policies then capitalize on those differences ratherthan to push all teachers into standard molds. Thequestion is, what effects do self-contained classrooms,flexible schedules, television, and all other arrangementshave on recognizing individual differences among teachers?Auxiliary Personnel. The identification of what pro-

fessional teachers must do, and what may be done by avariety of assistants, is a fundamental ingredient in pro-fessionalizing teaching. Different self-concepts andbehavior are required. Many teachers today appear to havean I-must-do-it-myself complex. They say, in effect: "Imust cover the subject;" "I can do it better than anyoneelse;" "I will not be replaced by a machine." All of theseconcepts are wrong to a degree. The professional teacher'sduties must be defined in order to differentiate him fromthose other persons who play supportive roles by doingthings the professional does not need to do.Three kinds of assistants are required. Clerks are

needed to keep records, check attendance, dUTTIcatematerials, grade some objective tests, and the like.Instruction assistants can supervise pupils engaged in=----di-FrtiryriIdepenerla variety of places and otherwise helpteachers in a variety of ways. Instruction assistants arepersons with some preparation in the subject area and agegroup that the teacher works with, but not necessarilyenough training for complete certification. Such persons

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come from the ranF:1 of advanced college and university stu-dents, housewives, and retired or partially retiredpersons. General aides can supervise playgrounds, lunch-rooms, and corridors, ffelp small children with clothing,and perform other services that do not require clericaltraining or the preparation attained by instructionassistants. These auxiliary personnel Ian perform taskswhich now occupy more than one-third of thetime ofteachers.

Of course, the teachers' relationships with pupils arechanged when auxiliary personnel are employed. Teacherswork with pupils more on the basi of reerrals andappointments made by the assistants or by pupils them-selves. They trip their pupils understand the purposes ofthe assistants and how to work with them. Instead ofknowing a little about a lot of pupils, the teacher thenknows a lot more about a smaller number, those for whom heserves as teacher-counselor. But the teacher himself doesnot have to collect all the data.There can be no real profession of teaching until

teachers, their students, and the community generally,understand the relationships described in the precedingparagraphs. Certainly the workers in other professionalgroups such as medicine, engineering, and the like, longsince have abandoned the roles r.lmparable to those thatteachers follow in today's schools. Again, any educationalinnovation--or the conventional school--is evaluated partlyon the basis of what it does to separate the tasks forprofessional persons from what is done by auxiliarypersonnel.

Technical Devices. Today's teachers represent the onlyso-called prOTATI-Onal group that has not escaped from thehandwork era. The tools of the typical teacher still in-clude only her physical voice and gestures, a chalkboardand printed materials. None of us would respect or utilizea doctor, engineer, architect, or other person who did notpossess up-to-date technical tools to aid him in hisactivities.Teachers need to analyze carefully what they must do

themselves and what pupils can learn for themselves throughthe use of a variety of technical aids to learning.Similarly, teachers can enhance their voices with amplifi-cation systems and use visual devices to illuminate theirpresentations. Remember, when a teacher talks, the size ofthe pupil group is irrelevant so long as each one can seeand hear well. Effective motivation requires that teachersbe reasonably up to date in the use of materials thatenliven the television programs and motion pictures thatpupils are accustomed to seeing outside of school.

There is no shortage of technical devices. Many of themhave been around for a half century and more, but stillhave not found their way into instructional programs in thesame manner that textbooks are used. Computer-assistedinstruction is already a reality in experimental class-

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ro)s, but mo,..t te,;chers are still without it. They possessother technicl uld3 only to a limited degree.Teachers not only rvnr! to accept and learn how to use

technical devices, but also they must become militant inhelping school administrators and boards of education spendmoney differently so they can afford to provide the techni-cal devices the teachers require. Much money now wasted onpoorly conceived school buildings could be saved in orderto purchase technical tools for teaching and pupil learn-ing. The school building itself does little more thanprovide a comfortable and healthful environment; it is the'.ethnical devices that produce better teaching and learn-ing.The excellence of a school is measured by the quantity

and quality of technical devices available and the effec-tiveness of their use by teachers and pupils. Thosecriteria are applied to conventional and the various inno-vative programs not only in relation to individualizinglearning but also to professionalizing teaching.Time and Places to Work. 'Professionalizing teaching is

difficult so long as teachers are scheduled with pupilgroups most of the school day. I have written and said formany years that teachers should not be scheduled with pupilgroups more than one-half the school day. Teachers needtime to prepare better, to keep up to date, to confer withtheir professional colleagues and with individual pupils,to plan independent study arrangements, and to improve theevaluation of their own efforts and the progress of theirpupils. Teachers also need individual offices with atleast quasi-privacy, other rooms for small group meetingsand conferences, and places where instructional materialscan be prepared with competent persons available to helpthe teachers.Today's teachers, too often their supervisors, and even

the community, seem to believe that a teacher earns his payonly when he is in front of 25 to 35 pupils, book in hand.That concept of the teacher's role must change. Forexample, most teachers should function once or twice a weekas a presenter to or in charge of a relatively large groupof pupils. For another 12 to 15 periods L week, theteacher should serve as a consultant, observer, and con-structive critic of pupils meeting in discussion groups of15 or fewer. These sessions should vary in length, with anaverage of around 40 minutes. The rest of the time, theteacher is engaged in a variety of professional activitiesof the types mentioned earlier in this statement, espe-cially related to independent study and evaluation.The implications of the foregoing proposals are clear.

The professionalization of teaching does not result fromhigher salaries, smaller classes, or a fewer number ofpupils per day. The evaluation of excellence in thisregard calls for answers to different questions: Areindividual differences among teachers recognized andtreated effectively? What about the quality, quantity, and

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use of auxiliary per,..)nnol? What about technical devices?How much time and whdt placo!: do teachers have for pro-fessional activities outside classroom? Also, the worth-whileness of any innovative program is gauged by theanswers to those questions.

REPINING CuNTENT

The school innovations and changed teacher roles in con-nection with curriculum planning and development includeidentifying the differences between fundamental or basicmaterials and those which are in the realm of creativityand Today's content often confusesthose two areas to the extent that pupils find much con-teh" required that they neither want nor need. So theylose interest, sometimes rebel, and many become under-achievers. Even worse, they lack the time and energy tofollow their special interests and to develop their uniquetalents. We need to separate the important kernels fromthe chaff and get rid of the latter as a required diet forall learners.

Required Learnings. So far as basic or fundamental edu-cation is concerned, teachers and curriculum experts needto identify the facts, concepts, skills, and appreciationsthat are essential in our society for anyone who is educa-ble. Beyond that mlnimum, we also need to identify thecontent which is desirable for most people, and that whichis enriching for 117FIVaally talented. It is possiblethat national groups will identify this curriculum contentfor all persons in the United States. Then, other groupscan augment that content by adding materit!ls needed bypersons in a given state. Local teachers will complete thecontent by adding materials regarded as essential for thelocal community and region.The foregoingfoundational content needs to be arranged

logically and sequentially so that the continuous progressof pupils is facilitated from the time they enter theschool program until they leave to go to work or to con-tinue in a higher institution. This required work is heldto a minimum so that for all pupils in all school yearsthere is time for additional study in areas where individ-uals have special talents and interests.

Most of today's curriculum planning and development pro-jects add to the pupil's burden of required learningsrather than to reduce the burdens through refinement. Theevaluative question is, what progress has been made towardidentifying essential content? For example, what factsabout the history of the United States are essential forthe "good American?" What mathematics doesrgMircalperson--not the engineer or scientist--need? Is memorizingthe names and dates of the Popes essential for properreligious behavior? And so on. Typically, pupils shouldbe able to learn the essentials in one-half the time theydevote to schooling so there is adequate time for each one

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of them in whoo1 or in the community to follow specialinterests, n(1 matt..r how transitory, with the professionalaid of an appropriate teacher.

Creativity and Depth. The teacher role in motivating,providing extra information, and making assignments, is tosuggest what pupils may do to go beyond the fundamental orrequited content in creative ways or in greater depth.Such a program eliminates the outmoded "required and elec-tive" system which often limits the breadth of experiencefor pupils in the upper years; for example, keeping themaway from fine and practical arts or specialized work inmathematics or literature. The average pupil might com-plete the essential content required of all by the time heis sixteen years of age so that his basic education beyondthat occupies only ten to twenty per cent of his schooltime. He always needs some time to keep up to date,refresh his memory, or correct wrong information learnedearlier. That is true of all adults. Beyond that require-ment, he devotes the rest of his time to creativity anddepth studies in the world of work or advanced studiesleading to the university.So far as content is concerned, the teacher's role is to

use what has been developed nationally and regionally, notwasting time on decision-making in this regard but accept-ing or criticizing what the experts have done. His majorefforts concern the local content that is added to thebasic education and to the development of meaningful andproductive creative and depth educational programs for hispupils.

SOME ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS

Today's schools largely relegate decisions about educa-tional facilities -- buildings, grounds, supplies, equipment,and money--to supervisors and administrators. Teachersgive advice when required to do so. Sometimes they becomemilitant about higher salaries and smaller classes.

Incidentally, in these days of increasing teacher mili-tancy, it is important that teachers be militant about theright things. Some of their leaders and their organiza-tions are not considering the teachers' professionalinterests, the learning of their pupils, and the refiningof content as described earlier in this statement. Infact, they are working in the opposite direction.Innovations require changes in the way that money is

spent and other facilities are utilized. Boards of educa-tion and school administrators need to change their per-spectives about facilities in order to encourage innova-tions and to support them adequately. Teachers need tohelp in this process.A school district so disposed can easily save enough

money while constructing a new building or remodeling anold one to purchase needed technical aids to teaching andlearning in quantities far beyond those which are provided

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Teachers can have the services of assistants, a schedulethat provides time for professional activities as describedearlier, classes of 15 or fewer pupils, and the like, with-out adding to the district's tax burden. The requirementis that teacher roles and the methods of determining excel-lence are changed as I have described. There is no soundreason for existing teacher-pupil ratios if learning isindividualized, teaching is professionalized, and contentis refined.

INTERPRETATION AND SUMMARY

What is an educational innovation and why? A friendrecently s'id that where he came from the term could beused to describe panic bars placed on the school's exitdoors. In other places, dial access systems are consideredless innovative than computerized carrells. The simpledictionary definition, "something new or different," isscarcely adequate for decision - making in education. A con-ceptual basis is required to categorize and evaluateeducational innovations.Too many schools adopt innovations mainly because others

are doing so. Team teaching and flexible scheduling arefashionable. So, the only questions asked in some schoolsare, "What is in this year, and how can we sell it toteachers, students, and the community? We want to followthe latest fad. How can we do it quickly and easily--with-out really changing anything basically ?."

Are there any fundamental guidelines for consideringeducational innovations? I think so. Moreover, I believethat the effectiveness of any educational innovation incomparison to the practice it replaced must be judged onthe basis of fundamental guidelines.This presentation emphasizes some basic ideas:1. An educational innovation is effective to the degree

that it furthers three fundamental educational goalsas defined in this statement:a. Individualizing learningb. Professionalizing teachingc. Refining content

2. The innovation is viewed in relation to other aspectsof teaching and learning.

3. Evaluation of the innovation requires different tech-niques for analyzing what happens to pupils,teachers, and content.

4. Whether an innovation in a given school constitutesfollowinva-fad or making fundamental-changes dependsupon the conceptualization of the new procedures byall persons concerned.

5. Teachers and pupils have different roles, methods,and behavior in an innovation that is successful.

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This presentation suggests two veneralizations thatshould spur principals, teachers, and those that supportthem, to intensive study and action. First, there islitt"e inherent magic in the educational innovations thatmost of us urge. That is why in so many cases the evalua-tors show no significant differences in pupil learning eventhough the teachers and pupils enjoy the changes thattelevision, independent study, flexible schedules and thelike, bring. Second, basic improvements in teaching,learning, and content can not be made effectively in theframework of the one-teacher-thirty-pupil self-containedclassroom, or with the six or seven period day. Nor willschools be better merely by reducing the teacher-pupilratio, by diminishing the number of pupils per day forEnglish teachers, or by adding calculus, four years offoreign language, or any other extra courses to the over-crowded curriculum of the conventional secondary school.No, those superficial arrangements will not improve teach-ing, learning, and content to any marked degree.Schools in the United States and in other countries can

be improved mightily. We possess in the latter third ofthe twentieth century the know-how to individualize learn-ing, professionalize teaching, and refine content. Thequestion is, do we have the patience, the willingness, andthe drive to change teacher roles, methods, and behavior?Will teacher organizations be militant about the rightthings, the important matters? Will principals develop astaff organization to free themselves from the trivia ofmanagement details so they can work with teachers toimprove instruction? Will university researchers come outof their cloisters to work with schools to improve teachingand learning? Will we ask the right questions and collectthe appropriate data in determining the excellence ofteaching and learning and, therefore, the educationalquality of each local school? I think so. Anyway, as atrue believer, I am by nature an optimist.

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Summary

Dr. Trump discusses many items that are significant toeducators contemplating individualized instructional pro-grams. Perhaps the cost crucial factor to be considered inthe development of any innovation is the rationale thatmotivates the desire for change. There is only one justi-fiable reason for making any change in the existing pro-gram: the need to improve the quality of instruction foreach student.

Each teacher and administrator must evaluate the qualityof teaching and learning in his school. Using Trump'scriteria of individualized learning, professionalizedteaching, and refined curriculum content, educators needto determine specific shortcomings and then design programsto alleviate them.The remaining sections of this book are designed to give

ideas and practical suggestions to those interested inimproving the quality of the instructional program in theirschool.

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Resources

Books and Monojraphs

ASCD. Individualizing Instruction. 1964 ASCD Yearbook,RonalI C. Doll, ed. -W:,3hington, D. C.: ASCD, 1964.

Edling, Jack V. Individualized Instruction: A Manual forAdministrators. Eugene, 0-Fegon: Oregon State Univer-sity, GCE Publications

Havelock, Ronald G.; Huber, Janet; and Zimmerman, Shaindel.Major Works on Change in Education: An Annotated Biblio-graphy and SubTect Index. Ann Arbor: Center forResearch on Utilization of Scientific Knowledge, Univer-sity of Michigan, 1969.

Maguire, Louis M.; Temkin, 'Ianford; and Cummings, C. Peter.An Annotated bibliography on Administering for Change.Philadelphia: Research for Better Schools, Inc., Admin-istering for Change Program, 1971.

NSSE. Individualizin Instruction. 61st NSSE Yearbook,Part I. Chicago: niversity of Chicago Press, 1962.

Trump, J. Lloyd. Focus on Change--Guide to Better Schools.Chicago: Rand McNally and CompariY, 1961.

Articles

Cawelti, Gordon. "Does Innovation Make Any Difference?"Nation's Schools, November, 1968, pp. 6P-63.

Edling, Jack. "Individualized Instruction: The Way ItIs--1970." Audio-visual Instruction, February, 1970,pp. 13-16.

Hunter, Madeline. "Tailor Your Teaching to IndividualizedInstruction." Instruction, March, 1970, pp. 53-63.

Trump, J. Lloyd. "Independent Study Centers." NASSPBulletin, January. 1966, pp. 45-51.

"Seconda.li Education Tomorrow--Four Imperativesfor Improvement." NASSP Bulletin, April, 1966, pp.86-95.

. "School Buildings for Modern Programs--Somenformal Comments on Functional Architecture." The High,School Journal, November, 1966, pp. 79-86.

. "On Humanizing Schools: Point of View and BasicIssues." NASSP Bulletin, February, 1972, pp. 9-16.

Media

. Popham, James. Individualizing Instruction. Sound--Film-strip. Los Angeles: Vimcet Associates.

Trump, J. Lloyd. Focus on the Individual--A LeadershipResponsibility. 'Fookiet, TT pages and Filmstrip, 1-35frames, color with sound. Washington, D. C.: NationalAssociation of Secondary School Principals, 1965.

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PART II

NEW PATTERNS FOR THE UTILIZATION OF STAFF

Introduction

One of the most significant factors in the successfulimplementation of an individualized instructional programis the effective use of staff. Consequently, over the lastten to fifteen years many programs have been developedfeaturing staff utilization patterns that deviate from thetraditional one teacher - thirty students model. Some ofthese new patterns include team teaching, differentiatedstaffing, and the use of instructional aides.

Most staff utilization programs that have emerged duringthe past decade received impetus from studies conducted bythe Commission on the Experimental Study of the Utiliza-tion of the Staff in the Secondary School (J. Lloyd Trump,Lloyd Michael) and the School and University Program forResearch and Development (Francis Keppel, Judson T.Shaplin, Robert Anderson). While these two groups wereworking at the national level, many universities and publicschools began to develop staff utilization programs.Robert Bush and Dwight Allen were working at Stanford toestablish criteria for time and staff allocations and thedevelopment of computer techniques for student scheduling.At the same time, William Georgiades of the University ofSouthern California in conjunction with various publicschool districts in Los Angeles County began to studypractical methods of giving teachers greater flexibility oftime and group size. Out of this study grew the concept ofthe Pontoon Transitional Design.

Trump and the National Association of Secondary SchoolPrincipals continued their work with various types of staffutilization Programs. As a result of a private grant, theNASSP Administrative Intern Program was developed totrain potential administrators for new leadership roles ininnovative schools. It was through this intern programthat J. Lloyd Trump and William Georgiades became asso-ciated. Under the leadership provided by these two men andwith funds from the Danforth Foundation, the Model SchoolsProject was conceived and organized. Co-sponsored by theNational Association of Secondary School Principals theproject is attempting to combine several important innova-

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tions in rhf. Otvt-lopment or programs for individualizinglearning.The articles in this section are designed to give the

readers some practical ideas for the effective utilizationof staff. In the articles about the Model Schools Project,Drs. Trump and Georgiades describe a comprehensive approachtoward the implementation of an individualized instruc-tional program. In "The Pontoon Transitional Design forCurriculum Change." Georgiades describes a gradualapproach to new staff utilization patterns and curriculuminnovation. Dr. John J. Gyves presents practical examplesof how a middle schpol has attempted to Individualiseinstruction over a period of four years. The vehicle for

this gradual approach to change was the Pontoon Transi-tional Design.The authors in this section possess backgrounds that

qualify them as experts in their respective fields ofendeavor. Dr. J. Lloyd Trump was introduced in Part I.Dr. William Georgiades, who at present holds the positionof Associate Dean of Education, University of SouthernCalifornia, and Associate Director of the NASSP--DanforthFoundation Model Schools Project, is a leader in thedevelopment of individualized learning programs.Georgiades, the developer of the Pontoon TransitionalDesign, has taught at both the secondary and universitylevels. He has worked as a consultant with many schoolsand districts throughout the country. Dr. John J. Gyves,Principal of Clifton .fiddle School, Monrovia, Californiahas held teaching and administrative positions at boh themiddle and high school 1.evels. His practical experiehce inbuilding transitional 1-v.'6-Lams that lead toward individ-ualized instruction has made him a valuable resource tomany administrators and teachers in the southern Californiaarea.

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NASSP MODEL SCHOOW PROJECT

By William GeorgiadesJ. Lloyd Trump

The National Association of Secondary School PrincipalsModel Schools Project, partly supported by the DanforthFoundation, seeks to demonstrate how a network of schoolsmay change their programs from relatively conventional onesto broadly innovative, individualized instructional andlearning programs during d five year period. This goalrequires providing appropriate means of staff differentia-tion, realigning the leadership priorities of the principal,refining the curriculum, defining s:;nificantly differentroles for pupils, and using more effectively the "things"of education.

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS

Three basic assumptions undergird the change strategycharacteristic of the Model Schools Project:

1. Innovations often have been superficial rather thanreal. Unless teachers and pupils exhibit changes in theways in which they behave, no change really has occurred.Different pupil and teacher roles are a prerequisite, or atminimum a corequisite, if significantly more effectiveinstructional programs are to emerge. The project assumesthat it is possible to make major organizational changes,such as introducing "team teaching" or "flexible scheduling"without actually touching or altering the ways in whichpupils and teachers function.

2. Innovations have not been adopted in a systematic-interrelated totality. Consequently, an innovativevariable, whatever its potential, has often been nullifiedby conventional practices in other areas. Change in schoolsystems must therefore be planned from a "total" or"gestalt" perspective.

3. In somewhat the same ways that learning is "individ-ual," change also is "individual" or "personal." Thus, newroles for pupils and teachers emerge to the degree that suchpersons interact and participate in the development of suchroles. Self-help has the potential ultimately of beingmore productive than external help. If the change processis to be internalized, planning must provide for an appro-priate balance between self-help and external help.

OPERATIONAL PRIORITIES

The NASSP Model for secondary schools provides five basic

Georgiades, William and J. Lloyd Trump. "NASSP ModelSchools Project." Journal of Secondary Education, Vol. 46No. 4, April, 1971, pp. 16517i.

(Nr11P.. 4

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changes that aro essential to produce significant gains inpupil learning, and the professionalization of teaching andsupervising. These essential elements are interrelated ina total pattern. Until all of the following five modelelements have been effected, one cannot expect a substan-tially different school climate with newly emerging roleson the part of teachers, administrators, and pupils:

1. The school principal will devote about three-fourthsof his working time to the improvement of instruction.What teachers do in an innovative program must be quitedifferent from their previous activities if the learning ofpupils is to improve significantly. Therefore, the prin-cipal first needs to develop a staff to help with adminis-tration and supervision to free himself from many dutiesthat now occupy the major portion of his time and energy.His role becomes increasingly that of an instructionallea er rather than a plant manager. He uses the same in-structicnal-learn:ng procedures in working with teachersthat he expects thorn to use with their students.

2. The instructional staff will be reorganized.Teachers will work with the help of clerks, instructionassistants, and general aides who, under their supervision,can take over certain tasks which now consume much of the

teaching day. Teachers will have about two-thirds of theschool day to restudy what they do, to prepare, to improveevaluation, to serve as counselor to 30-35 pupils andotherwise to change their roles so that their competenciesare utilized more effectively.

3. Pupils will have more time for independent study,that is, to experience a variety of learning activitiesaway from the constant supervision of teachers. Teacherswill provide more materials for self-directed study andappraisal. The pupil's day will be spent primarily in"informal, planned learning environments" in and out of theschool a4; contrasted with "formal learning environments" inwhich the teacher is the primary presentor. At the sametime the Model requires specific policies for pupilaccountability and evaluation.

4. The innovative curriculum will offer continuous con-tact wiLh essential materials in the basic areas of humanknowledge. More and more of these materials will be drawnfrom the real world that the pupil knows rather than theadult world of the teacher. Such a curriculum, based onminimal essentials, will also provide depth studies forspecially interested students. Pupil schedules will evolvewith eight large-group presentations and eight small-groupdiscussions per week. The remaining 22 hours a week thepupil will spend in various forms of independent study asdetcrmined by him and his teacher-counselor.

5. There will be more productive utilization of the"things" of education. Buildings, equipment and supplies,and the use of money will be more directly related toinstructional goals and objectives; product output will beevaluated in association with materials input.

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STRATEGY FOR IMPLEMENTATION

The change strategy in the Model Schools Project focuseson the in-depth involvement of teachers, pupils, andadministrators in the development of their newly emergingroles. Such concepts, as individualized scheduling,independent study, presentations (large-group instruction),small -group discussions, differentiated e:affing, differentteacher and supervisory roles, teacher-counselors and pro-fessional counselors, curriculum essentials, learningsequencing, motivation and evaluation must be internalizedif new roles are to become a reality.Teachers, pupils and administrators have studied the

model; they have listened to tapes which discuss the aboveconcepts; they have viewed films and other materials; andthey have generated in-depth discussions. Principals,vice-principals, and assistant superintendents in charge ofinstruction have participated in discussion workshopsdevoted to the concepts of the model. These workshopsemphasized involvement with minimal emphasis on motiva-tional presentations.The "self-help" assumption undergirding the project is

further implemented through the installation of conferencetelephones in each of the MSP schools to facilitate a dis-cussion network among pupils, teachers, and administrators.Faculty may work with faculty even though separated by 3000miles. Materials developed by individual schools will bemade available to others through a "loose-leaf" notebookpublication coordinated by NASSP. Thus, both written com-munication and communication at the discussion level willhave been facilitated.

The change strategy for the MSP also includes continuousself-assessment, appraisal and feedback with each schoolserving as its own control. The following few illustra-tions show procedures designed to help persons see them-selves on a "growth continuum" as they move from existingroles to newly defined roles:

1. Principals keep logs and make progress reportsrelating to their disposition of time. They are reorga-nizing their office structure to make time available fortheir new role as a manager of learning strategies for thetotal faculty.

2. Teachers are beginning to compare the use of theirtime with the objectives which have been established in theModel. They are seeking to talk less and to assist pupilsin assuming more responsibility for their own learning.They are going through the process of self-assessment withthe use of such materials as those prepared by Flanders andGallagher. In some instances they are video-taping classesto analyze their role as it relates to the teaching roleestablished within the framework of the Model.

3. Strategies for self-assessment and appraisal on thepart of pupils have included self-evaluation, both cogni-tively and effectively. Self-administered, as well as

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external measuring devices and attitudinal scales are beingutilized. Pupil logs are also being kept of both in-schooland out-of-sr:hool activities.

The change strategy also includes a different role for"the project staff." This staff includes only two persons,each devoting less than one-half time to the project. The35 project schools mainly were self-selected after theirpersonnel studied descriptive materials and listened toexplanations by one of the staff. On the basis of theselocal discussions, each faculty and governing board deter-mined by majority vote whether or not to participate in afive-year program involving transitional stages. Thecloseness of the relationships between individual schoolsand the part-time project staff will also vary in order toprovide further evidence on the significance of projectstaff-school relationships. The role of external consul-tants, project staff or otherwise, is changed and minimizedas another aspect of placing increased responsibility onthe local school staff.

SUMMARY

There has been a history of a decade or more withincreased tempo in innovative efforts in American educa-tion. We seem to be in the midst of a plethora of so-called "innovations." However, many attempts at educa-tional change have neglected the necessity for changedpatterns of administrative, teacher, and pupil behavior.Change has frequently been envisioned as a "purchasable"commodity.

The Model Schools Project of the NASSP is committed tothe principle that change does not take place until newpatterns of thought and conceptionalization have beeninternalized. Consequently, the emphasis is on the self-help approach to change. The focus is on the total in-volvement of persons: pupils, teachers, administrators,and lay persons.

The Project has one other dimension worth noting. Adecade and more ago a major emphasis in projects was tosell schools on the idea of doing something different todemonstrate the viability of changed organizational orcurricular techniques. The emphasis typically was onproc.ng for better ways of doing things, sometimes withvaguely prescribed methods. Some projects at the otherextreme developed specific curricular patterns of methodol-ogy and then held institutes to train teachers and princi-pals in the new approaches. The present NASSP Model hasprescribed relatively specific requirements in such areasas teacher-pupil ratio, time and places for independentstudy, methods for individualizing pupil schedules, dif-ferentiated staff, time allocations for teacher activities,staffing patterns for supervision, required group meetings,sequenced curriculum, and evaluation of both pupil progressand the effectiveness of the changes. No school was

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admitted to the program without commitment by the governingboard and statt ti) a five-year effort, granting a reason-able transitional period. The goals are clearly defined;the flexibility lies only in the process of attaining them.The major responsibility in this process is with theschools; the project staff deliberately plans to establisha somewhat typical role with different kinds of relation-ships.We hope that this attempt to combine in 35 schools all of

the ingredients which are essential for meaningful changewill enable the profession to assess and weigh more effec-tively the many variables that must be considered inplanning new programs in education.

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Most educators acknowledge thenecessity of change, and no educatorof any stature seeks to avoid it.However, few efforts have been madeto examine the entire educationalprocess, with a commitment to awholesale change in all the aspectsof teaching and learning (the prin-cipal's role, teaching roles,individual student roles, curriculumrevision, evaluation methods, money,and facilities), while utilizingexisting educational facilities.The model discussed here is a com-Wlation of old and new ideas into ato al system, in which innovationsin every aspect of the educationalprocess have to occur.

DOING BETTER WITH WHAT YOU HAVE

NASSP MODEL SCHOOL PROJECT

Sy J. Lloyd TrumpWilliam Georgiades

Our purpose today is to help anyone in any place toimprove the quality of teaching and learning. Your school,old or new, in ghetto or suburb, poorly supported or richlyendowed, can be better than it is. How to do it is ourmission. The basic requirement is that you know where youare going, that your educational goals are clear.

The NASSP has developed a model to help you. We'll tellyou about that model and, in the process, suggest somealternatives for you to consider in making changes in theright direction in your school--doing better with what youhave.

Some persons argue that any change is better than nochange at all--but that is a useless controversy. Thedirective: from pupils and teachers are too clear thesedays. Scheols will change.The NASSP Modern being implemented in a project, sup-

ported partly by the Danforth Foundation--with 34 schoolsparticipating. How will these schools be different? Whatshould we call them--more humane schools because eachindividual gets more attention? Some people in one of the

Trump, J. Lloyd and William Georgiades. "Doing BetterWith What You Haqe. NASSP Model Schools Project." TheBulletin of the National Association of Secondary ScgoT61Principals, Vol. Se, 346, May, fOol pp. 106-113.

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model schools, a junior high school in southeast Washing-ton, D.C., call it the NOW School.

Here are the words to a song they have written, under thedirection of Thelma E. Robinson, music teacher:

There's a crazy little rumorAnd it's spreading everyday;

That the school where I am goingWants to change in a new way.

Where they say that I can study mostlyWhat I want to know- -

And if that is true that school will beThe place I want to go!

Teachers there will be a help to studentsWho will really want to study,

Yes, really study.And it might be fun to want to know somethingThat causes me to study,

Oh, really study.

And so it that crazy rumorMeans that school will change its rules- -

I will gather all my friendsAnd we will fly right to the school.

We will call our school The NOW School- -And we'll go there everyday!

And God bless the Model ProjectThat has shown us our new way!

SOME OLD IDEAS

The National Association of Secondary School Principalshas the Model for the NOW School. No one else has such acomprehensive program. We have been working a long timewith some very old ideas. The roots of our Model are deep.

Quintilian stated the philosophy almost 1900 years ago:Moreover, by far the larger proportion of the

learner's time ought to be devoted to private study.The teacher does not stand over him while he iswriting or thinking or learning by heart. While heis so occupied, the intervention of anyone, be hewho he may, is a hindrance.

The foundations also are in pronouncements of Plato,Socrates, the Humanists, in Herbert, Rousseau, Morrison,William Wirt, Carl Rogers, and thousands of others, pastand present.

Our contribution in the NASSP is to put a lot of thoseold ideas, and some new ones, into a total commitment for amodel--or system--where changes in all aspects of schoolshave to occur. We have been working on quite a number ofschool improvement projects, for a long time. A fewexamples are the work experience project with the NYA inthe late 1930's; Planning for American Youth in the 1940's;the staff utilization studies in the 1950's and 1960's; andthe Administrative Internship as a means for better schools,

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also in th 1960's.The NASSP :;tati utilization studies developed several

publications that attracted world-wide attention. Thefirst, New Horizons for Secondary School Teachers, sug-gested a broad spectrum of studies while indicating someimportant choices that principals had to make. The secondpublication, Images of the Future, attracted even moreattention. We put ideas from the staff utilizationstudies, supported by the Ford Foundation, into a frame ofreference and described our teaching and learning system.The report at the end of the project, Focus on Change- -Guide to Better Schools, still sells a lot of copies withtranslations into several foreign languages.

AND NO BELLS RING

Ten years ago, at the Portland, Oregon, NASSP Convention,we premiered a film, . . . And No Bells Ring. Hugh Downs,the narrator of this film, was then with Jack Parr on theTonight Show. He went from there to the Today Show.Incidentally, at that time I had just left the Universityof Illinois (having been employed part-time by the NASSP)to be in Washington as a full-time NASSP employee. Tenyears later the NEA film service finds that this film isstill in considerable demand.We produced a number of additional audiovisual programs

with accompanying booklets to clarify further the instruc-tional system we proposed. Starting in 1962 we had a newvehicle for working with the schools: a project also sup-ported by the Ford Foundation, The Administrative Intern-ship in Secondary School Improvement. We developed twofilm strips Focus on_Change and Focus on the Individual- -A Leadership Responsihilitvl A 16mm sound, color film, ThePresent Is Prologue, told principals how to organize theirschools differently and proposed methods for working moreeffectively with teachers. A recent film, Answers andQuestions, deals with curriculum irrelevancyproblems that pupils and teachers face and suggests somequestions for further discussion.

We tell you these things that you may understand betterthe origin and development of our NASSP Model. A lot ofso-called new ideas today need the model because a failureto change all aspects of the school program limits thepossible gains of such innovations as television, pro-grammed instruction, flexible scheduling, micro-teaching,and the use of varied learning strategies--including educa-tional games, total environment education, various curricu-lum projects, the school-within-a-school, year-roundschool, and many more. These innovations fail in mostcases to produce pupil gains and to help teachers becausethey try to function in self-contained classrooms, or withpoor staff utilization, and with principals who sometimeshave the wrong priorities.

So now we return to a more detailed explanation of the

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NASSP Model, to show you how you can take steps toward itin your school and do better with what you have.

OUTLINE OF THE MODEL OF THE NASSP MODEL SCHOOLS PROJECT

1. BASIC GOALS:a. To provide a program with varied strategies and

environments for learning through which allpupils, regardless of differences in individualtalents and interests, may proceed with gains.

b. To provide conditions for teaching that recognizedifferences among teachers and capitalize on thespecial talents and interests of each person.

c. To define clearly the role of the professionalteacher as separate from the roles of clerks,instruction assistants, and general aides.

d. To separate the principal's role in instructionalimprovement and general supervision from manage-ment tasks that can be done by other persons.

e. To emphasize in curriculum revision the distinc-tion between those learnings that are essentialfor all pupils, and those learnings which arespecially relevant for some of them.

f. To reduce required learnings in all subjects toprovide more time for pupils to follow their owninterests and talents.

g. To develop better methods and materials forevaluating changes in conditions for learning,teaching, and supervising, as well as changes inthe use of the things of education; also forevaluating the effects of the program on pupils,teachers, and principals.

h. To utilize school funds, supplies and equipment,and other school facilities differently to pro-duce better results as described under Item "f"without necessarily having more of the things ofeducation.

i. To discover better ways of utilizing outside con-sultant help not only within a given school butalso through audiovisual devices to spread theconsultants' talents among other schools.

j. To analyze the process and the progress of changeamong schools.

2. BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PROGRAM:a. The principal spends three-fourths of his time

working directly with teachers to improveinstruction and learning.1) He organizes learning for teachers according

to the same general principles that heexpects teachers to follow with their pupils.

2) He selects assistants qualified to handle theschool's managerial and other tasks onlyindirectly related to instructional improve-ment.

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L. hitterehtiated staffing and other arrangementsprodw... ,.hahged roles for teachers.1) Instruction Assistants (average of 20 hours

per week per teacher) oversee pupils' inde-pendent study, etc.; Clerks (average of 10hours per week per teacher) keep records,etc.; General Aides (average of 5 hours perweek per teacher) perform tasks not requiringcompetence in subject areas or clericalskills.

2) Teachers are scheduled an average of not morethan 10 hours per week with pupil groups (2hours with large groups, 8 hours with small);the balance of 20 hours, mostly on schoolpremises, are for keeping up-to-date,developing materials, evaluating, conferring,and supervising.

3) Most teacher:, serve a new role as teacher-counselor (helping about 35 pupils individ-ually to plan, schedule, and change a77-independent study time and collectinginformation about each pupil's progress anddifficulties).

4) Teachers work individually in offices or ingroups organized by departments or on someother basis.

c. Individualized learning methods emphasizingmotivation, continuous progress, self-direction,individual scheduling, personalized evaluation,and attention to personal needs and interests,while maintaining pupil accountability.1) Pupils are required, all the years they are

in school, to attend 8 hours of motivationalpresentations and discussions each week inall 8 areas of human knowledge (30 minutes ina large group and 30 minutes in a small groupper week in each area). These groups arescheduled by the school office.

2) Pupils have 22 hours per week for schedulingindependent study in the school or community(distribution decided by pupils and theirteacher-counselors, changeable by them atwill with joint approval). A professionalcounselor or the principal resolves disagree-ments, if any, between a pupil and histeacher-counselor. These pupil schedules aremade, changed, and recorded by teacher-counselors and their secretaries.

3) Each pupil covers required content at hi ownpace, using specially prepared materials.Much of this work may be done cooperativelyin various-sized groups, as established bystudents themselves.

4) Evaluation for each pupil is in relation to

if; e

d

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his own past achievement in a variety ofeducational goals. Since teachers cannotevaluate every aspect of learning, prioritiesare established.

5) Attendance of pupils is regularly checked andthe amount of each pupil's progress systemat-ically reported by the instruction assistantswho supervise independent study.

d. Curriculum revision separates basic, essentiallearnings from other learnings that mainly areappropriate for pupils with special talents andinterests.1) Materials are organized to provide self-

direction, self-motivation, self-pacing, andself-evaluation by pupils themselves.

2) The amount of deilth and creative studies inrelation to re tared, bas-76701es increaseswith the age an maturTTY-Friiiaradualpupils.

e. Improvement of teaching and learning requiresthat money and facilities be utilized dif-ferently.1) rinancial input is analyzed in terms of gains

(product output) in the foregoing items "a,""b," "c," and "d" (principal's role, teachingroles, individualized learning, and curricu-lum revision). Improvements in those areasdo not necessarily cost more.

2) Most conventional classrooms become learningcenters (both kinds: study and work) forindependent study; a few rooms a7g7Tividedfor small-group meetings and for teacheroffices and workrooms; a few spaces areneeded for large-group instruction (motiva-tional presentations).

3) Priorities for new construction or for pur-chase of supplies and equipment are based onwhat will produce the most good for the mostpupils, in terms of the goals of theteaching-learning methods in the Model.

f. Increased emphasis on evaluation is essential toprovide feedback for directing further improve-ments, and to produce confidence in the changes.1) The emphasis is on behavioral changes when

evaluating individual pupil progress.2) Analyses will reveal changes made in condi-

tions for learning, teaching, supervision,curriculum development, and use of funds andfacilities in school and community.

3) The effects of the changes on pupils andteachers en masse, on principal and assis-tants, and financial efficiency will bemeasured.

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3. UNDEPLYIN(1 CONDITIONS:a. Only administrators, teachers, and pupils are

totally committed to all of the project's goalswill there be basic comprehensive changes asenvisioned in the Model.

b. Each school will provide reports evaluating theproject's effects on pupils, teachers, super-visors, curriculum, facilities, and money. Thegoal is to produce improvements as compared withpast accomplishments in each school as measuredby earlier data gathered in the school and by newevaluation techniques that the project willdevelop.

c. In return for more comprehensive evaluationreports, the parents, community leaders, centraladministrators, board of education members, andother persons in the community power structurewill offer constructive assistance and sugges-tions based on the data they receive.

d. The school will wo.k to achieve the Model asrapidly as is reasolible in the local setting. Atwo-year transitional period, or less, should beadequate.

e. The schools will refrain from seeking unnecessarypublicity, especially during the transitionalperiod, but will cooperate In preparing reportsfor distribution by the project.

f. Two additional key words for progress are self-study and Professionalism. Conversely, theTUTTawing methods of stimulating change are de-emphasized: visits to other schools, use ofoutside consultants for motivating change, pur-chase of externally developed technology andmaterials, construction of new or additionalfacilities, and substantial increases in schoolexpenditures per pupil. However, communicationsamong the schools with similar interests andproblems is encouraged to further the goals ofself-study and professionalism.

SOME TRANSITIONAL STEPS TOWARD ACHIEVING THE MODEL- -DOING BETTER WITH WHAT YOU HAVE

A. Increased attention by the principal to the role ofworking with teachers to improve instruction.1. Keep a to for two weeks or a month to show what

the principal does (for suggestions on how to keepsuch a record, see NASSP Bulletin, January 1969,Chapter 9, pages 61-66). Then summarize the datain a report to the superintendent, calling atten-tion to the time the principal now spends onroutine management and other duties that personswith less professional training but more specificpreparation might do (see the same issue of the

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NASSP Bulletin, pages 119-123, "The School Princi-pal"). .;110t4 how the school district can not affordto have principals spend their time on sub-professional activities. Conclude the report bymaking positive recommendations about what theprincipal will do to work with teachers when thechanges are made.

2. Set up an "instructional system" to help teacherslearn about the concepts in the NASSP Model SchoolsProject. Here are the three basic parts of anyinstructional system--with special reference toachieving the Model:a) Make a motivational presentation (30-40

minutes) at a general faculty meeting--that is,large-group instruction, the purpose being toencourage independent study. Make the presen-tation personally, as an overview of the MSPas shown in the outline, or use a 40-minuteaudiotape with slides ($7.00 from the NASSP).Tell teachers about materials placed in thefaculty study center.

b) Orgavize a faculty study center with materialsfor reading and viewing. Ask the NASSP for asuggested bibliography. Some materials arefree; others are inexpensive. The other aspectof independent study--going beyond reading,listening, viewing, and thinking--is doing.Help teachers to plan, carry out, and evaluateminor projects as described later in thisstatement.

c) Plan a systematic program of small-group dis-cussions with teachers, some groups beingdepartmental and others cutting across thoselines. The principal is the consultant andobserver of progress. Read the NASSP materialson "Small-Group Discussion."

B. Teacher Roles in the MSP1. Reduce scheduled class meetings per week to give

teachers time for independent study, including thedevelopment of materials for pupils' continuousIrogress. Classes may meet 2, 3, or 4 times perweek (same length of time as before) instead of 5.Someone will have to supervise the pupils. Usesome teachers while others are free. Better still,use some instruction assistants.

2. Help teachers to develop continuous progressmaterials for pupils to use.a) Use the present, basic textbook- -the author(s)

provides a sequence, content, and suggestedactivities. Teachers doubtless will want tosupplement the textbook with recorded explana-tions and tests for pupils to use to help theirown self- appraisal.

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b) Add "vuidesheets" that tell pupils what they._ire supposed to learn and "worksheets" thattell them what to do--read, write, view,listen, discuss, practice, experiment, etc.

c) Make at least one "learning package" to under-stand better what more-sophisticated self-directing, self-motivating, self-pacing, andself-evaluating materials can do for pupils.

3. Help teachers to improve their methods in conven-tional classrooms. Read "Secondary EducationTomorrow: Four Imperatives for Improvement," NASSPBulletin, April, 1966, pp. 87-95.a) Reduce the amount of time that teachers tatk to

the entire class to not more than 2n Percent,and preferably less. Make this talk primarilymotivational, only giving information notreadily available elsewhere or making assign-ments otherwise not specified in writing.

b) Increase the quantity and improve the qualityof independent study. Conventional independentstudy now is called supervised study in class-rooms or work in study halls, libraries,laboratories, gymnasiums, and so on, plus home-work--either covering assigned activities orspecial projects. Add a tape recorder or twoto the classroom and a simple filmstrip andslide projector so pupils can listen and viewas well as read and write. Add to the readingmateriala by having pupils bring materials fromhomes, offices, and so on. Make assignmentsmore specific and provide alternatives. Pro-vide self-testing materials. Encourage pupilsto help each other.

c) Instead of the conventional (and almost use-less) "recitation" or total-class discussions,divide the class into three groups for "small-group discussion" or into smaller "buzzgroups." Teach pupils how to discuss and howto relate better to each other.

d) Improve evaluation by making less use of A, B,C, D, F (e.g., only for the six-weeks grade)and place more emphasis on what pupils actuallyknow and can ,4c Compare each pupil with hisown past achievement instead of against thegroup. Once in awhile, at least, evaluatesomething in the affective area.

C. Individualize Learning for Pupils1. Divide the course into chaptev,a, units, major

sections, or similar arrangements, as suggestedunder the foregoing item 2a. Then encourage eachpupil to complete the required learnings at his ownpace. As each one completes the course, or a seg-ment of it, permit him either to do a specialproject or to go on to the next segment. When he

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completes the course, allow him to take some othersubject or activity for the rest of the year. Ifhe (7:da not cover the course in 9 months, permit himto take more time.

9, Abandon the conventional schedule for a week, onceor twice a year, to permit pupils to study or workon subjects of their interest inside or outside theschool--with appropriate accountability.

3. Do the same as in No. 2, using one day of eachweek--Wednesday, for example.

4. Reduce class meetings in some or all subjects from5 per week to 4--or 3 or 2. Have no fear; pupilswill do as wc11 on standardized tests or conven-tional teacher-made tests. Pupils spend the timegained in classroom-resource centers under thesupervision of instruction assistants or some ofthe teachers.

5. Introduce the changes suggested elsewhere in thisarticle, especially under D and E.

D. Alter Conventional Curriculum Patterns.1. Co through a part or all of one or more courses to

separate the required learnings into a and b:a) The minimum which every pupil must complete to

receive a "passing" grade.b) Additional requirements to earn specified

higher grades.2. Develop a series of mini-courses--electives which

meet for six weeks, or whatever time is decided, solong as it is less than one semester.

3. Make special correspondence courses available asneeded.

4. Schedule work experience or special studies inmuseums, galleries, etc., away from the school- -with proper accountability.

E. The Use of Facilities and Money.1. Reduce overcrowding by introducing more independent

study, large-group instruction (presentations), andsmall-group discussion vis-a-vis use of conven-tional classrooms which require more room perpupil.a) Remove a wall between two classrooms and sub-

stitute chairs for school desks (arranged insemi-circular fashion to face the presenter nowstationed in the front, on the window side nowcovered by a curtain or green paint); thisfacility houses twice as many pupils as in con-ventional classrooms.

b) Install two partitions in a conventional class-room to produce 3 small-group discussion rooms,substituting chairs in a circle for schooldesks; this arrangement accommodates 50 percentmore pupils in the same space.

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c) chlpe classrooms into study and work centerstor indepondentstudy; schedule more pupils forsome supervised study and work in the communitywith appropriate arrangements for accountabil-ity.

d) Convert corridor, lobby, and cafeteria spacesinto independent study areas; pupils can walkthrough such areas while other pupils areworking, especially under flexible and individ-ualized schedule arrangements.

2. Make better use of the potential talents of theprofessional staff:a) When a teacher retires or leaves, use the

salary to employ clerks, instruction assis-tants, and general aides as described in theJanuary 1969 issue of the NASSP Bulletin, pages123-126.

b) Gradually increase the number of qualifiedadults that serve the pupils while reducing thenumber of certificated teachers, at the sametime increasing the time that teachers havefree from scheduled classes of pupils.

3. Use individual audio tape recorders and make 2 x 2slides instead of using more expensive video taperecorders and film projectors--if funds arelimited. Always investigate how to get the mostbenefits for the largest number of pupils withemphasis on individual or small-group use. Nocriticism of more expensive technological installa-tions is implied; it is only a matter of priori-ties. Also, pupils benefit from personal use andfrom locally developed materials.

F. Evaluation.1. In addition to the A, B, C, D, F--or, better still,

in place of letter grades for one grading period--report more accurately what each pupil knows or cando in ore or two basic goals of instruction; thisprocedure requires that those goals are defined inbehavioral terms.

2. Evaluate some special project, using as many affec-tive goals as you wish, and indicate where thepupil's achievement falls on a continuum from oneof the best the teacher has ever observed to one ofthe worst. Some illustrative goals are: creativ-ity, persistence, use of human resources, use ofmaterial resources, value to others, and the like.Each term is defined and a mark placed on a pointof the continuum:

best Worst

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OTHER BRIDGES TO INDIVIDUALIZED EDUCATION- -THE PONTOON DESIGN

During the past decade, a new vocabulary has been emerg-ing in American educational practice. Terms such as "team-teaching," "small group discussion," "large group presenta-tions," "independent study," "flexible scheduling," andmany others are commonly used in textbooks and in speechmaking at all levels of education. Hardly an educator ofany stature or a school system of any consequence can avoidexposure to "innovations." However, few constructiveefforts have been made to examine what is meant by the term"innovations."Whereas a decade ago it might have been questionable for

an educator to anticipate substantial innovation, today ifone excludes such a term from his vocabulary he is likelyto be assigned to Dante's Fourth Circle. In a climatewhere innovations are ill-defined, if defined at all,change is conceived to be a panacea. Consequently, soundstrategies for the implementation of meaningful change areincreasingly important.

If we keep organizational patterns in proper perspective,we can build educational innovations ar.,und essentialproblems and perplexing questions which surround theteaching-learning act, instead of becoming addicted tosimple solutions and monolithic answers. Team teaching,for example, might be used as one of several plans or as anaspect of some combination of several plans rather than asan end in itself. This is equally true of all of our newefforts to individualize instruction.

For example, one of the possible benefits of the teamorganization is that it facilitates the working of groupsof teachers to improve the guality of instruction. Theword "possible" is used because there is no built-inguarantee that simply putting groups together to work willbring about the desired results. Indeed, it may often betrue that we are merely compounding a felony--that we arebetter organizing our weakest educational patterns and withcooperative efforts, inflicting them on greater numbers ofpupils. One could hardly consider this an advantageregardless of the "billing on the marquee." Unlessteachers and administrators involved in innovative effortsbring to them insight and direction, they will take neitheraway. The question which must be asked constantly is"change for what and in what direction?" Without carefullydefined target directions, innovation may lead to nothingmore than a compounded sense of "educational lostness."

AVENUES TOWARD CHANGE

Curriculum improvement necessarily entails the re-organizaion of pupil experiences and the re-organizationof the academic program. As society changes, the curricu-lum must change. This means that courses must constantly

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Le added and subtracted or combined. The adding of coursesmust be Mort. judiciously applied than in the past. Thesimple listing of a sophisticated-sounding course in orderto maintain status is a false attempt at curriculumimprovement.

Modification of curriculum is a target of most groupsconcerned with curriculum improvement. Many nationalprojects have helped immeasurably in bringing the curricu-lum up-to-date. Updating content is a continuous process.Curriculum workers must constantly be reminded that today'seducation has to be of value to tomorrow's citizens.

Another approach to improving the curriculum is throughthe development of carefully conceived organizational pat-terns. Such patterns usually result in a change in rolesand in the decision-making procedures; thus, the patternsso developed may provide opportunity for feedback fromstudents, teachers, and the community.

THE PONTOON TRANSITIONAL DESIGN

Among such organizational patterns are Pontoon Transi-tional Designs. A pontoon may be considered a higher formof team teaching. Team teaching requires large group pre- ty

sentations, small discussion groups, and individual study.The pontoon concept incorporates all of these plus theinter-relationship of various disciplines in a flexibleblock of time. In many cases, various subjects can becollated readily and thus help in bringing about betterunderstanding of both subjects. Eventually, in some areaswe are working toward "total" learning.

The pontoon concept is identified as inter-relating twoor more subjects under the leadership of teachers fromdifferent disciplines in a block of time in which eachwould ordinarily operate independently. There are threetypes of pontoons: (1) Compatible correlation [example- -English, history, and art] (2) Periodic correlation[example--algebra II and chemistry] (3) Non-correlated.Even though some subjects do not readily correlate, a pon-toon arrangement can still be advantageous due to flexi-bility of time and the potential of varying the size oflearning groups.Some examples of pontoons include: English, history, and

art; algebra II and chemistry; civics and physical educa-tion; band and physical education; biology and physicaleducation; geography, world history, and English; businessEnglish and typing and/or shorthand. A pontoon can incor-porate two to six disciplines in a block of time.

Among the advantages of pontoons are: (1) facilitatesteachers' working together to solve common problems; (2)correlates subject matter; (3) allows teachers to adjustthe time to fit the task at hand; (4) permits teachers tochange the size of the group to fit the activity; (5)encourages teachers to vary instructional techniques; (6)avoids problems encountered when three teachers of the same

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discipline work to wither as contrasted with three teachersof differing OtsciOlines; (7) makes possible the reductionof teacher talk; (8) enables students to better correlatesubject matter; (9) allows for field trips without inter-fering with other teachers' classes.Teachers seeking to implement pontoon designs must con-

sider the three basic instructional components advocated byJ. Lloy* Trump more than a decade ago: independent study,small group discussion, and assembly group presentations.

There is no room in a good instructional program for thetraditional class of from 25 to 35 students. It is prob-ably the least useful and least effective size pattern forlearning. Twenty -five to 30 students are too many for agood discussion or a manageable laboratory and too few fora large group presentation. Traditional class size groupsmust be replaced by more realistic learning groups. Thesize of teaching-learning groups should be determined bythe goals which teachers and pupils have identified.The pontoon designs 'Mich follow are envisioned as means

toward ends, as bridges toward individualized education,the instructional goal of the Model Schools Project. Theycan aid teachers in developing flexible schedules whichenable them to make decisions relating to such variables assize of learning groups, frequency of learning activities,and duration of learning activities. The pontoon designsare not in and of themselves flexible schedules; they areonly what teachers make them. The following designs whichhave been field tested in numerous school districts enablemail groups of faculty or total faculties whose readinesshas been developed, to move in new directions.Our conviction is that there are no monolithic approaches

or solutions to the problems which plague Ole teachinglearning act. If one looks for a singular, simple solu-tion, one fails to take into consideration the fantastichuman variables which must be dealt with in the process ofteaching and learning.

The monolithic approach of a "neanderthal" age is hardlyappropriate in a society which is as intermixed as thecontemporary world. Many different approaches will befound to be effective with varying kii.ds of populations inachieving the ultimate target of individualized instruction--educational programs designed with specific persons inmind.

The concern of the writers in implementing the ModelSchools Project is to assist schools in taking the initialsteps. We believe that such skeletal frames of referenceas the pontoon design, combined with some element of con-tinuous progress, can be a major asset in moving towardtruly individualized instructional programs.

PONTOONS SCHEDULE EXPLANATION

The formula used in organizing pontoon teams is threetimes class size plus ten with a three-subject pontoon or

et-

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two times class sire plus ten with a four-subject pontoon.For example, it class size in a school it, typically 28, theformula then would be three times 28 plus ten or 94 pupils.This would be described as a 94-3-1 design; ninety-fourpupils, three teachers--one in each of three subject areas--and an aide. If class size is 30, the formula then wouldbe three times 30 plus ten, or 100-3-1. If class size were30 and one were creating a two-period pontoon, the formulawould be two times 30 plus ten, or 70-2-1; 70 pupils, twoteachers--one in each of two subject fields--and an aide.The pontoons are given responsibility for the organiza-

tion of the time which is bl,cked in two periods, threeperiods, or four periods. Many schools initiate changewith one such pontoon. Over a period of years, such a de-sign can be expanded so that gradually the staff is ableto redefine its role. For example, one high school startedwith one pontoon of 90 pupils, three teachers and one aide.Five years later, 80 percent of the student body of 1400were involved in such pontoon designs. In this way, changecan be implemented on a graduated basis rather than an allor nothing approach. With limited budget, this makespossible the gradual involvement of more and more staff.Of course, if funding is available, larger numbers of staffcan be assisted in implementing change in a shorter periodof time.

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ILLUSTRATIVE SCHEDULETHREE PERIOD PONTOON

BIOLOGY, ENGLISH, GEOMETRY

TWO DAY LAB SCHEDULE FOR BIOLOGY

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ILLUSTRATIVE SCHEDULETHREE PERIOD PONTOON

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Selected Bibliography

This bibliography is divided into generalreferences and items with more emphasis on research.No attempt is made to be all-inclusive. Many of theitems suggest sources for additional reading. TheEducation Index, available in education libraries,constitutes a source for locating other publishedarticles under such categories as "IndependentStudy." Most research oriented articles are avail-able only in periodicals or in dissertation formthrough University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor,Michigan.

General References

1. Anderson, Wesley R. "Planning a New High School withPontooning as the Educational Design." Los Angeles,California: Center for Excellence in Education,School of Education, University of SouthernCalifornia, 1969.This publication describes the planning for imple-

mentation of a Pontoon Transitional Design in a newhigh school; discusses facilities, scheduling,resource centers, in-service training, and empha-sizes the steps which may emerge from the PontoonDesign.

2. Beggs, David W., ed. Non-Graded Schools in Action.Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana UnJversity Press,1967.As editor of the Bold New Venture Series, Beggs

described this book as "a guide to action." Thecontributing authors fully discuss the nongradedconcept. A number of schools that are using variousdegrees of the nongraded approach are discussed.

3. Beggs, David W., and Edward G. Buffie, eds. Indepen-dent Study. Bloomington, Indiana: IndianaUniversity Press, 1966.

This collection of essays develops the relation-ship of independent study to the following:flexible scheduling; self-directed learning; teamteaching; technological aids, facilities, equipment;in-service program; the administrator's role; andspecific discussion of the University of Chicagoproject, the Brookhurst Junior High School Program,and the applicability of independent study in thehumanities.

4. Benet-James and others. SCSD: The Project and theSchools. New York: Educational FacilitiesMORTories, Inc., 1967.

This landmark document describes how to plan andconstruct "Systems Development" schools with completeflexibility inside and outside with more rapid and

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economic methods. This publication and others byEn are essettial reading for constructing newbuildings o remodeling old ones.

5. Bloom, Benjam-n S., ed. Taxonomy of EducationalObjectives: Cognitive Domain. New York: LJngmans,Green and Company, 195-5.Although published more than ten years ago, this

book (with its companion volume, "The AffectiveDomain") must be regarded as the standard guide tothe clarification and evaluation of objectives atall levels of education.

6. Brown, B. Frank. Education by Appointment: NewApproaches to Independent Study. West NyiER7NewYork: Parker Publishing Company, Inc., 1968.

The author presents his concepts of independentstudy, including antecedents, rationale, organiza-tion, curriculum requirements, facilities, and someexamples drawn mainly from Melbourne High Schoolwhere he served as principal for a number of years.

7. Clark, Donald C., and Sally N. Clark. "Preparation ofthe Staff f.or Utilizing the Pontoon TransitionalDesign." Los Angeles, California: Center forExcellence in Education, School of Education, Uni-versity of Southern California, 1969.This publication describes a strategy for the

preparation of teachers entering into a PontoonTransitional Design. Attention is given to aclimate for change giving special emphasis toorganization of in-service planning, use of consul-tants, materials available, evaluation efforts, andinitial planning steps.

8. Eiss, Albert F., and Mary B. Harbeck. BehavioralObjectives in the Affective Domain. gEMTETEE35, D.C.: National Science Teachers Association, 1969.Although this pamphlet has a science orientation,

the recommendations apply equally to all other areasof the curriculum. The interrelationships of theaffective, cognitive, psychomotor domains aredescribed and techniques provided for developingbehavioral objectives and evaluating affective out-comes. Examples are given.

9. Georgiades, Constance. "The Nongraded Approach to theTeaching of the Language Arts: A Step Toward theIndividualization of Instruction." Los Angeles,California: Center for Excellence in Education,School of Education, University of SouthernCalifornia 1969.

This article describes the building of a nongradedlanguage arts curriculum with a strong emphasis onidentifying and meeting the needs of individualstudents. Some student views are included.

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10. Georgiades, William. "The Pontoon Transitional Designfor Curriculum Change." Los Angeles, California:Center for Excellence in Education, School of Educa-tion, University of Southern California, 1969.This basic reference for the Pontoon Transitional

Design develops the theory by illustrating practicalsteps in implementing a new kind of teaching-learning environment. Sample schedules developed byteachers are included.

11. Clines, Don E. Implementing Different and BetterSchools. Mankato, Minnesota: Campus Publishers,1969.The author proposes specific procedures for chang-

ing schools, giving both the rationale and hisproposals for methodology. Supplementary statementsand suggestions about schools include a directory ofeducators to know, schools to discuss, organizationsthat can help, a listing of curriculum projects, andan extensive bibliography.

12. Heller, Melvin P. "Scheduling for Flexibility."Catholic High School Quarterly, Vol. 26, No. 3; pp.20-27.This article explains the meaning and the kinds of

flexibility that can be obtained in most schoolsettings when persons recognize the variables relat-ing to scheduling as well as the importance ofdeveloping a schedule based on educational needsrather than administrative convenience.

13. Manlove, Donald C., and David W. Beggs, III. FlexibleSchedulingi Bold New Venture. Bloomington,Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1965.The following topics are presented: conventional

myths to be destroyed; planning, preparations, andorganizational concerns; analysis of studentschedules; advantages and disadvantages forteachers; facilities and equipment needed; relevantresearch and evaluations; sequences essential formaster scheduling; data-gathering processes; genera-tion of master schedule; specifics of IndiFlexSystem.

14. Miles, Matthew B., ed. Innovation in Education.Columbia University: Bureau of Publications, 1967.

A compilation of case studies and conceptualiza-tions concerning change in education.

15. Schaefer, Robert J. The School as a Center of In-quiry. New York: Harper 6 Row Publishers, 1967.

The author provides criticisms regarding theprogress of American education and suggests improve-ments needed in teaching and learning in schools.

16. Trump, J. Lloyd. "Flexible Scheduling: Fad or Funda-mental?" Phi Delta Kappan, May 1963, pp. 367-371.

Alternatives in variable time scheduling withoutreliance upon modern electronic services aredescribed.

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17. Trump, J. Lloyd. Focus on Change--Guide to BetterSchools. Chicago, Illinois: Rand McNally Co.,1961.The final report of the NASSP staff utilization

study presents proposals for organizing all secon-dary schools with emphasis on differentiatedstaffing, flexible scheduling, independent study,large-group instruction, and small-group discussion.

18. Trump, J. Lloyd. "Independent Study." Catholic HighSchool Quarterly, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 2-7.

The relationships of independent study to schedul-ing patterns, team teaching, and other changes arediscussed.

19. Trump, J. Lloyd. "Independent Study Centers." TheBulletin of the NASSP, January 1966, pp. 45-517--Here is a close look at what should be happening

in a well-defined independent study center. Inde-pendent study is explained and procedures for pro-viding experiences in independent study arereviewed.

20. Trump, J. Lloyd. "10 Problems Facing Schools."Catholic High School Quarterly, Vol. 28, No. 3, pp.20-27.This article discusses the ten most significant

problems facing educators who have made attempts atinnovations regarding staff utilization, teamteaching, variable scheduling, technical devices,etc.

21. Trump, J. Lloyd, and Delmas F. Miller. SecondarySchool Curriculum Improvement: Proposals and Pro-cedures. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1968.win le illuminating modern curriculum theory, this

book also places heavy emphasis upon the practicalimplementation of theory.

22. Trump, J. Lloyd. Focus on the Individual--A Leader-ship Responsibility. Washington, D.C.: TheNational Association of Secondary School Principals,1965.This publication is a combination of a booklet and

filmstrip. Together they illustrate and describesuch concepts as independent study, larger andsmaller groups, flexible schedules, evaluation, andeducational facilities.

23. Wilhelms, Fred T., ed. Evaluation as Feedback andGuide. Washington, D..:ssocSuper-riTE15n and Curriculum Development, 1967.

Paul Diederich of ETS, Frances Link, Fred Wilhelmsand others emphasize the constructive use of evalua-tion to improve educational programs.

24. Wilson, Charles H. "Educational Innovation."Nation's Schools, Vol. 80, No. 5; pp. 66-68.This is an excellent article telling educators to

expect difficulty in making innovation relevant tothe teaching-learning act. Without drastic revi-

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sions such as doing away with grades, taking awaythe 8:30 to 3:30 concept imposed upon all students,and other similar traditional ractices, attempts atinnovation are practically useiess.

25. Woods, Thomas E. The Administration of EducationalInnovation. Eugene, Oregon: Bureau of EducationalResearch, University of Oregon, 1967.The author bridges the gap between the knowledge

acquired through the behavioral sciences aboutchange processes and the understandings that areneeded by the superintendent of schools in orderrealistically to manage programs of change and tomaintain the adaptability of the public schools tothe current needs of the society.

RESEARCH ORIENTATION

1. Arvin High School. An Innovation in Curriculum Designand Content. Arvin, California, 1967. (mimeo)The "first" with regard to developing teaching

strategies under this design in scheduling and theuse of variable class sizes, this work tells the"Arvin Story" and offers an evaluation of the pro-gram.

2. Beggs, David W. "A Study of the Implementation Strat-egy Employed by Selected Schools Using a FlexibleClass Schedule." Doctoral Dissertation, IndianaUniversity, 1965.

This study identified and analyzed the motives,procedures, and practices used to institute a flex-ible class schedule in selected secondary schools.Although different staff utilization practices areonly implied by flexible scheduling, this doctoralstudy is included because of the reputation the au-thor had in the field of team teaching and new pat-terns of staff utilizatiop. The study developed acommon strategy for the implementation of the flex-ible scheduling.

3. Borg, Walter R. "Teacher Effectiveness in Team Teach-ing." Journal of Experimental Education, Spring,1967, pp. 65-70.An experimental study designed to analyze the

interactions between teaching team members and thecharacteristics of more and less successful teamsand team members.

4. Cawelti, Gordon. "Does Innovation Make Any Differ-ence?" Nation's Schools, November 1968, pp. 60-63.

A report of a study of innovative practices in 22U.S. high schools, this article directs scrutinytoward flexible or modular scheduling. The studyanalyzes student and teacher responses to variousaspects of any program from both a flexible scheduled(experimental) group and a traditionally scheduled(control) group.

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5. Fraenkel, Jack R. "A Comparison of AchievementBetween Students Taught by a Teaching Team andStudents Taught in Traditional Classes on a Stan-dardized Examination in U.S. History." Journal ofEducational Research, September 1967, pp. 43-46.

This is a well-documented, statistically soundstudy of one team teaching approach's effect on cog-nitive skills and reflective thinking.

6. Georgiades, William. "Evaluating New Strategies inTeaching and Learning." Catholic High SchoolQuarterly, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 8-11.This article takes a hard-hitting look at the

critical need for systematic evaluation in ourschools and the importance of the affective domain.

7. Georgiades, William. "Team Teaching: A New Star, Nota Meteor." NEA Journal, April 1967, pp. 14-15.With an in-depth examination of the essentials

that underlie team teaching, Georgiades discussesthe conditions which must be met in order to teamteach.

8. Georgiades, William, and Joan Bjelke. "An Experimentin Five-Day-A-Week English Classes with an Inter-spersed Elective." California Journal of Educa-tional Research, Septem5eF-1961i, 190-118.This research study presents indicators of the

effectiveness of an English program with an inter-spersed elective. Because of some experimentaldrawbacks, no firm conclusions could be reached.

9. Georgiades, William, and Joan Bjelke. "Evaluation ofEnglish Achievement in a Ninth Grade, Three-Period,Team Tqmching Class." California Journal of Educa-tional Research, May 1966, pp. 100-112.This research study describes the effectiveness of

a pontoon transitional design on English achieve-ment. Findings, conclusions, and recommendationsare clear and pertinent.

10. Hawkins, Wilber Dale. "Some Factors Which Contributeto Successful Educational Innovation." DoctoralDissertation, University of Southern California,1968.In a study which attempted to identify factors

that contribute to educational innovation, strongemphasis is given to the fact that changes "don'tjust happen," but require careful planning, involve-ment of staff, and a willingness to experiment.Sources which help schools to make educationalchanges are also discussed.

11. Klausmeier, Herbert J., and William Wiersma. "TeamTeaching and Achievement." Education, December1965, pp. 238-242.A tight research study in seventh grade English

and social studies, this article shows the effect ofteam teaching in these subjects on low and averageability students.

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12. Lambert, Philip; William L. Goodwin; and WilliamWiersma. "A Comparison of Pupil Adjustment in Teamand Self-Contained Organizations." Journal of Edu-cational Research, March 1965, pp. 311-314.

Here is an excellent two-year study of changes inpersonality characteristics of over 350 elementaryschool children taught in teams and self-containedclassrooms.

13. Shaw, Marvin E., and Jack H. Wright. Scales for theMeasurement of Attitudes. New York: McGraw-Hillbook Company, 1967.

This book deals with attitude measurement scales,including a host of measurement devices regardingall aspects of education and related fields,describing each measurement in detail.

14. Speckhard, Gerald Paul. "An Evaluation of the Educa-tional Program of a High School Using a ModularSchedule." Doctoral Dissertation, University ofColorado, 1966.

The dissertation analyzes practices, problems andopinions of students and teachers regarding theadoption of a flexible type of schedule. Selectedachievements of students were also studied in orderto determine the effectiveness of a variable timeschedule. The study showed that most teachers andstudents preferred a kind of flexibility in theirschedules.

15. Trump, J. Lloyd. "How Excellent Are Teaching andLearning in Your School?" and "Evaluating PupilProgress in Team Teaching." (multilithed papers)Washington, D.C.: The National Association ofSecondary School Principals.

These articles set criteria for evaluating educa-tional practices and programs.

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THE PONTOON TRANSITIONAL DESIGN FOR CURRICULUM CHANGE

By William Georgiades

INTRODUCTION

In a rapidly changing world which requires citizens withskills and competencies different from those needed in thepast, it is clear that school programs must be relevant totoday's demands, necessitating continuous teacher in-service and curriculum modification.Educational engineering requires time and persistence,

Master planning cannot be purchased, but rather must evolveas the disrict identifies targets and means of attainingdesired ends. Furthermore, a master plan must be developedin the spirit of working with people rather than of workingfor people. The best master plan is useless unless itresults in an improvement in the classroom. Littleimprovement is likely to occur until teachers' and adminis-trators' concerns are openly explored. The climate of aschool contributes greatly to the free expression of'teachers' and administrators' concerns. Emotionalism,bigotry, and authoritarianism can block curriculum improve-ment. On the other hand, constructive attitudes of educa-tional leaders will stimulate progress toward desiredgoals.Curriculum improvement necessarily entails the reorgani-

zation of pupil experiences and tha reorganization of theacademic program. As society changes, the curriculum mustchange. This means that courses must constantly be added,subtracted, or combined. The adding of courses must bemore judiciously applied than in the past. The simplelisting of a sophisticated sounding course in order tomaintain s%atus is a false attempt at curriculum improve-ment.Modification of curriculum is a target of most groups

concerned with curriculum improvement. Many national pro-'ects have helped immeasurably in bringing the curriculumup-to-date. Updating content is a continuous process.Curriculum workers must constantly be reminded that todayeducation has to be of value to tomorrow's citizens.Another approach to improving the curriculum is through

the development of carefully conceived organizational pat-terns. Such patterns usually result in a change indecision-making procedures; thus, the patterns so developedmust provide opportunity for feedback from students,teachers, and the community.

PONTOON-TRANSITIONAL DESIGN

One such organizational pattern is the pontoon-transi-tional design. A pontoon may be considered a higher:. formof team teaching. leam teaching requires large grout.) pre-

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sentations, small discussion groups, and individual study.The pontoon concept incorporates all of these plus theinter-relationship of various disciplines in a flexibleblock of time. In many cases, various subjects can becorrelated readily and thus help in bringing about betterunderstanding of both subjects. Eventually, in some areaswe are working toward "total" learning.The pontoon concept is identified as interrelating two or

more subjects under the leadership of teachers from differ-ent disciplines in a block of tune in which each wouldordinarily operate independently. There are three types ofpontoons:

1. Compatible correlation (Example: English, Historyand Art)

2. Periodic correlation (Example: Algebra II andChemistry)

3. Non-correlatedEven though some subjects do not readily correlate, a

pontoon arrangement can still be advantageous due to flexi-bility of time and the size of learning groups allowed inthe block.

Some examples of pontoons in the various disciplines in-clude: English, History and Art; Algebra II and Chemistry;Civics and Physical Education; Band and Physical Education;Biology and Physical Education; Geography and WorldHistory; Business English and Typing and/or Shorthand; etc.A pontoon can incorporate from two to six disciplines in asimilar block of time.

Some advantages of pontoons are:1. Facilitates teachers working together to solve common

problems;2. Correlates subject matter;3. Allows teachers to adjust the time to fit the task at

hand;4. Permits teachers to change the size of the group to

fit the activity;5. Encourages teachers to vary instructional techniques;6. Where two teachers in the same disciplines may be

reluctant to work together, separate disciplines maynot suggest such pressures;

7. One lecture a week instead of several every day;8. Allows students to correlate subject matter;9. Field trips can be readily undertaken without inter-

ferring with other teachers, classes, etc.10. If for some reason the pontoon is not workable,

teachers and students can revert to the traditionalsetting without complications.

Teacher feelings of insecurity were a frequent problemwith early multi-subject approaches. Scheduling blocks oftime involving two disciplines does not necessarily mean ageneral regression of the scholarship in each area.Furthermore, if an English and biology team is conceived,it does not mean that the English teacher need to knowbiology. The establishment of a pontoon does mean that

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teachers must be willing to work together to solve commonproblems for the mutual advantage of all.Whenever possible, subject matter should be correlated.

Correlating subject matter is a method of reinforcement.The English teacher who assigns a theme about a topic inbiology or social studies is helping students to relate onearea to another. Fragmented curriculum is a common criti-cism of our schools. Too frequently, a student sees no useor value in a course. Seeing biology in relation to worldhistory and English will help the student integrate thesubjects in a more meaningful and lasting way.Teachers implementing a pontoon design should consider

three basic patterns--independent study, small group dis-cussion, and large group presentations (see Figures 1 and2). Research is building which indicates that the transi-tional class of from to 35 students is probably theleast useful and least effective pattern of organization.Twenty-five to thirty students are too many for a good dis-cussion or a manageable laboratory and too few for alecture demonstration. Traditional class size groupsshould be replaced by more realistic patterns.

LARCE GROUPS

All lectures should be delivered to the entire group. Asuccessful pattern is to form small discussion groups afterthe lecture. The lectures should be obviously well plannedand with some imagination. The sequence should be clearand easy to follow. An introduction should contain thepurposes of the presentation and be planned in an interest-ing manner to capture the attention of the group. Objec-tives of the lesson should be clearly and thoroughlydeveloped. And, all lectures should end with a strongclosing statement.

DISCUSSION GROUPS

Most discussions should be well planned to ensure theyare genuine learning experiences. Too frequently teachersfeel their obligations to a class are terminated upon for-mation of discussion groups. Discussion questions shouldbe skillfully prepared, thought provoking, and interesting.A sound ',. inical device is to employ responses to move thediscussion forward. It must always be remembered that thepoorer students are at developing and discussing a topic,the more they need practice in this form of oral communica-tion.

INDEPENDENT STUDY

Much evidence exists which indicates students learn justas much working independently as by more traditionallystructured methods. Well thought out, behaviorally statedobjectives can be effectively pursued by students. For

c-p-vit

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minutes

Subject I

Subject II

minutes

Subject I

Subject II

IndependentStudy

minutes

Subject I

Subject II

DirectedStudy

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FIGURE 1

LARGE-GROUP SCHEDULES'

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

ABC ABC ABC

ABC

SMALL-GROUP SCHLDULESI

30 40 40

ABC A

B

C

minutes

Subject I

Subject II

IndependentStudy

5 5 5 5

JABC ABC

40 30 40 40 30

B D A C C

C A C B A A

A C B

36

A B C

36, 36

C ABC

B ABC

A

SMALL-GROUP SCHEDULESI

36 36

AB C2

36

C1 AB C2

C2 C1 AB

A = 15 studentsB = 15 studentsC 2 15 students

36 36 36

BC A2 Al

Al BC A2

A2

Al BC

36

AC

36 36

B1

B2

B1

1n2

AC B2

B1a AC

Al = 7-8 studentsA2

2 7..8 studentsB2 7..8 studentsB2 2 7-8 students

C g 7-8 studentsC2 = 7-8 students

SAMPLE PONTOON DESIGN

45 students, 2 teachers, 1 teacher assistant

1Hundreds of designs are pcssible. These are only a fewexamples.

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FIGURE 2

LARGE-GROUP SCHEDULES'

minutes 55 55 55 165

Subject I ABC A B C

Subject II ABC

Subject III ABC

minutes 110 27 27 3 day cycle

Subject I

Subject II ABC

Subject III ABC

minutes

Subject I

Subject II

Subject III

IndependentStudy

minutes

Subject I

Subject II

Subject III

DirectedStudy

27 27 27 27 27 27

B1

82

C1

C2

Al A2

C1 C2 Al A2 81

82

Al A2

81 82 C1

C2

A282

C2

A181

Cl

A282

C2

A181

C1

A282

C2

A101

C1

3 day cycle

GROUPS

A = 30 studentsB = 30 studentsC is 30 students

Al 12 15 studentsA12 : 15 students8 15 students82 = 15 students

C1 15 students

C2 15 students

a21 = 7-8 studentsa3

= 7-8 students= 7-8 students: 7-8 students

7-8 studentsb = 7-8 students3

b4

7-8 students7-8 students

c1 7-8 students

c32 : 7-8 students

c4

7-8 studentsm 7 -8 students

SMALL-GROUP AND INDEPENDENT STUDY DESIGNS'

41 41 41 41

a1

a2

a3

a4

b1 b2 b

3 b4

c1 c

2c3 c

4

a2a3 alai ala2 ala2

a4b2 a4b1 s4b1 a3b13 4 3 4 2 4 2 3bb bb bb bbc2 c

3c1c3

c1c2

c1c2

c4

c4

c4

C3

4 day cycle

SAMPLE PONTOON DESIGN

90 students,3 teachers,

2 assistants

1Hundreds of designs are possible. These represent only a few examples.

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example, a student can learn by himself to locate all ofthe countries in South America by labeling an outline map.Obviously, students must be given a series of very specificobjectives for this type of independent study. In mostcases students working independently should be free to workquietly by themselves, form discussion groups, visit thelibrary or confer with the teacher as the need arises.

TEACHER ROLES

Teachers participating in pontoons can help each otherstrengthen their instructional skills. Self-evaluationshould be augmented by suggestions from students and otherpontoon teachers. Critiques can include anything frompreparation to personality.

Several dimensions of excellence should be considered bypontoon teachers. Actually, it is quite easy to organize adifferent kind of instructional unit. However, the organi-zation should contribute to the pursuit of excellence. Thefirst dimension of excellence is simple mastery of informa-tion. The student should ask why; he should desire toknow. Careful attention must be given to the developmentof an inquiring mind. Concomitantly, the student shouldexperience satisfaction in his growing awareness Ofacademic problems.A second dimension of excellence is the ability to iden-

tify and formulate appropriate solutions in problem-solvingsituations. The teachers in the pontoon need to developthe habit of organizing classwork along the lines outlinedby the scientific method. Each lesson to be taught is aproblem. The teacher and the students must identify whatneeds to be done. The objectives should be clearly out-lined and developed. Objectives may be stated in theformat of hypotheses. In this case, arguments for oragainst the hypotheses must be collected. In all casesconclusions, recommendations, and implications should becarefully formulated.Third, excellence in education is marked by the presence

of thoroughly developed communication skill: :. Studentshould be encouraged to actively communicate the businessof the day. Students need to write, read, discuss and pre-sent material as much as possible. The teacher should tryto avoid making a presentation or answering a question thata student might be capable of presenting or answering.

Successful pontoons formulate and develop cognitive andaffective objectives. The pontoon-transitional pattern ismore flexible than the traditional class. Pontooning per-mits teachers to creatively explore many patterns ofgrouping designed to compliment the educational task. Thebasic components of the pontoon design are independentstudy, small-group discussion, and large-group presenta-tion.Dimensions of excellence other than simple cognition

should be given consideration by teachers in the pontoon.

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The Commission on Educational Policy's Dimensions of Excel-lence in Education suggests the following as indicators ofexcellence:

1. Capacity for inquiry2. Problem-solving competence3. Communication and computational skills. Familiarity with organized disciplines5. Cultivated enjoyable6. Democratic commitment

SUMMARY

Rapid changes in methods and organization of schoolscompel districts to establish a continuing in-servicetraining program in order that teachers can stay abreast ofthe times. Cultural and technological pressures are repre-sentative of those influences that have produced a need fora deeper commitment to the desirability and necessity ofexploring new methods of instruction and new patterns oforganization.

A policy and budget should be established for providingteachers and administrators the opportunity to visit inno-vative schools. Appropriate substitutes should befurnished, and teachers' expenses should be paid out ofdistrict funds.

Faculty meetings, in which an active dialogue is createdand maintained relative to the teaching and learning act,should be a major target of in-service training. The busi-ness of the day should be dispensed with quickly andefficiently. Guest speakers such as sociologists, super-visors, personnel from innovative schools, educators,consultants, lay personnel, county school personnel,subject matter experts, psychologists, salesmen of newequipment, etc., should be used whenever possible. Maximumteacher participation, wherein faculty committees addressthemselves to problems of the school, are highly desirable.No attempts to organize a pontoon-transitional program

should take place without in-depth involvement of adminis-trators and teachers. At the appropriate time, pupils andcommunity will also be involved. Unless the new roleswhich educational change demands are internalized, we havebuilt on foundations of sand.

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PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR IMPLEMENTING THE PONTOON

TRANSITIONAL DESIGN

By John J. Gyves

INTRODUCTION

Teaching and the imparting of knowledge make sensein an unchanging environment. This is why it has beenan unquestioned function for centuries. But if thereis one truth about modern man, it is that he lives inan environment which is continually changing. . . .

The only man who is educated is the man who haslearned how to adapt and change, the man who hasrealized that no knowledge is secure and that only theprocess of seeking knowledge gives a basis forsecurity. . .

Carl Rogers

If we, as educators, can accept the unalterable fact thatwe exist in an age when the only constant is change itself,then we must also accept the awesome implication that edu-cation must endeavor to equip its clients to accommodatethis perpetual novelty. Man's survival will surely dependupon his ability to cope with his environment, with hisfellowman, and with himself, yet our schools, in many ways,continue to emphasizing the obsolete.To produce students who are receptive to inevitable

change, who are not anachronisms in their own time, educa-tion must first be willing to change itself. We who havebeen so slow to accept change must now foster it. We mustdo so by deemphasizing the traditional emphasis on cogni-tive achievement, since so much of the cognitive isinstantaneously obsolete, and by dedicating ourselves tothe preparation of the individual for existence and sub-sistence in a perpetually changing world. Achievement ofsuch goals is only possible through significant newapproaches that aim at guaranteeing each youngster a trulyindividualized learning situation.Though we have known for some time that there is no one

class size or length of teaching period that is best forall teaching situations, most schools have continued thepractice of placing 30-35 students with a teacher for 40-60minutes every day. Lately, however, there seems to be aground swell of newer scheduling methods aimed at improvingthe teaching-learning situation and making it more individ-ualized. Among these are rotating schedules that allowextended periods of time in certain classes on certaindays, modular scheduling programs and programs of large-group small-group instruction that incorporate significantamounts of independent study time. Many of the newerapproaches use team teaching as their hub.

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THE PONTOON TRAMUTIONAL DESIGN

Obviously, there is no one "best" way to achieve educa-tional change, but perhaps the most promising of the newmethods is "The Pontoon Transitional Design for CurriculumChange" initiated by Dr. William Georgiades of the Univer-sity of Southern California. The Pontoon TransitionalDesign has been offered by Dr. Georgiades as a vehicle formaking the transition from mass education to individualizedinstrqction. It facilitates team teaching, differentiatedstaffing, flexible scheduling and the correlation ofsubject matter; it also provides for assembly groups, dis-cussion groups and individual study.

Dr. Georgiades, in a publication entitled "The PontoonTransitional Design for Curriculum Change," described thepontoon as follows:

A pontoon may be considered a higher form of teamteaching. Team teaching requires large group pre-sentations, small discussion groups and individualstudy. The pontoon concept incorporates all of theseplus the inter-relationship of various disciplines ina flexible block of time. In many cases, varioussubjects can be correlated readily and thus help inbringing about a better understanding of bothsubjects.

He further elaborates by saying:The pontoon concept is identified as interrelating

two or more subjects under the leadership of teachersfrom different disciplines in a block of time in whicheach would ordinarily operate independently.

Succinctly, the advantages claimed for the PontoonTransitional Design are as follows:

A. Some Advantages of Pontoon Scheduling for Students:1. Students may be sub-grouped in small numbers

according to ability, need or specializedinterest.

2. More interaction occurs between student andteacher in small groups than in larggroups.

3. The length of a lesson may vary depending oninterest of the topic.

4. Allows for pre- and post-discussion of films,topics, speaker, etc., in large or small groups.

5. Allows for large group lecture and small groupdiscussion.

6. Many field trips can be taken within the block oftime without disrupting other classes.

7. More freedom to work on research in ways whichencourage real learning--individually or inpairs, in the library or elsewhere.

8'. Reduces student boredom because students nolonger are required to sit in a classroom for 50minutes each and every period.

9. Better attendance patterns and fewer drop-outsoften result. (Research has shown improvement

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in attendance, fewer drop-outs and an increase inIQ in many canes.)

10. Students tend to have fewer failing grades due tothe increased "visibility" of the student and themore effective teacher-student contacts fosteredby the pontoon design.

B. Some Advantages of Pontoon Scheduling for Teachers:1. Allows for more strength through team effort.

a. Problems and pitfalls are given considerationby several people rather than just by oneteacher.

b. Encourages a broad approach +o learning.c. Involves the staff in decision making.

2. Provides opportunity for teachers and assistantsto plan together so that there can be moreeffective teaching.

3. Allows opportunity to inter-relate subje.k areas.(A paper in history might serve as an essay forEnglish.)

4. Requires professional communication betweenteachers.

5. Professional growth is fostered through exchangeof ideas.

6. Places a greater responsibility on the teacherfor planned instruction on a long-term basis.

7. Provides inservice training for new teachers asthey work with experienced teachers.

8. Substitutes are not necessary when a member of ateam is absent. This can result in a financialsaving to the district, or the money can be usedfor other instructional activities.

The pontoon design offers additional, noteworthy advan-tages over other types of innovative programs, particularlythose which feature computerized modular schedules.Computer-generated "flexible" schedules, unless they are ofa "daily demand" nature, do not offer genuine flexibilityand, in either case, require the irrevocable involvement ofan entire school once the program is adopted. Few facul-ties are totally dedicated to any innovation at its incep-tion, and this factor, coupled with a widespread tendencyof the majority of students to misuse "independent" studytime, has led to the demise of many promising programs.Conversely* pontooning can be initiated in stages, since itis compatible with a traditional schedule. Pontooning doesnot necessitate "burning the bridges behind" and isinstantly reversible to the traditional departmentalizedformat in the unlikely event that the pontoon design doesnot prosper. Pontooning is easily organized to place anyor every student under some form of adult supervision atall times, and pontooning is totally* even spontaneously,flexible. In short, the pontoon design seems to offer allthe advantages of so-called flexible schedules, with sig-

nificantly fewer problems.Clifton Middle School of the Monrovia Unified School

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District has adopted the Pontoon Transitional Design as itvehicle in a five year plan intended to achieve non-graded,individualized instruction for its students. Typically,the pontoon design is viewed as a "bridge" from tradi-tional to individualized instruction, although increasingexperience with the design indicates that the pontoon mayutlimately survive as the scheduling "form" wit'lin whichnon-gradedness takes place. In any case, research studieson pontooning conducted in Southern California over thelast several years by Frank Abbott at La Canada, WesleyAnderson at Arvin, Donald Clark at Monrovia and Howard Roopat Bellflower have verified the potential of the designsince they have shown increases in IQ scores, cognitiveachievements and attitudes of students taught under thisapproach.Outlined in the pages that follow is the stage by stage

development of the Pontoon Transitional Design at CliftonMiddle School. Adapted to the unique variables that existfor any school or district that might wish to utilize thedesign, the Clifton approach, together with the accompany-ing notations and recommendations, might well serve as amodel.

GENERAL CRITERIA AND SUGGESTIONS FOR SUCCESSFUL PONTOONING

In a publication entitled "Preparation of the Profes-sional Staff for Utilizing the Pontoon TransitionalDesign," Dr. Donald Clark and Sally Clark list the follow-ing criteria for successful pontooning:

1. Support from Board of Education2. Support from Central Office Administration3. Support from School Administration (principal and

assistant principal)4. Interested Teachers (volunteers for pilot pontoons)5. In-Service Programs and Consultant Support6. Auxiliary Support (paraprofessional teacher aides)It might be added that it is desirable for the school and

the district to have a carefully developed long-range plan.True change occurs slowly and not without some trauma.Adequate planning with tangible, measurable objectivesallows curriculum change to evolve in a gradual, systematicmanner with the chances of sudden crises minimized, andalso permits accurate evaluation of the innovation in lightof the objectives established for it.

In the same vein, those responsible for initiating andsustaining a pontooning innovation can add greatly to thechances for a successful experience by doing some thought-ful research and reading. Minimal preparation mightinclude a study of the publications listed in the bibliog-raphy of this paper, particularly those available from theCenter for Excellence in Education at the University ofSouthern California.

It is also pertinent to note that the criteria forsuccessful pontooning listed above will nearly always be

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comprised by conditions peculiar to the school or districtthat is considering the pontoon design. But the innovatorcan not afford the luxury of waiting until all the humorsare right; he must be ready to act when a reasonablenumber of "go" signals are evident. One can always findreasons not to change, since no significant change is everundertaken without problems and criticisms from those whofavor the status quo. Hopefully, educators with foresightwill recognize the need to innovate despite the obstacles.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE PONTOON TEAM

Once a school decides to incorporate any innovation intoits program, a number of questions arise which demandimmediate answers. Following are the questions which arosewhen Clifton elected to adopt pontooning, the course ofaction taken in each case, and the rationale for thataction.

1. Should pontooning be instituted wholesale or should amore limited approach be used?

It was quickly decided that pontooning should be adoptedon a pilot basis; many innovations have experienced anearly demise because of overly optimistic beginnings. Anyinnovation, pontooning included, will have proponents whoare anxious to attempt the new method and opponents who arequite willing to bury it without trial. Teachers who havetaught a certain way with reasonable success for many yearscan't be expected to embrace innovation with elation. Con-sequently, it seemed far better to launch a pilot pontoonstaffed with a team of capable teacher volunteers who wereinterested in the new venture. No real effort was made toconvince the remainder of the faculty that pontooning was"the only way," the feeling being that the pontooningdesign would sell itself if it was indeed an improvement onthe older method.

2. What subjects should be pontooned?Virtually any combination of subjects may be pontooned

with some benefits; if the disciplines themselves do notcorrelate very well, the teachers will still retain theadvantages of being able to manipulate time and numbers ofstudents. At Clifton, however, it was decided that ourinitial pontoon should be an intra-disciplinary team incor-porating English, mathematics and social science at theseventh grade level. This combination was selected sincethose subjects were required at each grade level atClifton, were given on a five-period a week basis, andoffered possibilities for desired integration of subjectmatter. In the subsequent evolution of Clifton's pontoonprogram, this combination of subjects has persisted and iscommonly referred to as a "core pontoon" format.

3. How should teachers be selected for the initialpontoon?

Any method of selecting personnel for the pilot pontoon4

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could be fallible, but beginning with a team of volunteersis the procedure that has enjoyed the most success.Ideally, the list of teachers interested in workinginnovatively will contain the name of a proven, experiencedprofessional who can be the "bellweather" of the new team.This individual should be an outstanding teacher andcommand the respect of his colleagues because of hisinvolvement with his profession above and beyond theexpected. Beyond this necessary ingredient, there is norule of thumb except to say that the remainder of the teamshould exhibit enthusiasm in their teaching, interest intrying out new ideas, and an abiding open-mindedness. Itdoes not seem to be vital that the balance of the team beveteran teachers or newcomers, as long as these character-istics are evident.

It might be noted that at no time has the Clifton admin-istration appointed the pontoon team leader, preferring tolet leadership evolve. Generally this has prompted freerexchange of ideas within the pontoon.

4. How should students be selected for the pontoon team?While there might be some merit in surveying to determine

which parents want their youngsters involved in the initialpontooning efforts, experience tells us that the pontoondesign, or any innovation, is best introduced as unobtru-sively as possible. Later, when the design is firmlyestablished, the philosophy and rationale for pontooningcan be more widely promulgated.

Clifton chose to schedule students into the teams hetero-geneously, since the pontoon design gives the teacher theadded capability of working with students of lower orhigher abilities within the pontoon framework. However,there is some precedent and rationale for grouping studentsby ability within a particular pontoon.

5. What should be the commitments of the administrationto the pilot pontoon program?

Teachers who elect to be involved in the pilot pontoonwill be subject to pressures from all quarters. Thepressure of sailing uncharted waters would be enough, butthe fledgling team will be subject to the critical eyes ofmany people, some merely waiting to see if the new methodis an improvement on the old, some undoubtedly hoping thatthe innovation fails so that the status quo will be vindi-cated. Parents, too, will follow the experiment closely toform opinions on its wovth.

In the face of such pressures, and in view of the dailysuccesses and failures that the pilot team will experience,it heh-cves the supervising administrator to be supportiveof the venture and to provide encouragement for the parti-cipants. The administrator must also play the devil'sadvocate, but he may do so with the acceptance of the teamas long as they are convinced that he has confidence in theultimate success of their venture.

It goes without saying that the administrator is respon-sible for the "chemistry" of the pontoon team and must

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exercise his prerogative to add or remove teachers as cir-cumstances may warrant.

6. How often and when should the pontoon team meet?The pontoon design provides the teaching team with the

ability to generate planning time for its members; however,it is vital that the team meet as a unit to plan jointlyand to discuss individual student problems. Ideally,common preparation periods can be assigned to team membersso that daily meetings might be held, and much exchange hasoccurred at Clifton due to the efforts to establish acommon lunch period for team members.Team meetings provide a setting in which details of sub-

sequent days' schedules are worked out. At first, it maybe necessary for the pontoon team to meet almost dailyuntil they become adept in the mechanics of pontoon sched-uling. Having the latitude to schedule time and studentsin accordance with the instructional objective is onething; doing it effectively is another. Administrators andother observers might well be advised not to expect "too

0' much, too soon."7. When should new pontoon teams be added?If solid groundwork is done prior to the formation of the

initial pontoon team, the new teaching team is virtuallyprogrammed for success. The pontoon design providesavenues for improving on old methods, and only needscreative people to effectively utilize those avenues. Ithas been dramatically proven at Clifton that if other staffmembers are given an opportunity to observe the pontoonteacher in action; to participate in workshops on thetransitional design; and to plan, work and informallyexchange ideas with the pontoon teams; then staff interestand involvement increase accordingly. It is up to theadministration to provide situations where these exchangescan take place. Given these opportunities, most teacherswill eventually see the advantages of working closely witha teaching team of professionals augmented by an instruc-tional aide, and begin to compare their own regimentedclassroom routines to those of the pontoon team. It shouldbecome obvious to them that they are denying themselves theopportunity to continaully exchange relevant information onstudent progress with other teachers who are working withthe same group of youngsters. Nor is the paraprofessionalassistance to be overlooked as an incentive factor either.A successful product is its own best advertisement. ThePontoon Transitional Design can now be validly called asuccessful product and, as such, will sell itself toteachers who are given opportunities to observe it ineffective operation.

8. How are instructional aides provided for the pontoonteam?

Educators agree that teachers can be more effective ifthey are released from non-teaching responsibilities sothat they have more time for adequate preparation, forindividualized instruction, for evaluation and for consul-

r)f.!,. ,

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tation. While several types of differentiated staffingprograms have been proposed with a view towards achievingthese ends, Clifton has elected to adopt a format whichcalls for differentiation only at the paraprofessionallevel, rather than at the professional level. Such anarrangement calls for auxiliary personnel to be placed inthe distinct categories of instructional aides, clericalaides and general aides.A number o school districts finance paid paraprofes-

SiOLU1 Assistance above and beyond a particular school'sallotment of certificated staff. Other districts give theschool principal the option of hiring certificated person-nel cr paraprofessional assistance within the constraintsof the school's budgeted teacher allotment and Californialaws governing professional-paraprofessional ratios.Clifton comes under the latter cotegory, and the MonroviaUnified School District has established an average teachersalary which can be used by a principal to purchase para-professional time if he chooses to do so instead of hiringan additional teacher. In Monrovia, this formula enables aprincipal to acquire 21 hours of aide time per day for anentire school year in exchange for any one certificatedposition.The publication entitled "The Selection, Training and

Effective Utilization of Instructional Aides" by Dr. DonaldC. Clark and Sally Clark, compiled under the auspices ofThe Center for Excellence in Education at the University ofSouthern California, offers an exceptional set of criteriafor an effective paraprofessional program.

9. To what extent should in-service workshops and out-side consultants be used in incorporating tha pontoondesign?

University consultants seem to be most widely utilized asthe inspirational, prime-mover of an innovation. There is,of course, merit in this practice. Clifton, however, hasbeen fortunate in having Dr. William Georgiades, theoriginator of the pontoon design, available as a continuingconsultant. When problems arose with the pontoon program,we were always able to depend on Dr. Georgiades for aviewpoint based on a broader experience and perspectivethan those of us immersed in the problem were able to per-ceive. Also, maintaining a continuing contact with ourconsultant created another very tangible benefit. ThroughDr. Georgiades, Clifton maintained a link with otherdistricts involved in pontooning programs; the result was avery gratifying exchange of information and concerns withina virtual fraternity of educators working with the pontoonihnovation.In-service preparation of teachers who are going to work

with the pontoon design is a most vital commodity. Cliftonhas been fortunate in that each teacher has been pre-trained with his pontoon team before the start of theschool year, and, with Dr. Georgiades, workshops have beenorganized annually to accommodate teachers new to pontoon-

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ing and those with experience behind them. By so doing,Clifton has been able to progress each year in the abilityof its teachers to effectively use the scheduling mechanicsof the pontoon and in the orderly transition of its curric-ulum toward the goal of non-gradedness.

BUILDING THE MASTER SCHEDULE

Building a master schedule in a middle school or a juniorhigh school, in comparison to the same task in a highschool, is a relatively simple chore, since the number ofvariables is significantly reduced. Initial data forcreating the schedule is provided by such factors as theprojected enrollment for each grade level, number of sec-tions to be offered based on student preregistration,district student-teacher loading ratios, teacher capabili-ties and facility availabilities. Piecing the jigsawtogether is always a challenging undertaking, but there isa feeling of tangible accomplishment as a functionalschedule emerges.Single-period offerings and a multiplicity of electives

are the characteristics that generate student class con-flicts and scheduling problems. In Clifton's program eachstudent has traditionally selected one elective; and inrecent years it has been possible to schedule these at aset period during the day, outside the regular pontoonstructure. Thus, conflicts with electives have been elim----inated. All other courses within the pontoon structure,including core subjects, exploratory sequences and physicaleducation, are required under Clifton's curriculum philos-ophy.

When, however, the Pontoon Transitional Design is com-bined with traditional, departmentalized classes in aschool, it is vital that the pontoons be scheduled first.Conflicts are bound to occur when single-period offeringsare added to this combination and scheduled within theperiod ranges occupied by pontoons which students may alsobe requesting. To ease this inevitable difficulty, it iswise to ask students to indicate a second and even a thirdchoice of elective so that one may eventually be locatedoutside the range of periods occupied by a student's pon-tooned classes.

FACILITIES FOR PONTOONING

While it can be said with justification that effectiveinnovation can occur in any type of school plant, new orold, conventional or modular in concept, certain facilitylimitations do impose constraints on proper use of the pon-toon design. Since the design is premised on the use ofthe triad of instructional settings including large-group,small-group and individual study, facilities must accommo-date, or be adapted to accommodate, these types of instruc-

tion. Obviously, schools will encounter the most diffi-

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culty in locating large-group areas, but it is vital thatfacilities be available to accommodate 60-100 students, ormore. With careful scheduling, one such facility can suf-fice, but the school with two or three such areas hasenviable latitude available to it.

As small-group instruction and individual study becomeintegral parts of the school program, room arrangementswill be less standard and more flexible. With a littleimagination, any school can provide suitable settings inwhich students can pursue these types of instruction. Itmight be noted here that one of the strengths of the pon-toon design is that students are always under adult super-vision, either teacher or aide, and are never leftcompletely to their own devices; this is particularlyimportant and appropriate for students of middle schoolage. It is our belief that students should never be turnedloose under the assumption that they will do things, suchas work and study, that most adults would not do under thesame set of circumstances. Consequently, the aim should beto provide adequate facilities such as small group dis-cussion rooms, resource centers, and media centers wherepupils can pursue learning under adult guidance.An often-overlooked aspect in facility planning is the

allotment of adequate work areas for staff personnel.Teachers and aides need places where they can plan, con-ference and prepare materials, such areas generally seem tobe added as an afterthought and are rarely well equipped toserve their functions. Tangible curriculum benefits willresult when office spaces that offer some privacy are pro-vided for teachers. thother important consideration is alounge area where staff members may relax and socialize;just as many ideas are generated by informal contacts asare generated in planned meetings.

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DEVELOPMENT OF THE PONTOON TRANSITIONAL DESIGN AT CLIFTON

YEAR #1 - 1968/69

During the spring and summer of 1968, special funds pro-vided by California Senate Bill 28 provided the impetus fora small group of Monrovia teachers, under the guidance ofDr. William Georgiades, to take part in an extensive in-service program organized to include the following aspectsof pontoon development:

1. Identification of teacher volunteers2. Pontoon team formulation3. Visitations to schools with operative programs4. Schedule development5. Writing of behavioral objectives6. Proper utilization of aides7. Evaluation of resultsIn September, the following teams began operation at

Clifton:Pontoon Type I (Core)Composition: 100 students - 3 teachers - 1 aideNumber: Two - One (A.M.), One (P.M.)Time: 3 period block (134 minutes)Subjects: English, Mathematics,-Social ScienceGrade Levels: 7th

Pontoon Type IIComposition:Number:Time:

Subject:

Grade Levels:

60 students - 2 teachers - 1 aideOne (P.M.)3 period block (134 minutes) P.M.

. onlyEnglish, Journalism, Social Science(Mentally Gifted Minor Program)7th and 8th

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YEAR #2 - 1969/70

The interest and enthusiasm generated by the relativesuccesses of the pontoon design in its first year of opera-tion at Clifton was evidenced by the requests from teachersto participate in the development of new pontoon teams.Spring and summer workshops with Dr. Georgiades dealt withessentially the same components as in the prior year's in-service program, albeit with many refinements. The resultin September was the expansion of the pontoon program tothe point where sixty percent of all Clifton students werereceiving core subject instruction in pontoons according tothe following format:Pontoon Type I (Core)Composition: 100 students - 3 teachers - 1 aideNumber: 6 - (3) A.M. (3) P.M.Time: 3 period block (134 minutes)Subjects: English, Mathematics, Social ScienceGrade Levels: 7th and 8th

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YEAR 03 - 1970/71

During the winter of 1970, plans were made to transformClifton into a sixth, seventh and eighth grade middleschool. At that time a five year plan for a transitionalcurriculum was devised that would take Clifton from a pri-marily conventional schedule to totally individualizedinstruction. The plan, developed by Monrovia's Director ofResearch and Planning, Dr. Donald Clark, was entitled FromPontoon to Individualized Instruction: A Plan for Trance=tion; it listed the following goals:

17 To develop a strategy that will lead to the completeindividualization of instruction at Clifton MiddleSchool by the fall of 1975.

2. To encorporate in the strategy the Pontoon Transi-tional Design as the vehicle for facilitating thetransitional steps from rigid scheduling to individ-ualized instruction.

3. To incorporate in the strategy the concept of con-tinuous progre. .,

4. To redefine cu it administrator roles and implementthe concept of differentiated staffing.

5. To redefine the teaching role and introduce theteacher-counselor concept.

6. To identify and utilize suitable instruments forevaluation of pupil cognitive achievement and todevelop appropriate methods of measuring attitudes ofpupils, teachers, administrators, parents and com-munity.

With the continued success and progress of existing pon-toons at Clifton, and with the above commitments in mind, acomprehensive forty-hour summer workshop was held for allincoming sixth grade teachers and for additional selectedseventh and eighth grade faculty. Clifton Middle Schoolopened in September, 1970, pontooned virtually in itsentirety. Every student was receiving instruction in thecore subjects in a pontoon, and was taking his other sub-jects, called "exploratory" subjects in Clifton's terminol-ogy, in newly formed pontoons.While it was not financially possible to generate an

instructional aide for each of the new exploratory on-

1toons, it was deemed advisable to pontoon these subjects inorder to give the teaching teams experience in deal ng withthe mechanics of manipulating the variables of periodlength mid numbers of students. This practice is notrecommended on any permanent basis because the instruc-tional aide is the factor which gives the pontoon teamgenuine flexibility. Clifton used this method as anexpedient and was able to provide enough aide time to theexploratory pontoons to provide minimum service while anti-cipating that a full-time aide would be assigned to eachpontoon the next year.

Clifton was virtually pontooned in total for 1970/71 with

r0,11a .:.

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the exception of physical education, electives and someremedial clinics and gifted labs in reading and mathe-matics.

Pontoon Type I (Core)Composition: 90-100 students - 3 teachers -

1 aideNumber: 6 - (3) A.M., (3) P.M.Time: 3 period block (134 minutes)Subjects: English, Mathematics, Social ScienceGrade Levels: 7th and 8th

Pontoon Type II (Exploratory)Composition: 130-140 students - 5 teachers -

1/2 aideNumber: Two - (1) A.M., (1) P.M.Time: 3 period block including a Physical

Education periodSubjects: Physical Science, Health/U.S. Sub-

Cultures, Industrial Arts Experi-ences or Home Arts Experiences,General Art (one semester each)

Grade Levels: 7th

Pontoon Type III (Exploratory)Composition: 130-140 students.- 4 teachers -

1/2 aideNumber: 2 - (1) A.M., (1) P.M.Time: 3 period block including a Physical

Education periodSubjects: Life Science, Health/Human Inter-

action, Typing/Careers, GeneralMusic (one semester each)

Grade Levels: 8th

Pontoon Type IV.(Core and Exploratory)Composition: 120-130 students - 4 teachers -

2 aides (one aide federally funded)Number: 2

Time:' 6 period Mock not includingPhysical Educetion

Subjects: Reading, Spelling, Linguistics*Mathematics, Social Science, Art,Music

Grade Levels: 6th

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YEAR #4 - 1971/72

For the 1971/72 school year Clifton will retain itsposture of being pontooned almost in entirety--but with onerather significant change. All teachers who are instruc-ting at the seventh and eighth grade levels will teach at

!both levels with a view toward the day when these twogrades will be combined in a non-graded format. Heavyemphasis will be placed on the continuous progress curricu-lum materials to facilitate the transition, this beingthe most significant remaining requirement before non-gradedness can become a functioning reality at Clifton.A notable step in making needed curriculum planning time

available for teachers was accomplished when a new elective,policy was adopted at Clifton. Traditionally a survey wasconducted each year to determine which electives studentswished to have offered. From the resultant list of classeseach student was asked to select one, but it was obviouslyimpossible to offer all the suggested courses or to guaran-tee students placement in their first-choice electives.Thus, many pupils were inevitably programmed into electivesthey didn't really want, creating obvious problems forstudents and teachers alike. In the future, instead ofoffering mandated "electives" during the middle of the day,these classes will be offered at the end of the day on atruly voluntary basis. It is felt that this time at theend of the day can be put to much better use for allClifton students by utilizing it for genuine electives, foracademic counseling of students who are having academicdifficulty, for student detention, for club activities, andfor purposes of continued development of sequenced curricu-lum materials by teachers. It is estimated that two dayseach week will be devoted to curriculum planning by theentire faculty, with the other activities occurring dailyunder the supervision of teachers, district resource per-sonnel and instructional aides.Prior to the start of the 1971/72 school year, summer

workshops again were held for pontoon personnel, includinginstructional aides. Since all individuals at the workshophad either taught in a pontoon or had experienced priorworkshop exposure to the nuances of the design, it waspossible to broach new levels of sophistication within thepontoon design. Experience and research had isolated someproblem areas that required attention.

While inservice training and subsequent experimentationhave familiarized teachers with the mechanics of thePontoon Transitional Design to the point where teachers aremore effectively manipulating daily student scheduling toaccommodate the triad of large group presentations, smallgroup discussion and individualized study, research studiesare making it apparent that teachers have not significantlyaltered their teaching methodologies to fit the nature ofthe group. As with all schools, no matter what form of

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innovation was being used, traditional teaching by lecturewas the "modus operandi," no matter what the size orpurpose of the group. While a fyamework compatible withmore varied and desirable instructional techniques has beenprovided, teachers are continuing to teach in the manner inwhich they have been taught--and this is understandable.However, this pattern must be changed and the onus fordoing so seems to lie with individual school districts.As a consequence, efforts in this summer's workshop were

directed toward identifying the methods and behaviors thatteachers might best use in the various instructional set-tings: large group, small group and individualized study.Efforts have also been directed toward defining thoseaspects of teacher behavior in the affective domain whichcreate a climate conducive to learning within a classroom,and, in a larger sense, within a school. It is felt thatefforts in these directions have been successful, and thatthere are discernible routes that can be utilized in thesearch for that educational Valhalla where each student canpursue genuinely individualized instruction in an atmos-phere of sincere interest and concern for his well-being.A full-time instruction aide will be available for each

pontoon team operative at Clifton during 1971/72, and thepontoons will be organized on the following formats:*Pontoon Type I (Core)Composition: 80-100 students - 3 teachers - 1 aideNumber: 9 - (5) A.M., (4) P.M.Time: 3 period block (134 minutes)Subjects: English, Mathematics, Social ScienceGrade Levels: 6th, 7th, and 8th*Assignment of students and aides to 6th grade core pon-toons will differ due to scheduling logistics, use ofpersonnel, etc.

**Pontoon Type II (Exploratory)Composition: 90-100 students - 4 teachers -

1 aideNumber: 1 - A.M.Subjects: Health, Ecology, Industrial Arts

Experience or Home Arts Experiences(12 weeks each)

Grade Levels: 8th

**Pontoon Type III (Exploratory)Composition: 90-100 students Leachers -

1 aideNumber: 1 - A.M.Subjects: Life Science, Arts/Crafts, Human

Interaction (12 weeks each)Grade Levels: 8th

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**Pontoon Type IV (Exploratory)Composition: 90-100 students - 4 teachers -

1 aideNumber: 1 - P.M.Subjects: Physical Science, Industrial Arts

Experience or Home Arts Experience,U.S. Sub-Cultures

Grade Levels: 7th

**Pontoon Type V (Exploratory)Composition: 90-100 students - 3 teachers -

1 aideNumber: 1 - P.M.Subjects: General Art, Health, CommunicationsGrade Levels: 7th

**Note that these pontoons are loaded and staffed aslegitimate pontoon teams, however, blocks of time werenot designated for them due to the number of exploratorysequences offered and the necessity for students to takephysical education at some point during these timeperiods.

Pontoon Type VIComposition:

Number:Subjects:

Grade Levels:

Pontoon Type VIIComposition:

Number:Subjects:

Grade Levels:

(Exploratory)80-90 students - 3 teachers -2 aides1 - A.M.Art/Music, Physical Education,Science6th

(Exploratory)150-160 students - 4 teachers -3 aides1 - P.M.Art/Music, Physical Education,Science6th

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MASTER SCHEDULE - YEAR 1eft tiWi SOS,Aft

Agutlera, J.1

18

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Cont.

wCont.

1.With 8

W

Math S

Avaktan, G. II Cont. Speed Rde. 7.8 Steelton lmm.7.8 Ent. 7

Sall, M. 32 Ens. 7 Cont. C /Econ. C /Caen.ft

Beardsley, E. 28

i

Sam. Nand 7

:Nell. A. 1 Cont.3 teachers

Social SCiance

7th

1 WeBanning, N. 2 Conf

90.100 students

English, Mathematics,

Zook, B.J. 3 Cont.

Brown, W. P.R. 8 P.E. 8 P.B. 8 P.R. 8

Brunier, C. 112 Cont. Cont. Ena,_7_ Lunch

Clements, M. ;6 Cont. Inc. 8 Eng. 8 Ens. 8

Ross, M. 6 Cont. Crt. Nett. 8 Mint'. Cult. 8

.

Mint. Cult, 8

Coecaro, J. 13 Cont. Pub. S.k. 7.8 Am. Proeds. 7 Am. Procds

Colburn, 8. S Cont. E.H. E.H. N.N.

Cubberly. L. PI Math 8 Math 8 Math 8 Math 8.

Cullinane, E. 28 Cont. Math 7 Math 7 Cont.

Davidson, L. 14 Cont. Opp. Class 7.8 Opp. Cl.., 7.8 Opp. Class 7.8

Elman. L. IS Conf. Timing 7 'ravine il .....lathIL...

..4. Set. 8Greer, B. 25 Cont. Soe. Set. 8 Soc. Sci. 8

Grubbs, R. 23 Oats. 7 Data. 7 Drftg. 7 Data. 7

Cumin, J. 33 Cloth. 7.8 Cloth. 7-8 Cloth. 7.8 Cloth. 7.8

Kelly, P. ,22 Cont. ArtCraft 7.8 Art 7 Art 7

Ltemohn, M. 8 Conf. Soe. Set. 7 Soe. Set. 7 Soc. Set. 7

Mangold, V. Cont. P.R. 8 P.R. 8 P.R. A

Manthey, W. 9 Cont. Cont. Soc. Set. 8 Soc. Sci. 8

McHugh, C. 28

.

McHoyler, H. 1 Cont. Soc. Set. 8 Sec. Set. 8 Soc. Set. 8

Murphy, S. 4 EMI EMR EMI EMR

O'Netlin, F. 20 Cont. Cont. Health 8 Heallb_11

Ostrye, M. 6 Cont. Eng. 8 Eng. 8 Eng. 8

Ostrye, P. 1 Phys. Sei. 7 Phys. Set. 7 Phys. Set. 7 Phys. Set. 7

!Wenn. J. P.E. 7 P.E. 7 P.E. 7 P.E. 7

Peters, J. 71 Cont. Math 8 Math 8 Meth 8

Itcmfey, R. 29 Cont. Cont. Oen. Music 7 Oen. Music 7

Salter, L. 29 Treblers 8 Cont. Lunch

Seashells, E. 4 Foods 7.8 Foods 1.8 Foods 7.8 Foods 7.8

Simmons. 8. 7 Cont. Conf. Inc. 8 _emu 8

Sublett, N. 30 Science 8 Science 0 Boolog 8 toolo 8

Wallace, D. 7 Cent. Cont. Health 7 HenItli_t

Williams, W. 4 IlasticsNdS 8 PlIteWds. 8 Plats-WI. 8 Piste-Yds. A

Wilson, M. P.E. 74 P.E. 7 P.E. 7 7

BEST COPY AVAILABLE1968.1989

Nash 8 Lunch Math 7 7 Math 7

Lunch leading Imp. 7.8 Cont. TV Prod. 8 Sei_.__S

Lunch Pub._Spkt. 7.8 Careers /Scan. Careers /Egan. Cant

Con. 1 7/8 Con. Sand 2 7.8

Cont.Lunch 90.100 students

English, Mathematics,

- 3 teachers

Social Science7th

aide

Lunch Coml.

Lunch Conf.

Lunch Cont. P.E. 8 P t -8 Cont.

Leadership 74 Leadership 7- Ene. 7 Math 8 Math H

Lunch Corot 60 students 2 teachers - 1 aideEnglish, Journalism, Social Science

(NOM Program) 7-8Lunch Journalism 8

Lunch french 7.8 Am. Procds. 7 Am. Penedo. 7 Cont.

E.H. E.H. Lunch Cont. Cont.

MathMOM 7 Lunch Math!OM 8 Cont. Cont.

Math 7 Lunch - Math 7 Math 7 Math 7

Opp. Class 7.8_J Crt. Mrtg. 7-8 Lunch Cont. Cont.

Lunch /groins 7 Tvoina 8 Twotna 8 /wistful 7

Lunch Cont. Soc. Sci. 8 Soc. Set. 8 Soc. Set. 9

Cont. Lunch Orftg. 7 Orftg. 7 MM. 7Lunch Cont. Cloth. 7-8 Cloth. 7.8 Cloth. 7.8

Lunch Art-Craft 7.8 Art 7 Art 7 Cont.

Soc. Sci. 7 Lunch Cont. Soc, Scl. MOM 8 Soc. Sci. 7

ennf. Lunch P.C. 8 P.M. 8 PA. 741

Soc. Sci. S Lunch Soc. Sci. 7 Soc. Sci. 7 Soc,_Sci__,_7

Orchestra 7.8

Lunch Soc. Set. 8 Cont. Soe. Set. 8 Soc. Sci. 8

EVR EMS Lunch Cont. Cont.

Soc. Sci. 7 Lunch Health 8 Health 8 AttsCrafts,/-8

Eng. 8tog. 7 Lunch Cont. Eng. 8

Cont. Lunch Phys. Set. 7 Phys. Sci. 7 Cont.

Lunch Typing 7.8 P.E. 7 Cont. P.S. 7.8

Lunch Cont. Math 8 Math 8 Math 8

Study Hall (28 Lunch Den. Music 7(28 Oen. Music 7 (26 Set. 7 01)

Music 7.8 Con. Ch. Music Trubdra. 7.8 Treblers 7 Cont.

Lunch Cont. Foods 7.8 foods 7.8 foods 7.8

m....41111 "0"10 pop. / tn.. 7 tna. 7

Cont. Lunch Science 8 Science 8 Cent.

Lunch Studio Hall 12 Health 7 teloth I Ina. 7

Conf. Lunch Plato.Abla. a

P.S. 7

Piste-Ws. 8

P.E. 7

Plate.Vds. 8

Cont.Cont. Lunch

CI I

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MASTER SCHEDULE - YEAR 2Platte I

Avineri', J. 18 Conf. Conf.90400 students 3 teachers 1 AU

Cont. English, Mathematics, Social WWIManthey, W. 19 Cont.

Simmons. B 17 Conf Conf8th

Avakian, C. 11 Cont. Seed Eds. 7.8 Neadine tem.7 11 Ens. 7

Sall. M. 12 Ens. 7 Cont. tareessilicon 1 Careers/Neon

Beardsley. E. 28 It, Bee. Sand 7

Sell, A. I Cont.90.100 students 3 teachers 1 aide

English. Mathemat.cs, Social Science7th

Ronnins. N. 2 Cont.

look, 11.3. 3 Cont.owe.,

Brown. M. P.R. 8 P.a. $ P.N.11 P.E. 8

Srunier, C. 12 Conf. Cont. RMS. 7 Lunch

Clements. M. 26 Conf. 90.100 students

English, Mathematics,

3 teachers 1

Social ScienceOth

aids

Creer 8. 25 Conf.

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Bibliography

Alexander, S. Kern. "What Teacher Aides Can--and Cannot- -Do." Nation's Schools, August, 1968.

Anderson, Wesley R. Plannin a New High School with Pon-tooning at 4-he Educational es.En. Los Angeles: Centerfor Excellence in Education, University of SouthernCalifornia, 1970.

; Georgiades, William; Taylor, Leslie; and Young,--Tan. ABC's of The Arvin Study: An Innovation in Cur-

riculum BniEn and Content. ArTin, California: ArvinHigh School, r967.

Beggs, David W., ed. Team Teaching--Bold New Venture.Indianapolis Unified College Press, Inc., 1964.

$ and Bullies Edward G., eds. Independent Study.--Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1965.B:oom, Benjamin S., ed. Taxonomy of Educational Objec-tives, Handbook I. New York: Longmans, Green ana Co.,1956.

Brown, B. Frank. The Appropriate Placement School: ASophisticated Non-Graded Curriculum. West Nyack, NewYork: Parker Publishing Company, Inc., 1965.

Burke, Daniel J. Variables to be Considered in Planningfor Educational Chance. Los Angeles: Center forExcellence in Education, University of SouthernCalifornia, 1969.

Clark, Donald C. Preparation of the Staff for Utilizingthe Pontoon Transitional Design. Los Angeles: Centerfor Excellence In Education, University of SouthernCalifornia, 1970.

, and Clark, Sally. The Selection? Training, andEffective Utilization of Instructional Aides. LosAngeles: Center for Excellence in Education,'Universityof Southern California, 1970.

DeVita, Joseph C. "Working with Teacher Aides." CroftLeadership Action Folio No. 7. New London, Conn;RIZUt:1968.

Esbensen, Thorwald. Working with Individualized Instruc-tion. Palo Alto: Fearon ublishers, 1968.

GeUFFiades, William. Ways in Which Teams Function. LosAngeles: University of Southern 'California, 1967

"Opinions Differ: Team Teaching--A New Star,--UFFT-Meteor." National Education Association Journal,

April, 1967.. Use of Non-Professional Aides. Los Angeles:

University of Southern a1lrriTA7-3968.. Practical Consideratios in Large Groupj Small

--M761757 and Independent Study Situations. Cos Angeles:Eiversity of Southern California, 1968.

. The Pontoon Transitional Desi n 'or CurriculumChange. raAnge es: Center tor Exce len..e in Educa-tion, University of Southern California, 19C9.

08,

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Holder, Herbert R. Scheduling for Pontooning. LosAngeles: Center for Excellence in Education, Universityof Southern California, 1970.

Krathwol, et. al. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives,Handbook II. David McKay Company, Inc., 1964.

Mager, Robert F. Preparing Instructional Objectives. PaloAlto: Fearon Publishers, 1962.

. Developing Attitudes Toward Learning. Palolto: Fearon Publishers, 1968.

Michael, William, ed. Teaching As A Creative Endeavor:Bold New Venture. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana Univer-sity Press, 1968.

Moody, Ferman B., and Rookey, Thomas J. "How to PigeonholeTeacher Aides for Better Performance and Production."American School Board Journal, September, 1968.

Paterson, Carl H. Effective Team Teaching: The EastonArea High School Program_. New Yora Parker PublishingCompany, Inc., 1968.

Schaefer, Robert J. The School as a Center of Inquiry.New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1967.

Trump, J. Lloyd, and Baynham, Dorsey. Guide to BetterSchools. Chif.lago: Rand McNally & Company, 1961.

Trump 7: Lloyd, and Miller, Delmas. Secondary SchoolImprovement: Proposals and Procedures. Rockleigh, NewJersey: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1968.

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Summary

The articles in this section were primarily concernedwith describing two "models" for the effective use of staff--the Model Schools Project and the Pontoon TransitionalDesign. These models were offered because they are compre-hensive in nature and make provision for gradual adoption.

The 'Model Schools Project as described by Trump andGeorgiades is significant in that it provides for a compre-hensive system for individualization. Based on the conceptthat there are many factors which affect student learning,the "Model" is attempting to combine several educationalinnovations into one program. In contrast, the PontoonTransitional Design focuses on staff utilization and pre-sents a vehicle for the gradual implementation of flexibil-ity of time and group size. By utilizing volunteers andback-toback scheduling, only those teachers who desire toparticipate are involved; for the rest of the school theschedule remains the same.

Perhaps the true test of any concept is its workabilityin the school setting. Gyves has described how the "pon-toon" concept has lead to the gradual implementation of anindividualized program over a four-year period of time.The master schedules for each of the four years graphicallyillustrate the changes that have taken place.While the focus of this section has been directed toward

effective staff utilization programs, it should be reempha-sized that this area is only one part of a comprehensivesystem of individualized instruction. The succeeding sec-tions will discuss the components of continuous progresscurriculum, staff rrdes and training, A-A evaluation ofindividualized programs. Attempts will be made to discussthe interrelatedness of these components in the developmentof a comprehensive program for individualized learning.

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Resources

Books and Monographs

Beggs, David W. Team Teaching. Bloomington, Indiana:University Press, 1964.

ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Administration. Modelsfor Planning: Analysis of Literature and Selected Bib-liography. Eugene, Oregon, 1970.

Georgiades, W., and Udinsky, B. F. Selected Annotated Bib-liography on Individualization of Instruction. LosAngeles: Center for E%cellence in Education, Universityof Southern California, 1972.

Holder, Michael D. Alternative Futures for Learnin : AnAnnotated Bibliography of Trends, Forecasts, and ro-posals. SY-racusa, New York: Educational Policy ResearchCenter, Syracuse University Research Corporation, 1971.

Miller, Richard I., ed. Perspectives on Educational Change.New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts Co., 1967.

Miles, Matthew B., ed. Innovation in Education. New York:Columbia University, Bureau of Fulalfcations, 1967.

Olivero, James L., and Buffie, Edward G. Educational Man-power. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press,1970.

Trump, J. Lloyd. Focus on Change--Guide to Better Schools.Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1961.

Articles

McLoughlin, William F. "Individualization of Instructionvs. Nongrading." Phi Delta Kappan, February, 1972, pp.378-381.

Trump, J. Lloyd. "Changes Needed for Further Improvementof Secondary Education in the United States." NASSPBulletin, January, 1969, pp. 117-133.

Udinsky, B. Flavian, ed. "Change Efforts for the 70's."Journal of Secondary Education, April, 1971.

Media

NASSP. "And No Bells Ring." 16mm. Film, black and whiteand sound. Washington, D.C.: NASSP, 1958.

NASSP. "Answers and Questions." 16mm. Film, color andsound, 24 min. Washington, D.C.: 'NASSP, 1968.

NASSP. "Tomorrow's Schools: Images and Plans." 16mm.Film, color and sound, 29 min. Washington, D.C.: NASSP,1972.

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PART III

ORGANIZING THE CURRICULUM FOR INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION:CONTINUOUS PROGRESS AND PACKAGING

Introduction

This section is concerned with the organization of con-tent in individualized programs. This includes thesequential organization of subject matter, and packaging itin a format suitable for student utilization.The first article, developed by Constance Georgiades,

deals with the concept of continuous progress as anapproach to content sequencing as it relates to theLanguage Arts.A crucial factor in implementing a continuous progress

program is the development of methods or formats for thepresentation of subject matter to students. The methodutilized in most individualized programs is the curriculum"package." Georgiades and Ringis discuss the concept of"packaging," the various types available, and theirrelationships to the total instructional program.

Dr. William Georgiades was introduced in the precedingsection. Dr. Constance Georgiades, currently an Englishteacher at Beverly Hills High School, has assisted schooldistricts throughout the country in implementing continuousprogress programs. Dr. R. Herbert Ringis has been both ateacher and administrator. He has had extensive experiencewith educational packaging and for several years wasassociated with UNIPAC Bank in Laguna Beach, California.Presently, Dr. Ringis is a Professor of Education atCalifornia State University, Dominguez Hills, California.

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A CONTINUOUS PROGRESS APPROACH TO THE TEACHING OF THELANGUAGE ARTS IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL: A STEP TOWARDTHE INDIVIDUALIZATION OF INSTRUCTION

By Constance Georgiade!

INTRODUCTION

In his provocative book, The Mind as Nature, LorenEiseley reminds the reader of the monumental role facingthe educator, the role of the sculptor carving an intan-gible future. He clearly conveys the dimensions of thetask when he says: "There is no more dangerous occupationon the planet, for what we conceive as our masterpiece mayappear out of time to mock us--a horrible caricature ofourselves." Later in this same work, he says: "He isgiving shapes to time, and the shapes themselves, driven bytheir own inner violence, wrench free of his control--must,if they are truly sculptured, surge like released geniifrom the classroom or, tragically, shrink to something lessthan bottle size . . . and each day by word or deed thechisel falling true or blind upon the future of some boy orgirl."Such is the nature of the tremendous task we face. Most

of us admit that this task is not being affected in themost desirable way. Some children drop out of school, manyrefuse to participate in classroom activities, and otherpassively mark their time. Perhaps our grestest challengelies in seeking a more meaningful experience in learningthat will better meet individual needs of unique humanbeings.

Ironically, although we are living in the Space Age,current curricular practices belong to the era of theWright brothers. Such practices are not only outmoded, butwhat is worse, they deny the existence of individual dif-ferences. They perpetuate mass instruction and demand thateach child fit a given mold.

Although our schools must assume the responsibility foreducating an increasing number of students with wide varia-tions in backgrounds, abilities and inierests, we continueto group students in classes chronologically with little orno consideration for the uniqueness of each child. Suchgrouping denies an elementary precept of education: stu-dents are individuals and as such learn at differing rates.At no one age will all students exhibit equal ability inall phases of the curriculum. In the field of languagearts one can identify some basic skill areas. Primaryamong these are reading, writing, literary analysis, spel-ling, and syntax. At a given level it is difficult, infact impossible, to find all students achieving at thatgrade level in all areas. In all probability, one out offive, or twenty per cent of a given class will be at gradelevel in all areas of instruction. Yet in spite of this

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BEST COPY HAMSfact, typical programs are organized so that students atgiven level all receive the same instruction which oftenresult in frustration for some and boredom for others.

BASIC PROBLEMS

Frustration in learning has been compounded through thepractice of promoting students lacking all of the prerequi-site skills for the next grade level. For example, a givenstudent may do well in all phases of a language arts curri-culum with the exception of written composition, yet he ispromoted and expected to perform at the next level. It isat this point that frustration begins to operate for hesimply is not prepared for new experiences; he needs addi-tional practice and reinforcement before moving on toanother level. At the same time he should not be asked toreview the entire level again but rather work only on thecomposition component of the curriculum.Another --oblem common to the conventional pattern of

organizat,)n is the tracking of students. Such a patternbuilds ..eLt the assumption that all students within thesegroups possess equal ability. Additionally, they tend todevelop false notions of superiority and inferiority. Stu-dents grouped in an honors program for example, tend tofeel that they are somewhat removed from those whoseacademic level is not commensurate to theirs. Thosegrouped in remedial sections tend to develop negativefeelings about themselves. Such grouping does not allowstudents to look realistically at themselves.A third problem arises in the failure of:traditional pro-

grams to consider not only the different learning paces.Other than for one's own convenience, for what purpose dowe ask students to learn at the same pace? The fact isthat they learn at varying rates and asking all students tolearn at the same rate simply bores some while insuringfailure for others.

Recognizing these basic problems in traditional forms ofcurricular organization, many educators are looking at thecontinuous progress curriculum attempts to better reflectwhat we know about the way human beings learn and grow.Basic to such a design would be the belief the learningmust:

1. Relate to individual needs2. Begin where the learner is3. Provide success4. Accommodate various rates of learningAlthough many schools have implemented a continuous pro-

gress curriculum, no two programs are identical for eachschool has ..mique characteristics that determine the pro-gram. Yet in each program there is one significant con-stant: removal of the choronological barriers that createunrealistic groupings of students into meaningless gradesand allowing students to progress at their own rate.

(*,1

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ORGANIZING A CONTINUOUS PROGRESS LANGUAGE ARTS CURRICULUM

The continuous progress approach assists in individualiz-ing instruction in the following ways:

1. encourages students to master prerequisites2. eliminates needless repetition3. provides a tailor-made curriculum for each student4. acquaints the student with his particular strengths

and weaknesses5. gives the student the opportunity to work with a

variety of teachers and the experience of workingwith students other than those at his own grade level

6. gives the student a voice in determining his languagearts experience

7. gives the teacher an opportunity to specialize in agiven area of instruction

The successful implementation of such a program can beassisted by a transitional approach. Through slight modi-fication of the existing language arts curriculum, a moreindividualized program can be achieved before moving tototal individualization which involves much more prepara-tion time for creating materials and assisting students andteachers in assuming new roles.The transitional model for language arts suggested here

involves the following:1. removal of grade designators2. removal of achievement grouping3. use of diagnosis and prescription4. reorganization of each component of the language arts

curriculum into curricular strands.The following diagram demonstrates how a conventional

curriculum might be restructured to accommodate a transi-tional program in which students are placed according todiagnosis in a given phase of the language arts curriculum.

It must be remembered that such a program in no wayattempts to sever one phase of the curriculum from theother. Rather, in p4oticular courses the emphasis will beon a particular component. For example, in a literaturecourse a student will still be given written assignmentsin which he has an opportunity not only to personally reactto a given piece of literature, but he has additionalopportunity to develop his writing skills. In the sameway, although a student might be enrolled in a compositiclcourse, he would be reading noted pieces of literature.This is a facet of the program that the students shouldthoroughly understand.

Length of Each Sequence

The transitional model can easily adapt to the conven-tional quarterly grading cycle. Each segment of the cur-riculum would then be designed for completion within a nineweek time period. An experience in reading instruction,

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however, should last a minimum of one sev.ster.Obviously such an arrangement does not accommodate dif-

ferent learning rates. Movement from this transitionalmodel to a continuous progress curriculum involves theremoval of time barriers and the utilization of learningpackages or other such materials that allow individualprogress.

Placement

Placement is determined the year prior to the student'sactual involvement in a given phase. In the third quarterof the ninth grade in the case of a three year high school,or in the third quarter of the eighth grade in a four yearhigh school, all students should he evaluated to determinetheir proficiency in all areas of the language arts pro-gram. In the areas of spelling, vocabulary and reading, ithas been found that the best means of evaluation art: stan-dardized examinations. However, in the fields of syntax,composition, and literature, teacher judgment appears mostappropriate.

Instruments of Evaluation

There are many effective measures of achievement current-ly on the market. However, the following have been partic-ularly effective:

Spelling: The Buckingham Extension of the Ayers test.This particular instrument measures spelling ability fromgrades one through nine.

Reading: In this area many tests are available. Nomatter which is used the reader must remember that theresearch reveals that practically all standardized readingtests produce scores that are typicall_ two grade levelsabove the student's actual ability level. Tests that mightbe used are:

1. Gates Reading Survey, Grades 3.5102. SRA Achievement Series: Reading, Grades 1-9

Vocabulary

The Educational Development Laboratories have developed aplacement test to be used with their programmed materials.While giving the teacher a grade level achievement score,it also provides the teacher with specific informationregarding the appropriate material for beginning instruc-tion.

Scheduling

After having evaluated each student in these phases ofthe curriculum, the teacher is ready to sit down and havean individual conference with each student. He advises thestudent of his general performance level in each of the

97

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V.irtoW; AVOI. 1101 reoommendations baqed upon data,btained. A bail.-in requirement ot the 'rogram is that ifa student is t..und to be detioient in the areas of reading,including vocabulary and comprehension, that he first heenrolled in courses providing work in these areas, as it isbellow' that stwcess in other courFlos is contingent Upon

.eith reading the written word. The teacher andStudent then select a given number :11 courses in which thestudent will be enrolled tor the coming, year. In the caseof the school operated on a quarter basis the student wouldtherefore be enrolled in tour "blocks" of courses.

SAMPLE STUDENT SCHEDULE

For an average student entering the 10th grade, hisschedule might look like the following:,rade 10: Composition 42, Literature 51 and 52, and

Reading 14.grade 11: Composition 43 and 44, Literature 53 and 54.Grade 12: Composition 44a and 44b, Literature 56 and 57,on the other hand, a schedule for a less acader,ically

talented student might look like the following:Grade 10: Reading 12 for a semester, Composition 41,

Vocabulary 21.Crude 11: reading 13, Composition 42, Vocabulary 22.Grade 12: Literature 51, 15, Composition 43, Survey of

the Mass Media.It should be noted that such a program provides addi-

tional experiences for the language arts oriented student.For example, one might take two Language Arts courses pernine weeks. In such a case the student would simply beusing another language course as one of his electives.

SAMPLE TEACHER SCHEDULE

From the teacher's point of view the continuous progressprogram holds numerous advantages. One of the chiefadvantages in the opportunity to allow teachers to becomesubject matter specialists. Teachers can focus on thosecourses for which they have the best preparation, and thegreatest interest. For a given quarter the teacher'sschedule might look like the following:

First Quarter: Period 1 - ShakespearePeriod 2 - ShakespearePeriod 3 - Composition 44aPeriod 4 - PreparationPeriod 5 - Composition 44aPeriod 6 - Spelling and Vocabulary 22

Although a given teacher may have three preparationswithin a particular quarter, it must be remembered that hemight repeat one or more of the assigned courses in anotherquarter.

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SUGGESTED :-TvENcr

As an aid to one attempting to implement a continuousprogress language arts program, the following sequence is

suggested:Consideration of local needsSurvey of student interestDevising course outlines anA criteria for placementTesting of studentsExplanation to junior high teachers of criteria for

placementPlacement of studentsAllotment of materials

CONCLUSION

The continuous progress approach to the teaching of lan-guage arts holds tremendous promise for the individualizingof instruction. It should be noted that the model sug-gested in this paper is a transitional design intended tobe used as one step in progressing toward continuous pro-gress. Not until all time barriers are removed, andstudent schedules reflect individual needs will we havearrived at our objectives.

This design has been used successfully in many schools.Evaluative studies reveal significantly cognitive gainsmade by students. Yet perhaps the effectiveness of anyprogram is best reflected in the way students feel aboutit. The following paragraphs were written by a studentafter having been involved in such a program for threequarters. Such student comment speaks for itself.

"CONTINUOUS PROGRESS ENGLISH"

"Some of the advantages of a Non-Graded English program,I think, are getting to meet different teachers, andknowing just how much of a difference their personalitiescan be. To me, being with the same teacher for the wholeschool year or 180 days could be sort of boring. Last yearwhere I lived, I had the same English teacher for the wholeyear and my teacher seemed very cold and didn't bother tomeet any of us any further than to know our names. I alsofeel that having different teachers and different coursesevery nine weeks takes pressure off the students and alsomakes the school year seen to go much faster.""It doesn't make the cltss seem too hard yet lasting too

long. You have more and yet less time to concentrate juston that one subject. I feel comfortable in this system,due to the fact that the competition has vanished betweenthe classmates and you have the chance of meeting yourfellow upperclassmen.""In some classes you might have a little fun, but in

others it might be just one complete drag. I think it's a

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great opportunity to be in the same class with the upper-classmen of my school.""Some of the disadvantages could be getting it with the

same students you were with before. They are the studentswho are always making trouble and wasting the teacherstime. Yet there are some students who always keep theclass behind, along with the student. I think that some-times some teachers expect just too much from theirstudents.""Some teachers teach too fast so they really have the

students hanging or else the students don't catch on to theteachers teaching habits.""I also think there should be a few more classes added;

because for one thing, I think Shakespeare should be addedbecause I've always wanted to study Shakespeare; and manystudents don't like to take notes properly, so there shouldbe a class where hints on note taking should be mandatory."My decision is to stay with the continuous progresssystem because it is a much better way to learn and meetnew and interesting people."

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INTRODUCTION: THE ADVENT OF PACKAGES

By William Georgiades

During the 1960's innumerable new practices emerged inAmerican education. Ideas such as team teaching, non-gradedness, continuous progress, flexible scheduling and amultitude of other structural changes occurred. Howeverlimited structural changes in education may be, they canprovide new possibilities and new potential for improvededucational systems.

Before such systems can become truly functional, thequestion of appropriate curriculum materials with clearlydefined objectives and carefully developed sequences mustbe resolved. It is ludicrous to talk about continuous pro-gress education, non-gradedness, etc., without reviewingthe arrangement and design of the curriculum itself. In aneffort to cope with these concerns, curriculum packageshave been formulated and used in numerous school systems.

BACKGROUND

Some of the more common formats and package designs havebeen organized under IPI, UNIPAC, LAP, the Duluth contractsystem, and Westinghouse Learning Corporation's (ProjectPLAN) TLUs. Such efforts have attempted to sequentiallyarrange the curriculum in small components which clearlystate performance objectives so that the student may pro-ceed at his own rate of learning in what I would prefer tocall "self-paced" learning. Packages have typically been aself-contained set of teaching-learning materials designedto teach a single concept or idea and structured forindividual and independent use in a continuous progressschool program.The curriculum package bank originally generated by the

Charles F. Kettering Foundation is an example of a nationaleffort to facilitate both the development and exchange ofpackages. Commercial efforts such as IPI from the Univer-sity of Pittsburgh, and Westinghouse have made availablecommercially prepared packages, sequentially arranged forschool use.

IMPLICATIONS FOR INNOVATION AND CHANGE

Many problems plague the use of such materials as cur-riculum packages. In the initial years of these develop-

Georgiades, William. "Introduction: The Advent ofPackages." Journal of Secondary Education, Vol. 46, No. 5,May, 1971, pp. 199-200.

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ments quality control is often missing and too manypackages otter a monolithic approach to the learning goal--reading. Freqt.ently, poor classroom implementationdestroys the effectiveness of the best designed package.Another serious limitation in the preparation of packagesis the amount of teacher time required for development andwriting.In spite of these and other problems, curriculum packages

offer polygamous avenues to learning goals and when in-cluded as part of a total instructional system can con-tribute to the achievement of the goal of genuinelyindividualized education for all American youth. Used incombination with a variety of other instructional media andmethodology they can facilitate "self-paced" learning andproduce a higher level of success for all students. Usedin isolation from such considerations they can provide onemore experience in educational "boredom," an objectivewhich many youth now believe schools have already success-fully achieved.

THE GESTALT OF CHANGE

To change one element in a school climate may be somewhatcomparable to attempting to kill an elephant with a thumbtack. To change a school demands that one consider thewide range of variables that constitute a school. Experi-ence in such efforts as the Model School Project of theNational Association of Secondary School Principals hastaught us that change does not take place until new pat-terns of thought and conceptionalization have been inter-nalized. Innovations have rarely been adopted as asystematic-interrelated totality. Consequently, aninnovative variable, such as curriculum packages, whateverits potential, has often been nullified by conventionalpractices in other areas. Change in school systems musttherefore be planned from a "total" or "gestalt" perspec-tive.Curriculum packages can make a contribution to meaningful

change in American education. They can assist substan-tially in facilitating individualized instructionalsystems. They can help such "structures" for change ascontinuous progress, non-gradedness, and independent studytruly reflect new ways of aiding students to reach worth-while learning goals. The package movement is but onecomponent in a plethora of educational change. It is,however, a vital component which can help us reach ourdream of individualized learning for all of our childrenand youth.

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WHAT IS "AN INL-,TPUCTIONAL PACKAGE?"

By R. Herbert Ringis

Just as all cakes are the same, sc. are they all differ-ent. Even among Angel Food cakes there are differences intexture, consistency, flavor, lightness and appearance.The same can be said of instructional packages--while theyare all different, they are yet the same. As with cakes,there are common ingredients in packages, whether thepackage is an LAP, UNIPAC, TLU, or Shadyside High School'sown creation. This sameness of ingredients is not alwaysapparent. Sometimes identification of an ingredient iseasily visible to the casual viewer; at other times theinclusion of an ingredient is only implied. However, to beclassified as an instructional package, there are specificcharacteristics which usually are readily discernible.This sameness, in part, is attributable to their applica-

tion and proposed method of use in the educational program.In its simplest form, a package can be considered a "lessonplan" for an individual learner. It is designed and struc-tured with similar characteristics as would be found inlesson plans used by teachers for their own instructionalpurposes. It is this "nature" which keeps the varioustypes of packages similar in their ingredients. However,because it is to be used by the individual learner, there

are some characteristics unique to the package in its for-mat, such as directions and instructions for the learner tofollow as he proceeds through the package. The attributeswhich are necessary for their use do not detract from thecommonality of basic ingredients. Just as the frosting ona cake does not dictate what the inside of the cake willbe, so do the basic ingredients required of a package notdictate what the final product will be.There are usually six specific ingredients which form the

skeletal structure of packages:1. Concept focus2. Behaviorally-stated objectives3. Multiple activities and methodologies4. Diversified learning resources5. Evaluation instrumentation6. Breadth and/or depth suggestionsIt is the intent of this article to describe each ingre-

dient and explain the function as it facilitates thelearning process for students using packages.

Ringis, R. Herbert. "What Is an'Instructional Package?'"Journal of Secondary Education, Vol. 46, No. 5, May, 1971,

pp. 201-205.

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CONCEPT FocH:;

Most packages are designed to deal with a single concept;or put another way, a package can deal with a single idea,a single psychomotor skill, or a single attitude. The con-cept focus of a package determines three variables: (1)the package's suitability for a specific learner, (2) thescope and coverage of the subject, and (3) the internalconsistency of the package elements as well as the validityof its content. Most packages draw their concept focusfrom existing courses of study. Within any course ofstudy, there are broad generalizations, usually referred toas "units," and within these units there are discrete"clusters" of concepts which form the structure of theseunits. It is the selection of a single concept from thisstructure which determines the focus of the package. Thenumber of packages for any one unit or course of study de-pends on the subject matter and the complexity of thatparticular aspect of the curriculum. The concept chosenfor a particular package will dictate that package's placein the total scheme of curriculum.With the choice of concept focus must be matched the

expected level of performance of the learners who willbecome involved in that package. There is usually somedelimitation placed on the scope of that concept focus,either through the extent of treatment within the packageor through the inclusion or exclusion of content.. In somepackages the concept is expressed in major and minordivisions. In ether packages this division is labeled as"primary idea" and "secondary idea." The choice of conceptand its delimitation directly affects the suitability ofthe package for a particular learner. The scope of theconcept will also directly affect the length and structureof the package.

The size of the concept the learner is expected to dealwith in the package is in direct relationship to the deter-mination of the concept focus. For one level of learner apackage may be limited to a single primary idea to be dealtwith, whereas for a higher ability youngster the packagemay have a primary idea and several secondary ideas. How-ever, whatever secondary ideas or sub-concepts are con-tained within the scope of the package, they must relatedirectly to each other and to the major idea or concept.It is the single concept focus which sets the package apartfrom textbooks or a student syllabus to be used during theentire semester or school year.

BEHAVIORALLY-STATED OBJECTIVES

Objectives within packages form perhaps the keystone totheir success or failure. These objectives should trans-late the concept into a recognizable form for the learner.As he proceeds in a self-directed manner these objectivesmust have been internalized and have formulated his under-

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standing of what is expected as the outcome from hisefforts with the paAige. The objective statements must bein terms comprehensible to the learner. Objectives usuallytell the learner what performance is expected of him, underwhat conditions this performance will take plac2, and theproficiency of the expected performance. It is the self-directedness of the package which requires the objectivesto be clearly stated and understood by the learner. Objec-tives provide the guidance for his learning experienceswhich are contained in the remainder of the package. Ineffect, these objectives give the learner the "why" of hislearning, yet without specifying the "how" to arrive atthat learning.

MULTIPLE ACTIVITIES AND METHODOLOGIES

The learning activities within the package form the"meat" of the package, just as the objectives form the"heart." While the objectives set forth the way thelearner will "know" he has achieved learning, the activi-ties set forth the "how to get there." The packagedescribes various ways a learner may deal with the concept;through experimentation, group work, independent study,observation, construction, research, or by using materialsand media. After having clearly established, through theobjectives, the "why" of the learning activities, thelearner exercises his self-direction by the choices hemakes from the multiple activities presented in the pack-age. Whatever activities there are within the package,they should all provide a path for the learner to follow.The multiplicity of activities is based on the belief thatthere is no one best way for any one learner to learn. In

some respects, this presentation of multiple ways to the.objectives forces the learner into decision making, andplaces the responsibility for selecting his future courseof action onto the individual. This multiplicity alsoattempts to relieve the "sameness" of the educational pro-cess by providing variety in the instructional environment.It also tries to provide for different "styles" of

learning.The activities are usually listed as choices to be made.

The instructimls to the learner give him the alternativesavailable witLin each segment of the package. The learnercan elect to work alone, or in concert with others, de-pending on the nature of the concept and the procedures ofthe class or group with which he is associated. Activitieschosen in one section may or may not be repeated in latersections of the package.

DIVERSIFIED RIZOURCES

Within the activities listed for the learner, in addition

to the multiple methodologies, there should be a variety ofmaterials and media. For his path to an objective the

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learner can choose to work with any or all of the re-sources, such as filmstrip, record, tape, sound filmstrip,chart, diagram, video tape recording, model, etc. Theseresources may operate singly or in combination to assistthe learner toward the objectives and concept formation.Ideally, the package should have more than one resource ofeach type which deals with the concept under study. Ofcourse, this is not always possible, but with some con-cepts, instructional materials and media exist in greatquantities, each offering a difference in approach. Justas with the multiple activities and methodologies, thisdiversity is provided to allow for variations in the stylesof learning. Where one filmstrip may be the means for onelearner, another filmstrip may be most suitable for a dif-ferent learner. While the package is designed with acategory of learner in mind, that is, with a pupil learningneed identified, it is not necessarily designed for onespecific predetermined pupil. Unfortunately, our methodsfor diagnosis of learning needs and the application of aprescription to that need are not sophisticated enough toallow for finality of design.

EVALUATION INSTRUMENTATION

The evaluation within packages usually falls into threetypes: (1) pretest, (2) selftest, and (3) posttest. In abasic sense, this allows for assessment of entry, progressand exit status of the individual. In some packages, allthree tests are contained in the package; in others, onlythe selftest is within the package and the pretest andposttest are maintained in some other fashion and await therequirement on the part of the learner before they areused. In some package systems, the pretest and posttestare almost identical.1

The pretest serves three functions; assessing readinessfor the package, determining prerequisite abilities, andproviding a basis for decisions regarding where, and withwhat part of the package the learner will begin. If thepackage has been designed with a major idea, and severalsecondary ideas, it is possible for any one learner to haveexpertise with one of the secondary ideas at a sufficientlevel tp option out of that part of the package. It isalso possible that any one individual diagnosed as havingneed for the concept of the package may not have the neces-sary prerequisite abilities to deal with that concept onthe level called for by the learning activities and re-sources spelled out in the package. As a side benefit, thepretest "sets the stage" for the learner and provides anintroduction to the package.

1For a more extensive discussion of this aspect of using

packages, see the following article by Roger Tunks.(Article appeared in Journal of Secondary Education, May,1971.)

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While i ';ome paokages the pretest may be omitted, theseiftests are required for they provide the learner withcheck points as he proceeds along the paths towards theobjectives. Selftests give reinforcement of progress aswell as a means for keeping on the track while proceedingunder self-direction. Self-tests are usually not elaborateor time consuming; nor do they determine complete masteryas called for in the objectives. Although these selftestsmay measure accomplishment of learning; similar to thosespecified in the objectives, they need not be so extensiveas to duplicate the posttest.The posttest provides the learner and the teacher with

the means to assess whether or not the learner has reachedthe objectives and has gained a sufficient achievementlevel to exit the package. Usually, the posttest measuresonly those performances specified in the behaviorally-stated objectives. If the objectives revealed to thelearner at the outset called for performances in six areas,then the posttest would measure only those six areas. Theposttest does not necessarily have to be a paper and pencilexamination. If the nature of the concept, and the per-formance objectives written for it, called for a construc-tion, an oral performance, or for completion of a labora-tory project, then examination of such a product wol.i3,dconstitute the posttest. Some packages require the learnerto use accumulative experiences wherein the total sum ofthe learner's efforts throughout the package are examinedat the conclusion. In those cases, the objectives wouldhave called for the end product to be a diary, an experi-mental log, or such other device which recorded all hisefforts for the time spent on the package. Perhaps themost important aspect of the posttest is that it providesclosure for the learner; he experiences a sense of personalaccomplishment. The learner knew what his objectives were,has worked through the learning activities, been exposedto various learning resources, and now the posttest hasshown him he has achieved the specified performance calledfor in the objectives.

If the learner does not reach the performance specifiedin the objectives, the posttest provides a means for re-cycling the learner, either through additional learningexperiences from the same package, or into another package.In any case, the learner has information regarding his per-formance which allows him to make judgments about that per-formance and what his future course of action should he.Thus, whether he has been successful or unsuccessful, thereis data for determining future actions to be taken on thepart of the learner.

BREADTH AND/OR DEPTH ACTIVITIES

After successful conclusion of the posttest, the learneris provided suggestions for further activities. Theseactivities can be either an extension of the concept dealt

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with in the package, or deeper exploration of closelyrelated concept q. Ideally, these activities should beinitiated by the learner, and not be directive on the partof the teacher or at the lictates of the educational pro-gram. In the best sense, these activities should be in thenature of a quest on the part of the learner; something heundertakes out of enthusiasm and from "being turned on" bywhat he has already experienced from the package. Thesesuggestions provide a means for bridging from one conceptin one package to another concept in some o,her package.In the operation of some package programs, these "follow-up" activities create a means for managing a number ofstudents as they work from package to package. If there isa sequence to a series of packages, the breadth and/ordepth activities can provide guidance and the building ofprerequisite abilities between packages.

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Summary

In reviewing this section, it is important to reemphasizethe importanLci of curriculum organization in tbe individu-alization of instruction. First of all, the sequencing ofsubject matter based on performance objectives provides theframework so important in planning and in evaluating.Secondly, a carefully sequenced curriculum is necessary ifa student is to move through it at his own pace. The Con-tinuous Progress Model as presented by Dr. ConstanceGeorgiades offers both the framework of objectives and thesequencing needed for a truly individualized program.

Packaging, while not a new concept, offers many possi-bilities for personalizing learning. When integrated intoa continuous progress seqtence and utilized in conjunctionwith small group activities, the package can become a mosteffective instructional approach. However, it is importantto weigh carefully the cautions suggested by Dr. WiliamGeorgiades.

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Resources

Books and Monograph:;

Bloom, Benjamin S., ed. Taxonomy of Educational Objec-tives: Cognitive Domain. New pork: tongmans, Green andCo., 1956.

Brown, B. Frank. The Nongraded High School. EnglewoodCliffs, New Jersey: P-.=ntrce-HalI, 1963.

Esbensen, Thorwald. Working With Individualized Instruc-tion. Belmont, California: Fearon Publishers,-1-968.

Goodlad, John I. The Changing School Curriculum. NewYork: The reorgian Press, Inc., 1956.

Gronlund, Norman E. Stating Behavioral Objectives forClassroom Instruction. New York: The Macmillan Co.,1970.

Krathwohl, David R., ed. Taxonomy of Educational Objec-tives: Affective Domain. ffew York: Davi'a McKay Co.,Inc., 1956.

Mager, Robert. Developing Attitude Toward Learning. PaloAlto: Fearon Publishers, 1968.

Smith, Kenneth T. A Lap On Writing Laps. Fort Lauderdale,Florida: Froward County Board of Public Instruction,1969.

Articles

Butler, Lucius. "Performance Objectives for IndividualizedInstruction." Audiovisual Instruction, May, 1970.

Harbeck, Mary B. l'Instructional Objectives in the Affec-tive Domain." Educational Technology, January., 1970,pp. 49-52.

Howard, Eugene R. "Developing Sequential LearningMaterials." NASSP Bulletin, May, 1970, pp. 159-168.

Jones, Richard V. "Getting Started Into a Package Pro-gram." Journal of Secondary Education, May, 1973, pp.218-226.

Krathwohl, David R. "Starting Objectives Appropriatelyfor Program, for Curriculum, and for InstructionalMaterials Development." The Journal of Teacher Educa-tion, March, 1965, pp. 83-92.

Me=sel, Newton S.; Michael, William B.; and Kirsner,Donald A. "Instrumentation of Bloom's and Krathwohl'sTaxonomies." Psychology in the Schools, July, 1969, pp.227-231.

Popham, W. James. "Objectives '72." Phi Delta Kappan,March, 1972, pp. 432-435.

Read, Edwin A. "Educational Practice and the Theory ofContinuous Pupil Progress." Audiovisual Instruction,February, 1970, pp. 38-40.

Swenson, Gardner. "A Unipac on How to Make a Unipac."Journal of Secondary Education, May, 1971, pp. 231-236.

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Ubben, Llerald C. "The Role of the Language Package In An1w,truotionol Package." Journal of

Secondary Education, May, 1971, pp. 206-209.

Media

Popham, W. James. (Filmstrip - TapeProgram). Los Angeles: Vtmcet Assoctates

. Selecting Appropriate Educational Objectives757g13trip - Tape Program). Los -Angeles: Vimcet Asso-

ciates. Identifying Affective Objectives. (Filmstrip -

Tape Program). Los Angeles: Vitncet AssociatesTimiraos, Carmen, and Bemis, Katherine. Performance

Obectives--Write Them and Use Them (Slide - Tape Pro-gram). Albuquerque: SoutEwestern Cooperative Educa-tional Laboratory, Inc.

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PART IV

INSERVICE PROGRAMS FOR THE CHANGE PROCESS

Introduction

In the previous sections we have dealt with the moremechanical aspects necessary for individualizing instruc-tion. Two staff utilization models were offered which pro-vided for greater flexibility of time and group size.Guidelines were suggested for sequencing content anddeveloping and utilizing packages. This section deals withperhaps the most important aspect of all: the role of theprofessional and paraprofessional.

Teachers placed in teams for the first time find that newdemands are placed upon them. They are called upon to per-form in new ways and to assume new roles. In the initialarticle of this section Dr. William Georgiades discussesthe team and the roles of the various team members. In thesecond article, he goes on to give concrete ideas for theutilization of large group, small group, and independentstudy.

If teachers are expected to assume new roles, then itseems logical that inservice programs should be developedthat will (1) motivate teachers to desire change and (2)train teachers to perform effectively in new situations.Dr. Donald C. Clark and Mrs. Sally N. Clark offer sugges-tions for initiating the pontoon and for training teachersto use it as a means for obtaining maximum flexibility.

The last article in this section deals with instructionalaides. A brief history of the development of the instruc-tional aide program is given. Specific recommendations arethen given for assisting teachers in making efficient useof aides. Also suggested are methods for orienting aidesand the components for an instructional aide training pro-gram.

Dr. Donald C. Clark, currently Assistant Professor ofSecondary Education, University of Arizona, has heldteaching positions at both the elementary and secondarylevels. I. addition, Dr. Clark has been an elementaryschool assistant principal, a curriculum consultant, adirector of curriculum, and a director of research andplanning. Mrs. Sally N. Clark has had the opportunity toteach business education at secondary, adult, juniorcollege, and college levels. She is presently pursuing anadvanced graduate degree at the University of Arizona.

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WAYS IN WHICH' TEAMS MAY FUNCTION

By William Georgiades

While it would be difficult to describe the many possibleteam arrangements, the following illustrates a fairlytypical plan.A team leader, a second teacher, and two aides have the

joint responsibility of teaching large groups of studentsin the same subject area and grade for two hours during theday. Both teachers and aides are provided with and devoteadditional hours to planning and preparation to achievethis responsibility.While it should be recognized that there is no "pat"

formula as to percentage of time devoted to each type ofactivity, team operation typically incorporates a combina-tion of three types of activity:

...Large group presentations

...Small group work and discussion

...Individual studyAll of these three phases need to be interrelated. Team

members should devise a plan in advance to take care of theprocess involved. An outline of what is to be taught andthe order in which it is to be accomplished need to becarefully drawn up for the students, too.

1. Large Group PresentationsLarge group presentations are arranged for motivational

or introductory purposes, the presentation of audio-visualmaterials, general testing, and culminating unit activi-ties, e.g., student panels, reports, and project displays.

Large groups offer opportunities for building backgroundinformation for the whole course, presenting the work ofsmall groups, general testing, and all phases of curricularofferings that can just as well be given to 100 or more asto 35 students. The main irpose of large group instruc-tion is to give cohesiveness and to present major conceptsand background information related to the course.

While care should be taken to avoid letting team workdegenerate into the lecture method of teaching, someaspects of instruction especially lend themselves to largegroup presentation:

a. Introduction of New TokicsAlthough some of the teacher -pupil interchange ofideas may be lost, there is a mass psychology re-action to a good introduction which builds extraenthusiasm.

b. DemonstrationsIn certain subjects, demonstrations requiring ratherelaborate preparation can sometimes be presented justas effectively to large groups and thus save valuabletime and/or expense.

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c. Filmsfrui.a lend thewelves to large presentation andfacilitate scheduling as well as conserve time inpreparation.

d. Resource PersonsA larger audience makes extensive use of outsideresource personnel more feasible, and the investmentof preparation time pays greater dividends.

e. SummationsAfter a unit has been studied in the smaller groupswith library research and reports, demonstrations,lab work, etc., then it is possible to do an effec-tive job of summation before testing.

The larger group presentations can be made more effectiveby using the public address system, the overhead projector,and other equipment of this nature. Unit outlines, demon-stration worksheets, etc., can be placed in the hands 'ofthe student to make the presentation even more effective.

2. Small Group ActivitySome machinery need's- to be set up so that students can

come together in small groups. The purposes for suchgroups include working on special projects, study inspecific areas, discussions to follow-up presentations, andpreparing for panels or reports as culminating activitiesto a unit. Grouping may be based upon ability range,interest, achievement levels and accomplishments, e.g.,skills in arithmetic or language.

Small study groups are set up to function in relationshipwith large group meetings and to accommodate a range ofinterests and abilities. Carefully planned study guidesshould be given to each student with very definite instruc-tions. An ideal study group is made up of from six totwelve students. Each group should have a student leaderand recorder.

In addition, library research, remedial and enrichmentactivities can be carried out through small. study groups.The membership should be flexible, dependent upon need,interest, and purpose.

Intermediate size groups or combinations of groups,reaching in most cases the usual classroom size, arereserved for more detailed instruction, discussion periods,and general review.The flexibility of the team arrangement permits daily

grouping of students for many purposes and a greatervariety of activities. However, grouping for the sake ofgrouping with no stated objectives would lessen the effec-tiveness of the program. The following illustrate thepossibilities of grouping for special purposes:

a. The ability range can be narrowed. Several groupswithin the team can be working in texts adapted totheir needs.

b. The teachers have opportunity to give aid to studentsdoing independent study during class time, ratherthan after school as in a "regular" situation.

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c. Small study group activities increase the opportuni-ties tor student participation and growth.

d. Students are able to work at their own speed oflearning. Faster moving students can completeseveral projects to one by the slower students.Aides provide additional help to make this possible.

e. Guest speaker:; can be invited to enrich the programfor many students without disrupting the total schoolprogram.

f. Lab groups can work through double periods wheneverfeasible, thereby making more effective use of timeand expensive equipment.

3. Individual StudyEach student needs some kind of individual work program

defiLed by him, with him, or for him.Student study guides can be of considerable help in guid-

ing the individual study and in enlisting the active parti-cipation of students in team learning. Study guides can bebrief, but they should indicate to the student just wherehe fits into the picture. Only by seeing the reasons forthe large group, small group, and independent study activi-ties, will the student accept and perform his individualrole appropriately. Such a guide would include:

a. An overview of the course of study. (The purpose,content to be covered, references, unit topics, andthe major understandings to be learned.)

b. Typical group activities. (List of kinds of groupsand their purposes, types of individual projects onwhich students might work.)

c. Lists of committees and their purposes. (Studentsmight add to this list and sign up for such commit-tees as book, bulletin board, etc.)

d. Evaluation criteria. (Students will want to know thebasis for grading. Various forms that will 1.2 usedfor evaluating group work and individual growth canbe included.)

When wirking out plans for the team operations, a balanceof large, small, and individual activity should be con-sidered. The percentage of time devoted to each will varywith the subject. Also, ways should be devised to permitstudents to participate in planning. A calendar of classactivities can be made up and students given a copy to keepthem informed. The calendar can be a part of the studyguide.

4. Other Operational ProceduresThe variety and wide range of team combinations make it

difficult to outline precisely methods of operation thatcould be used successfully in all teams. However, certainduties and responsibilities are necessary to the smoothrunning of all team classes:

a. Student OrientationLike the teachers, students need a proper introduc-tion to the team situation. A carefully Worked outexplanation can be presented to the class in a large

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group I:e.;;;ion. Teachers and aides should be intro-duced as co-workem bringing the instructional pro-gram to them in a new way. A summary of how thene(11. ,Nf the students will be met through variousgroupings should be given. In many ways this intro-duction will be similar to that given in a conven-tional class in regard to the subject content, thegoals and objectives, general classroom procedure;,and student leadership responsibilities. Studentswill need assurance that though the manner ofapproach and the number of people involved is dif-ferent, they should expect to study and learn as wellor better than in any other class. They shouldrecognize and appreciate the fact that there areadditional advantages for individual study and inde-pendent research, and that many group activities andresource persons will contribute greatly to theireducation.

b. Student ResponsibilitiesAlthough the team leader assigns most of the routineduties to the aides, there is no reason to removefrom the students those responsibilities that theywould have in any other class. Student monitors canhelp with the passing, collecting, and returning ofpapers, checking out books, putting up brlletinboards, operating audio-visual equipment, etc.Supervision of student monitors can be handled by theaides.

c. Correcting and Grading PapersIt is appropriate to assume that aides an easilycorrect objective tests. For this to be adequatelydone, all test keys and grading should be preparedand worked o'it by the teachers. In the main,teachers will want to have some contact with thestudents through the reading of their compositions,essays, and subjective tests. With special help andtraining, aides can participate in some of the sub-jective evaluation of tests, essays, and composi-tions.

d. Clerical and Housekeeping DutiesAides take care of most of these duties. Theoriginal planning for how these duties are to behandled should be carefully gone over and definiteresponsibilities should be given to each aide. How-ever, both aides should become familiar with all suchresponsibilities so that one could take over in casethe other was absent or assigned to some particularproject. Taking attendance, moving students from onegroup to another, issuing texts, recording grades,etc., should be carefully thought through and method-ically carried out.

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PRACTICAL CW1 .IDEVATIOV IN LARGE GROUPS, SMALL 'POUPS, ANDINDEPENDENT 1.TUW :JTUATIONS

By William Georgiadeo

LARGE GROUP INSTFUCTION

Large group instruction has within its structure. manyadvantages, both real and potential. The advantages differto some xtent depending upon one's point of view, and itmight be in order to point out these advantages as theyappear to these viewers: the teacher, the administrator,and the student. All three groups have vital interests inquality education, and some of the more significant aspectsof large group instruction for each group should be men-tioned.

A. The Teacher's View: Large Group Instruction1. Enables the teacher to instruct once to ninety

students material that formerly required threepresentations to thirty;

2. Permits teachers to spend more time in prepara-tion by letting him leave the classroom whileother teachers work with the large group;

3. Allows teachers to plan instruction in such a waythat more forceful, better presentations ofsubject matter are given;

4. Breaks the present cellular structure of oneclassroom--thirty students--and lets the teachergrow professionally through contact with compe-tent colleagues and fresh ideas.

B. The Administrator's View: Large Group Instruction1. Provides the vehicle for instruction better than

(or at least as good as) previous, conventionalprograms;

2. Gives in-service training to new, inexperiencedpersonnel;

3. Places the superior teacher before a larger groupof students than under the present structure;

4. Utilizes new audio-visual techniques to bestadvantage;

5. Fosters professional growth through the inter-change of ideas and techniques.

C. The Pupil's View: Large Group Instruction1. Provides high quality teaching that is both

profitable and interesting;2. rosters independent attitudes and maturity;3. Furnishes the opportunity for meaningful self-

instruction.Teaching personnel engaged in large group instruction

have accumulated same knowledge of the type of instructionand the techniques most applicable for large groupteaching. In some senses these techniques and types are nodifferent from those which have characterized any good

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teaching practice; there is, perhaps, a matter of emphasison a particular point. At any event, some of the followingtechniques and viewpoints have seemed especially important:

1. Institute adequate student orientation as to largeclass procedures.Detailed (and, preferably, mimeographed) instructions

concerning vital aspects of class procedures will eliminatemany future problems. The more thorough and systematic theorientation is, the less likelihood there will be of mis-understandings.

2. Devel opelo2sstema.tic_tocecJLesforbeginningclassespr_oiart.

matters such as roll-taking, signing admit-tance cards, and distributing or collecting materials mustbe done rapidly. Permanent seating arrangements, writtenassignment sheets, student secretaries and various setroutines help immeasureably in that vital moment after thebell rings and the class begins to settle down. An under-standing by class members that no personal question can beasked as the teacher does these "business" matters isvital.

3. Capitalize on the formality inherent in large groupsituations.

Large nunbers of students (60-150) generally minimizerather than magnify the normal discipline problems found ina class of thirty. Group self-discipline is a remarkablephenomenon in larger groups which operates constantly ifthe instructor is rom t and efficient. This sense offormality by t The group should be retained.

4. Discourage normal classroom interruptions which,since they are tripled and quadrupled in large studentgroups, destroy classroom effectiveness and concentration.Requests for cooperation are effective, and stationingresponsible students near the doors where they may inter-cept messengers may aid in preserving classroom lecturecontrol.

5. Avoid the long lecture which goes beyond normalattention scan.

Large group instruction is rarely personalized to such anextent that attention span is lengthened. Short lectureperiods (fifteen-twenty minutes) are best, and a change ofscene should follow. This change of scene can be anotherWarer, a different activity, or a contrasting teachingtechnique (i.e.--a film); the change must occur if thelecture situation is to remain effective.

6. Furnish the students with opportunities for individ-ual discussion which cannot be zeruriTa17151FE707----group.

Since discussion time is limited, the teacher must cur-tail comments and explanation; the result can be poor if noopportunity for clarifying is given.

7. Discourage visitors, at least with new programs andwith inexper1enced teachers.

Many teachers participating within a newly-formed team

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are at first insecure when their colleagues listen to theirlectures, and it is wise to let neophytes work alone atfirst.

8. Avoid set routines as to the method of instruction.Day-to-day variations in the use of time are profitable,

and using two or three instructors within a given period(for example, one teacher giving a spelling test in thefirst twenty minutes, another teacher explaining an assign-ment for fifteen minutes, and the third team member fin-ishing the period in another manner) is nearly sure-fire interms of student interest.

9. Permit team members autonomy over the largo groupwithin Oven academic areas.

For example, one team member should "do" lecture, testand grade--the play unit; the next team member should dothe spelling unit; a third, another unit, etc. There isthen no clash over grading standards, over particularemphases, over the minutiae of specific detail.

Large group instruction possesses many advantages, but itcan impose hardships on teachers as well as a poor learn-ing situation under certain conditions. Large groupexperience has made clear these pitfalls:

1. Hasty assembling of teams without properjlanning andwithout unsolicited volunteerin b teachers is a cardinalerror.

2. Team members must be conLenial: a year is a long timeand the normal pressures of-teaching cause friction whichmust be dealt with.

3. Facilities must be adequate. Poor seating arrange-ments cripple needed notetaking; inadequate acoustics and/or lack of a loud speaker system strain the lecturers'voices and cause needless fatigue; poor room ventilationcontributes enormously to restlessness, especially in thelatter moments of the period; and lack of needed materials(books, supplies) handicaps programs. Teachers, too, needbetter facilities for working; a "free" hour spent in theteachers' lounge is generally non - productive, and manytimes there is no adequate place 'or paper correction,student consultation, or such duties.

4. Teachers involved in the teams generally work harderthan those not on teams, at least in the initiatory stages.Large group instruction requires detailed planning andresearch by team members, a practice normally not followed.Teachers must use their time advantageously.

5. Teachet)AaL,snormall::nhowtousetheassis-tance gventhemsttcaeppr5fibly;they must learn to use these people efficiently.

6. Better student groujin1 is needed. The content oflarge group instruction is or course somewhat dependentupon the ability ranges of the large group, the "tyranny ofthe middle" principle is perhaps more evident in largegroup work than in small and a homogeneous grouping of stu-dents is very much desire. A "mixed" group of ninety stu-dents does not contain the conventional "handful" of

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capable, interested students as well as malcontented,uninterested people; it contains a sizable number of bothgroups, and they must be dealt with in such a way thattheir feelings do not influence the entire group.

7. The formal atmosphere of large group instruction pre-cludes student discussion; many questions are unansweredand areas of non=agreement exist. Opportunity must be pro-vided for small, discussion type meetings, or a rathertiresome lecture method of teaching will supplant theconventional method--hardly a victory for quality teaching.To sum up, then, it is very clear that large group teach-

ing instruction offers no pandcea. It does have within itsstructure the possibilities for excellent teaching, pro-vided that muh.care and planning accompany the installa-tion of teacher teams. It is neither a time nor moneysaver,*and safeguards are needed to keep this type ofinstruction as beneficial as conventional instruction.On the other hand, however, there are within the machin-

ery the grand possibilities of doing competent, carefulteaching of a type rarely done today; the large groupsituation "demands" a polished performance by the instruc-tor, and the accompanying gratification of this task welldone is clearly worth the present inconveniences in transi-tional attempts with large group instruction. Teachersfeel they are "really teaching," and this is a belief to becherished and nurtured.

SMALL GROUP DISCUSSION

How does small group instruction differ from that of themore usual groups of thirty to thirty-five students? Inthe framework of large group, small group, and independentstudy combinations, techniques are quite different becausefactual presentations will be handled through large groupsand individual application will be handled through indepen-dent study. The small group, then, tests and refineslearning and eliminates misunderstandings by means ofguided discussion and exploration.

A teacher may get students ready for a large group pre-sentation by exploring their present knowledge of and needsfor the subject matter, and by helping them to know what tolook for; or he may follow up a presentation by reviewingsubject matter with them and reinforce learning by con-sidering applications.Student participation appears to be the keynote of small

group instruction. Yet how do teachers and students moveinto this new relation? Some teachers find that they caninstruct very well in the formal setting but feel ill atease in the more permissive one; too, they are reluctant topass greater responsibility to students. Following aresome suggestions and observations about small groupteaching.Small group meetings must have as much purpose to them as

any other kind of instruction. The teacher should know

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exactly whit t wants to accomplish, despite the lessformal atmosphere of the classroom. In many cases he willtry to elicit rather than to tell; his students shouldparticipate rather than merely receive. But at the end ofthe class period he will have guided his group to where hewants them to go. He should have material for summationand material for review at the beginning of the next class

meeting.In abandoning the format of "telling" students, the

teacher of small groups allows the students to interactamong themselves. Students should speak to and for thegroup and should be heard by all. The old business ofhaving a student say something to the teacher which theteacher then relays back to the group as if he were apublic address system is outmoded. With no translatorhandy, the speaker usually sharpens up his communicationboth in content and volume, and the listener sharpens hisreception because there will be no playback. With onlylimited assistance, most students are able to clarify theirideas, particularly when the pressure to do so comes fromthe group. Rearrangement of chairs so that not all facethe front of the room assists in this interplay, and teacherwill do well to come out from behind the bulwark of his

desk.In small groups a teacher may facilitate discussion by

first reviewing parts from earlier presentations or dis-

cussions. Posing some quick questions to which most stu-dents know the answer gives a sense of security at theoutset, while putting someone on the spot merely results inembarrassment for all and opens a gap between students andteacher.As students move into less familiar areas, they should be

encouraged to guess at answers, with the understanding thatthese are new areas. No blame should attach to wronganswers and often the teacher can detect and use to goodadvantage the chain of association which sets off the wronganswer. Partially correct answers can be followed up to acorrect conclusion through skillful questioning. Correctanswers may be analyzed or otherwise reinforced. Correctanswers should be regarded as an achievement of the groupwithout too much emphasis on right or wrong for individ-

uals. Where no one ventures, teachers may provide addi-tional clues or steps in reasoning. Students in smallgroups, once they feel secure, seem to enjoy question-and-answer interplay and to remember well the correct conclu-sions.

Small groups tend to open up when discussion begins withan issue of interest or importance to young people. Achance to air views on currect school problems or policies,or on particular news events of world, national, orstrictly local application, etc., brings good results.Often the students who enter a classroom are bursting withopinions about one thing or another. Given a chance toexpress themselves, they then settle down to the business

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at hand. The unwary teacher, of course, may never get tothe business at hand; he ha.; to guard against the skillfulassault on his lesson plan. But a few minutes warm-up onthe other affairs may bring his students to his subjectmatter in a much more receptive frame of mind and much moreready to contribute their thinking.

Discussion is by no means the only instrument of smallgroup instruction. In some cases a teacher may wish simplyto give further illustration and application of partscovered, using Lis special knowledge of his group. As hegets to know his group, he may ask one student to give asummary of material, or two to present the pro's and con'sct an issue, or a panel to give a planned or impromptu pre-:;entation. The whole group may develop an out].ir or apiece of material or a list of areas for further study.

tes may be gone over to see what has been gathered andwhit missed in a presentation. A possible newspaper ordocumentary TV account of an event or trend of events maybe developed, or half the class may do one and the otherhalf the other for a comparison of media. Committees with-in the group may explore and report on community or libraryresources on a topic. Half the class may prepare a testfor the other half, while the downtrodden study for it;next time the testers become the victims. Role-playing,planned dramatizations, man-in-the-street interviews--allbecome possible once rapport has been established within thesmall group.

Fun and games, merely? Not if there is purpose to everyactivity, the purpose of testing accuracy of learning,applying learning, or seeking out new direction for learn-ing. Possible in regular classrooms? Of course, and oftenlone. But unwieldinesr of the larger group too many timesdefeats the teacher: the rebel knows there's anotherrebel; the shy one knows there's another who can't quitemake it; the unprepared are sure there are others who areunprepared; the zealous begin to feel that their zeal is alittle ridiculous--and teacher goes back to routine. Insmaller groups, embarrassment diminishes, responsibility ismore fixed, and fuller participation becomes possible.

As group rapport develops, controls tend to come lessfrom the teacher, more from the group itself. Students whoget by with petty annoyances in larger groups find them-selves less able to do so in smaller groups, for sources ofdisturbance are more evident and classmates more ready tocurb them. A certain pride develops in groups which arefunctioning well.Disturbers to begin with are usually those who seek a

particular kind of status or recognition as not caring foradult approval. Often they are low in self-esteem; ittakes v'- few rebuffs to undermine the adolescent ego.But tcacees of small groups have an opportunity to developsome sense of worth in each student. In the earliest groupmeetings it must be established that disagreement withideas is permissable but that personal attack or criticism

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is not; and Ulf. teacher himself must adhere to this prin-ciple. Distur!.anec should be regarded as disru7tive not tothe teacher but to the group. The teacher's status is lessthreatened in a class of fewer students, and usually a mildreproof or postponement of reproof until after class willhandle derelictions. Meanwhile the work of placing valueen all contributions goes forward, with opportunity made.'.'or everyone to achieve something successfully.Another cause of student disturbance is boredom. Here

the teacher's sense of timing and his obligation to keepthe work moving forward enter the picture. For the most,Art, small groups meet for only a half hour; a desirableaspect of flexible scheduling is its change of pace. Even

so, the teacher must control his group's direction. Some-times discussion heads up a blind alley or becomes tangen-tial. Sometimes -me student turns discussion into afilibuster, or two into a d?o4te. Sometimes all climb intoa merry-go-round. If a tea:het hts planned what h- is tocover and if he foresees eventualities in terms of subjectmatter and group, he will lo5e neither the good student northe poor one via the detou into boredom.Small groups, then, can enhance learning by increasing

student participation and stutient responsibility if theteacher accepts the changed nature of his group.

INDEPENDENT STUDY

There is great unanimity of opinion that major emphasismust be placed on student development in independent study.Critics or acclaimers of the schools speak with one voice

as to the need to master independent study. The voice

urges more student self-reliance, more pioneering spirit by

the student scholar. Major discussion arises, however, asto what independent study actually is. To one sizablegroup, independent study means the student's doing what he

is told to do without supervision; to another, it meansstudent's selecting profitable avenues of knowledge andinquiry with little direction other than his individualinterest; anothe, group prefers a middle direction between

these two positions.Translating these opinions concerning independent study

into action soon points out dangerous areas: Group Ibelievers, at their worst, simply assign more homework,besieving this to be independent study; Group II believers

may permit and foster endless time-wasting, placing errantspeculation on too high a pedestal; and Group III adherentsoften search for ideal goals for all students, forgetting

the individual maturation processes.Nevertheless, it seems clear to all that independent

study must involve the delegation and acceptance of respon-dibility to some degree by the student. The teachers'problem is to delegate these responsibilities in such amanner that free choice is not stifled, that the studentemerges from the process not a parrot but a thinking

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Team teaching experience (as well as thoughtful teachinganywhere, whatever its structure) at the Centinela ValleyUnion High School District has shown these measures to behelpful in the fostering of student independence:

1. Replace daily assignment schedules with mimeographedweekly, quarterly, or (if possible) semester schedules.

2. Begin classes with orientation sessions which includegrading scales, conduct expectancy, make-up schedules andpenalties for incomplete work. If these policies can beplaced in written form to accompany the assignmentschedules, they can serve as excellent steps towards stu-dent independence.

3. Re-structure library usage in such a way that stu-dents can use it more advantageously: let the librariangive an orientation concerning its resources, the materi-als needed for independent study and make the libraryavailable all day (8:00-5:00) for students.

4. Increase the number of assignments requiring morethan textbook sources of information. tnsist on sourcesother than encyclopedias for upper level work.

5. Furnish assignments which permit studies in depth,rather than survey -type assignments which scratch thesurface.

6. Allow, as much as possible, students--options withinassignments (i.e.--he chooses term paper topic, his bookreport, his topic for composition, etc.)

7. Institute plans which reward self-direction. Perma-nent hall passes are an example of this. Permission toaudit particular classes may be awarded.

8. Provide laboratory facilities where students can workwith little or no supervision. Language and readinglaboratories are good examples of this type of permissiveactivity.

9. Give students leadership opportunities whenever itcan be done whether at. student group leaders, chairmen ofgroups, various club officials, leaders of underclassmen,etc.

10. Make official recognition to the student body ofthose pupils who have been awarded some type of independentstatusperhaps as school service club member, etc.

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PREPARATION or THE PROFESSIONAL STAFF FOR UTILIZING THEPONTOON TRAPP DESIGN

By Donald C. ClarkSally N. Clark

INTRODUCTION

One of the great challenges facing educators today isthat of building educational programs that are relevant in

a rapidly Thanging technological society. This challengeis one that cannot be met by the traditional approach of

adding more courses to an already overloaded curriculum.Significant new approaches must be developed to facilitatethe learning process.

The successful development and implementation of newcurricula requires a positive attitude toward change onthe part of all those involved in the program. New pro-grams require teachers and administrators to assume new anddifferent roles. In addition, implementation of new pro-grams requires that new teaching skills he learned andeffectively utilized. It can be stated, therefore, thatwithout the proper preparation of teachers and administra-tors, any innovative program is relegated to failure

before it gets under way.As noted in the title, the purpose of this paper is to

examine some techniques and procedures which can be used inpreparing professional staff members for the successful

Transitional Design. The following is a brief review ofthe basic elements of the Pontoon Transitional Design.

THE PC.ITOON TRANSITIONAL DESIGN

The Pontoon Transitional Design can be best described as

a method for making the transition from mass education to

individualized instruction. It facilitates team teaching,flexible scheduling, and the correlation of subject matter.

It also provides for assembly groups, discussion groups and

individual study.Dr. William Georgiades, in a publication entitled "The

Pontoon Transitional Design for Curriculum Change," makes

the following statement:A pontc, n may be considered as a higher form of

team teaching. Team teaching requires large grouppresentations, small discussion groups and individual

study. The pontoon concept incorporates all of these

plus the inter-relationship of various disciplines ina flexible block of time. In many cases, varioussubjects can be correlated readily and thus help inbringing about a better understanding of bothsubjects.

He goes on to say:The pontoon concept is identified as interrelating

two or more subjects under the leadership of teachers

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from different disciplines in a block of time inwhich each would ordinarily operate independently.

It should also be recognized that there are some subjectsthat do not easily correlate. In these instances the pon-toon arrangement can still be utilized effe;Lively becauseof its provision for time flexibility and size of learninggroups.

A STRATEGY FOR PREPARATION

An in-service program for teachers and administratorsneeds to be carefully developed. Those charged with plan-ning the in-service program must hay:. a deep understandingof human nature in the process of change. They must alsohave a thorough knowledge of pontooning and each of theskills required by teachers and administrators for itssuccessful operation.

Basically, then, a strategy for in-service training forpontooning should include the following elements or phases:

Phase I Establishing a Climate for Changea. Organizing leadershipb. Providing information about pontooningc. Motivating the facultyd. Identifying personnel and securing a

commitmentPhase II Preparing for ChangePhase III Implementation of ChangePhase IV EvaluationIt is important to remember that true change comes about

slowly. With this in mind, it is also interesting to notethat one of the outstanding features of the pontoon transi-tional design is its ability to offer flexibility to asmall group of teachers without requiring massive change inthe structure of the entire school. When properly planned,this feature allows a school to take a genet.al and system-atic approach toward desired curricular change.

ESTABLISHING A CLIMATE FOR CHANGE

Phase I, as the subheading indicates, deals with estab-lishing a suitable climate for change. More specifically,this task involves building a leadership team, exposingteachers to the advantegas of "pontooning," selecting per-sonnel who mtghL be interested, and final identification of"volunteer" teacher participants.The establishment of a leadership team is vital if a sys-

tematic and comprehensive program of in-service is to bedeveloped. One of the most important tasks of the team isto secure the services of a competent outside consultantwho, upon selection becomes a member of the team. Inselecting a consultant the following considerations shouldbe made:

1. Does his philosophy of education fundamentally agreewith that held by the district?

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2. Door he have the ability to inspire and motivateteachor!:, administrators, school board members, andparents?

3. Is he approachable?4. What successful experiences does he have in other

districts which have attempted to establish similarprograms?

5. Is he willing to get involved personally in the pro-gram and make a long-term commitment to the district(one to two years)?

The consultant assumes many different roles in the imple-mentation of the "pontoon" program. Some of these rolesare:

1. As an advisor to the leadership team, to teachers,and to board members

2. As a motivator of teachers and auministrators3. As a listener who can provide assistance in a non-

threatening manner4. As a reinforcer while teachers and administrators

work with new curricular ideasServing on the leadership team with the consultant should

be a representative from the district office and the prin-cipal of the school. Other key personnel and centraloffice personnel may be included.This group must provide dynamic leadership for the organ-

ization and operation of the in-service program and isresponsible for the actual implementation of the pontoonprogram. In its initial planning the leadership team mustmake the following decisions:

1. The number of pontoons to be in operation for thefollowing school year

2. The strategy for motivating interest for participa-tion in such a program

3. The extent of in-service prior to the beginning ofthe program.

Once these three decisions have been made, the leadershipteam can begin to plan its strategy for motivation. Withineach school there are certain specific teachers around whommost innovative curricular programs can be built. Theseare the teachers who, for the most part, are highly skilledin their specific subject areas but are constantly insearch of better instructional methods. They tend to besecure in their jobs and willing to try new ideas. Theseare the teachers who, when identified, should become theinitial participants of the pontoon program.One of the cardinal principles in the early stages of

developing an innovative program is that no one partici-pates in the program unless they have volunteered to do so.The utilization of volunteers insures a commitment on thepart of these teachers to spend the time necessary in plan-ning and in the implementation of programs. It is also ourfeeling that there is no faster way to sabotage a programthan to involve people who basically do not want to beinvolved.

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The strategy ntili::ed to gain this commitment to pontoon -ing, can be broken ,,wn into three stages. Stage I involvesgetting information to teachers about pontooning. Includedin this stage are:

1. Discussion about pontooning2. Extensive reading about team teaching and pontooning3. Effective utilization of and filmstrips4. Visitations to schools tow using pontooningWe have found the use of the NASSP film "Answers and

Questions" to be quite successful in motivating teachers toquestion current educational practices. The NASSP film-strips "Focus on Change" and "Focus on the Individual" canalso be used effectively. Other materials useful at thisstage are articles by Dr. William Georj.ades at the Univer-sity of Southern California, including "The Pontoon Transi-tional Design for Curriculum Change" and "Ways in WhichTeams May Function."

Stage II is motivation. While closely correlated withStage I, the motivation aspect of this procedure calls foran emotional appeal to teachers to participate. We havefound that this is best done by a presentation to theschool faculty as a whole. By this time'most of the teach-ers will have had at least some exposure to the materialsrelative to pontooning and team teaching. Usually the con-sultant, hired by the leadership team, is responsible forthe presentation to the faculty. His presentation chal-lenges teachers to look at their current procedures andinstructional methods and asks them to evaluate them care-fully in terms of learning. He then asks those who areinterested in trying a new approach, such as pontooning, tocontact any of the members of the leadership team within aweek's time.

Stage III is identification and commitment. If the moti-vational meeting has been effective, the leadership teamshould have little difficulty in getting the volunteers toinitiate a pontooning program for the following year. Theleadership team must meet and consider each volunteer care-fully, as all volunteers may not possess the qualificationsnecessary for initiating the program. If the project is tobe successful, it must be built carefully around people whohave initiative, good judgment, and dedication.

PREPARATION FOR CHANGE

Following final identification of participating teachers,the leadership team must develop a careful, systematic pro-gram of in-service. Much in the same way that teachersidentify and establish behavioral objectives for theircourses of study, the leadership team should establish cer-tain behavioral objectives for the in- service program. Theleadership team has to consider the amount of time avail-able for teacher in-service and then establish a hierarchyof important objectives that will be accomplished in thattime. It is better to cover a few objectives thoroughly

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than to try to build an all-encompassing program.For teacors tww to pontooning, there are probably at

least five important objectives that need to be accom-plished before the implementation of the program in thefall. Thlse include:

1. The development of skill in the scheduling of time,as demonstrated by the preparation of schedules thatwill be utilized during the first two weeks of school

2. The preparation of behavioral objectives suitable forthe subject matter they will be teaching

3. The preparation of a list of procedures for the pro-ductive utilization of teacher aides

4. The development of procedures that will facilitatemaximum utilization of existing physical facilities

5. The preparation of a program of evaluation that willreflect the accomplishment of behavioral goals bothin the cognitive and affective domains.

Past experience has shown us that it is important to givethe identified teachers as much exposure to pontooning aspossible. This can best be done through visitations in thespring to schools that are currently achieving success withthe Pontoon Transitional Design. In addition to the teach-ers, these visitations should include the principal, thecounselors, and persons responsible for the scheduling ofclasses at the school. A member or members of the Board ofEducation may well be included.A good visitation experience would include the following:1. An opportunity to meet with the administrative staff

of the school and get a general overview of the pon-tooning

2. An opportunity to visit the classrooms and see theprogram in operation

3. An opportunity for the teachers to meet informallywith teachers who are currently pontooning.

We feel that this last point is probably the most impor-tant aspect of the visit.

In addition to the visits, the teachers should be exposedto a great variety of materials concerning the subjects ofpontooning, team teaching, and individualized instruction.It is important that some of the materials used in themotivational stage be again brought out and reviewed. Someof these materials would include:

1. Materials developed by Dr. J. Lloyd Trump and theNational Association of Secondary School Principals

2. Filmstrips and books on behavioral objectives, asdeveloped by Dr. James Popham of UCLA and Dr. RobertMager

3. Materials dealing with individualized instruction andthe development of learning activity packages

4. Pamphlets and articles developed by Dr. WilliamGeorgiades and others on the subject of pontooning,and published by the Center for Excellence inEducation, U.S.C.

Time should be scheduled periodically throughout the

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spring for informal meetings with consultants, administra-tors, and teachers for the discussion of the philosophy ofpontooning and the techniques necessary for its implementa-tion. These meetings should be scheduled following thevisitations and may include presentations of appropriatefilms and filmstrips. We have also found it very success-ful to make several of these meetings dinner meetings. Thisinsures a certain degree of informality and tends to facili-tate better communication.Having worked with teachers, administrators and counselors

all spring, the professional staff is now ready for the in-tensified summer in-service program. During the summerworkshops we strongly recommend that, whenever possible,teachers be paid for their participation. In Monrovia, forexample, teachers are paid the base hourly rate that theywould tau receiving if they were to teach summer school. Itis also recommended that whenever possible the teacher aideswho will be working with each team be identified andemployed to work with and for the teachers during the summerin-service. This helps to establish strong ties within theteam and expedites cooperative effort among all members.The summer workshop may be divided into several stages.

The first stage would be an intensive period of 30 to 40hours spread out over one or two weeks' time. During thistime the leadership team through the use of films andmaterials, consultants, and teachers and administratorsfrom other districts attempts to help each of the teamsachieve the behavioral goals listed previously. There arefew formal presentations during this time. The consultantswill work individually with each of the teams as theyattempt to achieve their various objectives. Teachers aregiven a great deal of freedom to work within their groups.It should be emphasized, however, that at the end of thistime the teachers should be expected to accomplish veryspecific goals. This might include, in line with thebehavioral objectives established previously, developing alist of objectives for each course with sample schedulesand evaluation plans. During the last day of this inten-sive program, each of the teams is responsible for a pre-sentation of its materials to the rest of the group. Atthe end of each presentation, the merits of the materialsdeveloped are discussed and evaluated by the entire group.Specific recommendations are then made for revision.At least two or three additional afternoon or evening

meetings need to be held during the course of the summer.The primary purpose of these meetings is to check the pro-gress of the teachers and their planning, to answer ques-tions, and to reinforce them if they are discouraged aboutany aspect of the program. Just before the beginning ofschool in the fall, a final meeting must be held. At thismeeting each team reports to the rest of the teams on whatits members expect to accomplish in the first two to fourweeks of pontooning. This report should include thefollowing:

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1. Sample scheduling and grouping procedures2. Expected behavioral outcomes for the students3. A description of the evaluation plan and plans for

initiating it4. Ways they will be utilizing the services of teacher

aides5. Plans for using existing facilities.This meeting offers the members of the teams a final

opportunity to express their feelings (positive or nega-tive) before the actual implementation of the program.

IMPLEMENTATION OF CHANGE

It could be accurately said that Phase III represents the"from theory to practice phase." It is now that teachershave the opportunity to place in operation all of the ideasand techniques they have been developing throughout thecourse of the in-service program. The leadership team nowassumes a new and different role. It is basically one ofreinforcement and support for the teachers as they launchout into new and unexplored areas of the curriculum. Mem-bers of the leadership team must be readily available toconsult with teachers about the various problems they en-counter. Without frequent support during the early months,the program may flounder to a point where it cannot besalvaged. Often, all the teachers need is a word of en-couragement or a sympathetic ear.

During this period of implementation renewed emphasismust be placed on the development of the skills needed byteachers for making effective large group presentations andfor leading small group discussion. The most valuableassistance can be given in the development of these skillsas the teachers actually start working with varying groupsizes. Teachers may also desire assistance in the partici-pation of special materials that will make their presenta-tions more meaningful.The effective utilization of the teacher aide can be one

of the determiners of a successful program. We feel thatthe members of the teaching team should be made responsiblefor the final choice of the aide who will work with them.If it is not possible to hire the aide prior to the in-service sessions, time may be allotted during the summerin-service program to interview and select an aide for eachteam. As the teachers and the aides gain experience work-ing with each other during the first semester the teachersbegin to see the aide in a greatly expanded role. Guidancemust be given in how to effectively use the aide and in..volve her as a vital part of the instructional program.

During the implementation stage in-service should be con-tinued on a regular basis. Teachers need the opportunityto meet frequently with the consultant in order to discussand evaluate their current progress. They also shouldagain be provided with the opportunity to visit some of theschools that are achieving success with pontooning. This

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will tend to reinforce their effort and give them new ideasabout scheduling, use of facilities, and utilization ofteacher aides.

EVALUATION OF THE PONTOON PROGRAM

The importance of establishing proper procedures forevaluation cannot be overemphasized. Without evaluation itis impossible to determine the accomplishments or failuresof pontooning programs. Evaluation is an integral part ofeach phase of the program. In the early phases of identi-fication and commitment the leadership team must establishprocedures to determine whether or not their goals havebeen met. They must also evaluate the spring and summerprograms to determine whether the procedures establishedfor the training of teachers have been successful in get-ting teachers ready to begin pontooning programs. Teachers,during their summer in-service sessions, must develop thebehavioral objectives that will serve as the criteria fordetermining the success of their programs. During thesummer they will also determine the particular time sched-ule that will be in operation for the pre-testing and thepost-testing of students. Finally, during the actualimplementation of the program, careful steps and proceduresmust be developed and followed to assure that the dataobtained will be reliable and valid for the overall evalua-tion.

SUMMARY

Successful program utilizing the Pontoon TransitionalDesign must provide the necessary training for its teacherparticipants. This training must be continuous and it mustbe supportive, but most of all it must provide the teacherswith the new skills they need to develop a successful pon-toon program.Preparation for pontooning must be carefully developed to

provide a gruadual introduction to the basic concepts in-volved in its design. It must not move so swiftly as tothreaten the security or limit the understanding of thoseparticipating. The in-service program, to be most effec-tive, must not make the same mistake inherent in manycurrent educational practices. It must not assume thattime spent being exposed to ideas is the same as learning.An effective pontoon in-service program must provide theopportunity for personal involvement in the development ofnew understandings designed to foster effective learning.Without individual involvement and commitment, a trulysuccessful program can never be achieved.

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Criteria for Successful Pontooning1. Support from Board of Education2. Support from Central Office Administration3. Support from school administration (principal and

assistant principals)4. Interested teachers (volunteers)5. In-service program and consultant support6. Auxiliary support (teacher aides)

Time Schedule for In-service when Program is to be Imple-mented in September

October, November, December . . . Organization of Leader-ship TeamIdentification of TeamMembersSelection of Consul-tants

January, February, March Information, Motiva-tion, Identificationand commitment

April, May, June Visitations, Informa-tion sessions, Discus-sions

July, August Intensive summer in-service

September-June (school year). . . Implementation of Pro-gram, Consultant visit,Reinforcement sessions,School visitations,Utilizing teacheraides, Curriculum,Evaluation

Who Should Be Involved in the In-Service Program?1. Teachers2. Principals - Assistant Principals3. Aides4. Central Office Administration

Curriculum DirectorAssistant Superintendent

5. Board Members

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RESOURCE MATERIALS FOR PONTOONING

Alexander, S. Kern. "What Teacher Aides Can--And Cannot- -Do." Nation's Schools, August, 1968, 23-25, 46.

Anderson, -Wesley R.; Georgiades, William; Taylor, Leslie;and Young, James. ABC's of the Arvin Study: An Innova-tion Curriculum Design and Content. Arvin, Califor-FM- Arvin High School, 1967.

Beggs, David W., and Buffie, Edward G., eds. IndependentStudy. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press,1965.

Ploom, Benjamin S., ed. Taxonomy of Educational Objec-tives, Handbook I. New York: Longmans, Green and Co.,1956.

Brown, B. Frank. The Appropriate Placement School: ASo histicated Non - Graced Curriculum. West Nyack, Newor : Parker u is lng Company, Inc., 1965.

DeVita, Joseph C. "Working with Teacher Aides." CroftLeadership Action Folio No. 7, New London, Connecticut,1968.

Esbensen, Thorwald. Workinr, with Individualized Instruc-tion. Palo Alto: Fearon Publishers, 1968.

Ge6iades, William. "Opinions Differ: Team Teaching--ANew Star, Not a Meteor." National Education AssociationJournal. April, 1967, 14-15.

. Ways in Which Teams Function. Los Angeles:-ITENFFsity of Southern California, 1967.

. Use of Non-Professional Aides. Los Angeles:-TURFsity of Southern California, 1968.

. Practical Considerations in Large Group, SmallTFYILTIF: and Independent Study Situations. Los Angeles:

University of Southern California, 1968.. The Pontoon Transitional Design for Curriculum

717717. Los Angeles: Center for Excellence in Educa-t on, U.S.C., 1969.

Krathwol, et al. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Hand-book II. David McKay Co., Inc., 1964.

Ma577Mbert F. Preparing Instructional Objectives. PaloAlto: Fearon Publishers, 1962.

. Developing Attitudes Toward Learning. PaloAlto: Fearon Publisitrs, 1968.

Michael, William, ed. Teaching_ as a Creative Endeavor:Bold New Venture. BloomIngton, Indiana: Indiana Univer-FTETWMT1968.

Moody, Ferman B., and Rookey, Thomas J. "How to PigeonholeTeacher Aides for Better Performance and Production."American School Board Journal, September, 1968, 26-28.

Schaefer, Robert T. The School as a Center of Inquiry.New York: Harper and Row Publiigers,

Trump, J. Lloyd, and Baynham, Dorsey. Guide to BetterSchools. Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1961.

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Trump, J. Lloyd, and Miller, Delmas. Secondary SchoolImprovement: Proposals and Procedures. Rockleigh, NewJersey: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1968.

Filmstrips

"Focus on Change"National Association of Secondary School Principals,Washington, D.C.: 1962.

"Focus on the Individual"A Leadership Responsibility, National Association ofSecondary School Principals, Washington, D.C.: 1965.

Films

"And No Bells Ring"(Two parts) National Association of Secondary SchoolPrincipals, Washington, D.C.: 1958.

"Answers and Questions"National Association of Secondary School Principals,Washington, D.C.: 1968.

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AN EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL AIDE PROGRAM: TRAINING FOR BOTHTEACHERS AND AIDES

By Donald C. ClarkSally N. Clark

Over the past several decades many attempts have been madeto increase the effectiveness of the classroom teacher.Technologists have developed new types of equipment andinstructional media. Psychologists have developed program-med instruction and new theories of learning, and educatorshave developed new methodologies and techniques. Whenproperly used, all of these new developments have addedgreatly to teacher effectiveness. It is, however, ouropinion that one of the most promising ways to increase theeffectiveness and efficiency of a classroom teacher is theemployment of instructional aides.

RATIONALE OF INSTRUCTIONAL AIDE PROGRAMS

Before discussing the training of aides and teachers, itis important to briefly examine the rationale for instruc-tional aide programs. If we are to believe the statement.by Dr. J. Lloyd Trump when he says, "one-third of theteaching day goes to clerical and subprofessional tasks andanother third to work that could just as well be done byvarious kinds of automatic devices: it is imperative for usto then examine ways to better utilize the competency of aprofessional teacher. Improvement of instruction is amajor professional goal, and a teacher aide can helpachieve that goal. It could therefore be said that thereal rationale for the instructional aide program is toassist teachers in the supervision and instruction ofpupils so that teachers may use their energies more effec-tively. Dr. Wallace Maurer, Chief of the Bureau of TeacherEducation, Pennsylvania's Department of Public Instruction,makes the following statement:

The use of paraprofessionals, provides more oppor-tunity for personal attention to the learner and itfrees professionals from non-teaching assignments soas to provide them with more time to wisely engineerlearning climates.

He goes on to say:While economy, through cost control, is a prime

Clark, Donald C., and Sally N. Clark. "An EffectiveInstructional Aide Program: Training for Both Teachers andAides." Journal of Secondary Education, Vol. 45, No. 6,1970, pp. 250-2M

sri, re

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objective, the financing of paraprofessional staffingneeds to be viewed in its relationship to the in-creased efficiency and effectiveness of the profes-sional teacher.

In the past sovttral years the teachers themselves haverecognized the need for assistance in nonprofessionalactivities. Consequently, the profession has taken apositive stand toward the employment of instructionalaides. The following statement by the National Commissionon Teacher Education and Professional Standards appears ina brochure entitled Auxiliary School Personnel. The state-ment is as follows:

The National Commission on Teacher Education andProfessional Standards sees the addition of auxil-iary personnel in the schools as one of the mostchallenging and hopeful advances in modern education.The needs of society require significant changes inour present school organization. The teacher is askilled professional and as such must be permitted todo a professional level of work. He must be adiagnostician and a guider of learning experiences.He should not waste his time on trivia. The utiliza-tion of auxiliary personnel can provide the oppor-tunity for teachers to teach.

ORIENTATION AND TRAINING PROCEDURES FOR TEACHERS

All those in the process of developing instructional aideprograms should carefully consider the following statementmade by Professor J. L. Stevens of the University ofHouston:

If you get teacher aides, don't expect yourteachers to know automatically how to use them.They'll need training. In fact, it takes almost asmuch training for'the teacher as for the aide.

It is important to realize lldt the utilization of anaide is something entirely new to most teachers; and if theprogram is to be successful, teachers need to be properlyprepared to effectively use the services of an aide.

In some cases teacher attitudes toward aides have beenmixed. Some teachers have resisted the presence of anotherperson in the classroom while they are teaching. Theseteachers may perceive an aide as infringing upon their pro-fessional autonomy in the classroom. Since many teachershold the perception that the classroom is their bailiwickwhere they may give the aide chiefly menial tasks such ashousekeeping and monitoring. The aide is not allowed togive any vital assistance to the instructional program.There are, however, many teachers who view the aide as asource of help and are willing to utilize the aide'stalents for the benefit of the children. It is theseteachers who view the aide movement as having great bene-fits for the professional teacher.An inservice program for teachers should begin prior to

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employmer. of the aide and should continue after the pro-gram is in operation. We recommend that teachers partici-pate in the selection of their aides, and at this point itis our recommendation that before the selection proceduresbegin that some time be spent in discussing the properutilization of aides. Our past experience has shown usthat a couple of two- or three-hour sessions with an out-side consultant and with school administrators are effec-tive in assisting teachers to properly use aides.The activities that are covered in these sessions

include:1. Defining and listing those responsibilities that are

of a professional nature and must be handled by theteacher.

2. Defining and listing the duties and responsibilitiesof the aides.

3. Discussion of methods of handling personality con-flicts between aides and teachers and aides andstudents.

4. Discussion of appropriate interviewing techniques tobe utilized in selection procedures.

S. Appropriate methods of evaluating the instructionalaide's effectiveness..

6. An equitable distribucion of the aide's time.There must be a feeling of mutual respect between the

aide and the teacher. The aide must feel that she isplaying a vital role in the instructional program. It isimportant that all members of the staff have an opportunityto develop individuality in areas that are beneficial toboth the students and the other members of the staff. Thiscan be done by utilizing the particular talents that anaide may have. In doing this teachers need to acquire theability to recognize these talents and to utilize themeffectively. Above all, the aide's work should be treatedwith respect so that she will have a sense of dignity andaccomplishment.

In working with aides, teachers must learn to developappropriate relationships. If this is not done, the work-ing relationships may be strained. Inappropriate teacher-aide relationships are most often manifested by the teachereither denying or overstressing the differences in theirrespective roles.Finally, teachers need to be aware of some of the impor-

tant aspects for job success in an aide program. TheUniversity of Minnesota Office of New Careers suggests thefollowing four elements:

1. A clear-cut hierarchy of authority.2. A variety of tasks for aides to do with a certain

amount of independence.3. A chance to feel part of the agency.4. Meaningful inservice training.Teachers play an important role, and their continued

efforts in theee areas contribute greatly to the success ofthe aide program. Meaningful inservice becomes a coopera-

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tive etfort t,I teaohers, principals, and central officeconsultants and admihistrators.

ORIENTATION AND TRAINING OF INSTRUCTIONAL AIDES

If the aide is going to be effective in assisting theteacher, her responsibilities and role must be carefullydefined. It has been previously stated that one of thethings teachers need to do in preparing for effectiveutilization of aides is to carefully delineate those re-sponsibilitier that are professional in nature and thoseresponsibilities that can be adequately handled by aninstructional aide. If teachers cannot do this, there willbe a certain degree of fuzziness that will somewhat hamperthe effectiveness of the aide. A teacher who is to suc-cessfully work with an aide in an educational setting musthave had incorporated in her own training the ability towork as a leader or part of a team.

While it is impossible to develop a universal list of theduties of instructional aides, there are some essentialconditions that govern the assignments that are typicallygiven to auxiliary personnel.

1. There must be specific training for and evidence ofcompetence for each assignment to be performed.

2. The supervising teacher should provide directions asto when and for whom each function is to be per-formed.

3. All duties and functions performed by auxiliary per-sonnel shall be supervised by a certificated teacher.The constant physical presence of the supervisingteacher is not essential, but the teacher must alwaysbe readily available.

Once the duties and responsibilities of the aides havebeen carefully delineated, it is necessary that preserviceand inservice training be developed so that these peoplehave a minimum degree of skill and understanding beforethey enter the classroom. There are many effective waysfor training instructional aide personnel. Many juniorcolleges in 'California have, or are now in the process ofdeveloping, two-year courses of study that have the desig-nated purpose of preparing people for instructional aidepositions. These programs typically inc3udet generaleducation courses such as psychology, social science,English, skills courses such as typing and office practice;and specific courses dealing with school procedures, poli-cies, and duties and responsibilities of aides, AdultEducation courses have also been developed to give inter-ested people an opportunity to acquire some of the skillsand understandings necessary for effective performance asan instructional aide. These courses vary and may be eightweeks, a set ester, or a year in length. School districts,in many instances, have developed their own programs ofinservice. Those selected as aides spend several weeks

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prior to the beginning of school in a preservice programand then continue to attend inservice sessions throughoutthe course of the year or as long as they are employed asinstructional aides. Typically these programs are adminis-tered by building principals, consultants, and districtcurriculum personnel.As mentioned previously, the format of inservice training

varies throughout Cal4fornia and the nation. This can alsobe said of the content and methodology used in the trainingof aides. It should be said, however, that the content ofthe inservice training sessions should correlate directlywith the duties and responsibilities that are expected ofthe aides. There are, however, some general kinds ofinformation that should be incorporated in all instruc-tional aide inservice programs. In the Croft Publicationentitled The Teacher, Joseph C. DeVita lists the followingfactors tUrilialiorbe considered:

1. Your district's organization and philosophy.2. District forms and procedures.3. Suggestiotis for coping with classroom problems.4. Grooming and personal discretion.5. Suggestions for handling judgment situations.In dealing with the training of instructional aides we

have utilized two formats in the Monrovia Unified SchoolDistrict, both of which we feel have been successful. Thefirst format was the adult education course which lastedfor a duration of eight weeks. The course was planned anddeveloped by curriculum resource people who also partici-pated in the conducting of the weekly three-hour sessions.The course description is as follows:This course explores the role of the instructional aide

in assisting the classroom teachers with those duties thatare essentially nonteaching. Each participant will begiven the opportunity to acquaint himself with the rolesand duties of instructional aides, to create bulletinboards, to work with many different kinds of multi-mediainstructional equipment, and to prepare various materialsused in the classroom.

Briefly the sessions were organized as follows:Session 11.Millaphical information about the participant.2. Discussion of ideas and concepts regarding instruc-

tional aides.3. Discussion of aide relationships to various school

and district personnel.4. Reading and discussion of articles on team teaching.Session 217-15TFEssion of the history of the use of instruc-

tional aides.2. Continued discussion of literature concerning

instructional aides.3. Discussion of rationale for the instructional aide

program.4. Discussion of reactions of the community, of teach-

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em;, students, and parents to instructional aides.S. Introdui.ti,)n tt innovative educational programs and

the place of instructional aides in the programs.6. Discussion of personal qualities and traits important

for instructional aides.Session 31. Review use of various district and school forms, such

as requisitions, revistratin forms, cum folders,etc.

2. Panel discussion of teachers and administrators con-cerning the use of instructional aides.

Session 47157:67assion of district job description.2. Discussion and practical experience on the utiliza-

tion of duplicating equipment including the dittomachine, mimeograph machine, and Xerox.

3. Setting up a list of step-by-step procedures to beused in the operation of each of these pieces ofduplicating equipment.

Session 51. Development of a guide and a handbook that will be

useful to instructional aides.2. Overview of media and media equipment utilized in

district classrooms.Session 6T7-777ession in the utilization of overhead projectors

and photocopy machines.2. Development of overhead transparencies.3. Development of good bulletin boards.Session 7177-7,766Fatory experience in the set-up and utilization

of video tape equipment, record players, taperecorders, 16mm projectors, and filmstrip projectors.

Session 817-7-7A711 and development patterns of school age

children.2. Coping with classroom problems and situations.3. Summary.The other format that we have successfully used has been

at the school building level. These meetings are usuallyconducted prior to school and directly involve the princi-pals and the teachers in the training of aides. The con-tent incorporated in this format is basically the same asthe one developed for the adult education course.After insorvice training and general orientation have

taken place, the aides should be given additional trainingand support throughout the school year. One of the bestways is through informal meetings and lunches where teach-ers, aides, and other supportive personnel can discussvarious problems of mutual concern.

In summary, while there are many factors that contribute

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to a successful instructional aide program, too muchemphasis cannot be placed on the careful and systematictraining of both teachers and aides. As mentioned pre-viously, this training should not only precede the imple-mentation of the aide program but should continue to givesupport to teachers and aides in their efforts to coopera-tively build a strong educational program.

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Summary

All too often innovations are introduced into schoolswithout due consideration to the particular roles teacherswill be required to assume. It is perhaps for this veryreason that many promising new programs fail or at leastfail to live up to expectations. Another significantfactor in the failure of innovations is the assumption thatwhen teachers are presented new role expectations theyautomatically value them and adopt them into their teachingmethodology.

In our work with team teaching, pontooning, the ModelSchools Project, and other programs for individualizinginstruction, we have attempted to deal with teacher method-ology and inservice on a systematic basis. The results ofour initial efforts are contained in four articles found inthis section.

In summarizing the article the following significant con-cepts are reemphasized:

1. Innovation makes new demands on teachers and adminis-trators. These demands should be identified prior tomaking a commitment to innovate.

2. Innovation usually meets resistance. It is thereforeimportant that all those to be involved in a programparticipate in planning.

3. New programs should be phased in gradually andutilize only volunteers.

4. Inservice programs that will assist teachers indeveloping new skills and assuming new roles need tobe systematically developed.

5. Training for teachers, aides, and other faculty andstaff members must be continuous over a period ofseveral years.

Finally, it must be stated that the various roles assumedby a teacher and the methodologies he uses are based pri-marily on attitudes, self-concept, and personality traits.In short, teaching is a very personal matter. Getting ateacher to change his role in the classroom thereforebecomes a very complex task that requires a gradual andsystematic program, opportunities for self-evaluation, anda supportive climate from peers and administrators.

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Resources

Books and Monographs

Anderson, Robert 1 . Bibliography on Organizational Trendsin Schools. Washington, D.C.: Center for the Study ofinstruction, NEA, 1968.

Berchard, Joseph E. The Process of Small Groups. Ft.Lauderdale: The Edutronics Corporation, 1971.

Buikema, Kent. "The Resource Center in Today's School."Iowa City, Iowa: Measurement Research Center, 1969-70MCR Monograph Series.

Canadian Teacher's Federation. Team Teaching: Bibli-ographies in Education, No. 22. Ottawa: The Federation,1,971.

Clark, Donald, and Clark, Sally N. The Selection, Train-ing, and Effective Utilization of instructional Aides.Los Angeles: Center for Excellence in Education,University of Southern California, 1971.

Georgiades, William. "Use of Non-Professional Aides." LosAngeles: University of Southern California, 1968.

McNeil, J. H. Some Guidelines for Small Group Instruction.Ft. Lauderdale: The Edutronics Corporation, 1971.

Olivero, James L., and Buffie, Edward G., eds. EducationalManpower--From Aides to Differentiated Staff Patterns.Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1970.

Smith, James. Bibliographies on Team Teaching, Small GroupDiscussion, Independent Study, Flexible Scheduling. TheAbington Conference: Abington, Pennsylvania, 1966 (TheAbington High School).

Stanford, Gene, and Stanford, Barbara. Learning DiscussionSkills Through Games. New York: Citation Press, 1969.

Trump, J. Lloyd. "Small Group Discussion." Washington,D.C.: NASSP

Articles

Howard, James. "Independent Study for Today's Schools."Journal of Secondary Education, January, 1971, pp. 25-31.

Keefe, James W. "Differentiated Staffing- -Its Rewards andPitfalls." NASSP Bulletin, May, 1971, pp. 112-118.

O'Donnel Patrick A., and Lavaroni, Charles W. "Elementsof Individualized Instruction." Education Digest,September, 1970, pp. 17-19.

Olivero, James L. "The Meaning and Application of Differ-entiated Staffing in Teaching." Phi Delta Kazan,September, 1970, pp. 36-40.

Trump, J. Lloyd. "Independent Study." Catholic Hi hSchool Quarterly, October, 1968, pp. 2- .

it 11,',

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Media

General Programmed Teaching. "Designing Effective Instruc-tion." Five filmstrips and cassettes. Palo Alto,

California: General Programmed Teaching.I.D.E.A. "The Strategies of Small Group Learning." 16mm.

film, color and sound, 26 min. Dayton, Ohio:

"

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PART V

EVALUATING INNOVATIVE PROGRAMS

Introduction

Evaluation systems must become an integral part of everyindividualized instructional program. Without provisionfor continuous feedback, little can be done to determineprogram effectiveness, and no information is available toprovide the basis for sound program changes.1. Is section attempts to examine evaluation as it applies

to innovative programs. Dr. Georgiades, in the initial twoarticles, discusses the problems that arise when programsthat emphasize new ncepts of learning are evaluated bytraditional evalul. ive procedures. In the followingarticle Drs. Trump and Georgiades examine the variouselements of school programs in the Model Schools Projectand their relationship to change. In describing theevaluation of the Pontoon Transitional Design, Dr. Clarkemphasizes the importance of continued research for up-dating innovative programs. Drs. Housden and LeGear con-clude the final section of this book with a discussion ofcriterion-referenced evaluation.Dr. Jack Housden has taught both mathematics and speech

at the junior high school level. Presently he is employedby the California State Department of Education inSacramento* California as an evaluator of educational pro-grams. Dr. Lannie LeGear has served as a special educationand English teacher at the high school and college levels.Presently she is an Assistant Professor of Special Educa-tion at Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana.

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TEAM TEACHING: A NEW STAR, NOT A METEOR

By William Georgiades

In my opinion, the past decade has shown that team teach-

ing is a new star, not a meteor, in the constellation ofeducational innovations.

Team teaching and its related elements of nongradednessand flexible scheduling have the potential to help educa-tion solve its most pressing contemporary problems--risingenrollments, teacher shortage, and rapidly increasing know-

ledge. It can provide an environment in which all students'needs are more effectively met than in the conventional

classroom; it can facilitate individualized instruction;and it can permit better use of teachers' talents andeducational technology in passing on the vast amount ofknowledge available today.

Any intelligent discussion of team teaching must begin bymaking clear what it actually is, for in visiting so-calledteam teaching programs around the country I have seen toomany examples of what it is not--part-time practices, withteachers tacitly or openly agreeing, "Your turn today:

mine tomorrow."Team teaching typically includes the following essential

characteristics: (a) Students are arranged in classes of70 or more for oral and visual presentations and in groups

of 12 to 20 for discussion. (b) Team members take assign-ments according to their competencies and determine the

sequence and manner in which the material is to be pre-sented and the structural arrangement (large group, smallgroup, or individual study) most effective for a particular

purpose.In addition, a number of conditions are necessary to

ensure that team teaching will be truly effective:Cooperative planning. Teachers in a team will perform at

their best only If they have time to plan, prepare, and

evaluate what they are doing. This requires the redeploy-ment of teacher time, redeployment of students, and dif-ferent use of finances.Use of ara rofessional aides. Instruction assistants

an c erica a es are essent al to a team operation.Clerical aides perform many of the routine nonteachingtaskF, while instruction assistants help supervise indepen-dent study, handle instructional materials, and evaluate

some student work.

Georgiades, William. "Team Teaching: A New Star, Not a

Meteor." NEA Journal, Vol. 56, No. 4, April, 1967, pp.

14-15.

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Material support. Large-group instruction usually callsfor microphone systems and overhead projectors. CeVkainadditional kinds of materials may also be needed forindependent study.Adequate preparation of teachers. This usually involves

visiting ongoing team programs and attending summer work-shops for planning. Research has shown the importance ofthese activities for successful team teaching.A climate of administrative support. Research indicates

that support from the administrator is vital to a school'ssuccess in team teaching. In no case was extensive, well-organized team teaching encountered in which the adminis-trator was not enthusiastically involved. Conversely, fewenthusiastic teachers were found in programs where theadministration was neutral or busy with other things.It is much too early to give an authoritative evaluation

of team teaching. Although research and literature isgradually accumulating, glowing testimonials have dominatedthe published articles. Some of the better descriptivepresentations of team teaching have appeared in the Bulle-tin of the National Association of Secondary School Irma-pals. But these haveIeen mainly confined to subjectivediidussions of the relative merits and limitations ofvarious team designs.

Little effort has been made to measure some of the moresignificant targets of team teaching such as increasingthe student's critical thinking ability through small groupstudy; developing his ability to discuss with othersthrough small group experience; building his sense ofresponsibility for his own education through independentstudy; allowing the student to move at his own pace bygiving him more individualized instruction.I have included in a bibliography following this article

studies of student achievement under team teaching repre-senting a fair cross section of the country. One studyfound that students in the experimental group showed higherachievement in English III than did the team-taught stu-dents, while English II results favored the control group;another study found in favor of the experimental group onthe teacher-made test and the Reading Comprehension test ofthe CRT; and the others found no significant difference inachievement between the control and experimental groups.Serious doubts can be raised about most of these studies,

however. Greatly improved student performance as measuredby standardized achievement tests is not the most importantobjective of team teaching. Teaching-Ea'sic methods ofinquiry and cultivating a desire to learn are much moresignificant. The purpose of education is not to pile up astorehouse of information in each student's brain, but togive him the tools with which to think. Unfortunately,most current techniques of evaluation are designed tomeasure the piling-up process.

In view of the limitations of research studies currentlyavailable, we need comprehensive studies which will measure

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all the influential factors in the learning process, such

as socioeconomic status, intellectual ability, sex, gradelevel, ethnic representation, and teacher behavior, as wellas the interaction among these factors.

Further, I believe that complex, yet clearly formulated,theoretical models of team teaching should be developed,for, as Heathers has stated, "Designing a new team teachingplan is a process of devising a model that interrelatesfeatures of the plan, aspects of the instructional situa-tions where it is to be employed, and anticipated outcomesof the plan." No final judgment should be made on teamteaching until such comprehensive evaluations are carried

out.The pace at which the basic goals of team teaching are

realized in American education will ultimately be deter-mined by how quickly administrators and teachers can changetheir ways. According to one Gallup Poll, Americans strong-ly support a creative reorganization of the nation's educa-

tional structure. Unfortunately, we find the greatestresistance to change among educators, who are in the bestposition to bring it about. The strength of our societyand the future role of this nation in the world will likelybe determined by the ingenuity and daring of educators whoexplore new and better ways of teaching all the children

of all the people. The choice is ours: to innovate or

stagnate.

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Bibliography

1. Beasley, Kenneth L. "An Investigation of the Effectof Team Teaching upon Achievement and Attitudes inUnited States History Classes." Doctor's thesis.El,anston, Illinois: Northwestern University, 1962.234 pp. Abstract: Dissertation Abstracts 23:3256;March, 1963.

2. Belleau, Wilfred E., Jr. "A Study of Team Teaching inthe Senior High Schools of California." Doctor'sthesis. Los Angeles: University of SouthernCalifornia, 1965. 249 pp. Abstract: DissertationAbstracts 26: 1505; September, 1965.

3. Georgiades, William, and Bjelke, Joan. "Evaluation ofEnglish Achievement in a Ninth Grade, Three-Period,Team-Teaching Class." California Journal of Educa-tional Research, 17:100-112; May, 1966.

4. Georgiades,- William, and Bjelke, Joan. "An Experimentin Flexible Scheduling in Team Teaching." Journalof Secondary Education, 39:136-143; March, MI=

5. Heathers, M.en. "Research on Team Teaching." Team

Teachin . (Edited by Judson T. Shaplin and Henry F.0 ds, Jr.) New York: Harper & Row, 1964, pp. 306-75.

6. Hunt, Edward G. "Team Teaching in Junior High SchoolScience and Social Studies." Doctor's thesis.

Storrs: University of Connecticut, 1963, 105 pp.Abstract: Dissertation Abstracts 24: 4583: May,1964.

7. Johnson, Robert H., and others. "An Extensive Studyof Team Teaching and Schedule Modification inJefferson County, Colorado, School District R-1."Bulletin of the National Association of SecondarySchool Principals 44: 79-93: January, 1960.

8. Norwalk Board of Education. "The Norwalk Plan of TeamTeaching, Third Report." Norwalk, Connecticut: The

Board, 1961.9. Taffel, Alexander. "An Evaluation of a Team Method of

Teaching High School Physics to AcademicallyTalented Students." Doctor's thesis. New York:New York University, 1961, 134 pp. Abstract: Dis-sertation Abstracts 22: 4297-98: June, 1962.

10. White, Robert W. "The Relative Effectiveness of aTeam Teaching Method in High School Biology Instruc-

tion." Doctor's thesis. Madison: University ofWisconsin, 1963, 318 pp. Abstract: DissertationAbstracts 23: 4271-72: May, 1963.

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EVALUATING NEW STRATEGIES IN TEACHING AND LEARNING

By William Georgiades

Let's stop bowing at the altar of cognitive achievementand start developing appropriate and multiple ways ofevaluating pupil progress and growth.

In a world where the practices of the yesterdays areinadequate for the tomorrows, there is a continuous ques-tioning of all which has preceded. In a glistening, glass-enshrouded, tinkling paradise we are faced with the lastfrontier--the frontier of the human mind; for we know solittle about the mind--what it is, how it works, how itlearns, how it stores information, how it retrieves it.Yet, it is by the minds of the boys and girls still inschool that all our tomorrows will be shaped in ways almostunimaginable to us now.

Potential for penetrating the heart of this last frontierexists within our educational system, even allowing for thefact that we do not have a system at all, but a number ofsubsystems that are related by their common lack of a basicphilosophy for education--lack of a shared aim and lack ofa value structure that will enable us to create a systemout of what we are doing. Anyone who delves deeply enoughinto education in the U.S. will discover a gigantic mosiacthat comprises the largest industry by far in our society.In 1966 there were about 125,000 separate educationalinstitutions, with more than 16 million students and nearly2 million teachers, spending approximately 845 billionannually in full-time schools--not counting adult educationclasses and extension courses. In short, one out of threepersons in the United States (SO million out of 194million) was engaged directly in the educational system.Out of this massive enterprise will come all of tomorrow'sbusiness management, all of industry's employees, allgovernment workers, all consumers--in short, the very shapeand texture of American life.This has not always been so. There are still 11 million

adult Americans alive today who did not finish the eighthgrade and among them 8.3 million who are classified asfunctionally illiterate; i.e. those who have not completedsix years of schooling. Significant]4, however, most ofthe illiterates are in the older age brackets. Less thanfour per cent of the 18-year-old group falls into theilliterate classification. The goal of truly mass educationdid not enter into the mainstream of American life untilafter 1870. Never before had any nation attempted an

Georgiades, William. "Evaluating New Strategies inTeaching and Learning." Journal of Secondary Education,Vol. 45, No. 7, November 1, 1970, pp. 320-325.

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experiment on so grand a scale as this: mass education tothe highest attainable level for every individual in the

country.The shape of the American dream generates new ideas and

social and economic changes that are almost unimaginable."The new world will not be our world," says Robert Theobald

in Education for a New Time, "it will be created by youngpeogg-who know-how to live in a new environment."Theobald goes on to say, "Within this framework, I chal-lenge you (educators) to be willing to 'work for something

you may dislike. To accept things you cannot understand

and to start a process, the conclusion of which is uncer-tain and probably undesirable to many of us." Francis

Kepple, once U. S. Commissioner of Education and now chair-

man of the General Learning Corporation, says in his book

The Net Revolution in American Education:The first revolution in American education was a

revolution in quantity. Everyone was to be providedthe chance for an education of some sort. Thatrevolution is almost won in the schools and is on its

way in higher education. The second revolution isequality of opportunity. That revolution is under

way. The next turn of the wheel must be a revolution

in quality.And it is to the question of quality that we will now

turn; for if education fails tv prepare people for the kind

of world in which they will be living as adults, it willhave failed its purpose no matter how many millions ofpeople happen to finish school.

We are, in the main, a quantitative society. Questions

of quality not only bother us, but frequently are not

asked. Or if asked, not answered. Questions of quality

and evaluation are clearly interwoven. Before evaluation

can be brought to bear on the achievement of quality,quality itself must be defined. Basic to any such defini-tion is the question, "What is the purpose of education?"

In America, the first aim of education was to preparechildren to read the Scripture and tts intent was reli-

gious. Later on the purpose was to enable people to read

and write, and thus participate in a democratic processwhich required an understanding of the issues and candi-

dates involved. Still later, the purpose increasinglybecame to prepare young people for jobs in an industrial-

ized society. At no time was the aim of public education

to prepare students to become individuals or mmplete human

beings. This aspect of education was left to the home,

church, mass media, and the city streets. To a certain

extent, it still remains tterc. Yet, in a society that can

easily be foreseen, one in which cybernation and mechaniza-

tion will minimize the human factor in indus.rial produc-tion* the purpose of education must once again change. It

must begin to educate people to live full and meaningful

lives in which jobs are, at best, only incidental, or at

least for jobs that are oriented toward human service

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rather than physical productivity.

ACCENT ON QUALITY

It is toward questions of quality in education that thenew efforts and changes in education sometimes called inno-vations are directed. Of course, there are the huckstersin our enterprise as is true in any growing society. Thereare a few people who wish to change for change's sake.There ire some who would like to make their million throughchange strategies in education. But this is not charac-teristic of the masses of educators throughout our societywho are committed to more significant and meaningful waysof educating and reaching youth. And so all across thisland of ours--from rural schools in Hagerman, Idaho, andArvin, California, to city schools in Ridgewood, Illinois,Melbourne, Florida, and Seattle, Washington--efforts arebeing made to improve the quality of education.

There are many types of innovations in schools rangingfrom changet that are made more or less spontaneously byteachers in the course of their teaching, and by adminis-trators and other professional personnel in the course ofperforming their duties to innovations which are adoptedand put to use on an extensive basis, i.e., throughout aschool or a school system. Planning for,putting innova-tions to use in the school should also include planning forevaluation of their use. Good, sound evaluation is oftendifficult to make. Nevertheless, it should be made and, indoing so, change should be evaluated in terms of the goalsand objectives sought.Sound evaluation in our society has been facilitated by

mobility among educators. Buckling seat belts on fastmoving aircraft is the rule rather than the exception amongleaders in education. Selective schools across the countryreceive attention, justly or unjustly, because they havedeveloped improved programs in education, or because theyhave an effective public relations department, andthousands of people trek through the halls.What do you look for when you visit a school? No one can

be totally objective. What are the kinds of things thatone attempts to see? What are the glasses you wear as youlnnk at programs which you visit? What are the evaluativecomments you make after "ou have left the program? Whatkind of report do you bt ig back to your faculty, to yourboard of trustees, to your professional organizations?

Frequently, I have discussed a series of questions oneseeks to answer as one looks at new programs in education.I call this a walk-through on innovation. The first thingone needs to know is: What was the purpose for change?Why did this community seek to do something different fromthat which had been done in the past? What was its purposein changing? There may be occasions when one sees a goodinnovation in the wrong place. Local variables must beconsidered. There is no one schedule, there is no one

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approach, there is no monolithic pattern for change whichwill be equally effective in all the schools in our society.Each school differs, depending upon its pupils, its facul-ties, its plant, its financing, and many other variables.Consequently, any change which purports to be equallyeffective from the small rural communities of our societyto the large urban centers is absurd. What was the purposefor change in a given school? Were there administratorswho sought to enhance their reputation? Were there boardmembers who wished to proclaim with pride their innovativeprogram in education? Were there key teachers who weredeeply concerned with teaching and learning? What were thefacts which led to change in a given school environment?The second basic conern is what strategy for change was

followed in planning? How much time did it take to imple-ment the new program? What were the costs? What was thequality of leadership? Unless teacher roles change, thereis no change in education. I'm somewhat tired of seeingpart-time teaching called team teaching, of seeing discus-sion groups function as lecture classes, of seeing studyhalls called independent study. Such nonsense under theguise of innovation must stop!

Questions that might be asked when one looks at new pro-grams in education are: What was the strategy for change?How was staff involved? How were community and studentsinvolved? What kinds of plans were implemented to assistteachers, students, and administrators redefine theirrespective roles? And lastly: Do the data, does theinformation show that the targets, the goals are being hit?What kind of evaluative data is available, both from thecognitive and affective domains?

RESEARCH OR OPINIONS?

How do you evaluate innovative practices when the wholeschool is innovative, when you change the physical plant,the staffing pattern, the time schedule, the educationalmaterials, the methodology, and the role of the teacher andlearner--all within a few years? As Gene Howard has said,"As far as I know, it's never been done." Does this meanthat we stop building innovative schools? Some people areurging that change in education should be guided by comeunwritten rule such as: If you can't evaluate it don't

change it. I wish wc were at a cufficiently sophisticatedstage of development in educational research so that we

could live by such a rule. Unfortunately, such an attitudewould prevent us from doing many things which make a lot of

sense and which will help our young people learn. We havenever, in the history of educational change in this or anyother country, made decisions on the basis of educationalresearch. What basis in research do we have for such inno-vations as class-size 30, the 900-square foot classroom,the Carnegie unit as a measure of progress, the 45-minuteperiod, or the use of a single textbook for a course?

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None. The decisions that led to these things were likemost decisions in our schools: They were made on the basisof opinion and expediency. In fact, the research we do haveabout factors that tend to permit children to get excitedabout learning suggests strongly that the rigidities wehave invented are poorly calculated to achieve much of any-thing positive as far as learning is concerned.The UNESCO study on mathematics released several years

ago is probably one of the best pieces of educationalresearch ever done. What's happened to it? Why aren'tschool systems all across American looking at its meaningsfor grouping? We're getting the same kind of reaction torecommendations from the Dartmouth English Conference.Why? Because the implications conflict with deeply en-trenched educational prejudices. We do not want to changepractices which have been developed primarily to make theschools easier to manage, practices which seem right eventhough the evidence strongly suggests they are wrong.There is a research basis for such educational concepts asteam teaching, continuous progress, independent study, trueflexible scheduling, and non-gradedness. The rationale forthese concepts is in accord with the findings of manyexperimental psychologists who have been concerned abouthow people learn.How people learn is relevant to any meaningful evalua-

tion. The evaluative process must take into considerationall the dimensions of growth which we anticipate as aresult of the teaching-learning act. Unfortunately manyof our efforts in the past have focused upon cognitiveachievement. Testing is an old profession, and it appearsto have been invented by the Chinese. But it is we prag-matic Americans who have raised the art of testing to itspresent level of sophistication and monetary reward.Achievement tests which dominate the evaluation scene donot really measure what we as educators believe and what weas Americans believe are the more important outcomes ofinstruction. The tragedy, however, is that classroom testson the other hand, are so horribly picayunish as to be hardto believe. We have only recently started to play with thequestion of assessing those objectives in instruction thatare concerned with how students think rather than what theythink or know. In Er recent research on the outcomes ofinstruction in the new high school physics course developedby the physical science study committee, Robert Heathdeveloped a cognitive preference test that measures notwhether the student can solve each of the problems pre-sented (all the responses are correct), but rather, whatsort of answer he prefers. Each response offers a differ-ent way of considering the problem. For curriculum evalua-tion particularly, the cognitive preference test offers anew way to relate achievement testing to the objectives ofinstruction. If we persist in using outmoded devices tomeasure new goals and targets, we shall continue to experi-ence no significant differences as a consequence of

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flexible ways of working with youth.Wi:h reference to problems of change, the matter of

appraisal or evaluation is extremely important; for it isparticularly, perhaps peculiarly, related to a society orto an educational system during a period of great change.Appraisal and evaluation can either facilitate or retard.Do we accept as our primary goal the statement of CarlRogers: We are faced with an entirely new situation ineducation where the goal of education, if we are to sur-vive, is the facilitation of change and learning. The onlyman who is educated is the man who has learned how tolearn; the man who has learned how to adapt to change; theman who has realized that no knowledge is secure but onlythe process of seeking knowledge gives a basis forsecurity?" If we accept this as a goal, then our target isto produce a student who has learned how to learn who haslearned how to adapt to change, who knows his ultimatesecurity lies not in possessing knowledge, because it willsurely change, but in his ability to seek it. If the"seeking process" becomes our primary goal, our evaluativeinstruments must reflect such a commitment.

As Dr. J. Lloyd Trump has frequently mentioned, thequestion of excellence is a difficult one for discussion.There are those who would rather relate quality to class-size or to the number of minutes per week in which a classmeets or to the number of volumes in a library or thenumber of dollars spent per pupil. But there is littleresearch to support the generalization that such variablesproduce superior learning. Our profession has long knownthat easily measured criteria do not necessarily producesuperior conditions for learning or the educational out-comes listed as desired goals for students. Appropriatepatterns of evaluation must consider more than cognitivegains. Such variables as attendance, drop-out rate, stu-dent attitudes toward subjects, and patterns of behavioroutside of the school day must be considered.

How a child feels about a subject is ultimately far moresignificant than what he knows about that subject. For howhe feels will determine his learnings and his conduct in

the years to come what he knows, will not. The Nazis vi$'slaughtered six million innocent Jews knew too much, butfelt too little. I would challenge any faculty to evaluateits programs, its innovative attempts in terms of studentattitudes toward mathematics, toward history, towardEnglish. Is it any wonder that so few adults read so fewbooks in our culture? Is it any wonder that a Gallup polla few years ago found that college graduates do not read onthe average of one book a year after graduation? Existingmethods of evaluation do not deal with this variable. Theysimply indicate whether a student knew certain titles andfacts about literature at the time of graduation. They donot deal with the question of whether the student will ever

read again. Innovative programs with their focus onindividual study, independent study, call it what you wish,

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have as one of their primary targets a lifelong interest inlearning. It is not really important whether a studentknows given facts about literature. What is important is:Will he read any literature once he has filled out withunits his green stamp book called "school" and received hispremium which is a diploma. Learning how to learn is aprimary target of most new innovative programs. This goalmust be measured. It cannot be measured with cognitivedevices. It can be measured by attendance; it can bemeasured by dropouts; it can be measured by ascertainingactivities in which students indulge beyond the normalschool day, during vacation periods, etc. Grades, stan-dardized achievement testing as we now know them must bereplaced eventually by records of individual pupil-progress. The practice of using monolithic, single purposetests to measure multiple goals and objectives must be dis-continued. The multimillion dollar test corporations mustassist us in developing appropriate and multiple ways ofevaluating pupil-progress and growth. Those which insiston bowing at the altar of cognitive achievement alone mustbe by-passed. The focus of evaluation should be on thepurposes and goals and the degree to which those are beingaccomplished better today than they were one month, fourmonths, or two years ago.

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The NASSP Model Schools Programseeks to promote worthwhile changesin some 30 widely separated schools.The program was little more than ayear old when data for this reportwere gathered. But one importantconclusion could be drawn at once:Some changes can be made easily;others are resisted. This reportsorts them out.

WHICH ELEMENTS OF SCHOOL PROGRAMS ARE EASIER TO CHANGE ANDWHICH ARE MOST DIFFICULT--AND WHY?

By J. Lloyd TrumpWilliam Georgiades

One year ago, at the NASSP Annual Convention in Washing-ton, D.C., we discussed goals of the Model Schools Project,which we had developed for the NASSP with financial assis-tance from the Danforth Foundation. Also, we suggestedsome transitional steps that educators might take in movingany school towards the Model. Our written summary of thatpresentation, called "Doing Better with What You Have,"appeared in the May, 1970, issue of the Bulletin. Now wewant to report what has happened during TWWFEE year inthese Model schools. At the time the following data werereported to us, the schools were one year and three monthsinto the five-year NASSP Model Schools Project (hereafterreferred to as MSP). The question is, how much have theschools changed?Any experienced person knows that it is not easy to

change schools. They also know that there is no such thingas effective instant innovation. We respect the efforts ofthe principals, teachers, and students in these more than30 MSP schools. Their efforts constitute a significantcontribution. Through them, we are accumulating in the MSPwhat may be the most significant data available about theprocess of change in schools.

The decade of the sixties saw many grandiose schemes torevolutionize American education. "Team teaching," "flex-ible scheduling," "mini-courses," "continuous progress,"and "independent study" became common terms in "pedaguese."

The flow of federal and private foundation money stimu-lated numerous so-called "innovations." There was con-

Trump, J. Lloyd, and William Georgiades. "Which Elementsof School Programs Are Easier to Change and Which Are MostDifficult--And Why?" The Bulletin of the National Associa-tion of Secondary Schoolrr13671417,1971, pp. 54-68.

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siderable "shuffling of feet" and "verbalizing" in educa-tion.The critical question is whether such verbalizing and

shuffling, including the creation of a new vocabulary, didindeed result in any significant changes in the teachingand learning practices of school systems. In the stimu-lating Hall-Dennis Report relating to Canadian educationand entitled "Living and Learning," this statement is made:"Changes in education, no matter how sweeping, profound, orideal, are barren unless they bring about changes in theclassrooms." There is increasing evidence to indicate thatthe shuffling of the sixties produced few changes behindthe classroom door, an idea supported in a recent book byJohn Goodlad entitled Behind the Classroom Door. Follow-upstudies indicate that relatively little change has takenplace as a result of millions of dollars invested in theschool systems of our society during the past decade.

Even if attempts to effect change in the sixties werelargely futile, perhaps those frustrating experiences werenecessary, for they may have taught both educators and thepublic that school systems, like all social institutions,are extremely difficult to change. Now, in the earlyseventies, there are those who believe that school systemscannot and will not be able to change sufficiently to meetthe changing needs of American society and, consequently,that new educational alternatives will have to be provided.

In many respects the NASSP staff utilization studies ofthe fifties prepared the way for the action of the sixties.Publications such as Images of the Future, 1958 (out ofprint) and Focus on Change--Guide to Better Schools re-ceived wide distribution. The new vocabulary which was tobecome so common during the sixties emerged from suchmaterials.

The MSP itself is an outgrowth of the staff utilizationstudies of the fifties. It is an attempt to face realis-tically the complex problems schools encounter as they seekto change. It is also an outgrowth of our conviction andexperiences that only "total commitment to total change"will produce significantly improved schools.

We need to examine carefully why some aspects of schoolsappear to be more difficult than others to change. Clues toanswering that question may be found in our experience withthe MSP schools as they have sought to implement the Modeldescribed in the May 1970, Bulletin. By better identify-ing the major stumbling blocks for change, we may be ableto refine our strategies and thereby facilitate thedevelopment of more relevant and meaningful school pro-grams.

Data provided by the schools are not as precise as wewould prefer. After considerable discussion, we decided toconsolidate data by averaging percentage informe.tion pro-vided by the schools in answer to such directives as thefollowing:

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Indicate how much time the principal spends on eachof the following aspects of his job in hours perweek: improvement of instruction ; schoolmanagement ; other (specify) . (The datawere then cH3Vgd to percentages of in thesethree areas.)

Give total hours of clerical assistance providedeach week per teacher . (The data were thenchanged to percentages-7-1'We Model goal of 10 hoursper week per teacher.)

Number of teachers with each of the following typesof offices: private ; semi-private (in a roamwith others) ; 0-E-Foom with other teacherswith no visuarb77riers . (The data werereported for each response as percentages of thetotal teaching staff.)

How many pupils regularly receive reports ofspecial projects completed? . This was onequestion of three relating toiYgtematic-evaluationprocedures. The percentages in this case were com-puted in relation to the total pupil enrollment ineach school. Incidentally, in a related questionabout eliminating A, B, C, D, F grades, one school inCategory 2 had done so and it was only in one subject--religion. The average percentage for that particu-lar category came out as .1 of one percent.

WHAT HAVE WE FOUND THUS FAR?

The following paragraphs and three tables summarize thedata on the progress of change as reported by the MSPschools. The schools are divided into three categories:(1) seven schools with which the project staff worked mostclosely and which were given some funds for training anddevelopment; (2) another seven schools that received somepersonal visits and special training; (3) the balance ofschools in the project--those experiencing few personalcontacts with the project staff, most communication beingconveyed by telephone and letter.Here are some guides to clarify the three tables:1. The tables show the average percentage of progress

among the schools in each of 18 aspects of the Model.Average percentages are given for each of the threecategories, ranging from 0 (no progress) to 100%(complete achievement) of that particular aspect ofthe Model.

2. Table 1 groups six aspects of the MSP that have beenmost difficult for schools to change; the percentagesof change for the three categories of schools aresmaller than those six in Table 2. Table 3 groupssip x aspects of the MSP where the percentages ofachievement were largest; therefore, these aspectswere easiest to onui.- Table 2, of course, listssix aspects of medium difficulty between the two

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3. The numbers 1, 2 and 3 at the left of each tablerefer to the three categories of schools in the MSP;the data from Category 4 schools (new or non-existent) are included when relevant under Category3.

MOST DIFFICULT TO CHANGE - -TABLE 1

Column I in Table 1 refers to the Model's objective of ateacher-pupil ratio of 1 to 35 (total number of teachers,not counting special teachers, counselors, or assistantprincipals, divided into the total number of pupils). Thishigh ratio is essential if the appropriate number of aidesare to be employed within existing budgets. Withoutadequate staff differentiation, the lower adult-pupilratio, vis-a-vis a higher teacher-pupil ratio which isnecessary for the individualization of instruction, willnot be realized.Progress has been slow toward this goal, with schools in

Category 1 adding only four pupils per teacher.. On theaverage, schools have traveled only 14% of the way towardfull implementation of this goal. However, one school inCategory 1 has achieved 94% of this objective. Slowprogress toward this objective indicates teacher resistanceto reducing the size of the certificated faculty, even whenfunds are available to employ aides. The tradition of theteacher as clerk, bookkeeper, compiler of records, andbaby-sitter is difficult to change. But teaching will notbecome a genuine profession until there is considerabledifferentiation in roles among adults who work with pupils.

Column II portrays the extent to which MSP schools haveeliminated the traditional A. B, C, D, F or other lettergrades and have moved to more accurate and comprehensivemethods of reporting student progress. The average extentof implementation in Category 1 schools is 31%, with twoschools reporting 100% fulfillment. Category 2 shows avery low average, 0.1%, with the best school only .04%along the way, having eliminated letter grades in only onecourse. Category 3 averages 17% accomplishment, with oneschool reporting 100%.The historical reliance of both teachers and parents on

better grades makes this area of change a highly sensitiveone. However, until we evaluate a pupil on the basis ofhis own growth, and not mainly on the basis of comparisonswith others, we will not individualize instruction. Eachperson's rate of growth differs. It is inhumane to con-tinue using a single letter grade to evaluate pupil pro-gress. It is important to evaluate a pupil's growthcomprehensively on a continuum. but a single letter gradedoes not accurately describe such growth. The Model callsfor systematic reporting of the quantity and quality of apupil's progress through the various segments of thelearning sequence in each curricular area plus a recording

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and appraisal of the special projects that each pupil com-pletes. The report provides appraisals in the cognitive,skills, and affective domains.

Column III refers to schools that make it possible forstudents to complete subjects in time spans other thanquarters, semesters, and/or years. The figures indicatethat schools in Category 1 have progressed an average of47% of the way toward full implementation of the goal ofcontinuous progress with two schools reporting 100%. Thoseschools in Category 2 average 17%, while those in Category3 report a low 12% achievement.For generations we have equated credit with time. Yet we

know that humans do not learn by semesters, quarters, oryears. Progress in changing this area is complicated byour refusal to identify what the completion of a coursemeans. We have traditionally defined credit by time, notperformance. Consequently, we are unsure what our perfor-mance objectives are. This uncertainty stands in the wayof implementing continuous progress education.

Column IV, Parts A, B, and C, shows the extent to whichthe schools have achieved the differentiated staff that theMSP requires. The percentages show more progress than inchanging the teacher-pupil ratio (Column I), indicating awillingness to employ paraprofessionals at added cost tothe school districts.

Column IV-A represents the progress schools have made inemploying general aides, based on the Model's goal of fivehours per week of such aide service per teacher. Category1 averages 26%; Category 2, 26%; and Category 3, 19%. Onlyone school reported 100% fulfillment.

Column IV-E1 shows the degree of progress in the employ-ment of clerical assistants by the schools when measuredagainst the Model's goal of 10 hours per week per teacher.Category 1 reports 37% implementation; Category 2, 30%; andCategory 3, only 10%. Again, only one school in all threecategories reported 100% fulfillment.

Column IV-C indicates the progress the schools have madein employing instructional assistants at the 20-hours-per-week-per-teacher ratio established by the Model. Category1 averages 34%; Category 2, 36%; and Category 3, 17%. Onceagain, only one school reported 100% attainment.Some of the same reasons which have kept us from achiev-

ing a teacher-pupil ratio of 1 to 35, as seen in Column 1,have kept us from making greater strides in the employmentof general aides, clerical assistants, and instructionalassistants. The myth that uniformly small class siresproduce superior learning so carefully nurtured by theteaching profession, is difficult to shatter. The conceptof differentiated responsibilities as practiced indentistry with dental technicians and clerks, in medicinewith registered nurses, vocational nurses, clerks, etc. andin other professional groups has not yet made a majorimpact on teachers.

Column V shows the degree to which the schools have made

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provisions for private or semi-private office facilitiesfor each teacher. Category 1 shows a low average of 8%implementation of this objective, while Categories 2 and 3report a 42% and 47% achievement respectively. Inadequatespace is usually cited as the reason for not providingoffices and work spaces for teachers. Yet, teachers canhardly be expected to function as professionals and relateto pupils as teacher-advisers unless they have privacyin which to work. A few schools may have problems ofinadequate space. However, the greatest deterrent to theachievement of this goal may be the refusal of the schoolsto reallocate space--to break the traditional grip of somepersons and departments on the use of certain space. Someschools also persist in the wasteful and costly practice ofhaving teachers work in classrooms that are needlesslydevoid of pupils for a time.

Column VI refers to evaluation of pupil progress. Thefigures are based on completion of projects by the stu-dents. The Model places high priority on appraising,recording, and reporting these special projects, whereasthe conventional school conceals such information in asingle letter grade. Category 1 averages 24%, with oneschool reporting 100%; Category 2 averages 61%, with threeschools showing 100%; and Category 3 averages 23%, withthree schools at the 100% achievement level. Making itpossible and desirable for pupils to work on specialprojects, to develop particular interests, or to pursueareas in depth beyond the normal classroom seems to bedifficult. Yet, it is in this kind of activity that theunique personality of each pupil is discovered and encour-aged as he goes beyond the minimum requirements expected ofeveryone. Instruction can hardly be individualized untilthis practice is possible for all pupils. Lack of teachertime or interest may be contributing factors which havemilitated against progress in this area.

SOMEWHAT LESS DIFFICULT TO CHANGE - -TABLE 2

This section of our report shows in Table 2 the middlesix characteristics of the Model. These six items areeasier to change Ulan the first six but not as easy as thesix covered in Table 3, to be discussed later. Althoughthe Table 2 average percentages of change are higher thanthe Table 1 averages, when considered *ogether for thetotal group they are in the range of from about one-half totwo-thirds of the distance from 0 to 100% achievement ofthe Model.

Column VII of this table represents the degree to whichprovision is made, if not for offices, at least for specialrooms in which teachers may work. Such facilities aretemporary, a transitional step towards private or semi-private office space. Category I averages 63% implementa-tion, with one school reporting 100%; Category 2 averages47% and also has one school 100% along the way; while

4, re1. 4 4%.

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TABLE 2

SW0131HAT LESS DIFFICULT TO CHANGE

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Category .3 averages 47% and shows three schools with 100%.This objective may be somewhat easier to achieve thanprivate offices, since larger spaces (typically vacantclassrooms) are frequently converted into departmentaloffices or workrooms. Such spaces become available in aschool that is trying to achieve the Model, because itrequires less building space than the conventional schoolas a result of its more efficient space utilization.

Column VIII shows the extent to which continuous progressarrangements have been made available for all pupils. TheModel's goal is 100% availability in all subjects. Cate-gory 1 averages 60% achievement, with four schools indi-cating 100% attainment. Category 2 dips to a 34% level,with but one school at the 100% mark; while Category 3averages 63%, with one school at 100%. A notable inconsis-tency exists between Column VIII in this table and Table 1,Column 3, both dealing with the concept of arrangingcurriculum on a sequential basis. Considerably more thanhalf of the schools have arranged a continuous progresscurriculum, but less than one-fifth of them, except forthe schools in Category 1 (47%), will permit pupils tocomplete a subject at any time. It still must be at theend of a quarter, semester, or year. In reality there canbe no continuous progress based on concepts of time. Thearrangement of the curriculum in a sequential format is anecessary prelude, but It must be followed by the abandon-ment of time as the basis for credit if individualizationis provided in a continuous progress curriculum.Column IX shows the extent to which teacher-advisers help

students schedule their independent study time. Category 1averages a 65% attainment; Category 2, 63% and Category 3,56%. Category 3 reports three schools at the 100% levelwhile the other two categories report two each. Interest-ingly enough, the great majority of the schools havecreated the teacher-adviser role, as shown in Table 3,Column XVI. However, the fact that considerably fewer ofthe schools give the teacher-adviser responsibility forworking with the pupils' programs indicates it is easier tochange the structure of a school than it is to change whatpeople do. The first is superficial; the latter is basic.

Without the guidance of teacher-advisers in helpingpupils schedule independent study time, pupil accountabil-ity is likely to be missing. This is a critical role ifsound use is to be made of independent study. The individ-ualization of instruction demands that each pupil be wellknown by one teacher. The teacher-adviser aids the pupilto discover his unique interests and talents by helping himto manage his educational progress, including the programof individualized scheduling. This one teacher is in anexcellent position to assist the student in the timechoices that he makes. He also receives reports from otherteachers and departments about pupil achievements.

Column X refers to the bchools' evaluation of pupilprogress in respect to their completion of segments in the

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required learning sequences. Category 1 averages 60%;Category 2, 78%; and Category 3, 53%. It would seem that agood portion of Category 3's percentage of attainment isdue largely to five schools of that group reporting a 100%fulfillment. The other two categories report two schoolseach at the 100% level.

The contrast between these data and the findings reportedin Table 1, Column II and VI, should be noted: Apparentlyit is relatively much easier to keep track of each pupil'sprogress in completing learning packages, chapters, units,or other segments in a required learning sequence than itis to evaluate special projects or especially to get rid ofA, B, C, D, and r. This situation may account for the morerapid progress toward this objective in Column X.

Column XI shows the implementation of the Model's goalthat pupils spend four hours per week in large-group moti-vational presentations. Category 1 averages 50%; Category2, 50%; and Category 3, 92%. Once again, we have fiveschools in the latter category at the 100% level, whileCategories 1 and 2 report two and one school, respectively,at this level. The definition of "large-group" is "largerthan usual classroom groups."The emphasis in large groups is on motivation, because in

a continuous progress individualized RUEFiLttl--"e presenta-tion cannot relate specifically to what pupils are doing intheir independent study. Rather, it aims to show once aweek how the study of the subject area can open options incareers, hobbies, or better lving for pupils. The presen-tation thus becomes an essential ingredient in the learningsituation, raising it above conventional supervised studyor correspondence study activities.

Column XI shows the degree of implementation of large-group motivational presentations by teachers. The Modelproposes two hours per week per teacher. Category 1 showsa 34% average; Category 2, 65%; and Category 3 shows anunprecedented 100% fulfillment by all schools in thisgroup. Category 1 has but one school at this level, whileCategoilf 2 reports two.

Large-group presentations have been characteristic ofteam teaching designs for many years. They have not,however, been motivationally oriented. To arrange suchpresentations for 30 minutes a week in each of eight sub-ject areas demands a reorganization of the entire schoolschedule. A majority of schools are arranging large-groupsessions. Apparently they find such a program easy toschedule. Of course, the question remains, how motiva-tional are these sessions? We are studying this questionfurther to see once more the relationships betweenstructural and program changes.

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LEAST DIFFICULT TO CHANGE -- TABLE 3

Finally we come to the six aspects of the Model thatprincipals find easiest to change. The percentages inTable 3 typically show achievement of nearly three-fourthsof each of the six goals of the Model. As in Tables 1 and2, the progression is from left to right. For example, theleast difficult change to make is the scheduling of pupilsinto smaller than classroom-size groups for motivationaldiscussions (column at far right).Column XIII of Table 3 shows the extent to which

teachers have become involved in the development of learn-ing packages. Category 1 averages 77%; Category 2, 76%;and Category 3, 59%. Category 1 reports three schools atthe 100% level, while the other two categories report twoeach at 100%. Junior high school teachers in one Category1 school have produced more than 1600 packages for theircontinuous progress program. It is relatively easy to getteachers to prepare curriculum packages Package workshopsat universities and in school districts have become common.Although this achievement says little about the quality ofsuch packages, the development signifies a good deal ofconstructive teacher activity in the right direction.

Column XIV shows the amount of teacher involvementwith small -group motivational discussions (defined astaking place in smaller than regular class-size groups), apercentage based on the Model's goal of eight hours perweek in this activity. Category 1 averages 60%; Category2, 78%; and Category 3, 81%. Category 1 reports one schoolat the 100% attainment level, while Category 2 reportsthree and Category 3 reports five. Considerable progresshas been made toward the organization of small-group moti-vational discussions. The Model says motivational sincethese small-groups provide a place forFignFEFeact tothe motivational presentations that the faculty has pro-vided. Also, students motivate each other in these groups.Apparently both teachers and pupils consider these groupsdesirable; such groups are also consistent with demands forhumanization in our society.

Column XV, Parts A through I, indicates the extent towhich all pupils have systematic, continuous contacts withall eight basic curriculum areas (religion is a ninth areain parochial schools). Category 1 schools average at orabove the 75% level of achievement in English, mathematics,social studies, science, health and physical education, andthe practical arts, but drop off to a 61% level for finearts, and a low 48% in the area of cultures of foreigncountries. The Category 2 schools average a 74% level orhigher in three of these areas--English, health and physi-cal education, and social studies; however, they were lowerthan Category 1 in all other areas except in the "othercultures" department. Category 3 schools show lessvariance in their averages, ranging from a 97% in English

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TABLE 3

LEAST DIFFICULT TO CHANGE

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to a 56% in fine arts. Examining the three categories, wefind religion and English heading the list with health andphysica' education and social studies in the third andfourth positions. On the other hand, we find continuouscontact in the fine arts the most difficult to implement,followed closely by other cultures.In some areas these curricular findings are consistent

with school practices over the years. Schools have usuallyrequired continuous contact ip the subjects of English,mathematics, social studies, and physical education. How-ever, such contacts in science and the practical artsindicate a significant change. If all the basic areas ofhuman learning are to be given equal consideration, suchcontacts must also be expanded to include cultures offoreign countries and the fine arts. The concept of cur-riculum "equality" appears to be gaining momentum in theModel schools.

Column XVI reports the degree to which teachers arefunctioning in a teacher-adviser role to a group of 30-35students. Category 1 averages 910 four schoolsreporting a 100% achievement. Cat AT 2 and 3 averages75% and 66%, respectively, each reporting two schools atthe 100% level. Structural changes, such as a teacher'sbeing assigned to 30 students as an adviser, are easilyarranged. The question is, what are teachers doing in thisrole that is uniquely different from the old homeroomadviser role? Unless they confer regularly with individualpupils and rearrange programs and schedules for each asneeded, individualized instruction will not become areality (see Table 2, Column IX).

Column XVII shows the extent to which principals aredevoting at least 75% of their time on improving instruc-tion. Category 1 averaged 75%; Category 2, 83%; andCategory 3, 72%. Categories 1 and 3 report one school eachat the 100% mark. By reorganizing patterns of responsi-bility, principals have been able to release themselves forinstructional leadership. While the quality of suchleadership may be difficult to determine, this is a sig-nificant step forward if the Model is to be totally imple-mented. Apparently, this reorganization in the principal'srole has been relatively easy to accomplish.

Column XVIII refers to pupil participation in motiva-tional small-group discussions in comparison with theModel's goal of four hours per week for each student.Category 1 reports two schools attaining a 100% implementa-tion and averages 60% for the group. Both Categories 2 and3 show a 100% achievement by all schools in this area.This finding is consistent with Column XIV. Pupil partici-pation in motivational small-group discussions has beenimplemented to a considerable extent. It may have provencomparatively easy to achieve because of its appeal to bothteachers and pupils.

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REACTIONS To rINDINGS

A summary of the most and least difficult areas of changeimplementation for the MSP Model raises some interestinc'questions:

1. Changing the teacher-pupil ratio apparently is themost difficult requirement of the MSP. Yet it iscrucial in reallocating funds to produce professionalteachers and better learning environments. What newstrategy might help?

2. The grading system has been condemned by generationsof educators. It ranks second as the most difficultto change. Why? The Model provides more detailedinformation on individual progress with instructionsfor calculating rank in class, credits earned, andthe like for colleges and employers who still demandsue-h information.

3. Professionalizing teaching, providing better indepen-dent study, improving evaluation, and other MSPchanges depend on the use of all three kinds ofassistants. The progress here is third most diffi-cult. Do schools lack the courage to provide moreadults to work with pupils even though fewer )f themhave professional degrees, according to the Model?

4. Providing a better work-study environment forteachers appears to be quite difficult. Yet everyschool building has much wasted space. What standsin the way?

5. Pupils do not profit from "failure." Why is "con-tinuous progress" so difficult to achieve?

6. Other aspects of the Model are easier to change.Almost easiest of all is for the principal to changehis own duties in order to concentrate on theimprovement of teaching and learning. That commen-dable change is long overdue in thousands of schools.

More than 30 schools have told their story after 18months. They have sought in varying degrees to implementtotal change. Some of their findings, their progress, andtheir frustrations are not new. These schools will con-tinue to strive during the next three years to achieve thedimensions of the Model. They will experience new progressand frustrations, but they will be seeking to developmeaningful school programs for all youth.The staff has planned for extensive evaluations of the

progress in these schools by both external and internalresearchers. Change in pupils, teachers, and principalswill be analyzed as will the conditions for learning,teaching, and supervising. We will analyze changes in theuse of facilities, supplies, school funds, and time. Thecomparisons win not be among schools but rather how eachindividual school fares against its own baseline data.The secondary school principal today is fraught with

frustrations. Principals have two options: They can bear

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with the frustrations of adolescent alienation toward theteaching-learning process and all that this involves. Or

they can seek change in the secondary schools of oursociety to reduce this alienation. There are frustrationsin the latter option too. Which option will you select?You may wish to use this report and other materials

available from the NASSP with pupils, teachers, and com-munities in exploring meaningful options. This report mayhelp you avoid some of the detours, problems, and pitfalls

others encountered. At least this is our hope and that ofthe schools totally committed to total change in the NASSP

Model Schools Project.

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EVALUATION THE PONTOON TRANSITIONAL DESIGN:FINDINGS AND STRATEGIES

By Donald C. Clark

The development of valid evaluating procedures formeasurement of the effectiveness of programs such as thePontoon Transitional Design presents a challenge of greatmagnitude. This challenge becomes particularly difficultwhen one examines the many variables which may affect theresults of the study.

William Georgiades discusses this dilemma when he makesthe following statement:

How do you evaluate innovative practices when thewhole school is innovative, when you change thephysical plant, the staffing pattern, the timeschedule, the educational materials, the method-ology, and the role of the teacher and learner--allwithin a few years?

Others have raised questions about the adequacy of evalu-ation techniques in measuring the effectiveness of innova-tive programs. Egon Cuba states:

The traditional methods of evaluation have failededucators in their attempts to assess the impact ofinnovations in operating systems. Indeed, fordecades the evidence produced by the application ofconventional evaluation procedures has contradictedthe experimental evidence of the practitioner. Inno-vations have persisted in education not because ofthe supporting evidence of evaluation but despite ofit.

This failure of evaluation can be attributed to severalreasons. Ebel suggests that "new curriculum developmentsare often based on different educational objectives thanthe old. Seldom are they offered simply as new means ofattaining old ends."He goes on to say:

A second pl.oblem arises as a consequence of themultitude of variables in addition to the curriculumthat can affect the attainment of curricular objec-tives: variables like pupil ability and interest,teachers' skill and attitude, instructional re ("times,schciule differences and competing innovatio:Adequate control of all of these variables wo oedifficult to achieve in the most favorable experi-mental environment.

Ebel continues by pointing out that "most curriculardevelopments occur in the ongoing educational process."Under such conditions the experimenter must compromiseideal experimental conditions to avoid unacceptable com-promises in educational conditions. He concludes bystating:

As a consequence of these difficulties and limita-

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tions, attempts to evaluate alternative curriculum incomparative experimental studies have seldom if everyielded conclusive, unequivocal results.

In discussing evaluation of team teaching programs,Georgiades is in basic agreement with Ebel's statement ondiffering educational objectives for new curriculum develop-ment. He states:

Greatly improved student performance as measured bystandardized achievement tests is not the mostimportant objective of team teaching. Teaching basicmethods of inquiry and cultivating a desire to learnare much more significant. The purpose of educationis not to pile up a storehouse of information in eachstudent's brain but to give him the tools with whichto think. Unfortunately, most current techniques ofevaluation are designed to measure the piling-upprocess.

Georgiades also expresses concern that little effort hasbeen made to measure some of the more significant targetsof team teaching. He would classify some of the followingas targets:

1. Increasing the student's critical thinking abilitythrough small group study

2. Developing his ability to discuss with othersthrough small group experience

3 Building his sense of responsibility for his owneducation through independent study

4 Allowing the student to move at his own pace bygiving him more individualized instruction.

As discussed by Ebel and Georgiades, the limitations andproblems of evaluation are many and complex. They, however,are not insurmountable. Georgiades expresses a need for"Comprehensive studies which will measure all the influen-tial factors in the learning process, such as socio-economic status, intellectual ability, sex, grade level,ethnic representation, and teacher behavior, as well as theinteraction among these factors."A method for achieving more comprehensive studies sug-

gested by Georgiades was the development of "complex, yetclearly formulated, theoretical models of team teaching."It is the writer's belief the Pontoon Transitional Designmeets the criteria as a "complex, yet clearly formulated,theoretical model." As such, a series of evaluativestudies on its effectiveness have led to the development ofnew insight on innovation.

PONTOON STUDIES: COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE FINDINGS

The initial evaluation of a pontoon design was conductedby Georgiades and Bjelke at Hawthorne High School duringthe 1962-63 school year. This pontoon consisted of ninetyninth grade students, scheduled to participate in an all

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morning program (four periods) which was comprised of threeacademic subjects (algebra, English, and world geography)and a supervised study hall.The study sought to (1) compare the English performance

-A' pontoon students with those students in regular classes,(2) determine teacher reaction to this type of instruction,and (3) determine student reaction. To answer these ques-tions the Cooperative English Test, forms 2A and 2B wereadministered in September 1962 and May 1963. Teacher andstudent reaction to the program were measured by question-naires.The findings were as follows:1. Experimental pupils showed slightly more growth. The

difference was not significant.2. Teacher enthusiasm for program was readily apparent.3. Students attitudes tended to be positive. This

positive feeling was particularly strong in the areaof small group instruction where 86% of the studentsrequested more.

4. Lack of significant negative evaluation led investi-gators to believe that the design was initiallyworkable.

Georgiades and Bjelke conclude their description of thestudy with the following statement:

Subsequent investigation may provide answers tomany questions, such as, the effectiveness of thisprogram for pupils of various degrees of ability.Before any more definite and far-reaching conclusionscan be made, further study in this area, exercisinggreater control of the significant variables is inorder.

During the 1964-65 school year Georgiades and Bjelke con-ducted an evaluative study of a three-period block, teamteaching program at Charter Oak High School. The purposeof the study was "to compare English achievement of ninthgrade pupils enrolled in a three-period block, team teach-ing (experimental) class with English achievement of ninthgrade pupils enrolled in a conventional (control) class.Subjects taught in the block included algebra, English, andsocial studies. All experimental group students alsoreceived two days a week of instruction in a readinglaboratory.For the purpose of the study the following measurement

devices were utilized:1. California Test of Mental Maturity--(short fo2)

%anguage I.Q.2. Differential Aptitude Test--Verbal Reasoning and

Numerical Ability3. California Reading Test--Reading Vocabulary and

Reading Comprehension4. Teacher-made English TestA 2 x 2 x 2 analysis of variance (mode of instruction by

I.Q. by sex) was utilized for their study. Thi- analysisof variance revealed:

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1. A significant difference in the means in favor of theexperimental group on the teacher made test and theCalifornia Reading Test--Reading Comprehension.

2. A significant difference in means for the high levelof intelligence group vs the low level of intelli=gence group on all three measures.

3. A significant difference in means of girls vs boys onthe teacher made test.

Georgiades and Sjelke conclude:From the significant results revealed in this

study, it appears that the three-period block is atleast initially workable. It must be remembered thata comparison was being made between relative inexper-ience with one method (team class) and experiencewith another method (conventional class).

Consequently, the evaluation might not have beencompletely fair to the team method of instruction,since there is a possibility that the teachers haver,t yet had an opportunity to make maximum use of andto capitalize upon the advantages afforded by thisnew method. Therefore, the significant findings infavor of the experimental group add further supportto the efficacy of the three-period block design asan instructional method.

The Creative Education Project, initiated at Arvin HighSchool in 1966, added several new dimensions to pontoonevaluation. They expanded the cognitive evaluation toinclude achievement measurement of all subjects within thepontoon. They also attempted to measure the attitudinalimpact of the pontoon on students by devising a semanticdifferential test, recording student attendance, and con-ducting a drop-out study.

In summarizing the results of the study, Anderson states:1. A multi-subject team teaching approach has resulted

in a significant increase in the experimental group'smean I.Q.

2. Students in the project are remaining in school sig-nificantly longer than students not taught in a teamteaching method.

3. A significant difference in academic achievement canbe seen between the Creative Education Projectstudents and the control group.

4. Student interest in school and attitudes towardschool are positive factors in the team teachingapproach.

5. Teacher enthusiasm for the teaming approach is high.6. Direct teacher involvement in curriculum planning is

a necessary thing in the development of a programsuch as this. Teacher instructional behavior is dif-ficult to change unless this direct involvement ispresent.

7. It is feasible to individualize instruction in amulti-subject team teaching approach.

Young, during the 1967-68 school year, continued to study

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pontoon at Arvin High School. For the purposes of hisstudy, he asked the following questions:

Would there be a difference between the measurablecharacteristics of achievement and attitudes of ninthgrad,;, low ability students in a pontoon transitionaldesign and those of students of comparable status ina traditional program?Would there be a difference between dropout and

absence rates of the two groups?In most cases, Young found no significant differences in

the achievement of the pontoon group when compared to thatof the traditional group.

Burke, in his evaluation of a high school program,focused primarily on student attitudes and teacher be-haviors. Cognitive achievement was also measured to deter-mine differences (if any) between the performances ofpontoon and traditional students in the areas of English,biology, and world history.Utilizing appropriate instruments for measurement'of

attitudes and cognitive achievement, Burke found no sig-nificant difference in the teaching performance of pontoonand conventional teachers. However, the smaLiness of thesample (3 teachers) tends to mitigate against. drawing anyconclusions.

In conclusion, Burke makes the following statement:While the findings of this study did not clearly

favor either the Pontoon Transitional Design or theconventional curricular structure, it did suggestthat the essential factors in determining differencesin effective teaching and learning were the behaviorand the attitude of both teachers and students, andthe degree to which teacher and student behaviorcould be changed. The experimental design, in thiscase, the Pontoon Transitional Design, continues tomerit implementation; however, efforts at evaluationof such designs, and greater emphasis in trainingpersonnel in a manner appropriate and functional, arenecessary so that differences are given a chance toemerge. Ultimately, the purpose for the existence ofany new structural design is the facilitation andenhancement of the teaching-learning process.

During the 1969-70 school year, Abbott and Roop evaluatedpontoons operating in the Bellflower Unified School Dis-trict. Abbott studied the effects of the pontoon on agroup of average ability eighth grade students. The twogroups (pontoon and conventional) were given the SequentialTests of Educational Development in the areas of mathe-matics, social studies, and writing. Attitudes wereassessed by using the Rundqui3t-Sletto Attitudinal Scaleand by comparing daily attendance patterns over a nine-month period. The behavior of pontoon and conventionalteachers was compared by using the Teacher ObservationScale and the Teacher Record of Activities.Abbott was able to draw the following conclusions from

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his study.1. Pontoon students scored significantly higher in

mathematics than did conventional students. Therewas no significant difference between the two groupsin social studies and writing.

2. The analysis of the attitudinal scale revealed atendency for the pontoon students to select positiveresponses more frequently than the conventionalstudents.

3. In the area of teacher behavior, there was a tendencyfor pontoon teachers to lecture more while conven-tional teachers tended to provide more individualassistance and to engage in more clerical activities.

Roop's study concentrated on the evaluation of a ninthgrade, low I.Q. general science--English--social studiespontoon. Cognitive achievement was determined by stan-dardized and teacher-made tests; attitudes were assessed byutilizing the Rundquist-Sletto Attitudinal Scale, record ofattendance, and incidence of discipline referral; andteacher behaviors were measured for comparison by theTeacher Record of Activities.

Cognitive findings showed a significant difference infavor of the pontoon students on the teacher-made mathe-matics test. The other subject area tests (standardizedand teacher-made) tended to also favor pontoon students butthe differences were not significant.

In the area of attitudes there was no significant dif-ference on the whole test. However, there was a signifi-cant difference in favor of the pontoon on item six: viewof the value of education toward future employment. Atten-dance data showed no differences between the groups, butthe incidence of discipline referrals was significantlyless for pontoon students.The Teacher Record of Activities indicated that when com-

pared to conventional teachers pontoon teachers utilizedmore large group instruction, more small group discussions,and spent more time planning with others. Conventionalteachers utilized more teacher dominated class presenta-tions, more total class discussion, and spent more time in

independent class assistance.Neel, in his study of the Pontoon Transitional Design

found that seventh grade pontoon students achieved signifi-cantly higher in the area of vocabulary, total reading and

reference materials. Using a semantic differential instru-ment he found significant differences in favor of thepontoon group in the affective areas of school, directedstudy, and geography. The Remmers' scale also yielded sig-nificant results with pontoon students indicating morepositive feelings toward the subject areas of English,social science, and science.

In his conclusions Neel states that "in no cognitive oraffective variable did the control group score signifi-cantly higher than the experimental (pontoon) group."

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Based on this conclusion and findings of other pontoonstudies he makes the following recommendations:

. . with the growing accumulation of researchconcerning the pontoon design, elucators shouldconsider this approach as an alternative to otherforms of scheduling.

During the 1969-70 school yar Clark conducted an evalua-tive study of the pontoon at Clifton Intermediate School,Monrovia, California. The study entitled "The PontoonTransitional Design: An Evaluation of Attitudes and Cogni-tive Achievement of Selected Seventh Grade Students". . .

. was primarily concerned with investigating therelationship between classroom structure (The PontoonTransitional Design and conventional programs) andthe achievement of seventh grade students in reading,social studies and mathematics.

Also investtgated were the relationships of the pontoonand conventional programs to pupil attitudes and absenteerates. Additionally, the classroom performance of pontoonteachers was compared to the performance of teachers inconventional programs.

Findings of the study indicated that pontoon studentsachieved significantly higher on the teacher constructedsocial studies test. A significant three-way interactionwas found between I.Q., method, and sex on the teacherconstructed mathematics test. The differences favored (1)high intelligence pontoon boys, (2) high intelligence com-parison girls and (3), low intelligence comparison boys. Inthe affective domain no significant differences were foundon the attitude questionnaire or in the absentee rate.Examination of pontoon schedules indicated that the pon-

toon teachers did not utilize time in a significantlydifferent manner than did comparison teachers. The sched-ule did indicate that pontoon teachers varied the classsize (large group, small group) significantly more than didcomparison teachers.Observation of teacher classroom behavior (Teacher Obser-

vation Scale) showed no qualitative differences between thebehaviors of pontoon and conventional teachers.In summary, it should be stated that the failure to con-

sistently obtain significant differences in both the cogni-tive and affective areas may be partially attributable tothe similarity of the teaching behaviors of pontoon andconventional teachers. Burke, Roop, and Abbott a1.o foundthat when the teaching methodologies of experimental andcomparison group teachers were similar that few significantdifferences were found in student attitudes and cognitiveachievement. This important area of teacher performancewill be dis:ussed in greater detail in the concludingsections of this paper.

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THE PROBLEM or 'IGNIPICANCE

Invariably the results of research studies are stated asfollows: "No significant difference was found in theachievement of the experimental group when compared to thatof the control group."

What exactly does this mean? In terms of the studiesreviewed it does mean that experimental and control grouppupils achieved at approximately the same level. This,however, does not tell the entire story of the findings.When one considers, for example, that in both studies madeby Georgiades and Bjelke and in the studies made by Ander-son and Young that the pupils were spending up to one-thirdless time with a tea-her, the no significant differencefinding gains some significance. This observation alsoholds true for the Burke, Abbott, and Roop, and Clarkstudies.The point that needs to be made is that in some instances

there is significance in a "no significant difference"finding. Young states it well when he says:

In looking at the significant differences on cer-tain dependent variables, and then associating thosedifferences with the instruction received in thepontoon design, one could conclude the change inachievement was due to the instructional differencesthat were available throughout the pontoon design.Then it would follow that in the majority of the "nodifference" results found in reviewing the literatureand in this study, one could conclude that the out-comes of instructional differences were negligible.However, this was not the case for this particularstudy. The "no difference" findings were just asq gnificant, for achievement growth was negligiblev3en the instructional time, under the direct super-vision of a teacher in the pontoon design, was onlyone-third that of the direct instructional time ofthe control group.

Guba also is concerned with no si, lificant differences.He would, however, fault evaluation techniques and notinnovations for this reoccuring phenomenon. He states:

Another very significant indication that evaluationis in trouble is the fact it is so often incapable ofuncovering any significant information.Over and over comparative studies of alternatives

in education have ended in a finding of "no signifi-cant difference." Several conventional responses aremade to this situation. It is often observed thatthe educationists are incapable of devising anyapproaches that are better than those things thatthey are already using. But, if this is so, we oughtperhaps to applaud their remarkable consistency,since they do not devise alternatives that are anyworse either!

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Another oft heard response is to say that the lackof efficacy of comparative studies is well estab-lished by this consistent failure to find differences;educationists are then warned not to engage in suchstudies because to do so is to behave stupidly. Thisequally glib response, of course, ignores the factthat this comparative question is exactly the onethat must be asked if improvement is to occur. Whatcould be more relevant, as one gropes to change forthe better, than to ask about alternatives, and toseek to determine which of several available alter-natives, including present practice, is mostefficacious?

In concluding his articla, Guba makes the followingstatement:

The primary tat.o. in evaluation today is the provi-sion of sensible alternatives to the evaluator. Theevaluation of educational innovations awaits themodernization of the theory and practice of theevaluative art. We need, then, a technology of eval-uation.

Guba feels that the future is bright and that the profes-sion is showing many signs of, awareness of the currentproblems of evaluation. "What is important now," hestates, "is that (current) efforts be vigorously pursuedand made operational as quickly as possible."

TEACHER' PERFORMANCE

The performance of teachers in innovative curricular pro-grams may provide another dimension when considering theproblems of "no significant difference." In programs, likethe pontoon, where the flexibility of the schedule providesteachers with variation of time and group size, the role ofthe teacher is especially important. If a pontoon teacherutilizes the same methodology with a small discussion groupthat she would normally use with a standard size class, nointructional advantage is gained. Under such circumstancesit is not surprising for the results of an evaluation toyield "no significant difference" between the experimentaland conventional programs.

Cawelti, in a study of twenty-two schools utilizingflexible or modular scheduling, expressed this concern:

. it appears that in many instances not muchchange in teaching occurred except that traditionalteaching was done for different lengths of time indifferent sized groups.

Fox in discussing the evaluation of the More EffectiveSchool Program in New York City expresses this same concernwhen he states:

It (human behavior) does not change simply becausethe conditions alder which the behavior is performedchange, not even because the old behavior isinappropriate to the new conditions.

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Why shoul0 we have to expect her (the teacher) toteach differently simply because there were now 20children in front of her rather than 28?

The dimension of teacher performance has become a majorconcern of those responsible for the evaluation of innova-tions. It is, therefore, not surprising to note the inclu-sion of teacher performance measurement procedures in thestudies of Burke, Abbott, Roop and Clark. These studies,as reviewed previously, indicated differences in studentachievement where significant differences were found inteacher behavior. In Burke's study, no difference inteacher behavior yielded no significant difference instudent achievement.Because of the importance of teacher behavior in curricu-

lum evaluations, the concluding section of this paper willbriefly disc tss some devices utilized in measuring andcoding teacher behavior.

TEACHER OBSERVATION SYSTEMS

Probably one of the most comprehensive reviews on obser-vation of classroom instruction was written by BarakRosenshine of Temple University. Entitled, "Evaluation ofClassroom Instruction," and published in the April, 1970,Review of Educational Research, the article attempts "todescribe available -instruments for the observation ofclassroom instruction and to suggest modifications forlocal evaluation of instruction." This article is brieflyreviewed in the following paragraphs.

Rosenshine offers the following statement as the justifi-cation of a need for classroom observation:

The lack of information on classroom interactionhinders evaluation of a single curriculum or dif-ferent curricula because without this information onetends to assume that all classrooms using the samecurriculum materials constitute a homogeneous"treatment variable."

He strengthens his case by quoting from a forthcomingAERA monograph on classroom observation:

Neither an understanding of what the curriculum hasbeen or what should be tried next time is possiblewithout data on teaching methods. In some evaluationstudies the most valuable data will be those gatheredby a classroom observation system.

Uses of observation systems can be classified into thefollowing four areas:

1. Assessing the variability of classroom behavioreither within or between instructional programs

2. Assessing the agreement between classroom behaviorand certain instructional criteria

3. Describing what occurred in the implementation of theinstructional materials

4. Determining relationships between classroom behavior

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and instructional outcomes.According to Rosenshine "instruments for the observation

of instruction are currently divided into category systemsand rating systems." He goes on to say:

This division is based on the amount of inferencerequired of the observer or of the person reading theresearch report. Inference here refers to the pro-cess intervening between the objective data seen orheard and to the coding of those data on an observa-tional instrument. Category systems are classifiedas low-inference measures because the items focusupon specific, denotable, relatively objectivebehaviors such as "teacher repetition of studentideas," or "teacher asks evaluative question" andbecause these events are recorded as frequencycounts. Rating systems are classified as highinference measures becau :e they lack such specifi-city. Items on rating instruments such as "clarityof presentation," "enthusiasm," or "helpful towardstudents" require that an observer infer these con-structs from a series of events.

Most category systems are one-factor systems in whicheach behavior is coded only in terms of its frequency. Thebest example of a one-factor system is Flander's Inter-action Analysis. The Teacher Behavior Inventory used byBurke in his study and the Teacher Observation Scale basedon the work of Flanders, Amidon, and Robertson and eefinedoby Clark, are both examples of one factor category systems.

Rating systems most commonly take the form of question-naires where participants are requested to respond to itemson a four or five point scale ranging from strongly agreeto strongly disagree. The best examples of this system arefound in attitude inventory scales.Rosenshine concludes his article with the following

summary:Without adequate data on classroom transactions, it

is difficult for an evaluator to make suggestions forthe modification of an instructional program. Yet,researchers are only beginning to develop tools andconcepts for the evaluation and study of instruction.Currently, three major needs are: greater specifica-tion of teaching strategies to be used with instruc-tional materials, improved observational instrumentsthat attend to the context of the interactions anddescribe classroom interactions in more appropriateunits than frequency counts, and more research intothe relationship between classroom events snd studentoutcome measures.

Some of the procedures described by Rosenshine have beenincorporated Into recent evaluative studies of *he effec-tiveness of the pontoon. As the pontoon conJept continuesto expand more and more emphasis will be plimed on the toleof the teacher in the classroom. As this happens classroomobservation systems will play an important part in evaluat-

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ing performance and providing feedback on weaknesses.

SUMMARY

In reviewing the evaluative studies of the pontoon it isinteresting to contrast the differences in the firststudies conducted by Georgiades and Bjelke with thoserecently completed studies of Abbott, Roop, and Clark. AsI see it, the difference lies basically in terms of compre-hensiveness. The early studies dealt only with achievementin one component subject and then later expanded to includeall of the subjects included in the team teaching program.It is also interesting to note that the first study, con -duited by Georgiades and Bjelke at Hawthorne High Schoolals.:) attempted to measure attitudes of both students andtlach#:rs. This is significant when one considers that in19G3 we were in a period of great emphasis on cognitiveachievement. This pattern of placing equal emphasis oncognitive and affective measures was cont?nued in theAndersQu and Young studies. This trend continued to beemphasized in the pontoon evaluations conducted by Burke,Abbott, Roop and Clark.

The final section of the paper was concerned with class-rom observation systems. Emphasis was placed on theimportance of these areas in assisting teachers to utilizeapplpriate methodologies as they vary time and group size.The importance of classroom observation in providing vitalfeedback on classroom procedures was also stressed. Thesection ends with d discussion of the role observationplays in determining the effect of interaction styles onstudent achievement.

In examining the Pontoon Transitional Design over itsbrief ten year history, one becomes aware of the transi-tional nature of its development. It is interesting toobserve the operation of the plan-implement-evaluate-revise-implement cycle. Consequently, the transitionaldevelopment of the pontoon was based on a close interdepen-dence of development and an evaluation. The result wasthat as more sophisticated programs were developed morecomprehensive evaluation strategies were required. Simpleevaluations expanded to include a multitude of cognitiveand affective measures, schedule analysis, and classroomobservation.

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Bibliography

Abbott, Frank. "An Evaluative Study of a Pontoon Transi-tional Design." Unpublished doctoral dissertation,University of Southern California, 1970.

Anderson, Wesley R., et al. ABC's of the Arvin Study: AnInnovation in Curriculum Design and Content. Arvin,California: Arvin High School, 1967.

Burke, Daniel J. "An Evaluation Study of a Pontoon Transi-tional Design with Primary Emphasis on the AffectiveDomain." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Universityof Southern California, 1970.

Cawelti, Gordon. "Does Innovation Make Any Difference?"Nation's Schools, November, 1968, pp. 60-63.

Clark, Donald C. "The Pontoon Transitional Design: AnEvaluation of Attitudes and Cognitive Achievement ofSelected Seventh Grade Pupils." Unpublished doctoraldissertation, University of Southern California, 1971.

; James, Winston; and Georgiades, William. Teacher--WFWFIration Scale. Monrovia Unified School District,

1969.Ebel, Robert L. "The Curriculum and Achievement Testing."

Educational Technology, May, 1970, pp. 22-23.Fox, David J. "Evaluating the More Effective Schools."

Phi Delta Kappan, June, 1968, pp. 93-597.Georgiades, William. "Team Teaching: A New Star--Not A

Meteor." NEA Journal, April, 1967, pp. 14-15."6./aluating New Strategies in Teaching and

EFUTIrng." Journal of Secondary Education, November,1970, pp. 320-325.

9 and Bjelke, Joan. "An Lxperiment in rlexit e--TEheTiling in Team Teaching." Journal of SecondaryEducation, March, 1964, pp. 136-14T.

, and Bjelke, Joan. "An Experiment in a Five-Day-A-Week Versus Three-Day-A-Week English Classes with anInterspersed Elective." California Journal of Educa-tional Research, September, 1364, pp. 190-198.

and Bjelke, Joan. "Evaluation of EnglishAchievement in a Ninth Grade, Three Period Class."California Journal of Educational Research, May, 1966,pp. 100-112.

Guba, Egon. "The Failure of Educational. Evaluation."Educational Technology, May, 1969, pp. 29-38.

Neel, Thomas Lr. "An Evaluation of a Pontoon TransitionalDesign--Seventh Grade Average Ability Students." Unpub-liihed doctoral dissertation, University of SouthernCalifornia, 1970.

Rosenshine, Barak. "Evaluation of Classroom Instruction."Review of Educational Research, April, 1970, pp. 279-296.

Roop, Howard. "An Evaluation of a Pontoon TransitionalDesign Schedule in a High School Curriculum." Unpub-lished doctoral dissertation, University of SouthernCalifornia, 1970.

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Young, James C. "An Evaluation of a Pontoon TransitionalDesign--Ninth Grade Low Ability Students." Unpublisheddoctoral dissertation, University of Southern California,1969.

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AN EMERGING MODEL: CRITERION- REFERENCED EVALUATION

By Jack L. HousdenLannie LeGear

INTRODUCTION

The concept of evaluation in education is in a stage oftransition. Evaluation practices evolve continuously, tobe certain, but there appears to be a genuine transition inhow evaluation is to be considered. This change centersabout the definition of the standards by which learningshall be judged, particularly in reference to a set ofmeasurable instructional objectives.

Conventionally, the standards by which educationalachievement has been judged have been norm-referenced.Norm-referenced standards are based upon averages which arederived from the performance of groups of individuals.These standards can be determined for any evaluation prob-lem by merely defining a reference group and measuring itsperformance. The average level of performance of thechosen reference group becomes the expected performancelevel by which the quality of subsequent outcomes will bejudged.

Norm-reterenced standards are relative to the referencegroup upon which they have been based. A change in thereference group will result in a change in the standard.Norm-referenced standards are also considered to be rela-tive because they do not indicate what an individual can dowith respect to a Waned instructional objective.Rather, they indicate what an individual can do in refer-ence to other individuals, which may or may not be relatedto any specific instructional objectives.The contemporary focus for evaluation in education is

shifting from a relative, norm-referenced context to a morefinite and absolute one. Educators are concerning them-selves with the identification of specific skills and com-petencies required for learning. Such a concept expressesitself in efforts to define learning in terms of themastery of specified tasks and in their assessment.

Standards for evaluation are taken a fixed cut-offpoints by which individual mastery and/or skill attainmentcan be judged adequate or inadequate, irrespective of thecollective performance of reference groups. These stan-dards termed criterion-references standards, are absolutebecause they do not depend upon a reference group andbecause they TERIFite what an individual can do withrespect to specified instructional objectives.The transition in educational evaluation from relative to

absolute standards demands rethinking of the concept ofevaluation, and this reformulation can be expected to en-compass the idea of behavioral objectives for instruction.The criterion-referenced evaluation model presented in this

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paper is emerpinv from these concepts.Figure 1 compares and contrasts norm-referenced and

criterion-referenced concepts which exempligy this transi-tion.

Figure 1. A comparison of norm-referenced and criterion-referenced concopts.

Norm-referenced

Reference points areaverage, relative points

Evaluates individual per-formance in comparison toa group of persons

Are used to evaluate a stu-dent as "below gradelevel," "at grade level"or "above grade level."

Fails to indicate whichindividuals have masteredthe spectrum of instruc-tional objectives.

Generally poor aids inplanning instruction.

Is vague in relation to theinstructional content.

Is more surmttive thanformative.

Does not operationallydefine mastery and/orsuccess.

Applies poorly to the indi-vidualization ofinstruction.

Is not concerned with taskana,lysis.

Does not lend itself toapplied behavioralanalysis.

Standardized tests areclassical examples.

Tests not sensitive to theeffects of instruction.

Tests have a low degree ofoverlap with actual ob-jectives of instruction.

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Criterion-referenced

Referenced points are fixedat specified, cut-offpoints

Evaluates individual per-formance in relation to afixed standard

Not concerned with gradelevel descriptions.

Identifies individuals whohave mastered the spec-trum of instructionalobjectives.

Geared to provide informa-tion to be used inplanning instruction.

Is content-specific.

Is more formative thansummative.

Operationally definesmastery and/or success.

Applies directly to theindividualization ofinstruction.

Depends upon task analysis.

Lends itself to appliedbehavioral analysis.

Does not tend to bestandardized.

Tests very sensitive to theeffects of instruction.

Tests are directly refer-enced to the objectivesof instruction.

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Norm-referenced

Test items evaluated inreference to persons.

Tests results interpretedin reference to aperson's position inrelation to the scoresof others.

CRITERION-REFERENCED EVALUATION

Criterion-referenced

Test items evaluated inreference to instruc-tional objectives.

Tests results interpretedin reference to aperson's position inrelation to the curricu-lum.

A criterion-referenced evaluation model proposes toevaluate individual performance in relation to specifiedcriteria rather than in relation to other individuals' per-formance. It evaluates in terms of criterion-referencedstandards as oppcsed to normative standards. Criterion-referenced standard' re defined to be absolute standardsby which individu 1 lompetency is judged. The emphasis ofthose absolute starwards is upon what an individual can doin relation to specified behavioral objectives of instruc-tion.Criterion-referenced evaluation is intended to reflect

comprehensively the content of a particular curriculum.The curriculum, in this context, is defined as the succes-sive mastery of discrete content units or objectives statedin terms of the behaviors the student is to perform. Atany point in time a student will have mastered some portionof the behaviors represented by the curriculum, and hisscore on a criterion-referenced test is a listing of thosebehaviors he has mastered and those which he has not yetmastered. The meaning of his test results derives from hisposition in relation to the curriculum and not from therelation of his scores to the scores of others.

Criterion-referenced evaluation, then, begins with a com-prehensive set of specific behaviorally-stated objectives.Tests are designed to discriminate between mastery and non-mautery of these objectives. They are selected to reflectthe curriculum--that is, to be sensitive to instruction andtherefore accurately represent mastery or non-mastery ofobjectives. Criterion-referenced evaluation, therefore, isconceptualized as the comparing of performance with objec-tives.A criterion-referenced model requires that standards by

which mastery shall be judged are to be specified prior toassessment. The selection of the cut-off points for thestandards of performance appears to be somewhat arbitrary.Research efforts have yet to identify the parameters in-volved in setting mastery standards. However, severaloperatin,I, instructional programs which employ a criterion-referenced evaluation system exist. An analysis of theircut-off criteria may be useful in the eventual setting ofthese standards. For example, the Banning Adult School in

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Wilmington, California, employs an 80 per cent masterystandard (80/100 of the test items correctly answered) in aprogrammed instruction individualized learning setting.Using a similar programmed instruction format, the CentralCity Occupational Center in Los Angeles, California, hasadopted an 85 per cent mastery standard (85/100 of the testitems correctly answered). Southwest Regional Laboratoryin Inglewood, California, advocates a 100 percent masterystandard in their Learning Mastery System for first gradereading. Likewise, the Southern California Regional Occu-pational Center (SCROC) in Torrance, California, requires a100 per cent competency level for certification of pro-ficiency in their auto tune-up training program.

In summary, while the selection of criterion-referencedstandards for judging mastery of instructional objectivesis somewhat arbitrary, once selected they become absolutecut-off points for evaluating the outcomes of instruction.If the curriculum is organized in terms of sequences ofinstructional thjectives, then criterion-referenced evalua-tion is the appropriate model for evaluation of learningoutcomes.

CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING

The criterion-referenced evaluation model requires acriterion-referenced approach to testing and test construc-tion. The primary purpose of criterion-referenced tests isto yield scores that are directly interpret&'le in terms ofspecified performance standards. A criterion-referencedtest is one that is deliberately constructed to give scoresthat tell what kinds of behaviors individuals with thosescores can demonstrate. These procedures tend to be veryspecific and limited to a narrow range of educationalobjectives. This results in the use of tests which: a)are built to appropriately prescribed behavioral objec-tives; b) are sensitive to change via intervention(instruction); and c) may constitute a: operationaldefinition of success or mastery.

In order to construct a criterion-referenced test onemust essentially perform a task analysis of the relevantbehavior. This must also be applied to the method andmaterial used to teach the student to acquire the intendedbehavior. The task analysis will help classify objectivesinto subtasks. Each subtask must be logically related tothe basic objective and the basic objective to the broadercurriculum. Test items must clearly reflect this classifi-cation of subtasks.

The emphasi- which has been placed upon stating terminalperformance objectives for instruction in behavioral termsand demonstrating the achievement of those objectivesnecessitates evaluative instruments for measuring the pre-sence or absence of said objectives.Adoption of a criterion-referenced evaluation model man-

dates the development of criterion-referenced measurement

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techniques in which instrument items are objective-specific.Objective-specific means that the items are keyed directlyto the objectives of instruction so that some congruenceexists between items and objectives. Hence the items them-selves must be specifically connected in some manner to theobjectives. They must be objective-specific.

Criterion-referenced test items must also be criterion-related. That is, some criterion-referenced standard forjudging competence in reference to the item must be deter-mined prior to the administration of the test. Items whichare objective-specific and criterion-related have thepotent al to be good criterion-test items.

Criterion-referenced tests provide the vehicle for evalu-ation of instructional success in terms of a student'sachievement in relation to a specified body of content.Ideally, criterion-referenced tests should: (1) be made upof items which directly assess the skills involved in aunit of learning; (2) provide an indication of the exactareas and behaviors in which a student has achieved masteryor non-mastery; (3) provide cross-referencing of the sub-skills required in each test item; and (4) also providecross-referencing of skills with instructional materials.There has been a variety of approaches to criterion-

referencad instrumentation. Criterion-referenced teststhemselves assume many forms. Figure 2 summarizes repre-sentative types of criterion-referenced instruments cur-rently being used.

Figure 2. Representative types of criterion-referencedinstruments.

Types Common Uses

Objective tests (True- Used as pretests and posttestsfalse, multiple choice, to measure cognitive learningcompletion type items) outcomes. Perhaps (91 most

commonly used (and misused)criterion-referenced tests.Frequently termed "paper andpencil tests."

Task Analysis charts Used in targeting behaviors tobe shaped through instructionand in identifying theirpresence or absence.

Self-rating checklists Used in self-evaluation todetermine the presence orabsence of certain predefinedcharacteristics.

Diagnostic inventories Used in identifying prerequi-site skills and entering com-petency levels. Used forclassification and placement;also for program planning andremediation.

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Types Common Uses

Problem identification Used in identifying problems orchecklists potential problems by asses-

sing the presence or absenceof specified pre-conditionsfor success.

Antecdotal situation Used when the terminal perfor-quizzes mance objective is a pre-

scribed response to a novelsituation. Lends itself toan audio-visual presentationof the novel situation.

APPLICATION OF CRITERION-REFERENCED EVALUATION TO INDIVID-UALIZED INSTRUCTION

A criterion-referenced evaluation model is particularlysuitable for facilitating the implementation of a con-tinuous progress curriculum as well as other individualizedinstruction programs. For example, criterion-referencedevaluation can function to arrange a particular set ofobjectives in an hierarchical sequence (such as in readingand mathematics) with the mastery of one set or subset ofbehaviors prerequisite for the next. Where an hierarchicalsequence is not necessary, as may be the case in somescience and social study content, criterion-referencedevaluation can assist in developing a sequence of stepswhich indicate precisely what desired behaviors are to belearned. When such a sequence is obtained, then, it ispossible at any one point in time to answer the question"Where does the student stand in respect to some definedbody of content that is interpretable in terms of theskills and behaviors needed for mastery of that content?"Criterion-referenced evaluation of individualized instruc-tion, therefore, can be used to assure success of a partic-ular instructional sequence in relation to a particularstudent's achievement.Teachers can also use the results of a criterion-

referenced'testing situation to mold the instructionalsequence around the individual student's rate and style oflearning, individual goals, level of motivation and otherunique characteristics. The teacher can also use theassessment situation to determine the extent to which thestudent has achieved the problem solving skills to the bestof hts ability. In addition, further instruction is basedupon sequences of skills which can be carefully defined interms of those skills which are both prerequisite to andsufficient for varyin* levels of mastery so that the teacheror student can determine which level of proficiency issufficient for the ',articular individual. The teacher candetermine as well the effectiveness of the "match" betweenstudent, method, material, environment, and time so thatone or all may be adjusted to provide for success for thestudent.

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SUMMARY

A transition in the concept of educational evaluationappears to be clearing the way for the emergence of

criterion-referenced evaluation. A criterion-referencedevaluation model is proposed to evaluate individual per-formance in relation to specified criteria (criterion-referenced standards) rather than in relation to otherindividual's performance (norm-referenced standards).Criterion-referenced standards are cleaned as absolutestandards, since, contrary to relative, norm - referencedstandards, they do not depend upon a reference group, andthey do indicate what an individual can do with respect tospecified instructional objectives.

Adoption of a criterion-referenced evaluation modelrequires the development of criterion-referenced measure-ment techniques which relate test items to instructionalobjectives.

Criterion-referenced evaluation is particularly wellsuited for helping to pave the way for more widespreadadaption of individualized instructic'i.

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Summary

For many year:: educators have felt frustrated because themajority of evaluations of promising new programs report"no significant difference" when compared to existing pro-grams. It should be pointed out that the prevalence ofthis phenomenon may represent shortcomings in evaluationdesign and procedures rather than the ineffectiveness orinferiority of innovative programs.

In this section various writers have examined some of thefactors important to building effective evaluative pro-grams. The following concepts were emphasized:

1. Comprehensive evaluations must measure "all of theinfluential factors in the learning process."New methods must be devised that will effectivelymeasure all of the objectives of individualized pro-grams. Evaluation of new programs can no longer belimited exclusively to the measurement of the "piling-up process" (achievement tests).

3. Learning how to learn is the major goal of most inno-vative programs. Methods must be devised to evaluatethis goal.

L. There are certain elements within the school programthat are much easier to change.

5. Comprehensive evaluation programs must be developedthat incorporate the plan-implement-evaluate-revise-implement cycle.

6. Only long-range evaluation strat,gies can provide fora close interdependence of development, evaluation,and revision.

7. Criterion-referenced evaluation has particular signi-ficance to individualized instructional programs.

The importance of comprehensive evaluation systems as apart of any instructional program cannot be overemphasized.Evaluation takes on added significance to the innovativeeducator who looks to it as a source of information fordecision making. Individualized programs are not builtovernight; they require nurture, patience, guidance, andevaluation.

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Resources

Books and Monographs

ASCD. Evaluation as Feedback and Guide. 1967 ASCD Year-book, Fred T. Wilhelms, ed. Washington, D.C.: ASCD,1967.

Campbell, Donald T., and Stanley, Julian C. Experimental,i_randeuasi-E, nentalDesi.nsfor Research. Chicago:

RandMaarryaridCcparty,1T63.Clark, Donald C. "The Pontoon Transitional Design: An

Evaluation of Attitudes and Cognitive Achievement ofSelected Seventh Grade Students." Unpublished doctoraldissertation, University of Southern California, 1971.

Clark, Donald; James, Winston; Georgiades, William.Teacher Observation Scale. Monrovia Unified SchoolDistrict, 1969.

Gyves, John J. "An Evaluation of the Effects of An In-service Training Program of the Instructional Behaviorsand Attitudes of Teachers Within the Pontoon TransitionalDesign." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Universityof Southern California, 1972.

Show, Marvin E., and Wright, Jack M. Scales for theMeasurement of Attitudes. New York: McGraw -Hill BookCompany, 1967.

Speckhard, Gerald Paul. "An Evaluation of the EducationalProgram of a High School Using a Modular Schedule."Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University ofColorado, 1966.

Young, James C. "An Evaluation of a Pontoon TransitionalDesign--Ninth Grade Low Ability Level Students." Unpub-lished doctoral dissertation, University of SouthernCalifornia, 1969.

Articles

Ebel, Robert L. "Content Standard Scores." Educationaland Psychological Measurement, 22 (1962), pP7-15-25.

Glaser, Robert. "Instructional Technology and the Measure-ment of Learning Outcomes.' American Psychologist, 18(1963), pp. 519-5.21.

Klausmeier, Herbert J., and Wiersma, William. "TeamTeaching and Achievement." Education, December, 1965,pp. 238-242.

Lambert, Philip; Goodwin, William L.; and Wiersma, William."A Comparison of Pupil Adjustment in Team and Self-Contained Organizations." Journal of EducationalResearch, March, 1965, pp. 311-314.

LegUrEFF7 Leon M. "Accountability and Curriculum Reform."Educational Technology, May, 1970, pp. 56-57.

Moore, J. William. "Instructional Design: After Be-havioral Objectives What?" Educational Technology,September, 1969, pp. 45-48.

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Popham, W. &moo. "The Instructional Objectives Exchange:New Support ti,r Criterion-Referenced Instruction." PhiDelta Kappan, Noveml,er, 1970, pp. 174-175.

Quirk, Thomas J. "Test Scoring Based on the InstructionalObjectives as the Basic Criterion Unit." Journal ofSecondary Education, February, 1970, pp. 617777--

Rice, David, et al. "Educational Evaluators--A. Model forTask Oriented Position Development." Contemporary Educa-tion, January, 1970, pp. 115-118.

Rooze, Gene E. "Empirical Evaluation of InstructionalMaterials in the Affective Area." Educational Technology,April, 1969, pp. 53-56.

Trump, J. Lloyd. "Flexible Scheduling: Fad or Funoa-mental." Phi Delta Kappan, May, 1963, pp. 367-371.

. "What Is Team Teaching?" Education, February,1965, pp. 327-332.

. "Evaluating Pupil Progress in Team Teaching."Washington, D.C.: NASSP

Ubben, Gerald C. "A rEa-at Nongradedness and Self-PacedLearning." Audiovisual Instruction, February, 1970,pp. 31-34.

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