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Science and Mathematics for All Students: It's Just GoodTeaching.Northwest Regional Educational Lab., Portland, Oreg.Department of Education, Washington, DC.Apr 9740p.; A publication by the Sciences and MathematicsEducation Unit in cooperation with the Center for NationalOrigin, Race, and Sex Equity.RJ9600501Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, 101 SW MainStreet, Suite 500, Portland, OR 97204.Guides Non-Classroom (055)MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.Ability Grouping; Career Awareness; Cooperative Learning;Cultural Pluralism; Educational Change; EducationalRbsearch; Educational Resources; *Educational Strategies;Elementary Secondary Education; *Equal Education; Hands onScience; Interdisciplinary Approach; *Mathematics Education;Ventors; Parent Participation; Professional Development;*Science Education; Sciences; Teaching Methods

The persistent underrepresentation of women and people ofcolor in science and mathematics education and careers remains a challenge toall who champion the commitment of equity and excellence in education. Thisis the first publication in a series produced by the Scienc:c. and MathematicsEducation unit at the Northwest Regional Educational. Laboratory (NREL) thatis intended to furnish K-12 teachers with both research-based rationale andrecommendations for effective techniques that can be applied in today'scomplex and changing classrooms. This publication focuses on equity in theclassroom. Topics include good teaching, expectations, welcoming diversity,confronting stereotypes, mathematics and science for everyone, classroominteractions, learning styles, ability grouping/tracking, cooperativelearning, hands-on activities, single-sex grouping, the importance ofconnection, writing, career awareness and role models, mentors, peermentoring, assessment, family involvement, and professional development.Listed resources include publications, curricula, organizations, onlineresources, and bibliography. (JRH)

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his d cument has been reproduced asreceived from the person or organizationoriginating it.Minor changes have been made toimprove reproduction quality.

Points of view or opinions stated in thisdocument do not necessarily representofficial OERI position or policy.

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This publication is based on work supported wholly or in part both by agrant and contract number RJ96006501 from the U.S. Department ofEducation. The content of this document does not necessarily reflect theviews of the department or any other agency of the United Statesgovernment. Permission to reproduce this publication in whole or in partis granted with the acknowledgment of the Northwest RegionalEducational Laboratory as the source on all copies.

Comments or queries may be directed to Kit Peixotto, Unit Manager,Science and Mathematics Education, Northwest Regional EducationalLaboratory, 101 S.W. Main Street, Suite 500, Portland, Oregon 97204,(503) 275-9594 or (800) 547-6339 ext. 594.

Appreciation is extended to the many educators who providedinformation and guidance in the development of this publication.Acknowledgments also go to the panel of reviewers for their valuableinput: Fred Alcorn, Arnie Ariss, Lucy Barnett, Peggy Cowan, DavidDavison, Larry Gursky, Rex Hagans, Hester Hill, Anne Kennedy, MicheleMartinez, Berk Moss, Susan Seaman, Ethel Simon-McWilliams, and BarbaraWarren-Sams. In addition, several individuals made special contributionsto the development of this product, including:

Denise JarrettResearch and writingJennifer StepanekResearch and writingKit PeixottoConceptual support and guidanceJoyce HarrisConceptual support and guidanceDenise CrabtreeDesktop publishingLee ShermanEditorial reviewPhotographyTony Kneidek: page 1; Neal Maine: page 10;Peter Metcalfe: page 16; Catherine Paglin: front cover, page 9;Jay Reiter: pages 4, 21; Alice Richter: page 11;Rick Stier: pages 7, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 23, back cover

Science and Mathematicsfor All Students

uat Good Teachin Zro

A publication by the Science and Mathematics Education Unitin cooperation with the Center for National Origin, Race, and Sex Equity

April 1997

Northwest Regipnal Educational Laboratory

e® Conlen6

Preface 1

Introduction 3

It's Just Good Teaching 4

Expectations 5

Welcoming diversity 5

Confronting stereotypes 7

Mathematics and science are for everyone 10

Classroom interactions 11

Learning styles 12

Ability grouping/tracking 13

Cooperative learning 14

Hands-on activities 14

Single-sex grouping 15

The importance of connection 16

Writing 17

Career awareness and role models 18

Mentors 18

Peer mentoring 19

Assessment 19

Family involvement 20

Professional development 20

Conclusion 22

Resources and bibliography 23

Publications 24

Curricula 25

Organizations 25

Online resources 28

Bibliography 30

5

PmlaceThe persistent underrepresentationof women and people of color inscience and mathematics educa-

tion and careers remains a challenge toall who champion the commitment toequity and excellence in education. TheNorthwest Regional Educational Labora-tory's missionto improve educationalresults for children, youth, and adults byproviding research and developmentassistance in delivering equitable, high-quality educational programsisgrounded in these principles of equityand excellence. In addition, in the areaof science and mathematics education,the issue of equity prevails as a centraltenet in the Laboratory's continuingefforts to provide products and servicesthat contribute to and support effectiveteaching and learning.

The Science and Mathematics Educationunit at the Northwest Regional Educa-tional Laboratory is producing a series ofpublications intended to furnish K-12teachers with both research-based ratio-nale and recommendations for effectivetechniques that can be applied in today'scomplex and changing classrooms.Translating theory into practice requiresnot only an understanding of the rele-vant research but also the ability toadapt the findings to the individual,dynamic contexts of Northwest schools.Subsequent publications will addressother essential components necessaryfor comprehensive and sustainedprogress in science and mathematicseducation including: linking curricu-lum, instruction, and assessment in theclassroom; inquiry- and investigation-based teaching; creative time manage-ment strategies; and facilitating continu-ous improvement in a standards-basedsystem.

ti

he intended use and purpose of Science and

Mathematics for All Students are mirrored in itscontent and organization. An initial summary

of the key themes from current research and litera-

ture on the underrepresentation of women and peo-

ple of color in science and mathematics frames the ,

ensuing discussion of research-recommended prac-

tices for achieving equity. Included throughout thepublication are Northwest examples of classroomsdnd programs where these strategies have been

implemented and demonstrated success. These

highlighted cases demonstrate instances of real-liferesearch in practice to illustrate how some are facili-

tating and encouraging the participation of girls andstudents of color in science and mathematics. The

listing of current equity-related resources pointsteachers towards additional tools to explore and uti-

lize in their efforts to provide all students with themathematics and science knowledge, skills, and

abilities necessary for success.

1

It is not a coincidence that this first pub-lication focuses on equity in the class-room. While efforts to improve the partic-ipation of females and people of color in

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High school course taking. Despite someprogress, inequities persist in high schoolscience and mathematics course taking

and achievement scores. African American andHispanic students are far less likely than Whitestudents to take advanced science courses suchas chemistry and physics, or advanced mathe-matics courses such as algebra II, trigonometry,and calculus (Selvin, 1992). African Americanand Hispanic students continue to score sub-stantially lower than White students on nationalassessments at all age levels. While female stu-dents now take higher-level mathematics classesin almost equal numbers as male students, twiceas many males take advanced physics.

College and professional careers. African Ameri-can, Hispanic, and Native American studentsearned only 12.5 percent of all bachelor's degreesconferred in science and engineering in 1993.Their participation in graduate science and engi-neering programs drops even more, with only 9.4percent participating out of all U.S. citizensenrolled (National Science Foundation, 1996).

Women now earn 45 percent of the bachelor'sdegrees in science-related fields. However,females are more highly concentrated in socialsciences such as psychology and sociology,while earning only one-third of mathematicsdegrees and 16 percent of engineering degrees.Their participation decreases from here. In 1993,women made up only 36 percent of graduateenrollment in mathematics and science andwere awarded only 30 percent of the doctoraldegrees in these fields.

The underrepresentation of women and people ofcolor is most pronounced in scientific careers. Inthe United States, 51 percent of the populationand 46 percent of the workforce are women, butthey make up only 22 percent of scientists andengineers. In the workforce, people of color com-prise a small proportion of scientists and engi-neers. Though African Americans, Hispanics,and Native Americans make up about 23 percentof, the population, they comprise only 6 percentof the total science and engineering labor force(NSF, 1996).

the fields of science and mathematicshave resulted in an improved climateand increased opportunities for thesepopulations, we must not become com-placent and believe we have "solved" allthe equity issues. The call in nationaland state standards for high expectationsand quality learning experiences for allstudents reminds us to be vigilant and tocontinue the pursuit. As the title sug-gests, while the strategies described inthis publication are drawn from equityresearch, it will be obvious to many read-ers that they reflect practices that are atthe core of good teaching and thereforewill benefit all students rather thanonly those traditionally filtered out ofthe science and mathematics pipeline.For further assistance, the Center forNational Origin, Race, and Sex Equitycan provide training and technical assis-tance free of charge to public schools inall equity-related areas.

The diversity of Northwest classroomsrelies on the creativity and expertise ofthe individuals who comprise theinstructional staff to address a multi-tude of student needs. The NorthwestRegional Educational Laboratoryacknowledges your creativity and exper-tise and offers Science and Mathematicsfor All Students: It's Just Good Teachingas a resource to assist your efforts tostrengthen science and mathematicseducation for all Northwest students.

Kit PeixottoUnit ManagerScience and Mathematics Education

Joyce HarrisDirectorCenter for National Origin, Race,and Sex Equity

7

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The demographic landscape of theNorthwest is changing. Theregion's cultural heritage is

increasingly diverse. Jobs in timber,fishing, and oil resource developmentare diminishing while opportunities areincreasingly found in the new frontierof advanced technology and informa-tion services. Knowledge of mathematicsand science is essential to participate intoday's society, but a significant numberof students leave school seriously under-prepared in these areas.

The very people who now comprise thefastest growing percentage of the popu-lation and workforcepeople of colorand womenhave historically beenunderrepresented in mathematics andscience. This has been a persistent andpernicious problem for this country, onewith profound moral and economicimplications.

This is not a new concern in education.For years, educators have been workingto achieve equality for all students, andsome progress has been made. For exam-ple, women now earn more bachelor'sdegrees in science than ever before, andmore students of color are taking collegepreparatory mathematics courses inhigh school. Because this issue hasreceived so much attention, it is tempt-ing to believe that educational inequitieshave been effectively dealt with, yet infact they persist.. These inequities cannotbe quickly resolved, but require our con-tinuous attention and effort.

Changing workforce. One of themost well-known arguments for educa-tional equity is economic necessity anddemographics. The segments of the pop-ulation and the workforce which aregrowing most rapidly are women and

people of color. According to the Popula-tion Research Bureau, by 2050 the fourlargest minority groupsAfrican Ameri-cans, Hispanics/Latinos, Asian Ameri-cans, and Native Americanswill makeup nearly half of the population of theUnited States (Powell, 1994). Women arenow 46 percent of the workforce andgrowing (NSF, 1996).

inority populations are growing at a slightlyfaster rate in the Northwest than in thenation as a whole. The proportion of stu-

dents of color in each state varies widely, withapproximately 35 percent in Alaska, 20 percent inWashington, 13 percent in Oregon, 11 percent inMontana, and 10 percent in Idaho. Between 1986and 1992, public school enrollment of students ofcolor in the Northwest increased by 8.6 percent,compared to the national growth rate of 3 percent(Barnett & Braunger, 1997). In just a few shortyears, students of color are expected to compriseone-third of our national school population (Tippins& Dana, 1993).

Hispanics are the largest minority group in theNorthwest at 5.9 percent of the population, followedby Asians at 4.2 percent, Native Americans (includ-ing Alaska Natives) at 4 percent, and African Ameri-cans at 3.1 percent (Barnett & Braunger, 1997).

Changing workpllace. As the work-place becomes more technologicallycomplex, people need more mathemati-cal and scientific skills than ever before.This is true in all sectors of the economy,not just those careers traditionally asso-ciated with mathematics and science. Weare now in a race against time to preparetoday's students to participate in anincreasingly technological world.

Changing society. Beyond the work-place, everyday life and matters of pub-lic policy also require more mathemati-cal and scientific knowledge. All mem-bers of society need to understand theimplications of issues involving medicalresearch, environmental impact, orinflation. The ability to analyze com-plex issues requires literacy in mathe-matics and science for all U.S. residents.

Changing education. Recent stan-dards developed by the National Councilof Teachers of Mathematics and theNational Academy of Sciences are anattempt to better prepare students tomeet the demands of the changingworkplace and society. Educators in theNorthwest are vigorously participatingin national education reform by devis-ing standards, curricula, assessments,and teaching strategies to meet thelearning needs of all students.

The bottom linejustice. Beyondthe arguments of economic necessityand public policy, equity is of funda-mental importance because it is a moralissue. In a just society, women and peo-ple of color must have an equal opportu-nity to learn science and mathematics.This knowledge is an essential tool foreconomic opportunity and safeguardingthe rights of everyone (Tate, 1994).

Inequality is not just a condition in edu-cation, and teachers alone cannotchange the injustice that is pervasive insociety. Teachers frequently face manyother obstacles as well: overcrowdedclassrooms, lack of support from admin-istrators and parents, lack of professionaldevelopment opportunities, and shortageof time. Nevertheless, teachers play anessential role in creating solutions toeducational inequities. For example,teachers can model equitable practicesto students, parents, and community

members. Although inequity is a com-plex issue with no easy answers, thereare many practices that teachers canadopt to increase all students' participa-tion in mathematics and science.

41*

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For years, experts in multiculturaland gender-fair education havepromdted a number of teaching

strategies which are particularly effec-tive for girls and students of diverse cul-tural and language backgrounds. Today,we know that several core strategies areeffective for all students,. including:

Having high expectations for allstudents

Providing a classroom environmentthat welcomes and involves all students

Using teaching strategies that respondto the needs of diverse learners

Helping students to make connectionsbetween new ideas and their personalexperiences

Expectations. Research indicates thatlow expectations for the achievement offemales and students of color in mathe-matics and science have a significantimpact on their academic success (Eccleset al., 1983; Shepardson & Pizzini, 1992).These lower expectations are oftenunconscious, but they affect the wayteachers interact with students. Forexample, researchers have found thatteachers tend to call on males moreoften and give them more time toanswer (Brophy, 1985; Eccles & Blumen-feld, 1985; Jones & Wheatley, 1990). Stud-ies have also found that females areasked more routine, low-level cognitivequestions, while males are asked morechallenging, high-level cognitive ques-tions (Leder, 1990). Teachers are alsomore likely to comment on the behaviorof students of color rather than on theirschoolwork (Secada, 1992).

Parents are often more willing to accepttheir child's underachievement in math-ematics and science than they are inother subjects (Tocci & Engelhard, 1991).Because of gender role stereotypes, par-ents often do not give their daughters asmuch encouragement in these subjects(Eccles, 1989; Yee & Eccles, 1988). Studentsinternalize these messages and oftenlower their own expectations, whichdiminishes their confidence in theirabilities and influences their aspirations.For example, in a study of 13-year-oldstudents, Tocci and Engelhard foundthat parental support was a significantpredictor of attitudes toward mathemat-ics. They found that the higher theparental support, the better the students'attitudes toward mathematics (TocciEngelhard, 1991). Because they do notexpect to achieve, girls and students of

color may not try as hard in their math-ematics and science classes. As a defensemechanism, they may dismiss theseclasses as unimportant or irrelevant totheir lives (Eccles, 1989).

hroughout the history of human beings, therehave been several pivotal points that thrust usinto the next century or millennium.... Multi-

cultural education is the pivotal point in educationin the 1990s thrusting us into the 21st century andthe second millennium.

Shelley Johnson Carey, Science for all Cultures(1993)

Low expectations can also influenceunequal school funding. Poorer schools,whose populations are often predomi-nately students of color, may be expectedto operate with less funding, less-quali-fied teachers, few or no advanced classesin mathematics and science, inadequateequipment and materials, and littlemoney for teachers' professional develop-ment (Kozol, 1991; Tate, 1995). Highteacher turnover in these schools is com-monas much as 33 percent in NativeAmerican schools (Allen & Seumptewa,1993)which undermines student/teacher relationships and continuity inteaching methodology.

Welcoming diversity. Teachers whoare fortunate enough to have studentsfrom diverse cultural backgrounds aregiven a prime opportunity to incorpo-rate students' unique life experiencesand learning styles into their instruc-tion, enriching the learning experiencesof all students. Even with a homoge-neous classroom, there are numerous

510

things that canand shouldbe done tocreate a classroom that truly valuesdiversity.

James A. Banks, the preeminent scholarin multiculturalism at the University ofWashington in Seattle, provides someguidelines that teachers can follow totransform their classrooms into environ-ments where all students have theopportunity to learn critical skills, to

s a Crow Indian and elementary schoolteacher at St. Charles School in Pryor, Mon-tana, Jennifer Flat lip is an important role

model and mentor to her Native American students.

"I'm a Native American in the classroom. I know myculture. I know my language. I can talk about thevalues, the spirit world. I can talk about the dances,I can sing the songs and I feel like I'm a great con-tributor to my students, and they have a real good,positive self-image about themselves as NativeAmericans," she says.

Flat lip is a lead teacher in Montana's SystemicTeacher Excellence Preparation (STEP) project thatmatches student teachers with exemplary mathe-matics and science teachers. One of the project'sprimary goals is to recruit more Native Americansinto mathematics and science teaching, and to pro-vide them with training and early-career support.

STEP is one of three statewide programs in Mon-tana aimed at increasing the participation of NativeAmericans in mathematics and science. A video-tape, Mathematics and Science for All: NativeAmeri-can Students, features students and teachersreflecting on their participation in these programs.A corresponding booklet offers suggestions for howothers can implement similar programs in theirstates. (See listing under "Resources.")

6

experience the pleasure of a rich intel-lectual life, to develop a more accurateunderstanding of their world, and toachieve at a higher level. In an interviewwith Educational Leadership (Brandt,1994) and in the Handbook of Researchon Multicultural Education (Banks,1995), Banks identifies three elements forcreating a successful multicultural class-room: global education, multiculturaleducation, and equity pedagogy.

Banks explains the difference betweenglobal and multicultural educationtwomajor aspects of teaching diversity.Global education emphasizes the cul-tures of other countries, and multicul-tural education emphasizes the diversecultures within students' own country.Both encourage schools to go beyondhaving students solely participate inwell-known cultural holidays and cele-brations, for example, Cinco de Mayo andThe Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr.'s birth-day. To help students truly develop anunderstanding and respect for the cul-tural diversity they encounter every dayin their own country, teachers mustweave meaningful elements of culturesvalues, knowledge, world views, historyinto their instruction, curricula, andinteractions with students.

It is also important to recognize students'different learning needs and to createconditions in the classroom to meetthose needs. Research shows that stu-dents' cultural milieu greatly influencestheir learning preferences; people aresocialized to learn in various ways. Forexample, Native Americans may besocialized to learn by listening to eldersand relying on their memory ratherthan taking notes. African Americanand Hispanic students often learn bytalking and interacting with family andcommunity members in small coopera-tive groups (Barba, 1995).

Understanding the learning needs ofstudents is especially important whenteaching such subjects as physics oralgebra where cultural relevancy maynot be as apparent as in history or litera-ture. Equity pedagogy occurs when"teachers use techniques and methodsthat facilitate the academic achievementof students from diverse racial, ethnic,and social-class groups" (Banks, 1995).Banks points to the work of Philip UriTreisman, professor of mathematics atUniversity of Texas at Austin. Whileobserving students at Berkeley, Treismannoticed that Chinese students weredoing well in calculus but AfricanAmerican students weren't. When hesaw that the Chinese students supportedeach other in tutorial study groups, hehelped the African American studentscreate small study groups, and foundthat their academic performanceimproved as well (Brandt, 1994).

Robertta H. Barba, education professor atUniversity of New Mexico in Albu-querque, and author of Science in theMulticultural Classroom (1995), offersthese suggestions for creating a class-room that truly values diversity:

Make sure that small groups have stu-dents of mixed abilities and cultures,when possible

Permit students to use "home lan-guages" in small-group discussions, whenappropriate

Integrate into curricula and materialsexamples of women and people of colorwho are mathematics and science profes-sionals; use images that depict them inpositions of authority and activelyinvolved in a scientific and mathemati-cal activity

Acknowledge that many achievementsby women and minorities have beenobscured throughout history becausewomen and people of color often havebeen excluded from mainstream profes-sional activities

127

Include mathematical and scientificachievements that were made by groupendeavor, in addition to those attributedto individuals

Include mathematical and scientificpractices that were passed down throughoral tradition

Refer to examples of mathematicaland scientific principles that relate tothe everyday experiences of students inthe context of their various cultures andgender

Confronting stereotypes. Childrenreceive messages about gender and eth-nic stereotypes every day, from televi-sion programs and commercials, frombooks, from the adults around them.They also pick up stereotypes about sci-entists: that they are all men, that theyare all White, that they are crazy or

atasha, what's another way ofsaying 20 one-hundredths?"

"Two- tenthsl"

"Right."

,"Matthew, is 15 composite or prime?How do you know?"

"Composite, because 15 breaks up intothrees and fives, not just ones."

"Good."

"Melody, what's a rhombus?"

"It's a parallelogram, with equal sides."

On their way to the lunch line, studentsin the cafeteria at Wood lawn EarlyChildhood Education Center in Port-land, Oregon, barely break stride asthey answer Jan Gillespie's gentlequizzing. Touching a shoulder here andthere, Gillespie moves through theyoung crowd, posing her mathematicalquestions while dishing out healthyservings of personalized attention.

For the past 11 years, Gillespie hasbeen the mathematics specialist atWoodlawn, nine years of that timeunder the leadership of Principal LindaHarris. Both women are leaders in Ore-gon's education circles.

Their professional achievements arethe fruits of a shared philosophy thatall children can achieve higher stan-dards. Wood lawn's students haveproved this point. Most of the school's525 students are from working-classAfrican American families and arereceiving school lunch assistance. Con-

trary to the perceived link betweenpoverty and low achievement, Wood-lawn's students have scored high in

.state and district mathematics tests inrecent years.

Harris gives much of the credit to Gille-spie, who co-authored a hands-on/"minds-on" mathematics programthat has been adopted schoolwide.Gillespie's programs, Every DayCounts'" and Math Every Day, is nowused in schools and districts through-out the country, including Oregon andWashington.

In 1996, Woodlawn's fifth-grade stu-dents outperformed students inschools throughout the state in mathe-matics, scoring 12 points higher thanthe state average. A dozen schoolsequaled or surpassed Wood lawn'sscore, but all had significantly highersocioeconomic status (SES) rankings:Wood lawn's SES ranking was 14, whilethe other schools had SES rankingsranging from 189-709 (Oregon Depart-ment of Education, 1996).

"Disadvantaged kids can do well ifgiven appropriate instruction," Harrissays, "and if you believe they can do it."

Harris also has high expectations forher teachers. Each spring, they worktogether to identify goals for the comingyear and to schedule teacher training tohelp teachers achieve those goals.

"Here at Woodlawn, teachers take a lotof initiative with their own learning,"says Harris.

When she and her staff decided toadopt Gillespie's mathematics pro-gram, Harris knew that she was askinga lot from her teachers. They wouldneed to learn how to use the new mate-

13

rials and how to adapt their teachingstyle to the program's emphasis on lan-guage, cooperative learning, andhands-on activities. Trusting Harris'leadership and Gillespie's expertise, thestaff met during time normally setaside for faculty meetings to learn thenew program.

Gillespie's approach to mathematicsincludes an emphasis on problem-solving, reasoning, collaboration, visu-al, mental, and hands-on experiences.Daily bulletin board math discussions,which teach basic computation skills

through record keeping, are combinedwith activities and partner games. Eachday, students and teachers update dataon the board and discuss the newmathematical relationships whichappear. Thus, students at every gradelevel analyze data, perceive patterns,explore mathematical relationships,and communicate their thinking.

Twice a week, Gillespie visits each mathclass and, using manipulatives andarrays to provide concrete examples,

fp.

leads the students in mathematicalexplorations of grouping and counting,mental math, and partner games.

Gillespie and the other teachers arecareful to use full and accurate sen-tences when explaining an algorithm ora grouping concept, teaching studentsto use language as a bridge from con-crete examples to abstract ideas. Forexample, 12 divided by five might beacted out or read back as "twelveshared with five people gives each per-son two, with two leftover." (For moreinformation about Gillespie's programsEvery Day Counts' and Math Every Day,see Curricula listing under"Resources".)

Harris has instituted a variety of pro-grams and activities, all meant to fur-ther the school's mission to "developthe minds and characters" of its youngcharges. There are after-school activi-ties that reinforce the curriculum, suchas Math Club and Hands-On Sciencenight. Parents can check out mathvideos from the library and are invitedto attend family mathematics and sci-ence nights throughout the year, aswell as a monthly Family Fun Night.

The power of these strategies, com-bined with good teaching, can spell thedifference between lifting strugglingstudents upso that they can reachtheir higher potentialand leavingthem to muddle through, or drop out,on their own.

All children can achieve if you providethem with a safe and nurturing environ-ment that includes a high level of exper-tise among your teachers," says Harris.

14

obsessed, that they are nerds. Because ofthis mad scientist image, many studentscannot or do not wish to envision them-selves as mathematicians or scientists(Hyde et al., 1990). To accept mathemat-ics and science as attractive careeroptions, females and students of colorneed to know how to recognize and over-come stereotypes. Teachers cannot con-trol all the messages students receive,but they can confront sex and culturebias by discussing it in class. Studentsalso learn how to overcome stereotypeswhen they learn about and meet femalescientists and scientists of color.

Mathematics and science are foreveryone. Girls and students of coloroften get the message that they are out-siders in mathematics and science class-rooms. Because they tend to have fewerscientific experiences out of school, theyare not as familiar with the concepts,materials, and tools (Kahle, 1990).

Problems and activities in mathematicsand science are more likely to be tailoredto boys' interests, rather than girls' (Fen-nema & Peterson, 1987; Stallings, 1985). As

10

a result, girls are often taught, subtly,that they must learn to think like boysor be more like boys if they want to suc-ceed in these subjects.

Girls often find encouragement in afterschool mathematics and science clubs.By joining these clubs, girls are exposedto a variety of activities. Girls who enjoymathematics and science often feel iso-lated. They enjoy the social aspect of theclubs because they meet other girls whoshare their interests. The clubs help linkmathematics and science to the worldoutside the classroom: They becomemeaningful activities, not just schoolsubjects. Because the activities take placein an informal setting, girls are free toexperiment and make mistakes withoutthe pressure of getting the right answers.

Students of color often lack prior expo-sure to mathematical and scientific con-cepts and have had few role models inthose fields. Because inequity in educa-tion has been long-standing, the parentsof students of color often have had littleopportunity to obtain a strong educationin mathematics and science. Therefore,they are often less able to serve as rolemodels in the study of mathematics andscience to encourage their children topursue these subjects.

To put all students on common ground,teachers must make sure that mathe-matics and science are inviting to allstudents. The following are a few ways tomake students more comfortable inmathematics and science (Campbell,1995; Clewell et al., 1992):

Allow students to read and work prob-lems before lectures, class discussions, andlab work. If students have a chance tofamiliarize themselves with the material,they will be able to ask better questionsand construct their own understanding.

15

Provide unstructured time for stu-dents to "mess around" with equipmentand tools.

Make sure that all students are activeparticipants in hands-on activities; havestudents rotate tasks so that everyonehas a chance take an active role.

Monitor the context of problems andactivities to be sure that they are mean-ingful and relevant to the lives of allstudents.

Classroom interactions. Theteacher's attention is the most valuableresource available to students. Teachersmust ensure that all students participateequally in class, and there are manyways to make classroom interactionsmore equitable:

When asking for a show of hands, donot call on the first students who respondbut wait a few moments. Girls often takelonger to raise their hands because theydo not want to risk being wrong (Kaplan& Aronsen, 1994; Sandler, 1992).

Develop a routine for class discussionsso that everyone participates on a rotat-ing basis. All students will be able toparticipate more and will get moreattention. It also sends the message thatall students are expected to know theanswers and to do well.

Give students more time to produce ananswer. When teachers increase waittime all students will have the chance toraise the level of their answers.

Encourage guessing and thinking outloud as ways of learning mathematicsand science. This takes the emphasis offcompetition and speed, creating anatmosphere that is more comfortable forgirls (Corey et al., 1993).

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Provide meaningful and fair com-ments when interacting verbally withstudents. Teachers tend to praise a girl'swork for neatnesswhile remarking onthe content of a boy's workand theyoften comment on the behavior of stu-dents of color, rather than on theirschoolwork (Atwater, 1993; National Cen-ter for Educational Statistics, 1995).

16

AWSEM (Advocates for Women in Science,Engineering, and Mathematics) is a projectof Saturday Academy at Oregon Graduate

Institute of Science and Technology. Through theAWSEM program, girls participate in after-schoolscience and mathematics clubs. The girls meetevery week from October through May. The AWSEMclubs are led by female college students majoringin mathematics and science related fields. The lead-ers are role models for the participants becausethey are close to the girls in age and the girls canidentify with them. The clubs are also monitored byteachers from the girls' schools.

Three AWSEM meetings of every month are spenton mathematics and science activities. The stu-dents participate in hands-on projects, work withcomputers and other equipment, conduct experi-ments, and engage in debates. They gain confi-dence in their mathematics and science abilitiesand begin to see themselves as experts. Girls experi-ence learning mathematics and science as a socialactivity.

One meeting of every month is devoted to a sitevisit. Students meet women working in scientificand technological fields. They learn about jobs insuch fields as land use, software product develop-ment, and medical research. In addition to explain-ing their work, the practitioners lead the students inan activity that helps the girls better understandaspects of the job.

Students enjoy the AWSEM program because "it's afun, interactive science club for your friends," andbecause they learn "how women can change theworld." The clubs also impact the students' experi-ences in school. As one parent affirms, "[AWSEM]has turned my daughter's direction around. I wasconcerned she was losing interest in school.... Hergrades started dropping. Since being honored bybeing chosen by AWSEM...her self esteem has sky-rocketed and her grades are great. She now saysshe likes math!"

This is the third year of the AWSEM program, whichbegan in the Portland area, but now includes fourregional sites in Oregon and one in southern Wash-ington. AWSEM has recently been adopted byWomen in Technology International (WITI) as itsmodel program for young women and will become anational resource.

All teachers need to continuously evalu-ate their interactions with students forequity. There are several ways to do this:A teacher might videotape her classesand do a self-evaluation. Two or moreteachers could observe each other andsuggest areas for improvement. A teachermight also ask students to act asobservers and data collectors to gatherinformation about classroom interac-tions. Empower students to speak upwhen they feel excluded. These strategieswill give students essential tools to usethroughout their schoolingindeed,throughout their lives. Students will gainthe confidence to address bias in other.classrooms and in the workplace.

Learning styles. Although culturecan influence learning styles, studentswho share a cultural background don'talways share the same learning prefer-ences. A teacher's overarching goalshould be to discover the specific learn-ing needs of his or her individual stu-dents. Nevertheless, understanding thelink between culture and learning canbe helpful when choosing instructionaltechniques and curricula to meet theneeds of all students.

Barba (1995) lists several key factors influ-encing the degree to which students aresocialized to school culture: the level ofassimilation with the dominant culture;country of origin; and family beliefs, val-ues, and attitudes. "While some childrenhave been taught by their parents andcommunity to value reading books, otherchildren have been taught to value listen-ing to elders," she points out.

Many African American, Hispanic(Barba, 1995), American Indian, andAlaska Native students (ReyhnerDavison, 1992) find the expository modelof teachinglecturing at length fromthe front of the classroomculturally

17

unfamiliar and prefer visual and tactilemodes of instruction. Many studentsrespond more readily to personal inter-action, hands-on activities, small-groupdiscussions, and culturally relevantanalogies and curricula.

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Using a variety of teaching strategiesprovides students with multiple ways ofconnecting with the material. Especiallyfor students with diverse language skills,using icons, real-world objects, and pic-tures serves to stimulate a student's priorknowledgeknowledge that often wasconstructed in their home language.Slides, transparencies, photographs, draw-ings, and diagrams can help address thelanguage needs of many students(Barba, 1995).

Ability grouping/tracking.Though the benefits of ability groupingand tracking have been challenged forover a decade (Oakes, 1985, 1990), the prac-tices persist, especially for AfricanAmerican, Hispanic, and Native Ameri-can students (NCES, 1995). Research indi-cates that tracking is not effective inraising the academic achievement oflow-tracked students (Barquet, 1992;

13

Gamoran, 1992). In fact, it underminestheir academic achievement, is destruc-tive to their self-esteem, and often con-signs them to a lifetime of limitedoptions (Oakes, 1985). Students often loseconfidence in their abilities, grow boredby less demanding curricula, and loseinterest in mathematics and science. Stu-dents who have been tracked are fre-quently steered away from takingadvanced classesseverely limiting theircollege and employment opportunities.Though the research is not conclusive onthis point, there are indications thathigh-achieving students can also benefitacademically from learning in mixed-ability classes, especially when tutoringtheir classmates in small-group situa-tions (Oakes, 1985; Barba, 1995).

Low-track mathematics classes usuallyemphasize basic computational skillsand arithmetic facts (such as multiplica-tion tables) and "good" behavior (Oakes,1985), rather than reasoning and inquiry.Students are more likely to read from atextbook and complete worksheet prob-lems. They are less likely to participatein hands-on activities and be asked toexplain, in writing and verbally, theirreasoning behind their solution to aproblem (NSF, 1996).

All students need mathematics instruc-tion in content areas that have been tra-ditionally divided between high- andlow-ability classes. All students need tolearn about "mathematical ideas, con-cepts about numeration systems, mathe-matical models, probability, and statistics"in addition to computational proceduresand algorithms (Oakes, 1985; NCTM, 1989).

Cooperative learning. In her land-mark book, Keeping Track (1985), Jean-nie Oakes promotes cooperative learningas an effective alternative to abilitygrouping. The effectiveness of coopera-tive learning in mathematics and sci-ence seems well established in theresearch (Secada, 1992; Atwater, 1994).When coupled with high expectations,cooperative learning can improve stu-dents' academic achievement and helpthem to develop greater self-confidence,more cross-cultural understanding, andenhanced social skills (Kober, 1991).

Cooperative learning affords studentsopportunities to use higher-order think-ing skillsposing their own questions,planning investigations, and communi-cating their findingsand to learn valu-able social skills, such as peer tutoring,and respecting cultural and learningdifferences.

While any student who feels anxiousabout mathematics or science is likely tofeel safer in small groups, some studentsseem to respond particularly well.African American and Hispanic chil-dren benefit from small, cooperative

14

learning groups, especially in environ-ments that involve learning tasks thatfocus on whole concepts or real situa-tions rather than fragmented skills orabstractions. (Oakes, 1990) For many cul-turally diverse children, working in agroup in the classroom closely resemblestheir home environment where workingwith family members is a commonoccurrence.

Students whose primary language is notEnglish also respond well to small-grouplearning. While engaged in peer tutoring,students who share a language can talkto one another in their home language toexplain and to clarify. This allows themto construct new knowledge in theirhome language, and then discuss it againin English with their group and with theclassroom as a whole. In addition to facil-itating the acquisition of content, thesocial interaction involved in this processimproves students' understanding of theEnglish language and its usage.

In cooperative learning, the role of theteacher changes from that of dispenserof knowledge to a facilitator of learning.Far from relinquishing control of theclassroom, teachers function as "expe-diters, evaluators, coaches, mentors, navi-gators, managers, mediators, and lectur-ers" (Barba, 1995). Cooperative learning ismost effective when teachers interactfrequently with groups, have short-termgoals for each group, and transitionsmoothly from small-group to whole-class discussion. It is also best when stu-dents regroup frequently; subtle hierar-chies often emerge when students stayin one group for too long.

Hands-on activities. Most educatorsagree that the best way to learn science isto do sciencefrom kindergarten throughgraduate school (Gibbons, 1992). Youngstudents' learning of mathematics and

19

science is strongly linked to their con-crete experiences and sense perceptions.

"Only after they have experienced ideason a concrete level do children progresstoward an understanding of symbolsand abstract concepts," says Nancy Koberin Ed Talk: What We Know About Mathe-matics Teaching Learning (1991). Withtheir visual, auditory, and tactile quali-ties, manipulatives promote active learn-ing, build motivation and, often, allowstudents to experience the thrill of dis-covery (Oakes, 1985).

Hands-on activities can be especiallyhelpful to students with language barri-ers (Mason & Barba, 1993). Hands-onlearning presents diverse languagelearners with a wider window to mathe-matics and science understanding. Visu-al aids, such as pictures, models, draw-ings, and objects, enhance verbalinstruction. Props, cues, body language,and demonstrations also help circum-vent perceived language barriers andturn the learning of science into anengaging and meaningful process(Barba, Pang & Tran, 1993).

Singie-sex grouping. For sometime now, single-sex schools have beengetting a lot of attention from peopleinterested in gender equity. Girls whoattend these schools have higher achieve-ment in mathematics and science andare more likely to choose mathematicsand science-related majors and careers(Jiminez & Lockheed, 1989; Lee & Bryk,1986; Tidball, 1986).

Some schools have experimented withall-girl classes as a way to address manyof the factors that exclude girls frommathematics and science. The classes areusually less competitive and thereforemore comfortable for girls. Because of thesupportive atmosphere, girls feel more at

ease to ask questions, make mistakes, andtake risks (Dagenais et al., 1994).

One problem that single-sex classes haveattempted to address is the fact thatmany girls are intimidated and inhibit-ed by boys, especially during the middle-school years. Girls often feel pressure tohide their intelligence and abilities(Kramer, 1985). Placing girls in single-sexenvironments, even briefly, gives them achance to overcome their inhibitions.Extracurricular activities such as mathe-matics and science clubs are anotheridea some schools have used to provide asupportive environment that can in-crease girls' confidence in class as well.

Another approach has been to design"girl-friendly" mathematics and scienceclasses, for example, highlighting thework of female scientists. The focus is ongirls, but the classes do not exclude boys.Occasionally, teachers may have studentswork in same-sex pairs or groups withincoed classes. This ensures that girls have achance to participate and lead activities.

15 20

s caribou trek across the still-frozen tundranear Alaska's Koyukuk River, students fromHuslia watch while adults from the village

begin the spring hunt. The students are observingand collecting data in order to answer such ques-tions as, What size are caribou hooves? How does aherd choose a leader? Do Eskimos use caribou dif-ferently than Indians?

The entire student body from Jimmy HuntingtonSchool, grades K-12, takes part each year in an inte-grated science project. The caribou project, devel-oped by teacher Michele Bifelt, is one of severalinquiry-based curricula that link multiple disciplinesand help students make connections between theirformal learning and their cultural experiences.

After students brainstorm questions for their cari-bou research, they write letters to wildlife agenciesand universities; they interview village elders andhunters; and they record data from their observa-tions at the caribou migration and hunt. Back in theclassroom, they write a summary of their researchand make maps and graphs of herd sizes andmigratory ranges.

The project has helped Huslia's students to improvetheir basic science skills and has inspired moreparents to participate in students' science projectsand lessons (Braunger & Hart-Landsberg, 1994).(See listing in "Resources.")

However, single-sex mathematics and sci-ence groupings are very controversial,and more research is needed. Althoughthey may address inequities that occur incoeducational schools and classrooms,some experts note that these groupingsare a violation of Title IX, the federal lawprohibiting sex discrimination in schoolsreceiving federal financial assistance,and they question the soundness of thisremedy (General Accounting Office,1996). Some argue that separating girlsfrom boys may give students the messagethat girls are lacking and can't learnmathematics and science the "right" way(Pollina, 1995). Single-sex classes do notnecessarily change the way teachers con-duct their classes and interact with stu-dents. Even in all-girl classes, some teach-ers will continue to teach mainly to themost vocal students.

The importance of connection.For many students, mathematics andscience seem less accessible than othersubjects. Research shows that female stu-dents are less familiar with the uses ofmathematics and science in everydaylife (Armstrong, 1985; Fennema & Sher-man, 1978). Some students of color findthese subjects irrelevant to their livesand unconnected to their life goals (Rey-hner & Davison, 1992).

Mathematics and science are more rele-vant and accessible when they connectto students' personal experiences. Teach-ers can establish these connections, andthey can encourage students to maketheir own connections. It isn't necessaryor practical to always make instructionculturally relevant. But whenever possi-ble, providing culturally meaningfulexamples, analogies, and materials canhelp students make that vital link fromtheir real-world experiences to newknowledge (Mason & Barba, 1993) (Rey-hner & Davison, 1992).

Pt

No matter what their learning styles,students are more engaged when activi-ties and curricula are authentic andreflect subjects that interest them (Mar-tinez, 1992). Mathematics and sciencecome alive when students learn abouthow they are applied to social problemsand how they are used to improve peo-ples' lives. For example, students mayexplore issues such as the role of recy-cling in environmental management orthe ways science and technology can beused to help people with disabilities. Stu-dents will also be engaged by discussionsabout ethics and controversial issuessuch as nuclear power.

Writ ng. Informal writing activitiesare a way for students to connect scienceand mathematics to their own experi-ences. Teachers can make journals orreflection papers a regular part of class-room activities. In their journals, stu-dents can reflect on what they are learn-ing and create meaning for themselves(Countryman, 1992).

The national standards emphasize theimportance of language and communi-cation in learning mathematics and sci-ence. When students write about mathe-matics and science, they deepen theirunderstanding. Getting the rightanswers is not always the most appropri-ate learning goal. Students must alsoknow why their answers are right andbe able to identify multiple solutions.Encouraging students to write down lin-gering questions takes the emphasis offalways having the right answer.

Mathematics and science require stu-dents to learn new terms and to decodetechnical language. Students increasetheir understanding when they put theconcepts they have learned into theirown words (Rivard, 1994; Zinsser, 1988).

Teachers can also use journals to identi-fy topics that students have misunder-stood. In their writing, students can beasked to explain areas in which they arestruggling. Students must then examinetheir difficulties, a process that movesthem past the dismissive, "I don't get it."Teachers can use this information topace instruction; to decide when a topichas been covered thoroughly or whenmore clarification is needed; and to focusreview sessions before tests (Santiago &Spanos, 1993).

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17

Journal writing is also a useful tool forimproving students' attitudes towardmathematics and science. Students canexpress their anxiety or frustration,which they may not be comfortablespeaking about in class. Teachers canalso ask students to reflect on their ownprogress, which they may otherwiseoverlook (Countryman, 1992).

The informal nature of the exercisesensures that they are accessible to allstudents, regardless of their writing pro-ficiencies. Journal writing may offer stu-dents who are not yet proficient in

English a personal process for connect-ing what they are learning with theirown experiences, while putting lessemphasis on grammar, punctuation, lexi-con, and style of dialect. Instead, thefocus is on articulating and then reflect-ing on their own learning and progress(Tippins and Dana, 1993).

a.

Career awareness and role mod-(Ms. Career awareness is an importanttool in promoting the participation offemales and students of color in mathe-matics and science. Students are moremotivated when they see these subjectsas useful and relevant to their futureeducation and career plans.

Traditionally, teachers have not encour-aged students to think about their careerplans until high school, but researchindicates that this is too late. Experts rec-ommend that students begin learningabout careers and exploring their inter-ests in elementary and middle school(Clewell et al., 1992). Students need expo-sure to female and culturally diverse sci-entists at an early age to counteractstereotypes and send the message that

mathematics and science are thingsdone by people like themselves. All stu-dents need to see science-related careersas open to them (Smith & Erb, 1986).

One way of exposing students to womenand people of color in scientific andtechnological careers is to bring in pro-fessionals for classroom visits. The speak-ers can describe their jobs and careerfields, explain their academic back-grounds, and relate their experiences towhat students are learning in school.Field trips or industry tours are anotherway for students to get informationabout work environments and to seefirsthand how learning relates to real-life workplace situations. Visiting work-sites can also dispel such widely heldbeliefs as the notion that scientists onlywork in laboratories and in isolation.Students gain more indepth knowledgefrom activities such as job shadows,internships, and service learning.

Career awareness should also focus onhow mathematics and science are used inall careers, not just scientific and techno-logical fields. For example, mathematicalskills are important for business careers,including marketing, banking, and retail.Students can learn about the relevance ofmathematics and science by interview-ing, adults about how they use mathe-matics and science in their work.

Mentors. Adult mentors are anotherway to encourage students' self-confidence and promote perseverance inmathematics and science (Clark, 1993).They develop sustained personal rela-tionships with a student and in additionto being role models, can provide person-al guidance and support.

Mentors also encourage students to learnabout, and possibly pursue, careers thatthey might not otherwise have consid-

23

ered. Students may also talk to theirmentors about their fears and the pres-sures they may be feeling, particularly asfemales and minorities. Mentors canconfirm that these pressures are real,that all women and people of color expe-rience them, and, more importantly, thatthey can be overcome.

Finding mentors for students in ruralcommunities can be especially challeng-ing. One option is to establish an onlinementorship through e-mail or throughthe postal mail. For example, the RuralGirls in Science Program, a summer sci-ence camp at the University of Washing-ton, pairs each student with a female sci-entist. The students work on a year-longresearch project and keep in touch withtheir mentors via e-mail.

Peer mentoring. Although not asdirectly tied to careers, peer mentoring isanother way to encourage females andminorities in mathematics and science.In these programs, high school or collegestudents are paired with younger stu-dents to help them with their schoolwork. Peer mentors are also powerful rolemodels. They are close to the students inage and circumstance, which gives themextra influence and credibility (Clewell,et al., 1992). The younger students caneasily identify with them as successfulstudents in mathematics and science.

Assessment. While holding highexpectations for all students is an impor-tant tool for achieving equity, theseexpectations bring up another equityconsideration. Students must have equalopportunities to demonstrate what theyhave learned. Making assessment moreequitable means rethinking its purpose:Instead of using tests to define studentsas lacking, equitable assessments are usedto improve learning and to assess how

his is what real scientists do!" This is a lotbetter than reading science out of a book."This is how fifth-grade students at Seattle's

Dearborn Park Elementary School responded afterthey and their teacher, Jan Hunt, began participat-ing in a hands-on, inquiry-based science program.

The Seattle Partnership for Inquiry-Based Scienceprovides Seattle School District K-5 teachers with100 hours of science training, including mentoringand training with volunteer scientists from the Uni-

versity of Washington, Fred Hutchinson CancerResearch Center, and The Boeing Company.

The scientists also participate in Family Scienceprograms, such as an event in which students andscientists team up at stations to guide family mem-bers through science activities. Family membersare also invited to take part in Science AwarenessWorkshops for Parents, undertaking some of thesame science investigations their children aredoing in the classroom.

19

24

well instruction and curricula are meet-ing the learning needs of'all students.

Fair, unbiased assessment takes intoaccount prior knowledge, cultural expe-rience, language proficiency, cognitivestyle, and interests. Good assessmentmust also accommodate differences inthe way students display their mathe-matical and scientific learning. Toensure that all students have an equalopportunity to demonstrate their abili-ties, teachers can use a variety of assess-ment methods. Alternatives to multiplechoice tests include such performanceevaluations as short-answer questions,essays, portfolios, oral presentations, anddemonstrations (NCTM, 1995).

Equitable assessment may be one of themost challenging aspects of mathemat-ics and science reform. Much moreresearch is needed to identify how tomake the new standards and assessmentwork for all students. "We have much tolearn about how to maintain uniformlyhigh performance standards whileallowing for assessment approaches thatare tailored to diverse backgrounds. Uni-form application of standards to adiverse set of tasks and responses posesan enormous challenge that we do notyet know how to do fairly and effective-ly," (National Research Council, 1993).

FamHyhwohgement

0 ne of the influential factors in astudent's educational success isthe level to which that student's

parents participate in his or her educa-tion. According to the National ScienceFoundation publication, Women, Minori-ties, and Persons -With Disabilities in Sci-ence and Engineering 1996, "Parentaleducation is the single most importantpredictor of participation in mathemat-ics and science. Parents serve as rolemodels and mentors in encouragingtheir children to have high educationalaspirations."

Some parents need extra support andencouragement to get involved in theirchildren's education. Parents are morelikely to get involved when they knowtheir child's classroom welcomes themin meaningful and sustained ways;when parents and guardians are invitedto special activities, family mathematicsand science nights, and Saturday semi-nars; and when schools can direct them

to social services that offer assistance inEnglish as a second language, parenting,and adult education.

When parents or guardians becomeinvolved in their child's education, thepositive effects are numerous: Children'sacademic achievement improves, theirinterest in science and mathematicsimproves, their awareness of careeroptions increases (Barba, 1995) and theyare more likely to choose mathematicsand science majors in college (Oakes,1990).

2011,z

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M uch has been written about theneed to provide teachers withprofessional development

opportunities so that they can effectivelycarry out the goals of education reform(American Association for the Advance-ment of Science, 1990; National Council

25

for Teachers of Mathematics, 1991; Quali-ty Education for Minorities Project, 1990).It is teachers who are implementingnew standards, using multiple teachingstyles and assessment practices, trans-forming curricula to be more equitable,bringing families into the schoolinshort, making reform a reality. To pro-vide quality education for all students,teachers themselves need quality, ongo-ing professional development.

The Eisenhower Professional Develop-ment Program, one of the largest sourcesof funding for teacher training in sci-ence and mathematics education, placesa high priority on equity. It requiresactivities supported by Eisenhowerfunds to "incorporate effective strategies,techniques, methods, and practices formeeting the educational needs of diversegroups of students, including girls andwomen, minorities, individuals with dis-abilities, limited English proficient indi-viduals and economically disadvantagedindividuals."

Teachers need opportunities to furthertheir knowledge about current practicesand research in their fields of expertise;to study child development and researchabout learning; to communicate and col-laborate with colleagues; to learn addi-tional languages; and to learn aboutequitable teaching strategies, curricula,and assessment practices.

When teachers take the initiative intheir own diversity training, the invest-ment can pay many, and lasting, divi-dendsfor teachers and their students.Below are a few ways teachers can deepentheir understanding of differences andcultivate a classroom climate that valuesdiversity (NCTM, 1991; National Coalitionof Educational Equity Advocates, 1994;Center for National Origin, Race and Sex

Equity, 1996; Derman-Sparks & the A.B.C.Task Force, 1989).

(See "Resources" section for more infor-mation on the organizations and onlineresources mentioned below.)

Teachers can:

Request training in teaching heteroge-neous classes, using cooperative learning,and using other strategies that meet thediverse needs of all students

Seek opportunities for further study intheir field (for example, the TeacherResearch Associates Program at thePacific Northwest National Laboratoryin Richland, Washington)

Do further reading in child develop-ment, learning styles, and how childrenlearn

Explore online multicultural and gen-der resources for teaching strategies, cur-riculum modules and materials, andassessment devices

21

2 6

Participate in staff developmenttraining to learn how to recognize andmanage bias

Evaluate their own opinions andbehavior from the students' perspec-tive; ask themselves, "What is the effectof my actions and words?"

Organize a support group of adminis-trators and teachers; offer feedback onclassroom effectiveness; and exploreopportunities for integrating subjects

Request training and support fromsuch organizations as the Center forNational Origin, Race, and Sex Equity atthe Northwest Regional Education Labo-ratory, and Northwest EQUALS at Port-land State University, in Portland, Ore-gon

Participate in multicultural activitiesin their own community and spendtime in culturally diverse neighbor-hoods

Learn an additional language

Read current literature and profes-sional journals that provide thoughtfulcommentary on equity and usefulactivities for the classroom (for exam-ple, Teaching Tolerance magazine, andNSTA and NCTM journals)

u;J22

Condusk)n

m.aking mathematics and sci-ence accessible and invitingfor all students requires com-

mitment, flexibility, and perseverance.The strategies presented in this publi-cation are important tools, but theywill not work for everyone. Eachteacher must reflect upon and choosewhat works in his or her classroom.The following pages provide a list ofresources that teachers may find help-ful as they strive to implement equi-table teaching strategies.

27

Resources &Bibliography

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PubHcaCionsApelman, M., & King, J. (1993). Exploringeveryday math. Portsmouth, NH:Heineman.

Ideas for teachers and parents onmaking connections betweenmathematics and the daily lives ofelementary school students.

AWSEM (1997). Directory of practitioners:Role models for young women. Portland,OR: Saturday Academy.

A list of Oregon women in science andtechnology fields who are willing tovisit schools and work with students.

Gross, F., et al. (1993). The power ofnumbers, a teacher's guide tomathematics in a social studies context.Cambridge, MA: Educators for SocialResponsibility.

Nelson, D., Gheverghese, J., & Williams, J.(1993). Multicultural mathematics,teaching mathematics from a globalperspective. New York, NY: OxfordUniversity Press.

Parker, M. (Ed.). (1995). She does math!Real life problems from women on thejob. Washington, DC: MathematicalAssociation of America.

Career histories of professionalwomen with math problems theyhave written based on their jobs.Grades 9-12.

Sanders, J., & Rocco, S. (1994).Bibliography on gender equity inmathematics, science and technology:Resources for classroom teachers. NewYork, NY: Gender Equity Program, Centerfor Advanced Studies in Education.

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Skolick, J., Lanbort, C., & Day, L. (1992).How to encourage girls in math & science.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Activities and strategies to help girlsdevelop math and science confidenceand skills.

Tobias, R. (1992). Nurturing at-risk youthin math & science. Curriculum andteaching considerations. Bloomington, IN:National Educational Service.

Warren, R.L., &. Thompson, M.H. (1994).The scientist within you: Experimentsand biographies of distinguished womenin science. Eugene, OR: ACI Publishing.

Hands-on experiments and activitiesinspired by the work of womenscientists. Grades 3-8.

Zaslaysky, J. (1993). Multiculturalmathematics. Portland, ME: WestonWalch.

Publications center

Womens Educational Equity ActPublications Center. Resources forteaching strategies and activities toencourage female students, such asGender-Fair Math, A Mindset for Math:Techniques for Identifying and Workingwith Math-Anxious Girls, and ScienceEQUALS Success. Publications listavailable online at http://www.edc.org/CEEC/WEEA/pubs/publist/mst.html.For more information, contact:WEEA Equity Resource Center55 Chapel Street, Suite 200Newton, MA 02158-1060(800) 225-3088

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Curraicu[la

Caribou/Fisheries ProjectA culturally relevant K-12 integratedscience project, created by teacherMichele Bifelt at Jimmy HuntingtonSchool in Huslia, Alaska. Curriculaguidelines available from the NorthwestRegional Educational Laboratory, Scienceand Mathematics Education, 101 SWMain Street, Suite 500, Portland, OR 97204.For more information about the project,contact Michele Bifelt, P.O. Box 69, Huslia,AK 99746 (mail inquiries only).

Every Day Counts"' calendar mathand Math Every Day primarymathematics programCo-authoredby Portland teacher Jan Gillespie andpublished by D.C. Heath, Every DayCountsTM is a K-6 supplementary bulletinboard mathematics program revolvingaround a calendar and other visualelements, i.e., clock, coin counter, dailymeasurement, depositors, fraction-a-day,daily decimal, and graphs. Math EveryDay is a complete K-2 primary mathprogram which includes Every DayCounts' and investigations, projects, andpartner games. For more information,contact Jan Gillespie, Woodlawn EarlyChildhood Education Center, 7200 NE11th, Portland, OR 97211, (503) 287-6272.

OrganrigaikpnsAlaska Department of Education801 W 10th Street, Suite 200Juneau, AK 99801-1894http://www.educ.state.ak.us/Nanci Spear, Math & ComputerSpecialist, (907) 465-8718Peggy Cowan, Goals 2000/FrameworksCoordinator, (907) 465-2826Anne Kessler, Native and IndianEducation, (907) 465-8716

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Alaska EQUALSGretchen Murphy, Stephanie Rudig3504 Kreb DriveFairbanks, AK 99709(907) 479-8224 or (907) 457-2124

Professional development, workshops,and curriculum materials in mathe-matics and science, including equity, forteachers and parents.

The Annenberg/CPB Math andScience ProjectImproving Mathand Science EducationPO Box 2345S. Burlington, VT 05407-2345(800) 965-7373http://www.learner.org/content/k12/Mathematics and Science for AllA video/book series highlightingsuccessful mathematics and scienceeducation reform projects in Montana.Native American Students features theSystemic Teacher Excellence Preparation(STEP) project which provides teacherswith training and early career support.The series also includes Students withSpecial Needs and Support for RuralEducation. Online resources include:Journey North, a global study of wildlifemigration and seasonal change; aresource catalogue of videos, softwareand print guides; and a guide tomathematics and science reform, aninteractive database.

AWSEMAdvocates for Women inScience, Engineering & MathematicsSaturday AcademyOregon Graduate Institute ofScience and TechnologyPO Box 19000Portland, OR 97291-1000(503) 690-1261Fax (503) 690-1470E-mail: awsem@admin.ogi.eduhttp://wwide.com/awsem.htmlHollis MacLean, Project Director

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Center for National Origin, Race,and Sex EquityNorthwest Regional EducationalLaboratory101 SW Main Street, Suite 500Portland, OR 97204(503) 275-9603E-mail: harrisj@nwrel.orghttp://www.nwrel.org/cnorse/Joyce Harris, Director

CNORSE provides training and technicalassistance free of charge to public schoolpersonnel in all equity-related areas,including racial and sexual harassment;access to equity resources; and offersreferral services. Online resourcesinclude upcoming events and publica-tions, Equity In fol ne newsletter, andlinks to other equity Web sites.

The College Board's Equity 200045 Columbus AvenueNew York, NY 10023-6992(212) 713-8268Vinetta Jones, National Directorhttp://www.collegeboard.org/equity/html/info001.html

A national education reform projectfocusing on increasing the participationand achievement of minorities inmathematics and science. It offerssummer institutes for mathematicsteachers. In addition to strengtheningtheir content knowledge, teachers learnto use cooperative learning and a varietyof experiential learning activities tomeet the needs all students.

Idaho State EducationPO Box 83720Boise, ID 83720-0027(208) 332-6800http://www.sde.stateld.us/LaRon Smith, Coordinator, Mathand ScienceBarbara Eisenbarth, Equity Specialist

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GESA: Gender/Ethnic Expectations,Student Achievement22821 Cove ViewCanyon Lake, CA 92587(909) 244-51655

Provides training to help teachersidentify and eliminate gender andethnic bias in classroom interactions.

Montana Office ofPublic Instruction1300 11th AvenueHelena, MT 59620-2501(406) 444-3693http://161.7.114.15/opi.htmlDivision of Educational Opportunity& Equity(406) 444-4420BJ Granbery, Administrator

Northwest Center for Researchon WomenUniversity of Washington, AJ-50Seattle, WA 98195(206) 543-9531Fax (206) 685-4490E-mail: nwcros@u.washington.eduJane Bierman, Project DirectorKatie Frevert, Project Director

Northwest EQUALSPortland State UniversityPO Box 751Portland, OR 97207(503) 725-3045

Professional development, workshops,and curriculum materials inmathematics and science, includingequity, for teachers, parents, andcommunity members.

Northwest Regional EducationalLaboratoryScience and Mathematics Education101 SW Main Street, Suite 500Portland, OR 97204-3297(503) 275-9500

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Kit Peixotto, (503) 275-9594E-mail: peixottk@nwrel.orghttp://www.nwrel.org

NWREL provides leadership, expertise,and services to the region based onresearch and development. The Scienceand Mathematics Education (SAME) unitprovides services in support of effectivecurriculum, instruction, and assessment,and maintains a lending library ofbooks, videos, and other materials ongender and culture equity, technology inthe classroom, education reform, stan-dards and assessment, and curriculum.

Oregon Department of Education255 Capitol Street NESalem, OR 97310-0203http://www.ode.state.or.us//John Bridges, Mathematics Specialist,(503) 378-8004 x225Marilyn Husser, Specialist,(503) 378-5585 x250

Pacific Northwest NationalLaboratoryOperated by Battelle for the U.S.Department of EnergyPO Box 999Richland, WA 99352(509) 375-2121Teacher Research AssociatesProgramEight-week program forsecondary teachers of science, mathe-matics, and technology. Teachers workwith scientists and engineers in currentareas of research, using state-of-the-arttechnology. Science Alive: Building aCommunity of Elementary ScienceTeacher-LeadersSummer workshop inwhich teachers work with scientists andengineers in solving simulated researchquestions, with an emphasis on inquiry-based teaching/learning.

Science and MathematicsConsortium for Northwest Schools(SMCNWS)Ralph Nelsen, Director, SMCNWSColumbia Education Center171 NE 102ndPortland, OR 97220-4169(503) 760-2346E-mail: ralph@col-ed.orgEquity Specialists:Barbara Eisenbath, (208) 332-6953Joy Wallace, (503) 252-4999http://www.col-ed.org/smcnws

Disseminates promising educationalprograms, practices, and materials;provides technical assistance andtraining in support of state and localinitiatives for quality science andmathematics content, curriculumimprovement, and teacher enhancement.

Washington MESA (Mathematics,Engineering, Science Achievement)MESA State OfficeUniversity of Washington353 Loew Hall, Box 352181Seattle, WA 98195(206) 543-0562http://wa-mesa.engr.washington.edu/

Assists middle and high schools increasethe participation and achievement ofunderrepresented students in mathe-matics, engineering, and science. Assiststeachers in implementing instructionand assessment practices that align withstate and national standards, and creatingcurricula that integrate mathematics,science, and technology. MESA's RealWorld Mathematics Through Science forTeachers is an online professional deve-lopment program providing ongoinginstruction and support for teachers im-plementing MESA curriculum modules.

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Washington Office of theSuperintendent of PublicInstructionOld Capitol Bldg.PO Box 47200Olympia, WA 98504(360) 753-6738http: / /wwwospi.wednet.edu/Mitzi Beach, Director,Equity Education, (360) 753-3220Peggy G. Vatter, Supervisor,Science/Mathematics TechnicalAssistance, (360) 753-6757Washington Commission on StudentLearning: http://csl.wednet.edu/

©E1th TeSourrcesAlaska Web Servershttp://www.arsc.edu/misc/alaskawebservers.html

The Arctic Region Supercomputing Cen-ter maintains a listing of 180 Web serversfor academic, commercial, government,and nonprofit organizations.

Campbell-Kibler Associates, Inc.http://www.tiac.net/users/ckassoc/

Free pamphlets on gender equity inmathematics and science available fordownloading (Adobe Acrobat format).

Equity Education Onlinehttp://www.etdc.wednet.edu/equity

Includes organizations, research,information on tools and materials, andstudent success stories.

Equity Regional Network (part of theRegional Alliance for Mathematics andScience Education Reform)http://ra.terc.edu/regional_networks/equity/equity.html

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Links to other equity Web sites; listseryon current issues and strategies.

Exploring Your Future in Mathand Sciencehttp://www.cs.wisc.edurkaravan/afl/home.html

Information about scientific andtechnological fields and links to otherresources. Designed for high school girls.

The Faces of Science: AfricanAmericans in the SciencesLouisiana State University Librarieshttp://www.liblsu.edu/lib/chern/display/faces.html

Profiles of African Americans in thesciences; bibliographies and otherresources.

Girls Incorporatedhttp: / /wwwgirlsinc.org/

Highlights include an update of researchon critical issues facing girls, tips forparents and teachers, and a Re-Cast TVAction Kit that helps students confrontstereotypes in the media.

Idaho on the Nethttp://www.micron.net/weblnch/idaho/idaho.html

Idaho Web sites including education,government, and communityorganizations.

InGear: Integrating Gender Equityand Reformhttp: / /wwwceismc.gatech.edu/ingear.htm

The Toolkit of Curriculum Materialsincludes resources for parents, teachers,and counselors; links to equity Web sitesand information on teaching strategies.

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Lathrop Alaska Native EducationProgramhttp://www2.northstar.k12.ak.us/schools/lth/organizations/ane/ane_homepage.html

ANE develops culturally relevantcurriculum materials for teachers in theFairbanks North Star Borough, andprovides Home School Liaisons for schoolswith the highest percentages of NativeAmerican and Alaska Native students.The Web site provides information onInupiaq, Athabascan, Tlingit, Sioux,Mohawk, and other Native cultures.

National Network of EisenhowerConsortia and Eisenhower NationalClearinghouseEquity Task Forcehttp://ra.terc.edu/nnercc/nnercc.html

Materials, professional developmentresources, discussion groups, and equityresources concerning women, persons ofcolor, and persons with disabilities.

Wisconsin Center for EducationResearchNational Center for ImprovingStudent Learning and Achievementin Mathematics and Sciencehttp://www.wcer.wisc.edu/

Focuses on the needs of students fromdiverse cultural backgrounds. WCERprovides training and technicalassistance.

Northwest Educational TechnologyConsortiumhttp: / /wwwnetc.org/

Professional development and technicalassistance for educators who want tobecome informed and fearless users oftechnology. Site includes information on

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equity in educational technology, withassessment and planning tools.

North Central Regional EducationalLaboratoryPathways to School Improvementhttp://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/path way g.htm

Overview of issues and strategies foreducational reform. In the Math andScience sections, see Ensuring Equityand Excellence in Mathematics andEnsuring Equity and Excellence inScience.

Tap Juniorhttp: / /wwwcs.yale.edu /homes /tap/tap-junior.html

Resources for encouraging girls inscience, computers, and technology.

Women of NASAhttp://quest.arc.nasa.gov/women/intro.html

Live WebChats, biographies of womenworking at NASA, and online and printresources for teachers, includingmathematics and science activities.

Equity Resource Center, WEEAEquity Onlinehttp://www.edc.org/CEEC/WEEA/

Provides information, gender-fairmulticultural materials, technicalassistance and training, and moderatesan Educational Equity Discussion List.

Bc. pAllen, G., & Seumptewa, 0. (1993). The

need for strengthening NativeAmerican science and mathematicseducation. In S.J. Carey (Ed.), Sciencefor all cultures. A collection of articlesfrom NSTA's journals (pp. 38-43).Arlington, VA: National ScienceTeachers Association.

American Association for theAdvancement of Science. (1990).Science for all Americans. Project 2061.New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Armstrong, J. (1985). A nationalassessment of participation andachievement of women inmathematics. In S. Chipman, L. Brush,& D. Wilson (Eds.), Women andmathematics: Balancing the equation(pp. 59-95). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Atwater, M.M. (1993). Multiculturalscience education. In S.J. Carey (Ed.),Science for all cultures. A collection ofarticles from NSTA's journals.Arlington, VA: National ScienceTeachers Association.

Atwater, M.M. (1994). Research on culturaldiversity in the classroom. In D.L.Gabel (Ed.), Handbook on research onscience teaching and learning. NewYork, NY: Macmillan PublishingCompany.

Banks, J. (1995). Multicultural education:Historical development, dimensions,and practice. In J. Banks, & C. Banks(Eds.), Handbook of research onmulticultural education. New York,NY: MacMillan Publishing USA.

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Barba, R.H. (1995). Science in themulticultural classroom: A guide toteaching and learning. Boston, MA:Allyn and Bacon/Simon & Schuster Co.

Barba, R., Pang, V., & Tran, M. (1993). Whoreally discovered aspirin? In S.J. Carey(Ed.), Science for all cultures. Acollection of articles from NSTA'sjournals (pp. 10-11). Arlington, VA:National Science Teachers Association.

Barnett, L., & Braunger, J. (1997).Educational needs of the Northwest:1996/97 annual report. Portland, OR:Northwest Regional EducationalLaboratory.

Barquet, N. (1992). Excellence and equity:What research says about tracking.Equity Coalition for Race, Gender, andNational Origin, 3(1).

Brandt, R. (1994). On educating fordiversity: A conversation with JamesA. Banks. Educational Leadership,51(8), 28-31.

Braunger, J., & Hart-Landsberg, S. (1994).Crossing boundaries: Explorations inintegrative curriculum. Portland, OR:Northwest Regional EducationalLaboratory.

Brophy, J. (1985). Interactions of male andfemale students with male and femaleteachers. In L.C. Wilkinson, & C.G.Marrett (Eds.), Gender influences onclassroom interaction. New York, NY:Academic Press.

Campbell, P.B. (1995). Redefining the 'girlproblem' in mathematics. In W.Secada, E. Fennema, & L.B. Adajian,New directions for equity inmathematics education (pp. 225-241).New York, NY: Cambridge UniversityPress.

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Carey, S.J. (Ed.). (1993). Science for allcultures. A collection of articles fromNSTA's journals (p. v). Arlington, VA:National Science Teachers Association.

Carnegie Council on AdolescentDevelopment. (1989). Great transitions.Preparing adolescents for a newcentury. New York, NY: CarnegieCorporation of New York.

Center for National Origin, Race and SexEquity. (1996). The fourth R:ResponsibilityEnsuring educationalexcellence through equity and effectiveschool practices. Portland, OR:Northwest Regional EducationalLaboratory.

Clewell, B.C., Anderson, B.T., & Thorpe,M.E. (1992). Breaking the barriers:Helping female and minority studentssucceed in mathematics and science.San Francisco, CA: Jossey-BassPublishers.

Corey, V., van Zee, E., Minstrell, J.,Simpson, D., & Stimpson, V. (1993).When girls talk: An examination ofhigh school physics classes. Feministsin Science and Technology 6(2), 2-3.

Countryman, J. (1992). Writing to learnmathematics. Portsmouth, NH:Heineman.

Cuevas, G. (1995). Empowering allstudents to learn mathematics. InI. Carl (Ed.), Prospects for schoolmathematics (pp. 62-77). Reston, VA:National Council of Teachers ofMathematics.

Cuevas, G., & Driscoll, M. (Eds.). (1993).Reaching all students withmathematics. Reston, VA: NationalCouncil of Teachers of Mathematics,Inc.

Dagenais, R., Moyer, E., Musial, D., Sloan,M., Torp, L., & Workman, D. (1994). Thecalculus-based physics exploratorystudy summary report. Aurora, IL:Illinois Mathematics and ScienceAcademy.

Derman-Sparks, L., & the A.B.C. TaskForce. (1989). Anti-bias curriculum:Tools for empowering young children.Washington, DC: National Associationfor the Education of Young Children.

Eccles, J. (1989). Bringing young womeninto math and science. In M. Crawford,& M. Gentry (Eds.), Gender andthought: Psychological perspectives(pp. 36 -58). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.

Eccles, J., Adler, T.E, Futterman, R., Goff,S.B., Kaczala, Meece, J.C.,Midgley, C.M. (1983). Expectancies,values and academic behaviors. In J.T.Spence (Ed.), Achievement andachievement motivators (pp. 75-146).San Francisco, CA: Freeman.

Eccles, J., & Blumenfeld, P.C. (1985).Classroom experiences and studentgender: Are there differences and dothey matter? In L.C. Wilkinson, & C.G.Marrett (Eds.), Gender influences onclassroom interaction (pp. 79-114). NewYork, NY: Academic Press.

Fennema, E., & Peterson, P. (1987).Effective teaching for girls and boys:The same or different? In D. Berliner,& B. Rosenshine (Eds.), Talks withteachers (pp. 111-125). New York, NY:Random House.

Fennema, E., & Sherman, J. (1978). Sex-related differences in mathematicsachievement and related factors: Afurther study. Journal for Research inMathematics Education, 89-203.

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Gamoran, A. (1992). Access to excellence:Assignment to honor English classesin the transition from middle to highschool. Educational Evaluation andPolicy Analysis, /4(3), 185-204.

General Accounting Office. (1996). Pubiceducation:Issues involving single-gender schools and programs.Washington DC: Author.

Gibbons, A. (1992, November). Growingscientists for the 21st century. Science,258, 1195.

Hyde, J., Fennema, E., Ryan, M., Frost, L., &Hopp, C. (1990). Gender comparisons ofmathematics attitudes and affect: Ameta-analysis. Psychology of WomenQuarterly, 14(3), 299-324.

Jiminez, E., & Lockheed, M. (1989).Enhancing girls' learning throughsingle-sex education: Evidence and apolicy conundrum. EducationalEvaluation and Policy Analysis, 11(2),117-142.

Jones, M.G., & Wheatley, J. (1990). Genderdifferences in teacher-studentinteractions in science classrooms.Journal of Research in ScienceTeaching, 27(7), 651-660.

Kahle, J. (1990). Why girls don't know. InM. Row (Ed.), What research says to thescience teacher: The process of knowing(Vol. 6, pp. 55-67). Washington, DC:National Science Teachers Association.

Kanter, P., & Gillespie, J. (1992). Every daycounts. Teacher's guide, level 5.Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath andCompany.

Kaplan, J., & Aronson, D. (1994). Thenumbers gap. Teaching Tolerance, 3(1),20-27.

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Kober, N. (1991). Ed talk: What we knowabout science teaching and learningPortland, OR: Northwest RegionalEducational Laboratory.

Kozol, J. (1991). Savage inequalities:Children in America's schools. NewYork, NY: Crown Publishing Group.

Kramer, L. (1985). Gifted adolescent girls:Self-perceptions of ability within onemiddle school setting. Unpublisheddoctoral dissertation, University ofFlorida.

Leder, G.C. (1990). Teacher-studentinteractions, mathematics and gender.In E. Fennema, & G.C. Leder (Eds.),Mathematics and gender (pp. 149-168).New York, NY: Teachers' College Press.

Lee, V., & Bryk, A. (1986). Effects of single-sex secondary schools on studentachievement and attitudes. Journal ofEducational Psychology, 70), 381-395.

Martinez, M. (1992). Interestenhancements to science experiments:Interactions with student gender.journal of Research in ScienceTeaching, 29(2),167 -177.

Mason, C.L., & Barba, R.H. (1993). Equalopportunity science. In S.J. Carey (Ed.),Science for all cultures. A collection ofarticles from NSTA's journals (pp. 6-10).Arlington, VA: National ScienceTeachers Association.

National Center for Education Statistics.(1995, February). Understandingracial-ethnic differences in secondaryschool science and mathematicsachievement. Washington, DC: U.S.Department of Education, Office ofEducational Research andImprovement (NCES 95-710).

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National Coalition of Educational EquityAdvocates. (1994). Educate America: Acall for equity in school reform. ChevyChase, MD: The Mid-Atlantic EquityConsortium.

National Council of Teachers ofMathematics. (1995). Assessmentstandards for school mathematics.Reston, VA: Author.

National Council of Teachers ofMathematics. (1991). Professionalstandards for teaching mathematics.Reston, VA: Author.

National Council of Teachers ofMathematics. (1989). Curriculum andevaluation standards for schoolmathematics. Reston, VA: Author.

National Research Council. (1993).Measuring what counts: A conceptualguide for mathematics assessment.Washington, DC: National AcademyPress.

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Oakes, J. (1985). Keeping track: Howschools structure inequality. NewHaven, CT: Yale University Press.

Oakes, J. (1990). Lost talent. Theunderparticipation of women,minorities, and disabled persons inscience. Santa Monica, CA: The RANDCorporation.

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Peng, S., Wright, D., & Hill, S. (1995).Understanding racial-ethnicdifferences in secondary school scienceand mathematics achievement.Washington, DC: U.S. Department ofEducation, Office of EducationalResearch and Improvement, NationalCenter for Education Statistics (NCES95-710).

Pollina, A. (1995). Gender balance: Lessonsfrom girls in science & mathematics.Educational Leadership, 53(1), 30-33.

Powell, M. (1994). Equity in the reform ofmathematics and science education.Austin, TX: Southwest Consortium forthe Improvement of Mathematics andScience Teaching.

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Tate, W. (1994). Race, retrenchment, andthe reform of school mathematics. PhiDelta Kappan, 75(6), 477-484.

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Tate, W. (1995). Economics, equity, and thenational mathematics assessment: Arewe creating a national toll road? InW. Secada, E. Fennema, & L. Adajian(Eds.), New directions for equity inmathematics education (pp. 191-206).Melbourne, Australia: CambridgeUniversity Press.

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