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Paz, Benito Castejon; And OthersRationalising Sports Policies: I. Outline of aMethodology. European Cooperation For the Developmentof Sport for All.Council of Europe, Strasbourg (France). Committee forOut-of-School Education and Cultural Development.Mar 73107p.Manhattan Publishing Company, 225 Lafayette Street,New York, New York ($2.50)

MF-$0.65 HC Not Available from EDRS.Athletic Programs; *Athletics; Conceptual Schemes;*Mathematical Models; *Models; Policy; *PolicyFormation*Sports Policy

ABSTRACTThe major aim of this study is to devise a model for

rationalizing sports policies by defining the basic concepts thatshould be inherent in any proper sports policy despite the infinitediversity that characterizes actual sport situations. The first partof the study discusses three concepts which are basic to the model:a) the "level of sport" which denotes the overall objectives ofsports policy; b) the "sports situation" which is the reality ofsport as it is defined by the people, facilities, and organizationsinvolved in all areas of sport and as it is limited by extra-sportselements, which include demographic, climatic, geographical,economic, and sociological conditions and the physical and anatomicalcharacteristics of the population; and c) "development factors," orthose activities which, when combined in programs, have the effect ofimproving the existing "level of sport." Part two of the study is amathematical outline of a model for decision making with regard torationalizing sport policy. Part three of the study contains thestatistical instruments for implementing the mathematical model.(HMD)

Strasbourg, 11 March 1973

30.16104.3

CCC/DC (73) 7

Or. Fr.

COMMITTEE FOR OUT-OF-SCHOOL EDUCATION

AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

Euro can co-o erationfor the develo ment of Sort for All

Rationalising_ sports policies

I. Outline of a methodology

pre pared by

Mr Benito Castejon Paz

in collaboration with

MM Juan de Dios Garcia. Martinezand Jos° Rodriguez Carballada

:

U S DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH.EDUCATtON& WELFARENATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

EDUCATIONHAS BEEN PEP.°

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ccc/bc (73) 7

Contents

ERMA

Introductory note ii

Rationali_m_sidecision-rci:whyandhopT?by Mr Benito Castejon Paz

Part I: The poncept a1 instrumentsby Mr Benito Castejon Paz

Chapter 1 : Level of sport 8

Chapter 2 : The sport situation 20

Chapter 3 : Development factors 32

Part II: The mathematica1 instruments -outline of a model for decision-makilmby Mr Juan de Dios Garcia Martinez

Chapter 1 : The mathematical modelsand sport as a system 43

Chapter 2 : Mathematical model 53

Part III: The statistical instrumentsby Mr Jose Rodriguez Carballada

Chapter 1 : General remarks 74

Chapter 2 : Types of information tobe collected:definitions, forms and tables 82

- CCC /DC (73) 7

Introductory aatt

by the Secretariat

In the autumn of 1971, the Council of Europe commissioneda series of studies on the problems involved in rationalising----sports policies.

Mr Benito Castejon Paz (Spain) agreed to take charge ofco-ordination. It was he, too, who conceived and elaboratedthe basic concepts of the methOdology expounded.Mr Juan de Dios Garcia Martinez and Mr Jose Rodriguez Carballada,for their part, undertook to deal with the specifically technical,notably the econometric and statistical, aspects. It is to themwe owe Parts II and III of the study.

It is the findings of this research that the Secretariat isnow publishing and, in doing so, it expresses its warmest thanksto MM Castejon, Garcia and Rodriguez.

Experts consulted by the Secretariat have remarked on theoriginality of this methodology. Mr Castejon.would appear tobe the first to have devised certain instruments for use inanalysis and decision-making, which should be of help indefining and implementing a coherent and effective sports policy.One of the chariact.zrizticr:; of the mizthod h that it enables choicesand altornativz)s to be expressed in quantitative terms : thisexplains how Mr Castejon came to propose bases for the constructionof a mathematical model for decision-making.

Mathematical models, as everyone knows, have today becomemajor instruments in determining economic choices (economicplanning and policy-making by governments, large firms etc).Indeed,.as the eminent French mathematician Andre Lichnerowiczput it, a mathematical model makes it possible "to see and planahead with the maximum degree of accuracy Only when sucha model has been constructed can an apparently complex situationreally be considered to have been cleared up ... A model builton axioms and made to function mathematically can (or not, asthe case may be) tell us a great many things about the actualinitial situation we started from and enable us to predict andcontrol itt evolution" (1).

(1) Mathematique et Enseignement, p. 25; in the RevueEmagat de l'Electricite, 45th year, No. 23T57---

CCC/DC (73) 7 -

Mr Castejon has devised a methodology, that is to say, aset of instruments to enable u.s to grasp a Livensituation so that we can influence it in a particular way. Itis at this point that we realise that this study goes beyondthe sports sector. It concerns - and the subsequent pages bearthis out - the entire socio-cultural sphere of which sportforms a part. Consequently it is obvious that, if this methodology-proves practicable, it should be possible to apply its mainprinciples to socio-cultural policy in general.

As far as it specifically concerns sport, this methodologyshould be applicable wherever it is desired to pursue a malsports policy, at whatever level (country, region, town, sportsfederation ...) and whatever the content Of the policy(eg encouragement.of a sporting elite or of sport for all).

The Secretariat was warned that this paper, dealing as itdoes with matters which might appear difficult to the non-initiated, was liable to disconcert readers lacking familiaritywith modern planning methods. Some knowledge of these methodswould seem indispensable for an appraisal of this study and ofits practical value. All conz.onto Tair:t thc.rofors be latto the specialists. The co-author6 do not pretend, however, tohave produced a perfect methodology. As the sub-title indicates,it is merely a general outline, the broad lines of a comprehensivesystem whose details remain to be filled in.

The basic principles of the methodology were expounded byMr Castejon in 1970 at the Vth Consultation.of Non-governmentalSport Organisations, held at.the Council of Europe's 4eadquarter6..

In a separate document, entitled Rationalising sportspolicies: II. The case of "S ortlandier=767scenario(doe. CCC/EES (72) b5 Revised ,Mr Castejon fias shown howthe present methodology may be applied to a specific case.

1 CCC /DC (73) 7

RATIONALISING DECISION-MAKING : WHY AND HOW?

by Mr Benito Castejon Paz

While an abundant bibliography exists on the differentaspects of sport as a physical activity, we know of no studydealing with the political and administrative measures takenwith regard to sport. No research has been done, for instance,on rationalising decision-making in this field.

The present study is intended to help repair this omission.An attempt will be made to define certain concepts and criteriawith a view to rationalising decision-making, whatever the aimsof the decisions may be. In other. words, what'we shall be proposinghere is not a policy, but a method deSigned to ensure that thepolicy adopted produces maximum effect.

It seems necessary to stress the practical character ofthis work. There are many who seem to think that theoreticalresearch. is divorced from reality. But it is precisely whenreality is not satisfactory and reform methods are not provingeffective enough that theory needs to be resorted to as a meansof clarifying the phenomena involved, and instruments from otherdisciplines used which have proved their worth in practice.

Our first aim is to identify the basic concepts inherent,under whatever name, in any set of decisions. worthy of beingcalled a sports-policy. For, whatever the level of decisicin .

(government, region, town, sports organisation) and whatever theobjective in vieW(sporting elite or sport for all) we shouldlogically expect to find the same basic concepts enable us to seesports realities as compOnents of a general structure, of a system.We must therefore, as a first step, consider the world.of sportas a coherent syAm.

But though the world of sport may be considered, from theinside, as a coherent and hence self-regulating system, it isnot independent in relation to the outside world. It is a componentof a vaster unit whose other components are extraneous to sportbut influence it nevertheless. The economic level, population'structure, social customs etc have an undoubted influence on thepractice of sport. They condition the practice of sport but the

CCC /DC (73) 7 - 2

sports authorities cannot change them, at least not in the shortor medium-term. They must therefore regard them as extraneousconstants or as independent variables and make.allowance forthem in their policy.

This comprehensive view, which considers sport as anintegral part of a whole composed of physical, social and.culturalelements, is essential if the decisions taken are to be relevant.It is even more essential in the case of what we have calledthe "specifically sports elements", that is to say, all thoseelements on which a sports policy can bring influence to bearin order to change them. The position of each of these elements(equipment, training of leaders, school physical education,organisation etc) will be influenced by that of the others. Itwould therefore be a mistake to consider each element as havingan isolated and independent set of problems peculiar to itThus a resolutely comprehensive view is indispensable here too,if partial and irrational solutions are to be avoided.

Generally speaking, an attempt will be made in the presentstudy - and particularly in Part II dealing with econometrics -to demonstrate a method of quantifying the factors.affectingsports policy, and the relations existing between them.Quantification obviously enables choices and alternatives to beformulated with maximum accuracy.

In Part III an indication will be given of the type ofdata which the responsible authorities will need in order todefine a rational policy. The problem of sports statistics willbe discussed in this connection.

This quantitative approach does not mean that the qualitativeaspects of the sporting world will be considered as negligible.We are aware of the limitations of any purely rational andquantitative approach, but also of the importance of distinguishingclearly between those values which are capable of objectivemeasurement and those which are not. We shall try in this wayto achieve a certain rationalisation of sports policy andadministration, while taking care not to force reality byjuggling mathematical. formulae.

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3 ccc/bC (73) 7

But, first, a few remarks are necessary concerning sportas the subject of a policy.

To start with, the character of sport is complex because itdiffers according to the degree of development of the societiesin which it is practised. Though, in the abstract, sport isthe same the world over, the interpretation and importance givento it differ from one society to another. Consequently, a wisesports policy must not only be based on general concepts and ona knowledge of the predominant tendencies in the majority ofcountries, but should also take account of the situation in thecountry' concerned and the place accorded to sport.

Secondly, emphasis should be laid on the close connectionbetween the various levels or types of sports practice. Thosewho claim that professional sport or competitive sport is not"real" sport cannot deny the basic interdependende between thistype and genuinely amateur sport. Its economic impact is suchthat it must be considered an important element of any sportspolicy. The defeatist attitude of those who consider that sport.for'the masses must be the sole concern is unrealistic and liableto harm sport. But the reverse attitude is no less mistaken.For spectator sport to remain in the hand of financial groups,outside the control of a sports policy, would spell. suicide.Sports problems cannot, any more than other problems, be solvedby refusing to face facts and creating an imaginary world divorcedfrom reality. A sports policy must be based on an actual situation,on the recognition that sport comprises both the purest amateurismand the strictest professionalism. The methodology proposed isbuilt on this conception.

Thirdly, there is the political aspect of sport. No countrycan disregard sport.in its general policy. There are severalreasons why it cannot afford to do so: the generalisation ofsport in numerous spheres of our daily life; its considerableeconomic importance; its undeniable appeal for the 'masses and,in some countries at least, its direct effects on certainpolitical events, such as elections; the capital importancewhich should be accorded to sport in any modern socio-culturalpolicy relating to leisure, health, education andthe environment.Sport must remain free from party influences. Thus a propersports policy is necessary if sport is to be prevented frombecoming a tool in the hands of certain groups.

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=ADC (73) 7 - 4

What practical purpose can this study serve? Firstly, asstated above,.it is intended to promote the rationalising ofsports policies by suggesting a number of instruments for analysisand decision-making which may be of help in defining a coherentand effective policy based on a strict analysis of facts and figuresrather than on preconceived ideas.

I would state emphatically that the instruments and methodsproposed here make no pretension to being perfect. As the sub-.title of the study indicates, they merely constitute the broadlines of a methodology. It is these broad lines, that is to saya general approach, a set Of methodological principles, and notdetails that we shall be concerned with here. Since I firstbegan to develop this theory some years ago, every passing dayhas strengthened my conviction that these broad lines arelogically coherent and that the methodology can be applied inpractice with a much greater degree of efficiency than in thecase of conventional systems. But at the same time I haVe beenconvinced since the start that further study by experts will benecessary in order to work out all the details, in particularthe ideal or desirable quantitative relations, as regards themass -elite ratio for example. It must obviously be left tothe responsible authorities to determine that ratio according tothe.situation existing in their respective countries.

The methodology is intended as an instrument for theanalysis and investigation involved in operations such as:

- measuring (quantitatively) the level of sportsdevelopment in a country, municipality, organisation etc;

- checking and assessing the results .(quantified) of thesports policy of that country, municipality, organisation etc;

- planning, that is to say, determining, rationally andquantitatively, the aims of that policy and the meansto be employed in order to attain the desired sports level.

In addition to these practical advantages, the methodologyproposed might also serve as a medium for communication betweenall the countries or 'bodies which adopt it. The concepts definedin it are, in effect, a common langutt:e.offered to those responsiblefor sports policies: The adoption of a common language, that isto say a standardised methodology, is indispensable for fruitfuldiscussion, in that it enables maximum profit to be derived froman exchange of information and a comparison of results.

- 5 _ CcCADC (73) 7

The methodology proposed could thus make for more effectiveco-operation among countries and organisations. The fact isthat, at present, international comparison of data is virtuallyimpossible. Comparison of the actual policies themselves is evenmore difficult, for it is beyond anyone to form anything likean exact. impression of what is happening elsewhere. The factthat there is no international assembly which compares anddiscusses systematically the various policies, or administrativestructures and methods, whether public or private, is a measureof the under-developed state of co-operation in this field.International contacts Are usually confined to exchange8 ofinformation on sports techniques. Discussion of policy andadministrative questions is sadly lacking.

The same applies, I may say, to cultural policies in general.The lack of maturity throughout the whole sector is reflectedby the under-development of operational research, by the absenceof a coherent system of cultural indicators and by the dearthof meaningful statistics and cultural accounts. The few attemptsmade at qUantification and rationalisation have not been very

. satisfactory. The application of economic planning techniqueshas not proved too convincing, chiefly because' of a failure toconsider the vast field of cultural phenomena as.a coherent system.Besides, care has not always been taken to keep the process ofquantifying the objective strictly separate from that of estimatingexpenditure. In these conditions, the application pure and simpleof economic planning methods cannot but lead to what'I regard .

as sterile structures.

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As I said earlier, the main aim of this study is to definethe basic concepts which should be inherent, despite the infinitediversity characterising the actual situations, in any propersports policy. Starting from the complex conditions prevailingin sport and from practical empiricism, we shall try and identifythe internal structure of the sporting world and the laws whichgovern it; in other words, we shall try and bring out the internalsystem underlying all empirical methods and practices and, by aprocess of abstraction, construct a basic model free from anyaccessory.

cCC/bC (73) 7 6

This system comprises three fundamental concqpts: the"level of sport", the sport situation", and the

concepts

factors". The whole of Part I of this study will be devoted tothese.

7 CCCADC.(73) 7

Part I

The conceptual instruments

by

M.Benito CASTEJON PAZ

./.

8

CHAPTER I

THE LEVEL OF SPORT

cccApic (73) 7

Of the three basic concepts of the methodology expoundedhere, "the level of sport" is undoubtedly the most important.It raises the fundamental problem of any policy: that of thechoice of objectives.

1. Tlf_nood for Corr rot inais ensablQ condition

Everyone would probably agree that improvement in the levelof sport (or: the development of sport - the expression uSed*isimmaterial for the time being) is the main objective of anysports policy. But beyond this general affirmation, there is agreat deal of divergency, uncertainty and confusion as to theexact content and implications of this essential objective.

Some say that sport should promote public health, theeducation of the young, the solution of leisure problems, anation's prestige or even its economic development. It isusually persons unconnected with sport, those at the head ofpolitical, socio-cultural and economic affairs, for instance,who talk in these terms. For them sport is not an end initself, but a means of attaining a vaster objective outside therealm of sport. The aims they assign to sports policy do notconcern sport itself.

Others assert that the development of sport as such shouldbe the prime objective of any sports policy. This is the viewgenerally held by the sports authorities. The difficultiesstart, however, when they are asked to explain what exactly ismeant by this. A first categarywill perhaps confess that theyare incapable of being any more explicit. For such as these,because they do exist, expressions like "development of sport",improvement in the level of sport" etc are simply vague, ill-

defined notions. It is a sure sign that they have no exactidea either of the objectives or of the means of the_policythey claim to be pursuing - which is tantamount to saying thatthey have, in fact, no policy at all.

A second category will perhaps have very definite ideas,in which case opinions may be strongly divided. For some,Olympic medals and records will be the main aims of sportspolicy; others will hold that priority should be given to thepractice of sport by the greatest number possible: this is thepolicy of Sport for All; others again will maintain that theprincipal objective is to build installations, train cadres etc.

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CCC /DC (73) 7 - 9

All these opinions may be perfectly justifiable.. Olympicmedals and records may have just as valid objectives as, forexample, Sport for All, physiCal education in schools or the-development of a particular branch of sport. But r.11 theseobjectives - and one could go on quoting examples ad infinitum- -have this in common that they are fragmentary and limited. Theyare not mutually exclusive,: on the contrary, they are complementary.The fatal error would be to consider any single one as beingthe supreme objective of a sports policy, for, as Paul Valerysaid, the mistake would be in taking the part for the whole.

Any policy worthy of the name is the'Sumtotal and, moreimportant, the synthesis of 'partial objectives (or "sub-objectives")grouped, according to a logical hierarchy, around a broad,. overallobjective. In other words, coherence is the primary quality ofany genuine policy: a policy becomes a strategy only if it iscoherent.

Planning or defining a policy is thus basicallya logicaloperation in that the process involved is'one of establishinglogical and hierarchical relations in .a set of objectives andmeans. Only in this way are rational choices possible. Modernmanagement and systems analysis techniques are based on theseprinciples. They have, as everyone knows, proved their worth ineconomic planning and military strategy.

That is why I propose to introduce the concept of ulev.61 ofsport" . It is a term I shall use fo denote the overall objectiveof spoPts policy, that is to say, the supreme objective in a'hierarchy of objectives (or of categories of objectives) varyingin importance. The "level'of..sport" (1) thus becomes the "aim ofaims ", or the "meta- objective" as it would be called in structuralistjargon.

(1) As previously stated, the actual term used is immaterial.Personally, I cannot think of any more appropriate one, butthere would obviously be no objection to using a similarexpression such as "development of sport".

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The adoption of a broad concept like this is indispensableto the 'rationalising of decisions. Such a concept is thebasic instrument of any rationalisation process, It fulfils fourclosely interrelated functions.

a. Firstly, the adoption of an overall concept is indispensablewhen it comes to considering the general strategy, the majorobjectives and main options. For example, there is the - oftenagonising - problem of the choice between the elite and themasses - one might say between quality and quantity. This isthe constant dilemma in sports policy and, indeed, in anysocio-cultural policy.

b. Secondly, an overall concept is necessary.for the purposeof.establishing effective co-ordination between differentcategories of objectives, and also between the objectives andthe means.

The problem. of co-ordinating or harmonising the policiespursued by different bodies is clearly a major one forinternational co-operation. But it is even more formidablewhen it has to be tackled at national level, and such cases are,alas, neither imaginary nor exceptional, for numerous countrieshave instead of a single sports policy, a variety of juxtaposedpolicies devised and applied by several bodies: the centralgovernment, the different local authorities, the nationalconfederation of sports organisations, the specialised federationsand so forth. It is essential, if this mass of disparate, oftencontradictory and divergent efforts are to be transformed intoa single coherent and integrated policy, to define a majoroverall objective. Only on this condition can a systematicanalysis be made of all the choices that are possible, desirableand necessary.

But defining an overall objective is but a first step.According to the laws of logic, this first step leads to asecond one, namely that of determining how many possible,desirable and necessary objectives (they might be called"primary objectives") are comprised in the overall objective.Then the secondary objectives (and thereafter the tertiaryobjectives, and so on) implied in each of the main objectiveswill have to be determined, in their turn by the same logicaland systematic process. In this way, a whole series of conceptswill develop logically from the basic concept and enable theobjectives to be arranged in their hierarchical structure. Itis only by thus defining the content of, and relations between,the objectives that rational co-ordination becomes possible:each of the various responsible bodies is assigned its particularfunction and contributes thereby to achieving the overall-objectives.

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CCC /]DC (73) 7 - 11 -

As long as the leaders carry out the analysis logicallyand systematically, it matters little - from the methodologicalpoint of view, at least - whether the decisions finally takenare in favour of the masses'or of the elite, of physicaleducation in schools, of football, or of the training of hockeyinstructors. The important thing is that the leaders will knowwhat they are doing. They will be deciding with completeknowledge of the facts, that is to say, fully realising andweighing up the implications of their decisions. They willknow that, by giving priority to a particular objective (orcategory of objectives) other possible objectives will necessarilyhave to be sacrificed. Rational choices are conscious choices.

Any co- ordination or harmonisation of policies pursued bydifferent bodies' presupposes a common political will. Politico-technical negotiations - perhaps arduous - between the differentbodies will be necessary before agreement is reached on a planof action satisfying the legitimate interests of all partiesas far as possible, and at the same time ensuring optimum useof the means available. I shall return to this point in duecourse.

I should like, in reply to the hasty objections raisedfrom time to time, to state emphatically that I am' expressingno opinion one way or the other on the organisational' forms ofsport (unitary or decentralised, predominantly governmentalor non-governmental etc). Even though I have my own views inthe matter, I have -never expressed them, for the simple reasonthat each country is entitled to adopt the structure that suitsit best. What is affirmed throughout these pages is the simpletruth that a coherent policy presupposes a minimum of co-ordination.

While it is true that co-ordination implies a common willon the part of the bodies concerned, it also implies that thematters concerned are capable of being co-ordinated. Thisraises the problem of the comparability of policies, which willbe discussed under the next point.

c. The adoption of an overall concept permits, thirdly, apertinent comparison of different policies and their results.Let us suppose, to take an example simplified to the extreme,that four bodies in a given country have decided to adopt apolicy of Sport for All: the public authorities are to financethe equipment and facilities and. promote physical education inschools, the National Sports Confederation is to organise apublicity campaign and train leaders, the gymnastics and cyclingfederations are to concern themselves both with the training oflakdcroand with publicity and also widen access to their clubs.How are we to set about comparing these four policies? How arewe to assess the results, the contribution of each? The firstnecessity will be to define a criterion for comparison.

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- 12 - CCC /DC (73) 7

This criterion must inevitably be a very broad one, forexample, that of the level of sport. Once again, choosing thecriterion is obviously just a first step: it will also have tobe subjected to logical anu systematic analysis (as explainedunder point (b)) in the light of co-ordination problems. Whencompleted, this analysis will have created a common language,a standardised terminology for all the bodies which took part init. The concepts and realities which these embody will have .

become comparable and hence "co-ordinable".

I referred earlier to the difficulties of co-ordinatingand harmonising policies at international level, difficultieswhich are the natural consequence of the divisions and compartmentscreated for national purposes. Thus, at present, internationalco-operation is usually confined to exchanging information andcomparing results and experience. If the participants want moreconcrete, more substantial results from these exchanges, resultsmore directly usable at national level, they will have to make uptheir minds to adopt a common language, and, in particular,standardised concepts and terms. The methodology proposed hereis intended to contribute to achieving this aim.

d. Fourthly and lastly, if an overall objective is adopted,it is easier to incorporate sports policy into a general policy,for example a socio-cultural one. According to our conception,a sports policy is a system composed of sub-systems (namely thepolicies conducted by the various bodies responsible for sport).But sports policy, in its turn, is part of a higher complex, ameta-system: this is the overall, for instance socio-cultural,policy.

It is here that we find the answer to the question raisedright at the beginning of this chapter. Can a sports policyhave aims outside the realm of sport, aims relating to suchmatters as health, cultural advancement and economic development?A sports policy can obviously have only aims specifically relatedto sport. It would not be a sports policy otherwise. But in avaster complex, sport and a sports policy rank as means servingwider objectives, transcending the sphere of sport proper. In oother words, in the overall view taken by a country's leaders,sport will appear primarily as a function, whereas, for thoseresponsible for sports policy, it must be, above all, an end initself.

The problem of incorporating sports policy into generalpolicy is obviously outside the scope of this study. But if wesucceed in clearly defining the main outlines and characteristicfeatures of a sports policy, we will undoubtedly have helpedto make its incorporation easier and more effective.

. I.

ccC/bC (73) 7 - 13

2. Content of the concept of "level of sport"

The term "level of sport" is used frequently in everydaylanguage, but with different monnings. According to a widelyheld view, the level of sport is determined by results: Ecoresand records.

Results are undoubtedly an indicator worth taking accountof. But it would be unthinkable, despite pressure from a publicwhich is often interested only in victories, to make it a supremecriterion.

First of all, it Would be making the level of sport dependon a series of hazardous and arbitrary factors, including luck,on which victory frequently hinges. Secondly, it would betantamount to acknowledging that, when all is said and done,sport is aimed solely at obtaining outstanding performances byan elite. But sport is more than that while it is true thatan elite will usually produce results, this need not necessarilybe the case. There are countries which have a very considerableelite but score few victories.

Even in cases where priority is given to the elite as atool for achieving performances, the masses are usually cateredfor to a certain extent, too. A sports leader, who has notmeditated on the matter very deeply, will say that the elitedepends on the masses, whom he regards as raw material fromwhich to produce champions. It is here that current conceptionsneed to be radically changed.

The elite does undeniably spring from the masses, though,as we shall see, the law of diminishing returns which governsthe ratio between them has to be borne in mind. But let it bestated categorically and emphatically that to encourage thepractice of sport by people who do not belong to the elite isnot just a means to an end, namely the turning out of champions,but an end in itself.

Inother words, we disagree with a large body of opinionin that we believe that the level of sport depends primarilyon the number of those who engage in sport, whatever theirquality, and only secondly on the sporting elite: This beliefis shared by numerous genuine sportsmen, but it is oftenstifled by the glory and publicity surrounding the elites.

The level of sport and the formation of an elite dependprimarily on the extent of the practice of sport. The numberof practitioners is allimportant, because a nation's sportsreputation is directly conditioned by the extent to which sportis practised generally, among its population.

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- 14 - CCC /DC (73) 7

The elite is the qualitative dimension of the level ofsport. Like any cultural activity, sport carries within it animpulsion towards improving and exceeding the results alreadyachieved. Competition is an essential factor in sport and leadsto the formation of elites, which, despite possible deviations,are a positive value. To refuse to consider the elite as aconstitutent element of the level of sport would be a mistakedue, once again, to the failure to take an overall view.

If we accept that the creation of a body of sportspractitioners and of a sporting elite are thus the two essentialaims of sports policy, the fundamental problem of that policywill be to determine the relation between the two. As thisrelation embodies both complementary and conflicting aspects, itassumes a dialectic and, hence, a dynamic character. It is thefunction of the concept "level of sport" to.synthesise thiscomplementary and dialectic' relation, which is precisely whatthe mathematical models for decision-making are intended to do.We shall return to this question later and give all the necessarydetails in Part II.

To effect this synthesis, it is not enough to take accountonly of those who actually practise sport and of the actualelite, for then the level of sport would be merely a phOtographof the existing situation: .tho higher a country's populationwon... be, the higher the level of sport would be. To definethe level of sport in this way, that is, as an absolute value,would serve no purpose and Would convey nothing. Comparing levelswould be, tantamount to comparing population figures.

.

Thus, if the level of sport is to be a real policy instrument,it must be defined as a relative value, indicating the progressa country (organisation, town ...) has made towards realisingits potential. For this purpose, a distinction must be madebetwe:n the actual and the ideal (or desirable) situation of thetwo constituent elements, ordinary sports practitioners and theelite.

In-other'words, it is not sufficient to determine the relationbetween

thattwo elements of the level of sport intheir existing

form, that is, between the number of those who. actually engagein sport and the size of the existing elite; account must betaken of a second relationship, namely that between the potential(or desirable) number of sports practitioners and an elitecorrespondingideally to the number of potential practitioners.If we succeed in determining the overall ratio between thesetwo elements in the level of sport, it will assume a dynamicsignificance because it will represent the relation between the"real" and the "ideal", that is to say it will contrast theactual situation with the desirable situation. The importanceof such a comparison for the framing of a policy is self-evident.

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CCC /DC (73) 7 - 15 -

Thus the level of sport will be seen as a function, not oftwo, but of four elements, one of which will be the totalpopulation of each country. Only in this way will it be possibleto use the level of sport as a policy instrument in the fullsense of the term, that is to say, as a neutral but dynamictool, which is universally applicable and independent of con-siderations of time or place. In this way, too, it becomes,possible to compare objectively the levels reached by thevarious countries (regions, towns, organisations etc), besideswhich, such comparisons then become meaningful.

3. Analysis of the four constituents of the "level of sport":pLsasrobler.ndossfble solutions

As we have just seen, the level of sport is the relationbetween the actual and the ideal number of ordinary sportspractitioners and of the sporting elite respectively. Let usanalyse these four constituent elements.

The first, that is to say the number of ordinary practitioners,raises various problems. To start with: what activities are tobe taken into account and what degree of activity is required forsomeone to be considered as a "practitioner"?

The first question necessitates a clarification of theconcept of sport. What activities, if any, need to be eliminated,even if, administratively, they may be considered as sport? I

am thinking of games for which competitions are held, but whichdo not demand any expenditure of physical energy: for example,chess. Then the question arises whether activities involvingno competitive element, such as morning gymnastics or theSunday walk, can be considered as sport.

It is not for me to answer these questions. The variousbodies concerned will have to conclude an agreement establishinga uniform statistical system. I nevertheless have my own viewon the subject: in my opinion, non-physical activities, likechess, should be excluded from the concept of sport. Moreover,I consider that the criterion of competition, in the broadestsense, should be observed in order to distinguish sport fromactivities designed to maintain physical fitness.

Then it will remain to determine the number of hours ofsports practice required for someone to be considered as apractitioner". To my mind, the criterion should be a modest one,

but continuity should be taken into account. The relativelyintense practice of sport during holidays only should be regardedas insuffidient: practice should be more or less continuousthroughout the year.

./.

- 16 - CCC/DC (73) 7

Here again, as in the previous case, and indeed in that ofall the problems arising within the scope of this study, agreementwill have to be reached between the bodies concerned. In myopinion, the minimum to be demanded should be two hours' practicea week. We shall go into the matter in greater detail inPart III, relating to statistics, when we shall consider, amongother things, the problem of estimating the number of those 'whopractise sport - a difficult task, owing to the fact that few ofthem belong to clubs or associations.

The second element, the actual elite, raises anotherproblem: that of determining .who belongs to the elite of a country,a region or a locality. Then a distinction has to be drawnbetween those sports in which performances are measurable andthe others. The first type - practically all the individualsports - raise no particular difficulties. The elite is composedof those who reach a certain standard of. performance. This isthe method used fairly frequently nowadays for selection forcompetitions. The definition of "elites", whether national,regional or local, thus presents no major difficulties. Thenational elite is defined by world records, the regional eliteby national records and the local. elite by regional records.

Determining the elite ismore difficult in the case ofsports in which performance is not measurable and in team sports.A starting-point might be the individual ratingof players,which is common to all sports. As in. the case of Performances,a national, regional or local register might be kept - as isinvariably done in practice - of outstanding sportsmen. Therough-and-ready and more or less automatic way of deciding :whoare the elite in sports of this kind does not really .preventquantitative estimates, as the concept of "elite" always relatesto individuals, in any case, and never to groups or teams. Thequality of a team is a matter of selection. That is a technicalproblem outside the scope'of this general survey; we shall returnto it later in the chapter dealing with development factors.

Where the third element, the "potential practitioners",are concerned, the first necessity is to fix age-limits, for itis at the two extremities of the age pyramid that eliminationmust take place. My personal view is that the practice of sportby young persons under the age of 14, intense though it may be,must be considered as physical education. We shall return tothis question in the subsequent chapters. To my mind, it wouldbe a mistake to include the under-fourteens for the purposes of

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ccc/bc (73) 7 - 17 -

defining the level of sport. Perhaps the age-limit should beeven higher, although certain sports like swimming are producingextraordinarily precocious champions. If the under-fourteens areto be excluded from the number of potential sports practitioners,they will, obviously, also have to be excluded from the numberof actual practitioners.'

The upper limit also creates a problem. If two hours'competitive activity a week is to be the criterion, then 70 yearsmust be regarded as the upper age-limit. This obviously does notmean that certain persons over that age are not to be regardedas real sportsmen, but simply that their number is statisticallynegligible.

No account need be taken, for the purposes of a generalassessment, of factors such as sex, occupation, geographicalbackground, or-the form of the demographic pyramid; but thesehave to be taken into considerationwhen it comes to determiningthe 'sport situation" (see following chapter).

As for the ideal elite, it should be noted, first, thatthere is a total absence of empirical studies on the optimummasses /elite ratio in sport. This does not constitute aninsurmountable obstacle, however, for one could begin byenvisaging a fairly high ceiling, fairly remote from reality, andspecifying later, in the light of experience, what is to beregarded as an "ideal" elite.

Secondly, the "ideal" elite is to be distinguished from anelite which we might describe as "proportional". The first isdetermined in relation to the potential practitioners: it is theelite which would correspond ideally to the number of potentialpractitioners. By contrast, the "proportional' elite isdetermined in relation to the number of actual practitioners:this is the elite which should exist, given the number of actualpractitioners. This concept of "proportional" elite is usefulbecause it reveals any imbalance (deficit or excess) in theexisting elite.

In other words, three elites are to be distinguished: the

realrealthe proportional and the ideal. It is only the "real' and

the elites that concern us in determining the level ofsport. But the "proportional" elite will help us in definingthe other two elites and in ascertaining their influence on thefigure which will denote the level of sport.

The proportional elite being the ratio between the numberof ordinary sports practitioners and the number of championswhich there should be, account must be taken of the variations inthat ratio according to the law of diminishing returns. Normallythe elite will tend to increase rapidly up to an inflexion point,

.1.

- 18 - CCC /DC (73) 7

at which it will start, in relative terms, to diminish. It isdifficult, at the moments to say what the inflexion point is insport; there can be no doubt, however, that the ideal elite,because it corresponds to the number of potential practitioners,is to be determined according to the law of diminishing returns.It will therefore be proportionally less than the elite whichcorresponds to the number of actual sports practitioners.

The ratio between the four elements will have to be weightedin the light of the foregoing factors, because it is possible,in certain cases, that the actual elite may be larger than theproportional one. But, as the latter (according to the law ofdiminishing returns) is proportionally greater than the idealelite, this fact must be borne in mind in order to prevent thefigure representing the level of sport from being distorted.

This problem will be dealt with in Part II of the study inconnection with the econometric analysis. In view of what hasjust been said concerning diminishing returns, a corrective indexwill have to be applied in order to avoid unrealistic results.

4. Mathematical formulation problems

The mathematical relation between these four elements willbe discussed in detail in Part II of this study, dealing witheconometrics. As a rule, as I have already stated at severalCouncil of Europe meetings, (the first time, in April 1970, atthe Fifth Consultation of NGOs), this relation might be multi-plicative or divisive: multiplicative to express the relationsexisting respectively between the elements constituting realityand the ideal situation, divisive to express the relation betweenthe "actual" and the "ideal".

Ls_

For a long time I thought that the simplest formula might be:

No. of actual practitioners x No. of actual eliteMaae.No. of potential practitioners x No. of ideal elite

But the econometric study in Part II shows that such aformula (which, in any event, could be no more than a workinghypothesis) has quite a number of drawbacks. I therefore decidedto abandon the above formula and adopt instead that proposed byMr Juan de Dios Garcia Martinez in Part II, which is based onthe theorem of Pythagoras (1). As regardi the weighting of the

(1) Secretariat note: Mr Castejon already announced indocument CCC/EES (72) 65, pages 5 and 10, that he wasabandoning the initial formula.

CCC /DC. (73) 7 - 19 -

various elements - an operation which is necessary if distortedresults are to be avoided - I would refer the reader, onceagain, to the econometric study.

In any event, the working out of the formula is a mathematicaloperation. Only mathematicians can tell us whether it is possibleto find an even better formula than the one based on the theoremof Pythagoras.

The really important thing is that the expression of thedifference between reality and the ideal should lead us to asituation in which we can apprehend the real and the idealsimultaneously. It is in this way that the concept, of the levelof sport takes on a dynamic significance, implying the existenceof some sort of sports policy, coherent or incoherent, consciousor unconscious but capable of being adjusted to bring the "real"closer to the 'ideal ", As I said earlier, I believe that thesame principles could be applied in dealing with the problem ofquantifying objectives in cultural policy.

The first conclusions that can be drawn from the foregoingare the following:

Determining the level of sport,enables us, in the firstplace, to define sport from a politico-administrative point ofview. By accepting criteria of this kind (that is to say, thoseI am proposing or any other similar ones) we shall arrive at ade4nition which allows comparisons.

Secondly, it thus becomes possible'to quantify the aimsand options of sports policy. The crucial problem of anycultural policy, namely. the choice: masses versus elite, isbrought right to the forefront.

Thirdly, it becomes possible, in this way, to determine themedium-term and long-term objectives and to define the relevantpolicies.

Fourthly', the concept of "level of sport" will make itpossible to analyse the usport situation" and thus devise apolicy which, with the aid of the "development factors", willproduce the desired level of sport.

Fifthly, and lastly, this quantification will enable objectivelimits to be set to the alternative: masses versus elite, inaccordance with the law of diminishing returns, and permit asubstitute to be found for an apparently successful short-termpolicy which, in the long term, is turning out to be harmful.

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CHAPTER II

THE SPORT SITUATION

The concept "sport situation" which is the subject of thischapter, has a double significance for sports policy. On theone hand, the sport situation is the resultant of a given levelof sport; on the other, it should form the basis of any policyaimed at improving the level of sport2 that is to say, attransforming reality by bringing the "development factors" intoplay.

Moreover, this concept is the necessary complement.of theconcept of "level of sport", and this for several reasons.

One is that the level of sport gives us only a first,general idea of the state of sport. It is necessary, in orderto account for this level being what it is, to examine it inits context, for it is merely one factor among many, and withoutthese other factors, the figures representing the level ofsport would not acquire their real, specific significance. Weshall see that the four elements of the level of sport are alsoelements of the sport situation. Hence the need to define the.relationships between these elements and the realities constitutingthe sport situation.

If one compares the concepts."level of sport" and "sportsituation", the latter appears to represent an analytical andfunctional view of the world of sport, the former an overallview. In other words, the level of sport expresses the wholemasses versus elite relationship, in which reality is contrastedwith the ideal objective, whereas the sport. situation appearsas the aggregate of the manifold technico-sport relationshipsexisting, firstly, between the various basic elements of sportand, secondly, between those elements and a series of.eircum-stances extraneous to sport.

It is extremely important to know what the sport situationis, for the fundamental decisions concerning sports policy mustbe taken in the light of the actual situation and its particularcharacteristics. That is why an analysis of the structure ofthe sport situation, for the purpose of comparing the "real" withthe "ideal", is an essential preliminary to any study of thefactors for development.

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CCC/DC (73) 7 - 21 -

1. General definition of the concept

The "sport situation% within the meaning of this study,can be defined in relation to two different series of realities.

It is composed, first of all, of a series of realitieswhich I shall call the "specific sports elements" : those maybe persons (ordinary sports practitioners, instructors, leadingofficials etc), things (installations, facilities) or organisations(clubs, federations etc). These specific sports elementsare characterised by the fact that they can be controlled orinfluenced by the policy-makers so as to contribute directlyto the development of sport.

The sport situation is influenced, in the second place,by a whole series of circumstances extraneous to sport, includingthe economic and geographic conditions of the.country, socialcustoms and beliefs, the anatomical and physiological character-istics of the population, and so forth. This second categorymight be described as 'extra - sports elements". They constitutewhat I call the "conditioning framework". Unlike the specificsports elements, the extra-sports elements appear more or lessconstant or independent. In any event, sports policy-makerscannot change them in the short term, for they are outsidetheir competence and beyond their control, but they have totake account of them in their policy.

It is the interplay of the technical and quantitativerelations between these various sports elements and extra-sportseloments which determines the sport situation. The quality ofthat situation is determined by comparing the real with theideal relations. In other words, in order to determine whetherthe real situation is satisfactory, balanced and functional,an ideal, or at least desirable, value has to be fixed foreach element, as in the case of the level of sport..

In the chapter dealing with the "development factors" anattempt will be made to describe the mechanisms whereby thetransition can be made from a given situation to a desiredfuture situation. The "development factors" therefore play adynamic role, whilst the sport situation and the elementscomposing it are static. It is important to underline thatfact. The concept "sport situation" is like a photograph inthat it tries to capture reality at a given moment. Comparisonwith past, future or ideal situations does not affect thisstatic quality: each of the situations compared is the crystal-listation of an actual state which is constantly changing.

- 22 - CCC/DC (73) 7

2. Swecific. snorts elements : description

There. are two errors to be avoided in describing .a situation:firstly, that of giving too many details, and secondly, that ofbeing too general. We are confronted with this problem here. Weare forced to make a choice from among the many realities that can beconsidered as elements of the sport situation. Such a choice will,to some extent, be an arbitrary one, and it will always be possibleto challenge it on one ground or another.

The criterion I have applied in selecting these elements istheir significance for the level of sport and their relativeindependence. The elements chosen seem to me more than sufficientfor the general model proposed here. The analysis could, of course,be carried even further by making sub-divisions of each element.

The specific sports elements may be classed in threemajor categories:

a. basic elements ;

b. directional and organisational elements ;

c. instrumental elements.

Group (a) may be sub-divided into primary elements : thenumber of ordinary sports practitioners and the number of theelite, and complementary elements: the number of pupils receivingphysical training and the number of hours of sports practice.

Group.(b) comprises the sports organisations, leadingofficials and professional administrators.

The instrumentalelements In group (c) can also be sub-divided into material elements and human element vthe formerinclude the area of the installations and the existing sportsfacilities and equipment, the latter comprise teachers of physicaleducation, instructors, coaches, umpires.and judges and themedical personnel.

After this enumeration-classification, the next step is todefine each of the elements considered.

a. Basic elements

With regard to the number of ordinary sports practitionersand the number of the elite,,I would refer to-what has alreadybeen said on the subject in connection with the level of sport.

The two complementary basic elements, however (pupilsreceiving physical education and the number of hours of sportspractice), call for some clarification. First of all, bearing

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CCC1DC (73) 7 - 23 -

in mind what was said in the preceding chapter as regardsdetermining the number of ordinary practitioners, pupils receivingphysical training are to be regarded as belonging to the under-14category. Secondly, I consider this element as a "basic" onebecause it tells us the proportion of young people who do notmake the transition from the compulsory to the voluntary activity,that is to say, from physical training to sport. The fact thatthere are physical-training pupils over the. age of 14 is oflittle relevance to ascertaining the sport situation. If, bythe age of 14, a child has not acquired the habit of physicalexercise which is conducive to the practice of sport, he ishardly likely to acquire it later.

The number of hours of sports practice is the ihdicator forgauging the average activity of practitioners and, consequently,the degree of intensity.

A more detailed analysis is, of course, possible. Asregards ordinary practitioners, classification by age, sex,occupation, sports engaged in, and place of residence would behighly significant. The same applies in the case of the elite.Where physical education.pupils and young practitioners areconcerned, it would be interesting,'in addition to the otherdata, to know the number of those who have completed theirbasic schooling, for this might shed light on certain aspects ofthe youth crisis and on the effects of entry into occupationallife or of the pursuit of higher studies. It would be interesting,too, to .have separate statistics of the number of hours spentby the elite and by ordinary practitioners on sports practice.But, as stated earlier, these details are not indispensable fora general model.

b. Directional and organIsIglonallements

Some clarification is necessary here. By sports organisationsI mean all bodies concerned with sporting activities, whethertheir aims relate exclusively to sport or not. Their existencemust be taken into account. As a rule, however, it is onlytheir number that we need to know. As in the case of the basicelements, possible significant sub-divisions soon become apparent,the most important, to my mind, being those relating to the publicor private character of the bodies concerned, to their geographicalscnpe and to their impact on sport.

By "leading officials" I mean persons who (sometimes aspatrons) assume essentially honorary functions of a directionalor managerial and non-technical nature. The length of periodduring which such functions are exercised might be anothersignificant element of information.

- 24 - CCC/DC (73) 7

This group also includes all those who. fulfil the samekind of functions on a professional basis, and whom I call"administrators". Additional data might concern the actualduties. performed, or their official or private character.

In reality, these three elements are, of course, closelyinterrelated, A breakdown is necessary in order to ascertainthe importance of organised sport in a specific situation,together with its functional qualities or defects.

C. Instrumental elements

This third group comprises, first of all, the materialelements:sports installations, facilities and equipment for thepractice of sport.

The important thing to know is the total area (squaremetres) covered by the existing installations. An inventorymight then be compiled showing the areas allocated respectivelyfor sport for the masses, for the elite, and for the differentbranches of sport. The area indicated will be that set asidefor the practice of sport and not that reserved for thespectators, although the latter element of information wouldalso be useful.

Where sports equipment is concerned, it is difficult toquantify it on account of its heterogeneous character. Estimatesmight,' however, be made of any shortages and of the total valueof the equipment available, a distinction being drawn between .

the equipment placed at the disposal of ordinary practitionersAnd that provided for the elite.

Among the human elements, there are, first of all, theteachers of physical training: these are the staff who are incharge of the physical training of pupils in public or privateeducational establishments.

Instructors, on the other hand, are responsible for directinitiation in sport. The primary aim of the instructor is toencourage possible practitioners to engage in sport, whatevertheir age, and provide them with elementary training. As arule, instructors are not specialists in a single sport.' Itwould be interesting to know the distribution of instructorsamong the various sports.

Thirdly, there are the coaches. TheSe are specialised; tosome extent, and possess technical knowledge. It is the taskof. the coach to raise the technical standard of those whopractise a particular sport already. It is sometimes difficultto draw clear distinctions between the various categories ofcoaches. One could, however, distinguish between those whousually work with ordinary sports practitioners, and those whotrain the elite.

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ccc/bc (73) 7

Fourthly, there are the umpires and the judges - a ratherheterogeneous category owing to the.diversity. of sports. Theirfunctions (administration of games, time-keeping and evaluatingperformances) define them.

Lastly. there are the medical personnel, comprising doctorsand their auxiliary staff. A distinction must of course bedrawn between the doctor and the auxiliary. A furthe° distinction.might be made between medical care for the ordinary sportspractitioner and that for.the elite.

These distinctions become meaningful in the context of ageneral survey. The fact is that, in numerous cases, functionsare interchangeable or several may be performed by one and thesame person.

Our aim here has.been merely to describe rather than definethe elements. Fuller details will be given in Part III.relatingto statistics.

3. The "specific matiselemiltsu : interrelations

The elements described above are, of course, parts of a whole,of a single structure. It is only the process of abstractionnecessary for their classification that enables us to considerthem as independent. In any event, their very classificationinto basic elements, directional, organisational and instrumentalelements, reveals the existence of interrelations. It is theseinterrelations that.it is important to ascertain.

A priori, we can distinguish a whole network of interrelationsbetween the.various elements. The main ones appear to me to bethe following:

A. nmettQual_intertelatiqua:

- Ordinary practitioners: largely determines the elite.

- Elite: has a strong influence on theordinary practitioners

- Number of hours'REAatlee:

has an influence on ordinarypractitioners and on the elite;determines the quality (orintensity") of sport in the

level of sport

- SPE pupils: direct interrelation with ordinarypractitioners; indirect with theélite

- Organisation: (existence of clubs, etc):largely determines ordinarypractitioners and elite; closeinterailcn with direction andmanagement

- 26 CCC/DC (73) 7

- Direction: close interrelation with ordinarymatitioners, elite, organisation,management

- Management./ cf. DirectionWdministration:

B. Technico-sports interrelations:

- Installations:

- Sports equipment:

SPE teachers:

- Instructors:

- Coaches:

largely determines elite andordinary Eract1L4.onergTt4e latterto a lesser extent: cf. eg outdooractivities)

affects ordinary practitioners,elite, installations to varyingdegrees

direct interrelation with SPE pupils,indirect relation with ordinaryamIltiopers and elite; relationswith installations, vsgarapation,instructors and coaches

direct interrelation with ordinaryprActitioAgta; relations withorganisation, installations,SPE teachers, coaches

close interrelation with ordinaryPractitioners, elite; other relationscf. instructors

- Medical personnel: general interrelations with all theother elements

- Umpires and judges: close interrelation with organisation.

The foregoing is a rapid sketch of the principal inter-relations that can be identified at first sight. A moredetailed analysis would obviously show different degrees ofrelations (first, second, third degree etc) between the basicelements and the other elements.

Defining a rational sports policy will, as explained earlier,entail establishing quantitative relations between the variouselements. The first step will naturally be to determine thequantitative relations between the elements of the actualsituation. For that purpose inventories will be necessary. Thesecond step will be to establish ideal values for each elementso that the actual situation can be compared with an ideal, orat least desirable, situation.

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CCCAC (73) 7 - 27 -

How does one set about fixing ideal values? Only intensiveempirical studies and .a thorough analysis of existing functionsand dysfunctions can provide the answer. Thereafter, detaileddiscussions, perhaps negotiations, based on these studies, willhave to be entered into by the representatives of the variousbodies concerned, and there may be a large number of those.It is only by agreement among all the parties involved thatdesirable values, that is to say short- or medium-term politicalobjectives, can be established. These values will inevitably besomething less than the long-term ideal: policy is the art ofthe possible.

The present study being a methodological one, it is notfor me to say what these ideal values might be. Only by studyingeach individual situation (that of a given country, organisation,town etc) on its own meritswill it be possible to determine theideal values best suited to it. This will necessitate intensivestudies by specialists. Still less do I,presume to recommenddesirable values, for that is strictly a matter of policy and Ihave no wish to usurp the functions of the experts or decision-makers.

However, for purely indicative purposes, and guided bymy own experience and by studies I have perused, I venture tomention a few values which, I consider, might be somethingapproaching the ideal. The reason why I underline the approximateand personal nature of these figures is that it was alleged atcertain meetings held at the Council of Europe, that I was infact proposing values. This is not 'SID.

With these reservations, I offer my personal views on theideal relations, expressed as percentages.

The ideal elite-ordinary practioners' ratio in any countrymight be put at 4 per 10,000. The effect of the elite inincreasing the number of ordinary practioners seems,to me difficultto estimate for the time-being:

The number of hours' practice might be estimated at anaverage of 4 hours a week for ordinary practioners and 25 hoursa week for the elite.

The ideal ratio between ordinary young practitionels and4.1..e number of schocl-pupils receiving physical training is, inmy view, 80%.

As to the quantitative relations between the organisational,directional and managerial elements and the basic elements, Ihesitate to express an opinion. The relation is very difficultto estimate owing to wide differences in the size of organisations.Allowing for the fact that very small organisations may be

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28 - ccc/bc (73) 7

inefficient and too large ones dangerous because they eliminatecompetition, it does, nevertheless, seem possible to arrive ata figure that might be considered as ideal. This will necessitatea structural analysis and not a purely quantitative one, althoughit is feasible, by means of a structural analysis, to work outan ideal ratio between large, medium and small organisations.

Relatively speaking, it is easier to advance a figure inthe case of leading officials. In general terms, the optimumratio to ordinary practitioners might be put at 5%. The ratioto the number of organisations might fluctuate around an averageof 15 per organisation.

In view of the shortage of administrators in most of thesmall organisations, the figure for this category of personnelmight be put at 75% of the leading officials.

Where sports installations are concerned, the question ofthe desirable area per person has been carefully studied inseveral oountries. Below is a summary comparative table of thefindings:

Czechoslovakia 6 units /inhabitant

Federal Republic of Germany 5 units /inhabitant

Hungary 4.5 units /inhabitant

France 3.5 units /inhabitant

Italy 2.5 units/Inhabitant

Spain 1 unit /inhabitant

The heterogeneous character of sports facilities andequipment, which may be individual or collective, rules out anybut a very rough estimate of the ratio to installations andorganisations. I have been unable.to find any uniform unit ofmeasurement.

The relations between the human instrumental elements areeasier to express in quantitative terms. The number of physicaltraining teachers might be put at 1 for every:20 pupils, thenumber of instructors at 1 for every 4 sports practitioners. Itis more difficult to quote a figure for coaches, owing to theimmense range of sports and of technical standards. .However,as the vast majority of ordinary practitioners do not,haverecourse to the services of a coach and, indeed, have no reasonto do so, the number might be put at 2% in the case of ordinarypractitioners and 10% for the elite.

cCc/DC (73) 7 - 2 9 -

The optimum proportion of medical personnel to sportsmen,masses and elite combined might be put at around 396.

Lastly, despite the differences between the various sports,and the fact that occasional referees and judges are oftencalled in, the number ,of referees and judges might be put at 2%.

4. The "extra-sports elemenramework)At the beginning of this chapter it was stated that the

sport situation is determined by two categories of elements :specific sports elements"- and "extra- sports elements?`. Thelatter appear as a set of circumstances belonging to a givenstructure, which have the effect of.promoting or hindering thedevelopment of sport. I call this set of circumstances the"conditioning framework ",

There are two errors to be avoided where the extra-sportselements are concerned: the first would be to consider them asspartselemontsor what, in the next chapter, we shall candevelopment factors; the second would be to disregard them onthe ground that they are outside the control of sport. Theycannot be ignored because they form the faoual.context intowhich the sports policy will be fitted. the effectiveness ofthat policy and its adaptability to reality will'depend largely

. on the conditioning framework.

In my opinion, the main extra sports elements arc.ththefollowing: demographic conditions; the physiological andanatomical characteristics of the population; climatic andgeographical conditions; economic conditions;'SoCiologicalconditions.

Demography is extraordinarily important for sport. In thefirst place, the population is, as it were, the "raw matarial"on which sports policy acts. Population figures are basic datafor the framing of that policy. But it is not sufficient, toknow the total population: it is necessary also to know how thepopulation is distributed by age and sex, as well as geographically(town or country). Such data are indispensabl tothe workingout of any policy for the development of sport. Those responsiblefor a policy for the elite must also know, given these conditions,what the real possibilities are. The same applies to thepolicy for physical training in schools. The projection ofcurrent demographic trends into the future will assist the framingof a long-term policy in all these fields.

- 30 - CCC /DC (73) 7

Secondly, there are the physiological and anatomicalcharacteristics of the population. It is important to know theaverage height, the average weight etc in order to promote themost suitable sports for the population concerned. In the caseboth of a policy to promote Sport for All and of a policy forthe elite, these data are indispensable for decisions concerningthe types of installation required, the training of instructorsand coaches, and of teachers of physical education, and so on.

Thirdly, there are the climatic and geographic conditions.The number of hours of daylight conditions the planning ofinstallations, accordingto whether or not artificial lightingis necessary. On the distribution of the annual rainfall andsnowfall depends, to a large extent, the percentage of coveredinstallations that may-be necessary. Similarly, weather conditionsmay limit the number of hours of practice. On the other hand,snow, whether combined with a mountainous landscape or not,permits the extensive practice of certain winter sports. Lastly,aquatic sports, which are many and varied, are obviouslyconditioned by the situation of sea or inland waters.

With regard to economic conditions, I think first of allof the standard of living of the population. While the livingstandard is not decisive - for account must be taken of thepolitical system in force and of its motivations - it neverthelessstrongly influences the amount of funds available for sport.But the living standard also determines the leisure activitiesof the population and, consequently, the possibilities of developingsport, the hours of sports practice, the types of sports engagedin, the installations and clubs and, in general, the entiresports policy. Action which is not based on a thorough knowledgeof the possibilities which the living standard of the populationallows, is likely to yield unsatisfactory results.

Lastly, there is what might be called, according to theOrtega terminology, the "prevailing social laws and customs".By this I mean not only what might be considered as the beliefsand social psychology of the population, but also the institutionsand structure of the society considered and of its Constituentgroups. For example, there is the positive or negative imageof sport formed by that society, the political institutionalsystem,.working hours and school hours, feeding habits, the moreor less marked stratification into social classes, and so forth.The existing social conditions must form the basis of anyplanning, whether it is concerned with sport promotion, instal-lations or other aspects.

ccc/bc (73) 7 31

Another aspect to be taken into account is what might betermed the "ecology of sport". By this I mean the place occupiedby sport in the whole complex of cultural phenomena, that is tosay its connections or antagonisms in relation to art,' intellectuallife, health, education, tourism, work and innumerable otherpresent-day social forces.

It appears to me to be very difficult to make any quantitativeassessment of the conditioning framework, composed as it is ofa set of variables forming such a dense network that they actupon and influence one another. These must undoubtedly betaken into consideration in any decisions relating to sportspolicy, but a quantitative estimate seems to me to be impossiblefor the time-being.

5. Conclusions

The sport situation must form the basis of any sportspolicy.

An analysis of the relations between the elements of theactual situation, and a comparison between the actual and theideal situation shed light on the causes of the quantitativedysfunctions. In addition, an analysis must be made of a seriesof elements which are not measurable but must nevertheless betaken into account.

It is the existence of imbalances between the variouselements that explains the bottlenecks which frequently impedethe efficient functioning of one or more elements.

Even where there is no intention of changing the existinglevel of sport, an analysis of the actual situationmay show whattechnical adjustments are needed in order to establish a betterbalance between the various elements.

These analyses and comparisons must be completed by anassessment of the conditioning framework in relation to thespecific sports elements.

- 32 CCC /DC (73) 7

CHAPTER III

DEVELOPMENT FACTORS

This chapter deals with the transition from the analyticalto the operational stage, from study to action. In it areexpounded the methods for working out a rational sports policy.

Adopting a policy means making a choice between severalpossible alternative policies. Because of the numerous combinationsthey permit, the ratios between ordinary practitioners and theelite, for example, offer a whole range of possible policies.Consequently, any action will always have its origin in a priorpolicy decision. But once the initial policy decision has beenmade, the implementing process may be rationalised, and it isthis we shall try to demonstrate here.

But there is more to it than that. I consider that a morethorough knowledge of the sport situation will show that thealternatives are much less numerous than might appear at firstsight. A rigorous scientific analysis makes policy less dependenton the discernment of decision-makers. The laws of interdependencebetween the masses and the elite and the constraints of the sportsituation do not leave a big .margin for rational decisions.

In short, sports policy might be defined as a set ofmeasures aimed at converting the present situation into anotherwhich represents the objective to be achieved. This will involvefixing the level of sport to be attained, not only in. purely quanti-tative terms, but also qualitatively,i.e. a certain type of levelis to be chosen, favouring ordinary pratitioners or the elite,as the case may be.

Working out a policy is not simply a matter of analysingthe sport situation and determining the level of sport to beattained. Two other data must be known: the amount of fundsand time available for carrying through that policy. With theaid of these four data, it is possible to plan how the developmentfactors can best be combined. But before we start consideringthese factors, some clarification is needed of the general approachto the working out of a sports policy.

ccc/bc (73) 7 33

The first question that arises is the following: given thesport situation, the time allotted for implementing the policy,and the budget available, what level of sport can be set as thetarget? The second question completes the first. It concernsmethods and may be worded as follows: given the situation, thetime-schedule, the money and the target sport-level, how is thattarget to be reached? The two questions may appear to be separate,but are actually closely linked. It is impossible to fix atarget sport-level without considering the cost; thus it isonly by successive adjustments that an accessible level of sportcan be determined, and this presupposes an answer to the secondquestion. Surveys among all the bodies concerned will be anecessary preliminary to determining the objective to be achievedand working out the details of the development programme. Thelatter process will no doubt frequently show that the targetsport-level needs rectifying.

Lastly, it should be emphasised that, where the organisationof sport in a country lacks coherence, efforts to define anoverall sports policy may run up against difficulties.Decentralisation is not an obstacle in Itself, provided there issufficient co-ordination for the facts of the situation to beknown and a common objective to be fixed, thereby permittingsome measure of integration of the policies of the variousorganisations. But in the absence of that minimum of co-ordination,it is virtually impossible to arrive at a clear assessment fromthe resulting conglomerate of juxtaposed policies. Thus, theoperation of the system expounded here presupposes a minimum ofco-ordination.

1. DEVELOPMENT FACTORS: DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION

Any change in an existing situation implies action. Thesport situation is composed of elements which are static in thesense that theyconstitute an actual state of things, but do notalter it unless they trigger off 'a series of actions. For thatreason, I draw a sharp distinction between "development factors"and "elements". The development factors have a dynamicsignificance in that they relate to activities which work achange in the static elements.

The factors for development could be defined as all thoseactivitles, which, combined in programmes, have the effect ofdeveloping the various elements of the situation and therebyimproving the existing level of sport, directly or indirectly.This definition is not foolproof,,however, for though itdistinguishes between the factors and the elements, it does notbring out the specifically sectorial character which differentiateseach factor from the others.

/.

- 34 - CCC /DC (73) 7

In my opinion, each development. factor can be defined interms of the specific aims of the set of activities to which itrelates. To my mind, the factors to be considered are thefollowing:

1. promotion

2. physical education

3. improvement of techniques

4. competitions

5. training of physical education teachers

6. training of instructors

7. training of coaches

8. facilities for ordinary practitioners

9. facilities for the elite

10. sports organisation and structures.

Let us look at the list in detail.

Promotion consists of a series of publicity (masscommunication techniques, public relations etc) and sportsactivities directly aimed at .initiating in sport persons whohave not so far engaged in any.

Physical education is an end in itself, but it also fulfilsan important function as a factor for improving the level ofsport. As such, it appears as a set of educational activitieswhose purpose is to cultivate both a taste for and the habit ofregular physical exercise. It is, in short, a specific methodof promoting sport indirectly; I say indirectly, because theaim is not so much sport as physical fitness.

Training, on the other hand, enables sports practitionersto increase their technical skill. What characterises thisfactor is that it acts on average technical'standards so as toraise them to the maximum4 it is of particular significance toordinary practitioners With special aptitudes, who wish toimprove their techniques. The activities embraced by thisfactor are so diverse that it seems difficult to list themexhaustively.

The organisation of competitions is so obvious a factorthat there is a risk of its being passed over in silence. Ithas a specific function. Without competitions, sport wouldvirtually lose all meaning. Thus the more or less formalorganisation of competitions is necessary. Ordinary practitionerslike the elite, must have their championships, which commit them

CCCAC (73) 7 -- 35 -

to a certain continuity of practice. This factor is obviouslymuch more important for the elite than for ordinary practitioners;but it is particularly important for practitioners who haveattained a certain standard and is indispensable for those whoaspire to joining the elite.

.The training of physical education teachers, instructorsand coaches are three distinct factors for development. Each iscomposed of all the specific activities necessary for the trainingof these three categories. What differentiates the three factorsis that they serve different purposes, but, as we shall see,they must be classed in one and the same group.

The two factors concerning facilities (for ordinarypractitioners, and for the elite) relate to the building of newinstallations and the maintenance and improvement of existing ones.The term "installations" here implies the Sports facilities andequipment which they mast incorporate. It may be difficult, inpractice, to make .2 distinction between the installations intendedfor ordinary practitioners and those intended for the elite, forthere is often a whole gamut of installations ranging from those -.

reserved for the elite to those intended exclusively for themasses. The main drawback lies in the fact that the existingfacilities are not always assigned to one specific purpose, buttend to be used for all types of sports. Despite these difficulties,it is nevertheless possible, in most cases, to say whetherparticular facilities are designed primarily for the use of theelite or of ordinary practitioners. In any event, it seems highlydesirable to clearly assign the various facilities to specificuses; this would help identify instances where existing facilitiesare being used for purposes other than those for which they wereoriginally intended.

Lastly, the factor "sports organisation and structures"comprises all those activities concerned with organising sportand creating appropriate structures or adapting existing ones.Without this factor, it would be difficult for the others toenter into action.

Let us now consider briefly how each factor brings the variouselements into play.

In the case of promotional activities, these elements willinclude: instructors, certain types of installations and certaininitiatory competitions; moreover, specific organisationalstructures will undoubtedly be necessary if the practice of sportis to be generalised.

Physical education will naturally bring the elements:physical education teachers and school sports installations andorganisations into play.

./

CCCAC (73) 7

Improvement of techniques presupposes the existence ofcoaches, installations for the elite, specific organisationalstructures etc.

In the organisation of competitions almost all the elementsenter into play. Indeed, they all enter into play more or lessdirectly in the case of each factor,. but most obviously inthat of competitions.

The three trainii factors directly concern the elements:leading officals and administrators, together with theinstructors,, teachers and coaches already available.

In the two factors relating to facilities, the elements ofthe sport situation, with the exception of the existinginstallations, serve.information. purposes only.

Lastly, the leading officials and administrators, as wellas the various organisations (whether of a specifically sportscharacter or not), which are connected with sport and are alreadyin existence, must .be taken into consideration under the headingorganisationr.

After this description, the next step is to classify thefactors. The purpOse of this classification, far from beingtheoretical, is to.show how the various'factors influence thelevel of sport; this influence will be the main criterion for.classification. The same general criterion will be applied intwo other classifications corresponding to the two dimensionsof the level of sport: ordinary practitioners. and elite.

According to this general criterion, the factors may beclassed in three main groups:

a. factors directly affecting the level of sport;

b. instrumental factors exerting an indirect.influence;

c, necessary factors exerting an indirect influence.

Group (a) comprises promotion, improvement of techniquesand physical education. These three factors affect the level ofsport directly by increasing the number of practitioners andtheir technical standard. The direct influence of the physicaleducation factor is not always apparent over a short period,especially in the case of the elite, but over the longer termits effect on standards is undeniable.

CCC /DC (73) 7 37

Group (b) comprises the follow_ 7; factors: teachers, coaches,instructors, facilities (for ordinary practitioners and the elitealike) and organisation. These means are all essential toattaining a specific level of sport, but none is capable alone,ie without the aid of the three factors in the fir§t group, ofaltering that level - hence the term "instrumental factors.

Lastly, group (c) represents the factor "organisation ofcompetitions". Competititon is the food of sport, with whichit might be said to be consubstantial. But while this isundeniable, it is nonetheless certain that competititon exercisesno direct influence on the level of sport; for ordinarypractitioners and the elite alike, competition is essentially a.form of sports activity. It is true that watching a competitionis an incentive to some to go and practise the sport themselves,but its effect nevertheless remains indirect. Some kinds ofcompetititons do not produce any practitioners at all, but onlyspectators - in certain social milieux at least. Thuscompetitions which serve to promote:sport must be distinguishedfrom those which do not. This is sometimes .a difficultdistinction to make; but the principle that competition of anykind should be considered as a means of promoting sport needs to .

be affirmed.

Classification according to the second criterion producestwo major groups, and a third one which might 'be called "neutral".The first group is that of the factors which create ordinarypractitioners, namely promotion, physical education (short- andtedium-term), training of teachers and instructors, and facilitiesin general.

The second group creates elites. It is composed of thefollowing factors: improvement of techniques, training of coaches,facilities for the elite, and long-term physical education.

The third group, which I have described as neutral, becauseit can be made to serve either dimension of the level of sport,comprises the factors: competition and sports organisation andstructures.

- 38 - CCC /DC (73) 7

2. FACTORS, PROGRAMMES AND BUDGETS

Analysing the existing situation and defining the factors.capable of transforming a given situation into a utarget"situation will remain purely academic exercises as long as theirpurpose is not the drawing up of concrete programme, providedwith the necessary financial backing. In other words, eachfactor calls for a programme of action and development, bearingDn the specifically sports elements, but allowing for theparticular circumstances of the conditioning framework,determining. the execution schedule, and assessing the cost ofthe various operations.

The two last-mentioned operations are indispensable if theprogramme is to be zuccessfully incorporated into the contextof short-, medium and long-term planning. The programme-budgetmethod appears to be the.most appropriate for this purpose.It should be possible, by combining this technique with theclassification of factors in the order of their influence onthe. level of sport, to achieve maximum efficiency, both insports.and economic terms; in short, the best possible returnon investments. Recourse to mathematical models and simulationwill permit a rational choice between the various alternativesand the establishment of a programme ensuring maximum returnsfor a minimum of.expenditure.

Once the development programmes have been drawn up forthe various factors, they must be co-ordinated and incorporatedinto a general plan; this is indispensable if imbalances,dysfunction and bottlenecks in the sport situation are to beavoided. In other words, once the policy decisions have beentaken and the desirable target sport-level determined, programmingwill become a purely technical exercise. The important thingwill be to proceed systematically and logically.

As already stated, application of the present methodologypresupposes a minimum of co-ordination between the varioussports organisations and, in particular, the existence of abody to study the basic data available, and, in the light ofthese data, to determine the broad lineS for the future: generallevel to be attained, the main aims etc; in a word, a body tomake the necessary choices and decisions.

./.

cccibc (73) 7 39 -

Implemertation of the development programmes and, in particular,of the various projects embodied in them, will obviously have tobe entrusted to the existing sports organisations, private orpublic, depending on the sports structure of each country. Theideal approach, to my mind, would be for the co-ordinating bodyto broadly outline a tentative plan.. This outline would becommunicated to the sports organisations concerned as a guide forthe working out of specific projects. These would be transmitted,along with comments, to the co-ordinating body which would decideeither to incorporate the specific projects in the master plan,or to adjust the latter.

Any policy aimed at bringing about a rapid change in thelevel of sport will entail giving priority, in the allocation offunds, to programmes centred on those factors which exert a directinfluence. However, owing to the interdependence of the variouselements and the structural coherence of the sport situation, asdemonstrated in the present study, such a policy may often turnout to be illusory. Investments in instrumental factors willalways be necessary if one wants to avoid expenditure that bringsno return for the benefit of sport.

I would also mention, in this connection, the all toofrequently observed hypertrophy of the' competitions" factor.Experience shows that competitions absorb a very high percentageof the funds set aside for sport; yet, as we have seen, theireffects on the level of sport are only indirect. There can beno doubt that competition is indispensable, but the expenditureentailed must be kept within limits to make sure-that sport doesnot become simply a spectacle and that it is not forgotten thatwhat is important is the practice os sport. It is only in theinitial stage, when funds are still short, that sport needs avery high percentage of competitions: at that stage they arevital to its very existence. But as sport develops and financialresources increase, organised competition, like food for humans,should decrease in relation to-totarinvestments so that othersectors can be promoted. In fact, however, competitions continueto receive the lion's share and tend to become increasingly complexand luxurious; this creates a vicious circle and keeps the levelof sport low.

By contrast, the three factors whose influence is direct(promotion, physical education and technical improvement), whichdemand long and patient work, and whose results will be by nomeans spectacular, are constantly neglected by those in charge.An analysis of the factors and of the related programme-budgetsbrings these tendencies to light and permits measures to be takento prevent or, at least, to reduce them. Programme-budgets enable

40 - CCC/DC (73) 7

us, better than any verbal pronouncements, to ascertain the truenature of the sports policy-being followed. Concentration ofresources on. factors which tend to favour the -elite, or -thechannelling towards the elite of essentially neutral factorswill reveal, better than any words can do, the real nature ofthe policy being pursued.

3. SPORT FOR ALL AND DEVELOPMENT FACTORS

Sport for All appears, in the present study, merely asone of a number of possible sports policies. We shall notdiscuss in detail how the idea of Sport for All might betransformed into a policy, but we would like to make a few commentson the subject. .

First, a preliminary remark. The above classification offactors (direct, instrumental, indirect) makes it possible tojudge whether a given policy tends, in general, to favour themass of ordinary practitioners or the elite. It must, however,be borne in mind that it is only over the long term - some fifteenyears - that any proper assessment can be made of the resultsof a particular combination of factors. Consequently, a policycentred on the factors having a direct influence may appear,.from a short-term assessment, to be different from what itactually is. A policy of Sport for All must be expressedthrough the three fundamental aspects of the present methodology:the level of sport, the sport situation and the developmentfactors. The level of sport requires no comment, for it isobvious that a choice in favour of the masses implies fixinga target level. An analysis of the sport situation will bringout the strong and the weak features of the existing structurefrom the point of-view of Sport for All. Are there elementswhich facilitate a policy of Sport for'All? Is the conditioningframework favourable to such a policy or not etc.

Lastly, and above all, a policy of Sport for All will beexpressed through the various development factors: it willaccord priority to promotion, physical education, teachertraining, training of instructors, and equipment and facilitiesfor the mass of ordinary practitioners. On the other hand,technical improvement, the training of coaches, and equipmentfor the elite-will be relegated to the background. The neutralfactors, like sports organisation and competitiorp, will tendto promote Sport for All.

CCC /DC (73) 7 - 41

A final remark: any simplistic policy aimed at favouring themass of ordinarypractitionersand ignoring the elite, would belacking in realism. Indeed, it is highly possible that theexisting sports structure would make such a policy sterile,preventing it from attaining its aim, namely the development ofSport for All. The sociological interdependence between practi-tioners and elite makes it essential to maintain an elite, evenunder a policy of Sport for All. Nevertheless, any elitistpolicy must be kept within certain limits, even if they be onlyrelative.

4. CONCLUSIONS

To conclude this chapter, I should like to underline a pointthat I have made already. Application of the present methodology -quantification of the level of cpert, functional analysis of thesport situation, bringing into play of the development factors -reveals that the sports policies that can be carried outeffectively in a given situation are, after all, neither asnumerous nor as arbitrary as might be believed. The world ofsport, despite the various interpretations that might be givento it and the different aims that might be assigned to it,possesses its own laws which derive from the interdependence ofits elements. Even if a short-term policy which disregarded theselaws appeared to be effective, time would show its success tobe uncertain, unsubstantial, short-lived and doomed, in the long-run, to failure.

A sport situation may be changed and brought graduallycloser to an "ideal", but this improvement. will be real andlasting only if it is based on an awareness of the situation,of the interdependence between its constituent elements, and ofthe factors effecting the change.

Contrary to what some might think, the methodology outlinedhere is based on the requireMents of practice and is perfectlyadaptable to the conditions of any country. It is intended asan instrument with which to assess any given sport situation inorder the better to transform it.

No-one making a genuine effort to work out a sports policyshould be misled by the theoretical appearance or the econometricand statistical mechanisms of this study, for all does not dependon the mathematical formulae:-these merely express a rationalisationprocess. This process doe not, by any means, exclude subjectiveassessment and judgement nor can it ever be substituted forpolicy decisions: it merely defines the limits within which suchdecisions must be taken. In a word, it helps avoid idealismswhich, though laudable in themselves, run counter to their ownideal by failing in practice.

/

- 42 - Ccc/DC (73) 7

PART a

The mathematical instruments:

outline of a model for decision making

by

Mr Juan de Dios Garcia Martinez

- 13 - ccc/bc (73) 7

CHAPTER I

THE MATHEMATICAL MODELS AND SPORT AS A SYSTEM

An attempt will be made in this part of the study to workout a mathematical model for decision-making, using the ccinceptsdefined above by Benito Castejon who, as we have seen, considerssports reality as a system.

It seems advisable, first of all, to explain the generalmethodological approach followed throughout the study.

This general approach entails proceeding by successiveapproximations. It consists, first of all, in distinguishingfive independent stages in each phase of the work and thenintegrating these into an overall outline. The initial separationinto individual stages is necessary because it is humanlyimpossible to approach the problem as a whole. It is a continuousforwards and backwards process with the result that each phaseof the work is based on the preceding one, conditioning and consoli-dating it. The final result is an overall outline, with fairlystrict limitations in many cases, but coherent. To make theprocess operative, team meetings are necessary.

Diagram 1/1 shows, first, the five stages in the orderfollowed throughout the work and, second, the overall outlinewith its interrelations.

STAGES OF WORK

Sports

reality

Sports

system

4Mathematical

model

Structures

DIAGRAM OF GENERAL METHODOLOGY

OVERALL OUTLINE

Sports

system

"21

Sports

system

Mathematical

model

.j

Structures

Statistical

system

Statistical

Sports

system

i_

reality

1Sports

reality

Statistical

system

Mathematical

_model

- 45 - CCC/TC (73) 7

A. SPORTS REALITY AND SPORTS SYSTEM

According to the preceding diagram, a mathematical modelfor sports po4cy can only devised if it is possible to imaginesports reality as a system, that is to say as a set of elementsthe interrelations of which can be determined and in whichthe laws governingchsage from one situation to another can beidentified.

The basic assumption that sports reality is a system isnot the product of a preference for abstract speculation, but isborn of the need for concrete action. For experience shows thatno policy can be effective unless it is based on a comprehensiveview affording a clearer understanding of the sports situationat home and permitting a comparison of one's own experienceand aims with those of other countries. Once this Reedis felt, the idea that sports reality can bwconceived as asystem, suggests itself spontaneously.

But even after this assumption has been accepted, numerousdifficulties remain. As the work progresses-it becomesapparent that many issues can be settled only by means ofagreements.

It should be stressed that, from the methodological pointof view, the working out of a sports system (in the sense ofdetermining the sport situation) implies a process of abstraction.In order to ascertain the exact situation and be able toinfluence its evolution, it is essential to approach the realityfirst from a distance, and then return to it by successiveapproximations.B. SPORTS SYSTEM AND MATHEMATICAL MODEL.

Once the sports system has been defined, it must betransformed into a mathematical model.

Such a model has a triple function:

- First, it is an instrument for exact description:it translates the previously defined sports systein into .

mathematical language; this presupposes a clear differentiationbetween what can be represented.mathematically within themodel anC what, for the time being at least, has to be leftoutside.

/

ccc/bc (73) 7 - 46 -

- Second, the mathematical mode/ is an instrument forknowledge and analysis : it is a tool for understanding andexplaining sports reality and serves, at the same time, as adiagram showing the interrelationship of the constituentelements.

,Iast/7. the mathematical model is an instrument forcontrol: it is a means of anticipating and governing thebehaviour of the "real".

A mathematical model functions on the basis of information,that is to say, of statistics. The mature and form of theinformation required must be specified in a statistical diagram.This obviates the difficulty, experienced too frequently, ofnot finding the n*cessarr information for a given analysis, forthe simple rtason-that all too often those using the statisticsdo not compile them. This will continue to be a problem aslong as the skeleton model does not comprise all the aspectsof sports reality. Though one may doubt the feasibility of"wholly mathematising reality" the effort is neverthelessworthwhile.

An important methodological problem remains: how is asports system, once defined, to be converted into a mathematicalmodel? Is there a specific method of doing this?

This kind of problem becomes much more acute when asystem has to be built up from reality; 'if the system isperfectly defined, formulation of the mathematical model is, inmany instances, simply a matter of transcription.' Experienceshows that this is the case when reality considered as a system,is defined in a logico-mathematical way, that is to say, thediagrammatic representation of the system and that of the modelare closely intercionnected. Consequently, while it is truethat the methodological problem referred to becomes moreacute when it comes to representing a system in the form.of adiagram, it essentially concerns a practical question: whatis the most suitable mathematical language in which to expoundthe system?

The method used :kmplicitly in this work might be called thatof grapho-modelism, since it Is based on the idea that forany model, in the form of a not of equations, there is acorresponding graph which refleCts the network of interrelations.

.1

- 47 - CCC/DC (73) 7

Let us imagine a model constructed from the followingsystem of equations:

1. yi = f1

(y2,

2. Y2 f2 (Y3,

3. y3 = f3

(z3)

Diagrammatically, the system of interrelations representedby this model is the following:

(5)

(6)

DIAGRAM 1/2

MODEL 1

Serial number

Symbol

Meaning

Definition

Number of equation

Equation

SoUrce

1Y1

-

.

-(E-

f1

(y2z1

1 i. f (2.6)

2y2

--

(E

-2)

gmf 2

(yz1)

2=

f (3.5)

3y3

--

OE

- 3

)f 3

(z 3)

3=

f (+)

4z3

--

.

5z2

-.

-.

.

6z 1

--

- 49 - CCC/DC (73) 7

From the preceding diagraM, we arrange the variables insuch a way that we take, as the first variable, the one weare ultimately trying to explain (yi); then, as secondvariable, we take.the first explicative, that is to say (y0),leaving (z1) aside for the moment. The third variable is Ty.)since it is the first explicative of (y2), and ,i'his puts -)

(z -A) in fourth place. Because (z3) is, what iscalled inectnometrics, an exogenous variable, we come back along thegraph in the opposite direction, choosing (z2) as variable number5. By the same criterion, (z1) will occupy sixth place.

The advantage of such-an arrangement is that it providesus with a logical.criterion for disposing the equations of amathematical model; -consequently, we have also a systematicway of arranging the set of equations proper.

Diagram 1/2 presents an orderly arrangement of model 1which we have taken as an example: the first column containsthe serial numbers of each of the variables. 1n _.the secondcolumn are entered the symbols-used for of the variables,and in the next column the meaning of the symbols.

An extra column could be included with the definition ofeach variable, although it would be more normal to add a separatetable of definitions. The model proper is contained in columnsfive and six, while the column headed "source" shows theinterrelations between variables represented by their serialnumber within the set. It is this column which serves as abasis for drawing the graph correspbnding to the model,

So far, we have always been convinced of the clarity ofgrapho-modelisation insofar as it enables any system of equationsto be arranged in an orderly and graphically intelligiblemanner, especially in the case of models comprising numerousequations and variables. The other advantage of grapho-modelisation is that it provides a logical instrument for theactual construction of a model.

Whatever the model, the most important and difficultstage in its construction 'is that of selecting the variableor set of variables which is to represent the primary objectof the model in question. In economic development models,for example, the object is to define' the trend of the grossnational product; in educational planning models, to calculatethe cost involved; in our case, we have chosen the LEVEL OFSPORT as the starting or culminating point of the entire sportssystem.

./

CCC/DC (73) 7 - 50 -

It is difficult to give .a ready-made recipe for solvingthe problem of selection. Experience and creative capacityare the sole guides to a wise choice. The initial results cansubsequently be improved or perfected by a process ofresearch; in our opinion, the whole of the present study is tobe regarded as such a process. It is a first attempt totranslate sports reality, viewed as a system, into mathematicallanguage.

Once the initial variable or variables have been selected,the next step is to trace the paths which may lead us to thesupport points of these first variables, and so we begin tomove along a graph which takes shape as we progress (1).

The internal structure of any system or model can obviouslybe represented in numerous ways. The one proposed here for thesports system is one of these, but it has the advantage, andthe disadvantage, of being the first to be presented to thepublic. Of course, the grapho-modelisation method, as appliedin building up a reality-based system, serves only for theformulation of systematic questions, so that it is vitallyimportant that the "person' questioned should have first-handexperience of that reality. By contrast, it is much more useful,in the case of a model to be constructed beforehand, to usea previously explained system, for otherwise the system and themodel will be made to coincide.

./.

(1) It will often be necessary to have recourse to variablesused previously, owing to the frequent occurrence, inreality, of "interdependence" phenomena.

- 51 - =ADC (73) 7

C. MATHEMATICAL MODEL AND STATISTICAL SYSTEM

It should perhaps be emphasised that the present study isnot an econometric one in-the strict sense, since it is,at once, something more than, and yet not quite, an econometricexercise. The reason is .this: it. has become customary, in theconstruction of an econometric model, to distinguish three.different, but not-totally independent, main stages:

- definition of the model;

estimation of the parameters and contrasts;

- forecasting and simulation.

These three main stages can be divided into numeroussub-stages.

The present study is an incomplete econometric study inthe sense that it deals with only one of these stages: that ofprior definition which, based on the sports system, serves asa point of reference for outlining a statistical system.But in doing so, the present study actually -fulfils the twofunctions, which do not normally enter into econometrics owingto the fact that, 'in most cases, the one and only objectiveis forecasting.

If we define a mathematical model as a set of symbolsinterrelated through specified mathematical functions (1),then a model comprises parameters in addition to symbols.In econometrics, "structure" is the name given to a model withestimated parameters, so that any model may be considered asa family of "structures" (2).

The transition from model to "structure" is effected byusing the available statistical data and a few of the variousexisting estimation methods (3). In our case, instead ofconstructing a model corresponding to the existing statistical

.1(1) It must be admitted that this mode of definition is

not very mathematical.

(2) Attention should be drawn to the enormous, differencebetween this econometric concept of "structure" and thatof system or structure in the more general sense.

(3) There is no doubt that in theory, and sometimes inpractice, parameters can be estimated without basicdata.

CCC/DC (73) 7 - 52 -

situation, we are trying first to define the type of analysisthat needs to be made with a view to carrying through atechnically consistent sports policy, and then we shall try todetermine the type Pmd form of the information required. Thus,in .the present study, the statistical system - instead of beingthe point of departure - becomes the last link in the chain,which,_ starting from sports reality, comes back to it throughthe statistical system.

.1.

- 53 - CCC/DC (73) 7

CRAPTER II

MATHEMATICAL MODEL

For the purposes of this exposé the present chapter isdivided into three sections, which form, in effect, a logicaland coherent whole, showing the relation between the threecomponents of the sports system.

In the first .section the concept "level of sport" isanalysed and defined as a function of the elite and of the numberof ordinary practitioners; it is expressed in the mathematicalformulae which seem to be the most appropriate. In the secondsection, an attempt is made to show the relation between-thelevel of sport and the sport situation by means of a dual process:on the one hand, the concept "sport situation" is enlarged and,on the other, reduced to coincide with the elements usedinitially to define the level of sport. In the third sectlon,an attempt is made to define a sports.policy model showing theconnection between the level of sport, the sport situation andthe development factors.

It should be added that the present chapter presupposes adetailed study of the whole of Part I which deals with the basicconcepts.

A. 'LEVEL OF SPORT, ELITE AND ORDINARY PRACTITIONERS

As stated in the preceding chapter, it has first to bedecided which variable is to serve as the starting point for thoentire grapho-modelisation process. To

As'Nr Castejon emphasised repeatedly throughout Part I,the concept "level of sport" (1) (hereinafter denoted by theinitials LS) is the basis of'the proposed system. The level of

./.

(1) Benito Castejon defines the level of sport as the ratioof the number of actual sports practitioners to the actualelite and the ratio of the number of potential sportspractitioners to the corresponding ideal elite. .As weshall see later, it is possible to give a broader, thoughfor 'the moment less functional, definition.

=CAW (73) 7 - 54

sport (LS) has been defined as a function of the number of actualpractitioners (NRP), of the actual elite (RE), of the numberof potential practitioners (NPP) and of the ideal elite (IE) (1);it may be expressed in mathematical language as follows:

LS = f(NRP, RE, NPP, IE)

The foregoing may be considered as a simple system which canbe represented by numerous uni-equational models since thecharacteristic of the function may take very different forms.Common properties may, however, be identified, whatever themathematical expression chosen.

LS being endogenous variable, NRP and RE exogenous variables,and NPP and IE parameters, it follows that LS = f(NRP, RE, NPP, IE)is a family of iso-sports curves; for each level of sport (LS)there is an infinite number of combinations of actualpractitioners (NRP) and actual elite (RE) which possess the sameproperty. Obviously, if we vary the values given to the idealelite (IE) and the number of potential practitioners (NPP) the familyof curves varies likewise.

The advantage, in our view, of using such abstract termsis that the "concrete" is embodied within a general model; thisenables us to understand not only the actual situation, but allthe possible situations that may exist in reality, and therebyenriches our knowledge. Moreover, from the strictly mathematicalpoint of view, it is possible to use the entire theory ofdifferential analysis, as marginalism does in economics, butwith the advantage that, here, everything is measurable, albeitwith difficulty.

Let us now turn to a vitally important problem: what is tobe the characteristic of the mathematical function which willenable us to measure the level of sport?

Normally, the characteristic may assume numerous forms.But, at the outset, we shall demand two properties:

1. The WtElslia.amves must be descending curves

Consequently, if one point of the co-ordinates(! 0P0, RE0) increases, fdr example: the number' of actualpractitioners pRP0 NRP 1), then the actual elite MEI)must decrease RE1 <RAO. The problem which arises here (andwhich will be left unsolved for the time being) is to knowin what proportion or in accordance with what law.

(1) See page 53.

.1

- 55 - OCC/DC (73) 7

On the other hand, if the number of actual practitionersdecreases (211°0---NRE02), the actual elite-(1p2) must increase(RE2 < RE0). We lack the definition of this law for themoment. In principle, we may assume that it is the same as inthe preceding case, but it would not be irrational to thinkin terms of a hysteresis phenomenon.

The foregoing could be represented graphically by threetypes of curves, all following curves.

2. The second diagram we demand of the iso-sports curvesrelates to what is most specific in the model: development ofthe leyel_ofsport is measured b reference to eri-ErargifiraTion,i.727Mr-W- d-cdtiar son with pas s ua ons.ITIFWabsolutely new feature of this model, which differentiates itfrom the traditional approach.

The problem arising here is of great methodological interest,but very little attention has been given to it. In economics, therate of development is generally measured by the percentageincrease in any given year over the preceding one, which wouldseem to imply that the optimum had been reached in thatparticular yearr so that any subsequent increase must beconsidered as an improvement. Thus, it is impossible to introducequalitative criteria for development. We have a very differentsituation, however, wherever there is a reference diagramdefining the desirable type of economic situation: the rate andlevel of devenTriEt-Ehen become a function of the relationbetween a given situation and the target situation to be attained.

/

CCC/DC (73) 7 - 56 -

Any mathematical function possessing the two propertiesjust mentioned would be valid. In this study, we shall simplyindicate the directions in which to look in order to have mostchance of finding the best one.

Benito Castejon, defining sports reality as a system,suggested a first direction in which to look. In Part I heproposes a first possible mathematical formula for the levelof sport (1).

NRP . RE1.1 B.Castejon's first hypothesis: IS =

NPP . IE

According to the mathematical diagram described above,we find ourselves in the presence of a family of equilateralhyperbolas conditioned to the values of the parameters NPPand IE. The equation (1.1) would perhaps become clearer ifit is presented in another way:

.1.1.1 LS.(NPP . IE) = NRP . RE

That is to saythat, inside each iso-sports curve, whateverthe values assumed by NRP and RE, their product will be constant.Where NPP and IE vary, we have different families of iso-sportscurves.

Applying a similar criterion, we could have defined thelevel of sport as:

111.111M

1.2 LS = RE/NRP: IE/NPP

(1) Secretariat note: it will be recalled that Mr Castejonexplains (see ge 33 above, and also document CCC/EES (72) 65pages 5 and 10),

pathat he has abandoned this first

formula because the present econometric study shows thePythagoras theorem to be more appropriate.

- 57 - cccpbc (73) 7

Another possible method consists in defining the levelof sport as the distance between two points (NRP, RE),(NPP. IE).

E _

IE - RE

1

NPP - NRPI-

NRP NPP P

By simply applying the Pythagoras theorem, we arriveat a third formula:

1.3 LS =4/(NPP - NRP)2 4- (IE RE)2 .

Everybody knows that with the preceding equation, theiso-sports curves take the form of circumferences with theideal point (NPP, IE) as the centre.

Using an identical diagram, it is possible to obtaina fourth formula:

1.4 LS =-. (1NRP)2 RE)2

NPP IE

Graphically, the transition from the expression (1.3)to (1.4) is very simple because it is merely a matter of_relativising the axes of the co-ordinates in relation toNPP and IE, by transforming them into percentages.

E

RE"TM

/

CCC/bC (73) 7 - 58 -

It is clear that in the.last mathematical expression themaximum value of the level of sport is LS = N/2.

The most important conclusion to be drawn from these fourways of expressing iso-sports curves in mathematical formulaeis that we find ourselves now in.the field of "geometric loci ".

Consequently, there are numerous ways of defining iso-sportscurves.

In our opinion, of the four equations presented here,the most appropriate is the last, and .this for the followingreasons:

a. The first formula (Mr Caste Jon's starting point)gives excessive importance to variations in the elite bymultiplying the latter by the number of actual practitioners,whereas it is the reverse that happens when the number ofpractitioners increases. In the second formula the influenceof the number of practitioners on the level of sport isregressive.

b. The disadvantage of the third equation resides inthe non-relativisation of the values of the actual elite andthe number of actual practitioners in relation to the potentialelite and the number of potential practitioners; moreover,owing to the big difference between the absolute values ofthe elite and of the mass of ordinary practitioners, variationsin the elite have hardly any effect on the level of sportbecause an ordinary practitioner is counted in the same wayas one of the elite.

The equation 1.4, whose form is clear, gives the samevalue to a percentage variation in the elite and in thenumber of practitioners, that is to say, an increase of. 10%in the elite and 10% in the number of ordinary practitionershas the same influence on the level of sport, so that a newperson joining the elite has more influence on the level ofsport than a new person joining the mass of ordinarypractitioners.

Should this'influence of the elite on the level of sportbe judged excessive, it would have to be offset by balancingeach of the components, in which case the expression wouldbecome:

1.5 LS = Nol<:(1 -.1g)2 1c1( 2 (1 - g)112

cx 1 +0* 2 = 1

9/

- 59 - CCCAW (73) 7

The problem reTalming to be solved is that of the valueof°(1 OcK 2 = 1 (1).

It should be pointed out that, while formulee of the type(1.4) and (1.5) serve to measure the level of sport, a descendingsequence indicates the opposite of what might be thought atfirst sight, for it means that the level of sport is rising.

B. LEVEL OF SPORT AND SPORT SITUATION

In Part I of this study, Benito Castejon explained that,in his methodology, the concept "sport situation" had a doublemeaning: first, it was the logical resultant of a givenlevel of sport, and second, it formed the basis for a policyaimed at improving a given level of sport through the actionof the "development factors". Comparing the concepts "levelof sport" and sport situation", Benito Castejon observed thatthe second concept represented an analytical and functionalapproach to the "world of sport", whereas the first viewed the"world of sport" as a whole. In other words, the level ofsport expresses the entire relationship existing between themass of ordinary practitioners and the dlite and permits an overallcomparison between the real situation and the ideal "target"situation, whereas the sport situation is the complex oftechnico-sports relations existing between the basic elementsof sport, on the one hand, and between these and a series ofnon-sports circumstances, on the other.

From a mathematical angle, however, these facts do not.provide an adequate basis for defining the relation existingbetween the level of sport and the sport situation. Furtherclarification is needed and, for this, a few preliminaryremarks are necessary.

The concept of sport situation cannot be delimited simplyby listing the properties which an element must possess inorder to be considered a component of the sport situation.Benito Castejon, for his part, has enumerated all the elementsconstituting the sport situation.

.1

(1) tt should perhaps be recalled that among the geometricloci the ellipsis, for example, has the property ofweighting one axis more than the other.

CCC/DC (73) 7 - 6o

He distinguishes two types of elements: the specificallysports elements ("internal elements") and the others("external elements"); though outside its control, the latternevertheless affect sport ("conditioning framework"). Inother words, the sports system is part of a vaster complex, aunit in a higher system, an integral system existing in reality.The description given in Part I of this study may therefore besummed up as follows: in its widest sense, the sport situationis constituted by a set of related elements which are componentsof an integral system existing in reality and divisible intovarious sub-systems,: sport system, economic system, educationalsystem, demographic system, political system, health system,geographical and climatic system, "social systems" etc.

If we imagine this integral system as a double entry table(diagram 2.2/1), all the sub-systems will be listed in thehorizontal and vertical columns. The horizontal ones will showthe influence, the vertical ones the dependence, of eachsub-system on the others. Thus, diagonally, the table will showthe situation and interrelations between the internal elementsof each sub-system.

./

-.61 - CCC/DC (73) 7

Diagram 2.2/1

Sort situation

Systems 1 2

.

r..--.......--

theSportsystem

Internalsports-lements

Influence on the conditioning(not measurable in

frameworkshort-term)

Economicsystem

,.

Demographicsystem

mr4o

,

Geographicand climaticsystem

.,

,

.

Education.-al system

N.......

o*el

Healthsystem

oc.)

.........

Pbliticalsystem

Socialsystem

.The description of the sport situation given by Mr Castejonlends itself perfectly to this kind of diagrammaticrepresentation; the "conditioning framework" data would beentered in spaces (2.1) to (8.1), while the elements andinternal interrelations of the sport system would appear inspace (1.1).

.14

CM/DC (73) 7 - 62 -

To sum up, we give the following list of elements whichconstitute the sport situation, leaving the conditioningframework out of account:

Types Elements

1. Basic elements 1.1 Ordinary sports practitioners

1.2 Elite

2. Supplementary elements 2.1 Pupils retceiving physicaltraining

2.2 Hours of sports practiceper week

3. Direction and organisation 3.1 Number of sports bodies

3.2 Leading officials (unpaid)

3.3 Administrators (paid)

3.3.1 Managers

3.3.2 Administrators andauxiliaries

3.3.3 Subordinate staff

4. Instrumental elements 4.1 Material 24.1.1 Area (m ) covered by

sports facilities

. 4.1.2 Existing sportsequipment .

4.2 Human

4.2.1 Number of sportstechnicians

4.2.1.1 Teachers ofphysicaltraining

4.2.1.2 Instructors

4.2.1.3 Coaches

4.2.1.4 Judges andreferees

4.2.1.5 Healthpersonnel(doctors andauxiliaries)

.1

- 63-- CCC/DC (73) 7

Since we may, as we have seen, consider Benito Castejon'sdescription as schematising the sport situation, we can equate(from the methodological point of view) the sport situationwith the two basic elements in the above list: number ofordinary sports practitioners and number of the elite. Therepresentative value of these two elements is obviously muchless than that of the entire list, for the more elements weinclude in the sport situation, the easier it becomes todistinguish concrete types of sport situations and, at the sametime, gain a more thorough knowledge of the complex structureof the actual situation one is concerned with.. But, if weaccept this kind of logical reasoning, the problem of definitionbecomes a problem of knowing how far to. go.

We have thus arrived, almost without realising'it, at ageneralisation of the concept of "sport situation "which enablesus to see clearly a possible relation with the level of sport.

Earlier on, the level of sport was defined as the ratioof the number of actual sports practitioners to the actualelite and the ratio of the number of potential sportspractitioners to corresponding ideal elite. When studyingthe possible mathematical formulae for expressing the levelof sport, we noted that one very interesting formula wasthat representing the level of sport as the distance betweenan actual situation and an ideal situation. If we acceptthis relationship, it is easy, once the sport situation(defined as broadly as one chooses) is known and thecorresponding ideal model constructed, to define the level ofsport as the distance between two points in a space which hasas many dimensions as elements, this space 1,epresenting thesport situation.

The mathematical expression then becomes a generalisationof the Pythagoras theorem:

1.6 IS =\//4,711- (CIi - CRi)2

f-=-1in which CI

i= Component of the ideal sport situation

CRi= Component of the real sport situation.

Applying the criteria used already, one may proceed fromthe foregoing expression to the following one:

1.7 IS =1v/ (1 - u-)2

CCC/DC (73) 7 - 64 -

As said earlier, this formula avoids theby a formula of the type (1.6).

A more perfected expression would be the

1.8 LS ..;\//5-4 tAL

= 1

cal.

1 (1 )

2

in which OK + c< +1_1( +1 2 3

4.1

dCn ?"- 1°

problems entailed

following:

- 65

-C

CC

/DC

(73)

7

35)

1_3e

38),

GD

G1

(37)

ElR

39)

1E1

J(4Q

FISR

N43

1an

044

'HE

RE

24

INS

I25

fl`

2

4HsE

(31)

eisI

mP

f(33

)

1

34)

GR

AF

O-M

OD

EL3

(-13

1111

CA

-DE

FO

RT

AA

CCC/DC (73) 7 - 66 -

C. MODEL FOR A SPORTS POLICY

In order to express the sports policy in mathematicalterms, a clear and precise connection must be establishedbetween the level of sport, the sport situation and thedevelopment factors. In the preceding paragraphs we have seenhow a mathematical relationship can be established between thelevel of sport and the sport situation; we shall now show howthe relations between the development factors and the two otherbasic concepts of the sports system can be expressed inmathematical terms.

The method followed is that described earlier as grapho-modelisation. The basic principles which guided us in theconstruction of the model are the following:

1. The level of sport is to be defined as a function ofthe components of the sport situation. As-these componentsare associated with a parameter, it is possible to restrict thenumber of factors directly influencing the level of sport. Thus:

2. The other equations of the model express theinterrelations between the elements of the sport situation throughstructural parameters which give an overall view of the situation.

3. The structural parameters are the links with thedevelopment factors.'

1. It is impossible a priori to define in mathematicalterms the form in which the development factors will exercisetheir influence. However, it is possible to class them in orderof importance, as Benito Castejon does in Part I of this study,and to adopt the programme-budget technique as a method ofbringing the development factors into play.

The following tables offer a model for a sports policy.

Serial

number

1 2 3 5 6

3'

Meaning

ND

ni P1

NPR

NPRN

a4

SPORTS POLICY MODEL

Source

Number of

equation

Level of sport

Vector of weightings

assigned to each of

the terms in the

mathematical formula-

tion of the level

of sport

Ratio of actual to

possible practition-

ers

Number of actual

practitioners

Number of new

practitioners ie

younger

practitioners

Proportion of

.

physical education

pupils becoming-

sports practition-

ers

1=f(2,3,13,18,

21,35,38)

3=f(

4,12

)

4=f(

5,10

)'

54(6

,7)

Parameter of

the sport

situation

(E-1)

1Equation

ND = f(avor

132103013450 P6)

NPR

Il = NPP

NPR = NPRN + NPRS

NPRN = a4NAEFR

ah = f (factors

far development)

The symbols used in the model on page

C5and explained on pages 67-72 are abbreviations

of the corresponding words in Spanish.

Example:

the symbol ND is an abbreviation

of Nivel Depoutivo.

Serial

number

.

Symbol

Meaning

,

Source

Number of

equation

Equation

7 8 9 10

11

12

NAEFR

a5

POBLE

NPRS

a6

NPP

Number of physical

education pupils

Proportion of children

of school age who

belong to physical

education classes

School population

under 14 years of

age

Number of actual

practitioners over

14 years of age

Proportion of

practitioners

(>14 years old)

Number of possible

practitioners

7=4(8.9)

Parameter of the

sport situation

Conditioning

framework

(demography)

10=f(11,12)

.

Policy parameter

.

Conditioning

framework

(E-5)

(E-6)

(E-7)

NAEFR=a5POPLE

a5=f (education-

al system,

physical educatio

as a factor for

development,

technical

improvements and

other factors)

NPRS=a6NPP

.

a6=f (factors

for development)

NPP=f (structure

of the population

by age, sex,

occupation,

income and

educational

level)

.

I

Serial

number

13

14

15

17

18 19 20

Symbol

Meaning

Source

Number of

equation

Equation

P2

ER

a9

EI a10

f33

NAEFI

a13

Ratio

of actual to

ideal elite

Number of actual elite

Proportion of actual

elite

Ideal number of elite

Proportion of ideal

elite

Ratio of actual to

ideal number of

pupils receiving

physical education

Ideal number of pupils

receiving physical

education

Proportion or children

or school age who

should engage in

physical education

13=f(14,116)

(E-8)

14=f(15,4)

(3-9)

Parameter of

sport situation

16=f(17,12)

Policy parameter

18=f(7,19)

19=f(20,9)

Policy parameter

aER

'= EI

ER = a9NPR

a= f (develop-

mdnt factors,

technical

improvements)

ES = a10NPP

alo = f (law of

diminishing

returns)

=NAEFR

3NAEFI

NAEFI = a13PDBLE

Normally = 1

Symbol

P4

HPDR

HPDRE

HSRE

NS

HPDRMP

HSRMP

Meaning

Source

Ratio of the actual

to the ideal number of

practice hours

Actual number of

hours spent on sport

per year

Actual number of hours

spent on sport per

year among the elite

Actual average number

of practice hours per

week among the elite

Number of weeks

Actual number of

hours spent on sport

by ordinary

practitioners

Average number of

hours per week spent

on sport by ordinary

practitioners

21=f(22,29)

22 =f (23,26)

23=f(24,25,14)

Estimate based

on a survey

Given

26=f(27,25,28)

Estimate based

on a survey

Number of

equation

(E-14)

(E-15)

(E-16)

(E-17)

Equation

HPDR

Efi

l5f

HPDR = HPDRE

+ HPDRMP

HPDRE = HSRE

x NS x ER

HPDRMP =

(HSRMP.NS)

NMPR

Serial

number

28

29

30

31

32

Symbol

NMPR

HPDI

HPDIE

HSIE

HPDIMP

33

HSIR

34NMPP

Meaning

Source

Number of

equation

Actual number of ordinary

practitioners

'Ideal number of hours of

sport per year

Ideal number of hours

of sport per year for

the elite

Ideal average number

of hours of sport per

week for the elite

Ideal number of hours

per year spent on

sport by ordinary

practitioners

Ideal average number

of hours per week

spent on sport by

ordinary practition-

ers

Number of possible

ordinary practition-

ers

35

5Ratio of actual 'to

ideal elements of

organisation,

1

direction and

management(1)

(1)

This and the remaining variables which followrequire a higher level of disaggregation in a

structural form.

28=f(4,14)

29.f(30,3)

30.-f(31,25,16)

Policy paramete

32=f(33,25234)

Policy parameter

34=f(12,16)

35=

4'(3

6,37

)

Equation

NMPR = NPR - E

HPDI = HPDIE

+ HPDIMP

HPDIE = HSIE

x NS x El

(E-21)

HPDIMP = HSIR

x NS x NMPP

(E-22)

,NMPP = NPP - EI

(E-23)

ODOR

5-ODGI

Serial

Number

36

37

38

39

Symbol

Meaning

Source

Number of

equation

Equation

ODGR

ODGI

A6

EIR

EII

Actual elements of

organisation, direction

and management

Ideal elements of

organisation, direction

and management

Ratio of actual to ideal

instrumental elements

Actual instrumental

elements

Ideal instrumental

elements

36=f(28,14)

37=f(34,16)

38=f(39,40)

39=

f(28

,1)

-

40.f(34,16)

(E-24)

(E-25)

(E-26)

(E-27)

(E-28)

ODGR = f

(NMPR; ER)

ODOI = f

(NMPP, EI)

EIR

P6

EIR = f

(NMPR,ER)

EII = f

(NMPP,EI)

- 73 - CCC /DC (73) 7

PART III

The statistical instruments

by

Mr Jose Rodriguez Carballada

- 74 - CCC/bC (73) 7

CHAPTER I

GENERAL. REMARKS

This final, statistical part of the study is of acomplementary-and auxiliary charaCter. In it an attempt willbe made-to scrutinise sports reality closely and Identify moreprecisely the different variables which influence the levelof sp.Drt directly or indirectly. We are aware that no humanwork is perfect and it is for that reason that the presentstudy is being submitted for analysis and consideration.Criticism. of it will enable us to draw conclusions profitableto all.

What we are to do is to establish a generalstatistical-system which may be.used n-all countries, notonly by the highest decision- making authorities, but also bythe sports organisations at the base. Our aim is to sketch outa. statistical schema that will be of help in carrying out allthe analyses necessary for the purpose of rationalisingpolicy decisions,-as Benito Castejon suggests.

Ware forced to acknowledge that the mathematical modelexpounded herb presuppose's much more statistical data thanwe possess at present, such data as is available being somewhatfragmentary (1). It-must be admitted' that the model is basedon a concept of sport which either does not embrace thedifferent sports activities or, if it.does, considers them.abstractly as "sport" in the aggregate, whereas one of themost attractive characteristics of sport, is, undeniably, itsdiversity: consequently, the specified model cannot beapplied direCtly to the sports system as a whole unlessinternationally recognised criteria are adopted (2) to solvethe aggregation problem,. or, failing this, unless the model .

is adapted to individual branches of sport.

(1) This is actually an advantage rather than a disadvantage,for the requisite type of data for framing a sportspolicy can then be specified in the requests issued.

(2) These criteria obviously include the following: alldata on any variable in the reference sports activityis of equal quality.

CCC/DC (73) 7 - 75 -

There are difficult aggregation problems as regards thevariables which define the directional and instrumentalelements. For example, a club with 100,000 members cannotbe treated in the same way as one which has 1,000, nor musta club with ten sports sections be treated in the same way asa club with two. Where sports installations are concerned,it would be wrong merely to add together, without priorhomogenisation, the areas of a gymnasium, a swimming pool anda football ground, because the number of sports practitionersusing them per unit of time varies; at firkt sight, theindividual practitioner's performance per m4 is less on a footballground than in the other two installations.

In the case of the human elements, whether directional orinstrumental, aggregation problems arise with regard to thevarious classes of administrators and technicians, and therewill sometimes be different eal,:egories within one and thesame class. This necessitates considering more elementaryvariables than the basic ones already established.

Where sports facilities are concerned, the problem ofheterogeneity becomes so complicated that it is practicallyimpossible to define this variable in physical units, eitherin a general way or even within each branch of sport. However,though it is impossible to arrive at a detailed assessmentof all the existing sports, facilities, the federations can makepartial studies and estimates of the equipment situation in theparticular sport considered. Indirectly, use can be made ofeconomic studies on consumption, productia. and trade, whichcomprise a section on sports equipment, but these provide 'is withaggregate data; they contain little information as regards type.Thus we have difficulty in knowing whether the facilitiesconcerned are for the elite or not, or of ascertaining thenumber of units for each sports activity or the monetary valueor geographical distribution of the facilities.

This aggregation problem raises another preliminary problem:that of giving statistically valid definitions of sport or ofthe individual variables in the mathematical diagram of tb,,,°sports system. This is perhaps the most arduous task facingus in the whole study. In.any event, it is here that thecontribution afforded by international agreements will be the

- 76 - CCC/DC (73) 7

most decisive. Later'on, we shall propose definitions for themost significant variables. In this first chapter we shallmerely set forth the general concepts embracing the realand concrete elements, which, as always, are subject to revision.

As is well known, two criteria may be adopted for thepurposes of defining a whole: that. of intension or that ofextension. The first entails. listing. the properties whicheach element must have in order to belong to the whole, whereasthe second entails enumerating each and everyone of theelements constituting the whole. The first procedure isobviously a particularly. useful one_where the whole is made upof an infinite number of elements; the second procedure isnot applicable in such a ease.

In the present instance.it.is.not always possible todefine a variable precisely, so that we are sometimes obligedto adopt a dual criterion: for example, we define "literally"what is meant by sport and, at .the same time, give a listof sports activities. Our aim will be to give definitionswhich serve our purpose.

Another aspect to be borne in mind is the place whichthe statistical System occupies in the general diagram(diagram 1/1) givenat the beginning of Part II (econometrics).The link between reality and the statistical system is ensuredby sources of information concerning sports organisations,schools, firms,'families etc. What we need to do, therefore,is build up a data-bank from which to construct analyticalmodels and make simulations, with the. aid of appropriateaggregation and comparison programmes.

The methods used to obtain statistical information arethe conventional ones: censuses, periodical statistics,pilot surveys.

The periodical statistics (generally annual) and pilotsurveys must be based on knowledge of the behaviour of theentire population, which is the subject of the research: hencethe need for zriodical censuses of sports practitioners, sportsestablishments, S-551717 oigiagritions and so forth. A censusimplies a heavy outlay and meticulous preparation, whichmight be spread over a long period. For that reason censuseswill be carried out only once in eight years or, at most,every four years to coincide with the Olympic period. Withsuch.long intervals, however, there is a risk of importantchanges occurring and invalidating the available data.

/

CCC/DC (73) 7 - 77 -

To keep the basic statistics up to date - for they are ofgreat importance - pilot surveys could be carried out. Anothermethod would be to institute a kind of continuous census bymeans of "living registers" of the data characterising thesports population. This will entail the most obvious andindispensable characteristics in index cards for the purposesof pilot surveys or of periodical assessments of certainstrategic data enabling the development of the national orregional sports situation to be analysed both from a generalpoint of view and from the point of view of each of the branchesof sport. These registers might be kept by means of a card indexor an electronic computer, the data being entered, withdrawn oramended in accordance with prescribed criteria. The. compilingof an electronic card index of sports organisations andestablishments should be one of the first objectives.

After these introductory remarks let us now review brieflythe variables which compose the "conditioning framework ", the"sport situation" and the " development factors" respectively.

1. THE "CONDITIONING FRAMEWORK"

Sport is practised in a framework which conditions andinfluences it This framework is constituted by the prevailingdemographic, socio-economic, physiologico-anatomical,geo6raphico-climatic conditions and social customs. Theseconditions are, in their turn, composed of variables most ofwhich are quantifiable which cannot be included in astatistical model because this would greatly complicate thespat-its problem: the variables to be studied would be toonumerous and would not, in any case, be of any immediateinterest. They are external variables which influence sportand must consequently be taken into consideration; but asthey vary only over a very long period of time and as sportcannot be controlled directly, we shall merely mention themhere without going into details.

The following chapter contains a summary table of themain variables in the conditioning framewrk.

2. THE SPORT SITUATION

The sport situation calls for a more detailed statisticalstudy, since it bears an immediate and direct relation tothe level of sport which, being the most representativeindicator of the stage of development reached by sport,forms the corner-stone of this entire methodology.

.1

- 78 - . cCC/bC (73) 7

In order to obtain a thorough knowledge of the sportsituation, we shall consider the following as basic"statistical units":

1. Number of ordinary sports practitioners

2. Number of the elite

3. Numtar of pupils receiving physical training

4. Number of hours of sports practice per week

5. Number of sports organisations

6. Number of leading officials (unpaid)

7. Number of administrators (paid)

7.1 Managers .

7.2 Administrative and auxiliary staff

7.3 Subordinate staff

8. Area covered by Sports installations

9. Number of sports technicians

9.1 Physical education teachers'

9.2 Instructors

9.3 Coaches

9.4 Judges and referees

9.5 Medical personnel (doctors and auxiliaries)

For each of these units we propose: (a) a definition;(b) a reference period,.(c) a specified frequency, (d) a fieldof research,.(e)'a data-collecting prodeddre and, lastly,(0 questionnaires, statistical tables and records.

For the definition of the various sports activities weshall follow the criteria laid down by the competentinternational federations. We have drawn up a list of2 sports (see following chapter).

I would emphasise that all the definitions and classificationsin this study are submitted for comment with a view todiscovering any errors and, above all, to defining uniformcriteria. It is very important, indeed vital, that we shouldall speak' the same statistico-sports language, for anyconcerted effort would be in vain if we started out withdifferent basic concepts. This does not mean that we mustadopt rigid attitudes, immutable for all time. The world ofsport is a living and, consequently, a changing world. But.since we are concerned wiAl units of measurement, theconcepts must tcs perfectly defined. We must realise that weare establishing a "metric system" for sport, and this mustbe the concern of all of us.

/

CCC/DC (73) 7 - 79 -

3. THE DEVELOPMENT FACTORS

The statistical variables of the development factors willbe studied in the same way as the variables of the sportsituation. The subjects dealt with will also be the same.

In order to avoid making the study unnecessarily long,we shall devote only ane table to these factors. The maincomments are as follows :.

Definitions: see Part I of the study.

The expenditure on each of the following factors will beconsidered as statistical units:

1. Promotion

2. Physical education

3. Technical improvement

4. Organisation of competitions

5. Training of physical education teachers.

6. Training of instructors

7. Training of coaches

8. Facilities (ordinary sports practitioners)

9. Facilities (elite)

10. Sports organisation and structures

FreplIncy: annually, because the budgetary period of thebodierauggIYIng the data will generally be one year.

ma.

Reference eriod: owing to the static character of thesport sination, he reference period is, as a rule, aprecise date. By contrast, because of the dynamic characterof the development factors, the reference period will bethesport season or thecalendar year. The choice between the twowill depend on the budgetary period of the sports organisations,and this, in turn, may depend on their private or officialcharacter. The important thing is to fix a Uniform referenceperiod for all countries, organisations, towns etc wishing toapply the methodology, in order that the statistical variablesof the development factors may be homogeneous.

- 8o - coo/Do (73) 7

Data-collectin methods: the procedures for obtaining datawill TeTiericraiii e spalraTuation in individual countries(centralised or non centralised structure, public or privatecharacter).

Where a certain co-ordination ex:Ints and sports organisationsuse the same accounting methods, the problem will be simplifiedfor then it will merely be a matter of adapting theclassification of the development variables proposed in thisstudy to that being practised already or conversely. On thesame assumption, the budgetary accounts of each organisationwill serve as a basis for drawing up statements not only oftotal expenditure but also of expenditure. for each branch ofsport, from local up tonational level. This will provideperiodical statistics for the -purposes of establishing theamounts spent on individual development factors at-the variouslevels and, subsequently, making the necessary classifications.

But the absence of uniform accounting methods and especially,of formal co-ordination among the sports organisationscomplicates the problem considerably, for then censusoperations such as pilot surveys may well give a distortedpicture of the situation, accumulating the gravest errorsas a result of evasive replies or even deliberate untruths,generally prompted by taxation fears, even in countries inwhich sport enjoys favourable fiscal treatment.

Consequently, it will always be difficult to obtainreliable financial data as long as no formal co-ordinationor similar accounting procedures have been instituted for allsports organisations. For there will always be a tendency,where co-ordination is lacking and direct censusing orpilot surveys have to be resorted to, to misrepresent the factsby overstating or understating expenditure, as the case may be.Where it appears inexpedient, for statistical purposes, toask for total and detailed figures for each category ofexpenditure from one and the same sports organisation, it willbe necessary, .once the aims of the inquiry have been determined;to specify the kind of data to be requested from each typeof organisation; we are using the term "sports organisation"in a very wide sense to mean any body entitled to incurexpenditure on sport -(see below).

Field of research: From the institutional point of view,the research bodes or sources.comprise: the s rethelocal authorities, school establishments, sports organisations,other bodies and organisations. .

ccc/Dc (73) 7 - 81-

The sports organisations, in the broadest sense of the word,include not only organisations proper (clubs, societies,asso?.iations, federations etc) but also sports establishments(sports complexes, installations).

As regards the various properties to be' investigatedfor each of the ten variables, I think time will show howfar 'our investigations should go.

questionnaires statistical. tables and records

It would be premature to nuke any decision as to thequestionnaires and tables to be used without first determiningprocedures. It can, however, already be stated that, whateverthe method employed, the questionnaires and statistical tableswill have to provide the necessary data for establishing akind of "national sports accounts on the lines of the tableappearing at the end of the following chapter.

- 82 - CCC/DC (73) 7

CHAPTER II

TYPES OF DATA TO BE COLLECTED:

DEFINITIONS, FORMS AND TABLES

I. SPORTS PRACTITIONERS

1.1 Definition: any person between 14 and 70 years of ageWYETTifiig one of the following sports for an averageof at least two hours a week:

- Underwater sports - Judo

Gliding Wrestling

Athletics - Mountaineering

- Motoring Motor-cycling

- Basketball - Motor-boating

- Handball - Swimming

- Baseball - Skating

- Billiards - pelota*%..

Bowling - Angling

Boxing - Canoeing

Hunting and shooting Rowing

- Cycling - Rugby

- Fencing - Badminton

- Skiing - Tennis

- Water-skiing - Table tennis

- Football - Archery

- Gymnastics - Olympic shooting(pistol and rifle)

- Golf - Clay pigeon shooting

- Weight-lifting - Pigeon shooting

- Riding - Volleyball

- Hockey - Sailing

1.2 Reference 4E122: the reference period proposed is thecalendar year in which the survey takes place. TheOlympic year might be chosen.

CCC/DC (73) 7 - 83

1.3 Fromency) every four years (Olympic period); a surveymight be carried out on a sufficiently large sample forthe findings to be significant; for example, at regionallevel.

It would be useful to carry out'a national survey everytwo years on a smaller sample in order not only toascertain the situation at that moment, but also tocompare the Olympic year (1972) with the intermediateyear (1974) between the two consecutive Olympic years(1972-76).

1.4 Data - collecting method: a pilot survey based on theUlaTIOntiali4U7=76low.

1.5 Field of research: the research should cover .the entirepdFillatTOE biefween 14 and 70 years of age. The differentcharacteristics to be investigated will depend on thequestionnaire.

1.6.1 Individualsupslionnaire

(For all persons between 14 and 70 years of age)

Province Urban rural district

Personalorticulars

1. Social environment

2. Sex

3. Civil status:

4. Age

5. Level of education

1. Higher education

2. Secondary education

3. Primary education

6. Socio-economic category

Sporting activities

7. Do you practise sport habitually?

1. Throughout the year

During holidays and at weekeilds

3. No

.1

-.84 - CCC/DC (r3) 7

Do you take part in competitions?

1. As a professional

2. As an amateur

3. No

9. Do you belong to a sports club?

1. Yes

2. No

10. How many hours a week do you practise sport onan average?

1. Nil

2. Less than two

3. Two to four

4. Over four

11. Sports practised habitually

01. Underwater sports

02. Gliding

03. Athletics

04. Motoring

05. Basketball

06. Handball

07. Baseball

08. Billiards

09. Bowling

10. Boking

11. Hunting and shooting

12. Cycling

13. Fencing

14. Skiing

15. Water-skiing

16. Football

17.. Gymnastics

18. '.061f

19. Weight-lifting

20. Riding

21. Hockey

CCC/DC (73) 7 - 85 -

22. Judo

23. Wrestling

24. Mountaineering

25. Motor-boating

26. Swimming

27. Motor-cycling

28. Skating

29. Pelota

30. Angling

31. Canoeing

32. Rowing

33. Rugby

34. Badminton

35 Tennis36., Table.tennis

37. Archery

38. Olympic shooting- (pistol and rifle)

39. Clay pigeon shooting

40. Pigeon shooting

41. Volleyball

42. Sailing

12. Which sport do you find most difficult to practise?

1. Because of lack of facilities

2. Because of lack of financial means

1.6.2 Tables oftlesplangs of the survey

1. Sax; civil status, age and level of educationas related to the habitual practice of sport.

2. Sex and socio-economic category as related tothe habitual practice of sport.

3. Sex, civil status, age and level of education asrelated to participation in competitions.

4. Sex and socio-economic category as related toparticipation in competitions.

5. Sex, civil status, age and level of education asrelated to membership (Oir non-membership) of asports club.

- 86 - CCC/DC (73) 7_

6. Sex and socio-economic category as related tomembership (or non-membership) of a sports club.

7. Sex, civil status, age and level of instructionas related to difficulties encountered in thepractice of sports.

8. Sex and socio-economic category as related todifficulties encountered in the practice ofsports.

9. Sports habitually practised as related to sex,age and Socio-economic category.

. 10. Sex, age and socio-economic category as relatedto the number of sports habitually practised.

11.. Sports which are the most difficult to practise',by sex.

12. Details, by province, of membership of a club,difficulties encountered and the habit ofsports practice.

13. Details, by province, of sports habituallypractised.

14. Sex, civil status, age and level of educationas related to hours of practice.

15. Sex and socio-ec%,nomic category as related tohours of practice,

ACTUAL ELITE

II.1 Definition: the elite is composed of sportspractitioners who, having attained a specific level, areclassed as such by the relevant federation.

The elite is divided intothree categories:

National elite, which comprises the practitioners selectedfor the national team and classed as suchby the relevant international federationon a proposal by the national federationconcerned.

Regional elite which is composed of the practitionersclassed as such by the relevant nationalfederation on a propoial by the regionalfederation concerned, It will includethe members of the national elite.

.1

CCC/DC (73) 7 - 87 -

Local_elite, which is composed of the practitioners classedas such by the relevant regional federationon a proposal by the local federation concerned.It will include the regional elite.

Criteria for seleetinthe eliteIn the sports in which performance is measurable (records,

points systems etc) those who fulfil the previously establishedcriteria will be considered as the elite; in the other sports,including the team sports, performance throughout the seasonwill serve as an indicator.

Conditions to be fulfilled

To be counted as one of the sporting elite, one mustbe registered by one's federation and be resident in the country,region or locality concerned.

11.2 Referenee Reriod: the sports season

11.3 Frequently: annually. Each local, regional etc section-60-tEd-VNrious federations will have to class its eliteby name and have their selection approved by the relevanthigher federation.

11.4 Data-collectiu method: at the end of each season allITirFUgnial and'iliaT sections of the federations will,once the list of their elite has been approved by thehigher federation, be virtually in possession of acensus of their elite. The national federation of eachsport will consequently have a census of the threecategories of the elite.

11.5 Field of research: this will comprise the federatedsp is piZETITIORers. In view of the number of hoursthat must be devoted tosport, it is difficult to imaginea member of the sporting elite not being a member of afederation, either as a professional or as an amateur.

11.6 questionnaires statistical: tables and records

11.6.1 Statistical record of the national elite(see below)

%11.6.2 Statistical records of the regional élite

(one for each region)

11.6.3 Statistical records of the local elite (onefor each locality)

11.6.4 National statistical abstract of the regional elite

11.6.5 National statistical abstract of the local elite

11.6.6 Regional statistical abstract of the local elite(one for each region).

/

- 88 - cccipc (73) 7

11.6.1 STATISTICAL RECORD OF THE NATIONAL ELITE

SEASON

SPORTAmateurs Professionals

---.

TOTAL

Men Women Total Men Women 1 Total

Under-watersports

Gliding

-

-

-

-

-

...1

,

.

.

.

.

TOTAL

cCC/W (73) 7 - 89 -

III. PUPILS RECEIVING PHYSICAL EDUCATION

III.1 Definition: pupils between 6 and 13 years of ageIFIBIZATve who are receiving regular basic physicaleducation. Two periods may be distinguished:that of dynamic expression (up to and including10 years) and that of physico-sports education(from 11 to 13 years inclusive).

111.2. Refermaeseriod: the school year.

111.3 &manly: annually.

111.4 Data-collectin method: the school authoritiesTenaraTle s ou carry out a pupil census whichwill also show the level of physical educationattained.

111.5 Field of research: pupils between 6 and 13 yearsorrir=riTe7,

111,6 Statistical record of pupils receiving physicaleducation, distinguishing the two age-groups andtheir respective levels.

IV. HOURS OF SPORTS PRACTICE

IV.1 Definition: average number of hours a weekhabrtaMr devoted to the exercise of any of thesports mentioned above (see 1.6.1).

IV.2 Reference_period: the calendar year in which thesurvey 57-earriEd out.

IV.3 Fre uenn : every four years, preferably coincidingTirei t the Olympic year. Each federation should,however, send a simple annual questionnaire to allthe members of its elite in order to ascertain thenumber of hours they spend on sports practice.

IV.4 Data-collectngmethod: pilot survey on sportsFetiVrEN-rfoluONfrOrifio. 10 of questionnaire 1.6.1),enabling information to be obtained concerning hoursof sports practice in general. The number of hoursspent on sports practice by the elite will beascertained by means of an annual questionnaire sentout by each federation.

IV.5 Field of research: the entire population between 147.0-757-rggie and the elite of each sport asregistered by the relevant federation.

.1

90 - CCC/DC (73) 7

IV.6 Statistical recordstalleuel_questionnairas

a. Tables compiled from the findings of the surveyon sports activities:

1. Hours of sports practice according to sex,civil status, age and level of education.

2. Hours of sportscategory.

3. Hours spent onand amateurs.

practice by socio-economic

sports practice by professionals

11. Hours of sports practice by branch of sport.

b. Tables compiled from replies to the annualquestionnaire sent to the Elite:

1. Hours spent on sports practice byprofessionals and amateurs.

2. Hours of sports practice by branch of sport.

V. ORGANISATIONS

V.1 Definition: any association formed for the purposeTrpromoTing the practice of sport and constitutedin accordance with the rules, laws and regulationsin force.

Sports organisations must not be confused withbodies which own or operate a sports installation;for example, a college or a firm which owns a sportsinstallation is not a 'sports organisation sinceit does not have a specifically sports objective.However, if that college or firm has formed aclub which is affiliated to a federation, thatclub will be a sports organisation.

V.2 Reference period:

a. 31 December ,of each year wherever there existsa register of sports clubs and associations.

b. In the absence of such a register, the referenceperiod will be that of the census date.

V.3 Frevtacz:

a., Wherever a register of clubs and associationsexists the federations will, so to speak,have a permanent census.

CCC/bC (73) 7 - 91 -

b. In the absence of such a register, there will bea census every four years.

V.4 plata7collectinazathad:

a. Where a register exists application may be madeto the relevant federations;

b. In the absence of such a register, the data mustbe obtained by means of a census.

V.5 Field of research: all the sports organisations.

Characteristics: see questionnlire

V.6 SpesV:onnaire statistical tables and records

V.6.1 RLeatlaanalE2

Province

Urban/rural district

1, Name

2. Headquarters

3. Federation an which the organisation depends

4. Number of members

5. Form and conditions of membership

Free:

Restricted:

By subscription:

6. Sports sections which are organised:

Number of teams Number of sportsEigariners

Underwater sports

Gliding

etc

- 92 - CCC/DC (73) 7

7, Staff (number):

- Leading officials

- Administrators

Managers

- Administrative staff

Subordinatd staff

- Technicians

- Sports doctors

- Health auxiliaries

- Coaches

- Phgsical education teachers

- Instructors

Total

V.6.2 Tables

1. Statistical record, by federation, of sections, clubs,teams and active members (practitioners)..

2. Statistical record of the various categories of staff,by federation.

3. Statistical record, by region, of clubs, teams andpractitioners belonging to each of the nationalfederations.

4. Table of the number- of clubs by federation, classedaccording to the number of members:

- under 1,000

between 1,000 and 10,000

- over 10,000

5. Table of the number-of clubs, by federation, accordingto formalities and conditions of membership.

6. Table of the number of clubs, by federation, accordingto the number of sections, the number of teams andthe number of sports practitioners.

Ccc/pc (73) 7 - 93 -

7. Table of federations according to the various categoriesof staff.

8. Table of regions according to the number of clubs,teams and sports practitioners belonging to eachnational federation.

VI. SPORTS ESTABLISHMENTS

VI.1 Definition: all the grounds, buildings and:insaTarrOns intended for the practice of one or'more sports, and comprising the area reserved forthe public as well as the services and annexesnecessary for the smooth running of the establishment.

For the purposes of collecting the:basic data andclassifying and presenting the findings, we haveadopted this statistical unit by analogy with the"establishment" unit as defined in the uniforminternational industrial classification of all economicactivities. The sports establishment thus definedmay be composed of one or more sports installations.

VI.1.1 Sorts installations: this is defined as the ground,trackuoiliffigused for the practice of a sport,for competition purposes, for training or simply foramusement

VI.1.2 Area: we suggest two units:

1. The total area (m2) reserved both for thepractice of sport and for the public.

2. The area (m2 ) reserved exclusively for the practiceof sport ie the sports ground, track, area ofwater (swimming pool) etc.

VI.2 Reference riod: that of'the date on which theansdB-UTII-76675 place. That date should coincidewith the date of the census of sports organisations.

VI.3 Frequency: every four years, coinciding with theOlympic period.

VI.4 Field of research: all the public and privateestablishments reserved for the practice of one ofthe sports listed (see list above).

VI.5 Data-collectin method: national census based onquesfrFEEEIN'y . . .

.1

- 94 - . CCC/DC (73) 7

VI.6.1 Rcstionnaire)

Piiovince or-county

Urban/rural district

41111.bruoacm>rwirsel11.4111.=.

Name of the sports establishment

Address

A. GENERAL DATA

1. Owning and managing bodies :

Telephone No. ...

Owner it_naGer

Central government .

Local authorities

Sports organisations .

Educational establishments

Firms

Others

2. Total area (m2) .

3. Use of the establishment

(NB. This question must be worded in great detail so asto cover the sports practised, opening hours for sportspractitioners, elite, public etc. See also B below).,

4. Number of places reserved for the public:standing spectators .. seats total

5. Existing services:

Cloakrooms

Hot-water showers

Cold-water showers

CCC/DC (o) 7 - 95 -

Toilets for the public

Toilets for the sports practitioners

Medicine cabinet or sick-room

Bar or snack-bar ....

Other services

Sound installations

Artificial lighting of the sports. areas

6. Data concerning personnel (number)

Leading officials

Administrators

Administrative staff

Subordinate staff

Technicians:

Doctors

Medical auxiliaries

Coaches

Teachers

Instructors

B. DATA CONCERNING THE NATURE OF THE SPORTS INSTALLATIONS

.1

CCC/DC (73) 7

B.

DATA CONCERNING THE NATURE OF THE SPORTS INSTALLATIONS

Installations available

Number

Useful area

(m2)

(b)

Length

(a)

Covered

installations

Users

Annual hours

of use

(b)

Educational

establishments

Sports

organi-

sations

Other

users

number

m2

exclusively

and with

other users

Underwater sports

Athletics

Motor-racing track

Basketball

Handball

Volleyball

Baseball

Billiards

Boxing

Bowling

Cycle-racing track

Fencing

Skiing

Water-skiing

Motor-boating

Sailing

Football

Gymnasia

Golf

Horse racing and polo

Hockey

Judo

Wrestling

Swimming pools

Skating

Pelota

Canoeing

Boating

Rugby

Tennis and Badminton

Table tennis

Archery

Clay pigeon shooting

Olympic shooting

Multi-sports

installations

1 1

.

NOTES:

a.

In the ease of athletics, motor and cycle racing tracks and skiing the length

of the tracks will have to be specified.

b.

Where there are several unitary installatims the grand totals will have tc be

given.

VI.6.2

- 97 - Ccc/bC (73) 7

Tables

1. Table of owning and managing bodies asrelated to total area, .seating capacity, usefularea, number of hours of use annually.

2. Table of Owning and managing bodies accordingto region.

3. Table of owning and managing bodies as relatedto establishments equipped for the practice ofone sport, two, three . ten or more.

4. 'Table of owning and managing bodies asrelated to the size of the various services.

5. Table of owning and managing bodies as related.to the number of hours of use (sport's'practitioners, elite, public).

6. Table of establishments as related to total area,seating reserved for the public, number of sportspractised.

7: Table of establishments, by region, according tothe number of sports for which they are equipped.

8. Table of the. various types of sports installations,by region..

. .

9. Table of establishments, by region, according tothe number of sports for which they are equipped,hours of use annually,.covered installations, totalarea, useful area and area reserved for thepublic.

10. Table showing net area and annual hours use ofindoor facilities and categories of users forthe various types of installation.

11. Table of owning and Managing bodies asrelated to the personnel employed.

12. Table of personnel employed as related toequipment for one, two, three ... ten or moresports.

1

CCC/DC (73) 7 - 98 -

VII. TECHNICAL PERSONNEL

VIII Definition: in general, professional staff who exercisethe TURRIons for which they hold the necessaryqualification officially recognised by the competent body.

1. Physical education teachers: technical staff inCliarg5757-EETTE7METVilning of pupils in publicor private educational establishments.

2. Instructors: technical staff whose main function isto wtn over the potential practitioner to sport and,whatever his age, give him elementary instructionin the sport concerned.

3. Coaches:' specialised technical staff whose mainfunction is to improve the practitioners' technique.

4. RelysetaljudzelL time-kee ers etc: technical staffTfi63-1ricontroris--73,cerc se-TEU functions forwhich they are qualified.

5. _Sports doctors: -specialised technical staff whoseithaTOIT=i to provide preventive and re-educativetreatment and medical assistance in general.

6. Health auxiliaries: technical staff assisting sportsMaTis.

VII.2 Reference 41:12ci:

a. The date of the census of the sports organisationsand establishments.

b. We believe that the federations should keep apermanent register of all technicians, in whichcase the reference period will be the sportsseason.

VII.3 Freq2ry:

a. Every four years, in the first case.

b. Annually, in the second case.

VII.4 Field of research: all the technical staff on the activestra0177

VII.5 Data-col lectal&mathod

a. In case VII.2(a), the questionnaires relating tosports organisations and establishments.

- 99 - cCCAT (73) 7

b. In case VII.2(b), each federation will keep astatistical record of all its technicians.

VII.6 gueslapaaires tabls er-4-1 statistical records

a. Tn case. VII.2(a):

1. Table of technicians by region (one for eachfederation)

. Table of technicians by branch of sport

b. In the second case:

1. Statistical record of technicians,(one for each federation).

2. Statistical record of technicians,of sport

VIII. DIRECTING AND ORGANISING PERSONNEL

VIII.1 Definitions

by region

by branch

1. Leading officials

Unpaid persons who supervise or direct public orprivate sports organisations or establishments.

2. Administrators

Paid staff who perform executive functions insports organi8ations or establishments.

Depending on the category and importance of thefunction, they may be:

1. Nana ers: these perform executive and planningunctions at the highest level

2. Administrative staff: day-to-day administration

Auxiliaradministrative staff: shorthand,Mang etc

Subordinate staff: caretaking and maintenanceMIMI-etc

VIII.2 Reference_ptriod: data of the censuses of sportsofighliaiods and establishments.

CCC/DC (73) 7 - 100 -

VIII.3 Freauenez: every four years.

VI1I.4 Field of research: all staff in the service of sportsorganiaTTEE's -or establishMents.

VIII.5 Data-collectiin method: the necessary data will beolrtgEZ-d"-t-h-Fo'ugh censuses of sports organisationsand establishments.

V111.6 Tables,_questionnaires and sq,tistical records:.

1. National table of managerS and administrators inthe service of sports organisations and establishments.

- 10

1 -

CONDITIONING FEAMEWOHIC

CCU' /DC; (73) 7

Aspects

Dem

ogra

phy

Socio-economic

conditions

Physiologico-anatomical

.ondi tions

Cl irrAte and

geography

Prevailing

social customs

- Distribution '::

age and sex

(national and

regional)

- Population density

by region

- Distribution of

the population

(urban and rural)

- Per capita revenue

(national and rev.iooall

and distribution

- Consumer expenditure:

- sports equipment

- sports even's

- sports practice

- Sports taxation system

- Sports societies

- Production and external

trade in sports equipment

- Average height

- Average weight

- Average chest

measurement

- Total lung

capacity

- Cardiac rhythm

- Length of coasts

and lakes

- Hydmgraphic

density

- Orography

- Temperatures

- Rain and snow

- Hours of light

- working hours,

school hors

- SportS publications

(communication media)

- Politico-instittional

system

Feeding habits

- Sports mentality

- Beliefs

Elements

influenced

- Number of pupils,

ordinary sports

practitioners,

elite

- Number of sports

practitioners

- Hours of practice

- Area (m2) covered by

installations

- Sports leaders

- Sports bodies

Sports policies

- Types of installation

- Types of sport

- Elite

- Types of

installation

- Types of sport

- Ordinary sports

practitioners

- Sports bodies

- Leaders

- Hours of practice

Concbrinnt

interests

Conriictin;

interests

ECOLOGY OP SPORT

Health

-Tourism

Arts

Education

etc

Other distractions

-Work

-etc

SPECIFIC SPORTS ELEMENTS

Available

data

Actual

situation

Ideal

situation ....

Difference

reality - ideal

Financial value

of that

ifference

- 102 -

SPONI SITUATION

000/!Y

C731 7

BASIC

DIRECTION AND ORGANISATION

INSTRUFENIAL

Primary

Complementary

Sports

bodies

and

structures

Human elements

Material

Human

.

Ordinary

practitioners

Elite

P.E

pupils

H ours of

practice

Leading

officials

Admini-

stretors

Installations

and equipment

P.E

teachers

Instruct-

ors

Judges

and

referees

Coaches

Health personnel

'

Doctors

Auxiliaries

..

r,

.

.

Once all the variables defining the sport situation have been determined, the comparative table can be drawn up for sport

as a whole and for each branch of sport.

DPJF1,--ii35ENT EV:TOPS

coments ('definitions ete) on tbis table appear in tie preceding cnapter, sect LO:

.):..?anisation of

competitions

Sports

Administration

Trainlng of'

P.E teachers

Training of

.Instructors

Facilities/

ordinary 3Ports

practitioners

Facilities

elite

Training of

COOV:pati

Physical

tt,1,1Cati,l,

Promo-

1.10fl

Improve-

,A.

te0111-Anjel

Total

SOL:eet

State

sass

elite

masses

Ielite

Local

authorities

I

I

Other

organisations

Schools

I

Universities

II

Sports

organisations

Total t,y

factors

I

I

Total by

groups or

factors

Consumption

Capital foration

mDirect investment

Expenditure mass

Expenditure mass sport

Expenditure mass

sport

Expenditure

Expend-

iture

elite

Expenditure elite

elit e.

Total by subject

Total by factor

Total by sport

Total consumption, capital formation, direct investment

Total ny mass and by elite