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AUTHORTITLE

Starr, Douglas P.A Selected Annotated Bibliography on SpeechGhostwriting: Its Principles, Practices andEthics.

PUB DATE Dec 72NOTE 27p.; Part of a Ph.D. Dissertation, Florida State

University, entitled "Ghostwriting in Government: ALexical Analysis of Matched Pairs of SpeechesGhostwritten for Florida Lt. Governor Tom Adams."

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.65 HC-$3.29DESCRIPTORS *Annotated Bibliographies; *Communication (Thought

Transfer); *Expository Writing; *PersuasiveDiscourse; Political Socialization; Public Relations;Public Speaking; *Research Reviews (Publications);Rhetoric; Social Values

IDENTIFIERS *Ghostwriting

ABSTRACTThe author presents a fully annotated bibliography of

80 items relating to the subject of ghostwriting of public addressesand other forms of persuasive communication. Most of the items dealwith ghostwriting in the areas of political persuasion and publicrelations, although some general entries are included. Topics of thematerial range from methods and techniques of ghostwriting to harshcriticisms of ghostwriting as a tool of modern politics. Many of thereferences provide information about the staff writers and theirapproaches for both former and contemporary political leaders. Somereferences deal with the background of the technique, including itsuse for the preparation of university term papers. The entries,published between the late 1950's and the present, are divided intofour sections: books, scholarly journals, popular journals, andnewspaper articles. (RN)

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH.EDUCATION 8 WELFAREOFFICE OF EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCE() FXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROMTHE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS STATED 00 NOT NECESSARILYREPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EOUCATION POSITION OR POLICY

A SELECTED, ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

ON SPEECH GHOSTWRITING:

ITS PRINCIPLES, PRACTICES AND ETHICS

Annotated By Douglas P. Starr

PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS COPYRIGHTEO MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTEDBY

Douglas P. Starr

TO ERIC ANO ORGANIZATIONS OPERATINGUNDER AGREEMENTS WITH THE US MCI

EOUCATION FURTHER REPRODUCTIONOUTSIOE THE ERIC SYSTEM REOUIRES PERMISSION OF THE COPYRIGHT OWNER'

V

This paper is part of "Ghostwriting in

Government: A Lexical Analysis of Matched

Pairs of Speeches Ghostwritten for Florida

Lieutenant Governor Tom Adams" unpublished

Ph. D. dissertation, The Florida State

University, December, 1972.

Douglas P. Starr, Ph. D. (Florida State

University, 1972), director of Information

and Research for the Florida Department of

Commerce and a former speech ghostwriter for

the Florida State Treasurer-Insurance

Commissioner, teaches Speech Ghostwriting

at Florida State University, one of the few

such courses in academic existence.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON GHOSTWRITING

Books

Adams, Alexander B. Handbook of Practical Public Relations.New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1965.

Adams includes in this good public rela-tions handbook some suggestions for the effectiveuse of a ghostwriter, particularly a close workingrelationship between the principal and his ghost-writer.

Auer, J. Jeffery. The Rhetoric of Our Times. New York:Appleton- Century- Crofts, 1969.

In an effort to provide insight into thebackground of modern rhetoric, Auer includes RobertN. Hall's "Lyndon Johnson's Speech Preparatian"from the Quarterly Journal of Srpeech, LI (Arril,1965), pp. 168-176; and William ii. Honan's "The MenBehind Nixon's Speeches" from The '.7ew York TimesMagazine, January 19, 1969, pp. 20-21, 63, 65-67,73, 75.

Bormann, Ernest G. Theory and Research in the CommunicativeArts. New York: Holt, Rinehart and lanston, Inc.,1966.

Warns rhetorical critics that ghostwritersobscure clues that a speaker's style gives to hischaracter and intellectual ability.

Campbell, I:arlyn Kohrs. Critiques of Contem?orary Rhetoric.Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing Co., Inc.,1972.

Campbell quotes from Newsweek on VicePresident Spiro Agnew's use of ghostwriters, buthas little doubt that Agnew believes what his ghost-writers prepare for him, that he is in full accordwith the prepared speeches.

Carter, John Franklin. Power and Persuasion. New York:Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1960.

Carter, a ghostwriter for President Frank-lin D. Roosevelt who describes that role in thisintriguing book, attributes the modern importanceand dependence upon ghostwriting to the microphonebecause of its ability to provide ready access tovast audiences. Carter describes what he callsthree methods of approach to the business of speechghostwriting: judicial, Roosevelt's approach;executive, President Harry S. Truman's approach;and legislative, Thomas E. Dewey's approach.

Devlin, L. Patrick. Contemporary Political Speaking.Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing Co., Inc.,1971.

Devlin interviewed one of Vice PresidentHubert Humphrey's ghostwriters, who wrote speechesexclusively although his official title implied adifferent type of work. Because of the heavy demandsupon the time of the President and the Vice Presi-dent, they must rely upon ghostwriters, resultingin their becoming so adept at delivering the wordsof their ghostwriters that "few listeners realizethat these words are not the words of the speakerhimself." The position of President, with itsheavy concern for national security, demands manu-script speeches, implying a corresponding need fordetailed research. Devlin addresses the ethics ofghostwriting but does not take a firm Position.

Gibson, James W. A Reader in Sreech Communication. NewYork: ncGraw-Hill Eook Co., 1971.

Without comment, Gibson includes ErnestG. Bormann's "Ethics of Ghostwritten Speeches"from the Quarterly Journal of Speech, MLVII(October, 1961), pp. 262-267.

Harlan, Gene, and Scott, Alan. Contemporary Public Rela-tions: Principles and Cases. Englewood Cliffs,N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1956.

Harlan and Scott advise the public rela-tions agency's ghostwriters to study their clientsbefore attempting to draft their speeches.

5

Harlow, Rex F., and Black, Marvin M. Practical PublicRelations, Its Foundations, Divisions, Tools andPractices. New York: Harper and Brothers,Publishers, 1947.

In a chapter discussing public speaking ingeneral as a function of a public relations firm,Harlow and Black suggest, almost in passing, thata ghostwriter should know his principal beforeattempting to provide a speech for him.

. Practical Public Relations. Rev. ed. New York:Harper and Brothers, Publishers, 1952.

Harlow and Black advise the public rela-tions agency's ghostwriters to study their clientsbefore composing speeches for them.

Hendrix, James A., and Polisky, Jerome B. Rhetorical Cri-ticism: Methods and Models. Dubuque, Icwa:Wm. C. Brown Book Co., 1968.

With brief comment, Hendrix and Poliskyinclude Robert N. Hall's "Lyndon Johnson's SpeechPreparation" from the Quarterly Journal of Speech,LI (April, 1965), pp. 168-176.

Henry, Sohn M., ed. The Articulates. Indianapolis: Hobbs-Merrill, 1957.

Anonymous essay on how ghostwriters operatein political campaigns.

Hiebert, Ray Eldon, and Spitzer, Carlton E., eds. The Voiceof Government. New York: John Wiley and Sons,Inc., 1968.

The authors quote a federal governmentghostwriter as saying far too much has been madeof the role of the ghostwriter in government, tothe point that the public believes, erroneously,that it is the ghostwriter and not the federalofficial who is making public policy.

Jeffrey, Robert C. and Peterson, Owen. Speech: A Textwith Adapted Readings. New York: Harper andRow, Publishers, 1971.

Although the text of this book does notaddress itself to ghostwriting, the authors useas their adapted readings several articles onghostwriting, including one by Eric Sevareidchiding American University in Washington, D. C.for offering a course in ghostwriting in 1952-53.

Kennedy, George. The Art of Persuasion in Greece. Prince-ton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1963.

Explains in detail the rise and spread oflogography (ghostwriting) in the ancient Greekworld, probably the most complete information onthe business of ghostwriting during its earlyyears. Since the business of ghostwriting haschanged but little over the centuries, Kennedy'sbook is an invaluable tool for both the historicalcritic and the modern practicing ghostwriter.

McCroskey, James C. An Introduction to Rhetorical Communi-cation. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-HallInc., 1968.

Defends the practice of ghostwriting asbeing amoral and, sometimes, essential, especiallyin the political arena in which candidates arerequired to make numerous speeches daily.

Nichols, Marie Hochmuth. Rhetoric and Criticism. BatonRouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1963.

Nichols warns the rhetorical critic tobeware of the ghostwriter: "Unless the origin ofthought is ascribed to its originator, accurateassessment of a speech from a rhetorical point ofview is difficult, to say the least." Nicholssays the c:Atic learns to understand the speakerthrough his writing and speaking, and "accurateunderstanding and attribution are imperative andgo hand in hand." Arguing that the student ofpublic address can hardly find a redeeming featurein ghostwriting, Nichols says the group mind istaking over what was considered the most individualthing of all: a man's thought.

Nielander, William A., and Miller, Raymond W. PublicRelations. New York: The Ronald Press Co.,1951.

Nielander and Miller advise the publicrelations agency's ghostwriters to study theirclients before attempting to write their speechesand to review the completed speeches with theirclients several times to ensure that the idiosyn-cracies of the client are incorporated into thespeech.

Oliver, Robert T. History of Public Speaking in America.Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc.. 1965.

Oliver makes this evaluation of ghostwriting:"The new age of the ghost-writer was coming in[in President Woodrow Wilson's administratiorij.The speaker henceforth was to be less the origina-tor and the architect of policies and more theirexpositor and defender. Skill in speech would beno less important in the new day; but it would bea skill of a somewhat different kind."

Pimlott, John A. R. Public Relations and American Democracy.Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1951.

Saying that ghostwriting is inevitable inlarge organizations--particularly politics andgovernment--Pimlott questions whether any distinc-tion exists between the speech ghostwriter andother advisors who help prepare speeches. He saysthat ghostwriters may improve the content ofspeeches, but they flatten out individuality inthe process.

Sevareid, Eric. In One Ear. New York: Knopf, 1952.Objects strenuously to the proposal by

American University in Washington, D. C., to offera ghostwriting course in 1952-53. In his criti-cism, Sevareid wrote the now-famous denunciationof ghostwriting: ". . .a man's own words are aman's own self."

Thonssen, Lester; Baird, A. Craig; and Braden, Waldo W.Speech Criticism. 2nd ed. New York: The RonaldPress Co., 1970.

The authors discuss logography and logog-raphers of ancient Greece. They turn to modernghostwriting and implications for the rhetoricalcritic, urging the critic to determine the actualrelationship between the ghostwriter and hisprincipal before addressing himself to thecriticism of the speech.

Scholarly Journals

Alberts, Robert C. "So Your Boss Wants a Speech," PublicRelations Journal, XXIII (July, 1967), 20-22.

After discussing the importance of speech-making, Alberts suggests the rules of speechwritingshould be mastered but may be broken for effect.Among the rules are those of clear writing throughrepetition and restatement of ideas, short sentences,and broad use of active voice and simple declara-tive sentences. The ghostwriter should not confusehimself with his principal in the sense that it isthe principal who is making the decisions.

Avery, William T. "Roman Ghost writers,' Classical Journal,LIV (1958-1959). 167-169.

One of the few accounts of ghostwriting inancient Rome, offering plausible evidence thatSeneca was Nero's ghostwriter and that Trachaluswas Otho's ghostwriter.

Bart, Peter. "The Busy Ghosts," Today's Speech, XII(February, 1964), 21, 33.

Bart suggests that, although ideally theghostwriter should work closely with his principal,realistically the ghostwriter in the businessworld works almost entirely without direction fromhis principal. As a result, the ghostwriter tendsto give his businessman principal a speech filledwith stereotyped ideas, much the same as thecommonplaces provided by the ancient Greek logog-raphers for standard occasions.

9

Beall, Paul R. "Ghost Ghostwriting," Quarterly Journalof Speech, XLVIII (February, 19G2), 70-71.

With tongue in cheek, Beall sets up ahypothetical situation in which a student hiresa ghostwriter to prepare a classwork speech andn)t only receives an A for the course but also ascholarship to another university. Then Beallquestions whether the student cheated.

Benson, Thomas. "Conversation with a Ghost," Today'sSpeech, XVI (November, 1968), 71-81.

Almost verbatim an interview with Ghost-writer Josef Berger, a Guggenheim Fellow whowrote speeches for several elected and appointedfederal officials in Washington, D. C. Bergerdescribes his method:: of ghostwriting, illustrat-ing his points with anecdotes about some of theprincipals for whom he worked. Berger's rulesfor ghostwriting include making the principalcompose as much of the speech as possible throughthe question-answer method of interviewing,detailed note-taking, and detailed audienceanalysis. Berger views ghostwriting as a craftand the ghostwriter as a craftsman and, therefore,the ghostwritten speeches as belonging to theprincipal rather than to the ghost--iter.

. "Inaugurating Peace: Franklin D. Roosevelt'sLast Speech," Speech Monographs, XXXVI (June,1969), 138-147.

Calling the preparation of PresidentFranklin D. Roosevelt's last, and undelivered,speech a form of "ghostwriting by consignment,"Benson explains and evaluates the contributionsof various ghostwriters to the April 13, 1945speech. He establishes that Josef Berger wasthe ghostwriter whose initial draft providedthe basis for the speech, that Robert E. Sherwoodand Jonathan Daniels wrote one draft each, andthat Roosevelt himself made substantial changesbut contributed only one sentence of his own.

10

Bormann, Ernest G. "Ghostwriting Agencies," Today'sSpeech, IV (September, 1956), 20-23, 30.

Describes the growth and operation of theghostwriting agency found in nearly every majorpopulation center in the United States. T!iseagencies provide ghostwriters for any type ofwriting, including speeches, songs, poems, termpapers, theses, dissertations, and books. Bormannsecured his information largely from the yellowpages of telephone books and from correspondencewith ghostwriting agencies. Bormann questions theethics of ghostwriting and the ghostwriter's ownjustification for his existence.

. "Ghostwriting and the Rhetorical Critic,"Quarterly Journal of Speech, XLVI (October, 1960),284-288.

Bormann says the increase in the businessof ghostwriting stemmed from (a) an increase inbureaucracy and its demand that the spokesmanspeak the party line, and (b) the development ofthe mass communication media and its ability toreach vast audiences. The ghostwriter is mostdestructive znd subtle in the area of style, themost personal aspect of speechmaking. Rhetoricalcritics must know the author of the speech, heargues, because a speech, to be adequately evalua-ted, "must be viewed as an interaction of thespeaker with his environment."

. "Ethics of Ghostwritten Speeches," QuarterlyJournal of Speech, XLVII (October, 1961) , 262-267.

This is the article that fixed the positionof those who oppose ghostwriting. Bormann sayswithout qualification that deception is inherent inthe practice of ghostwriting, that the primarypurpose of a ghostwriter is to make the principalspeak more effectively than he could otherwise.The presence of the ghostwriter alters the languageof the speaker, changes his style and his character-istic mode of expression, thereby doing violence tothe delivered speech and confusing the rhetoricalcritic. If the audience is to know a candidatethrough what he speaks and writes, then he mustpresent himself as he really is, through his ownspeeches. ". . .if we believe in the importanceof speech, we must impose ethical standards . . .

upon everyone who presents himself and his ideasto an audience for acceptance," says Bormann.

11

. "Ghostwritten Speeches--A Reply," QuarterlyJournal of Speech, XLVII (December, 1961) ,

420-421.Bormann responds to Donald K. Smith's

challenge ("Ghostwritten Speeches," QuarterlyJournal of Speech, XLVII (December, 1961), 416-420), defining ghostwriting as "the practice ofusing collaborators to deceive the audience andmake the speaker appear better than he is."

Brandenberg, Ernest. "The Preparation of Franklin D.Roosevelt's Speeches," Quarterly Journal of Speech,XXXV (April, 1949), 214-221.

Brandenberg studied seventeen of FranklinD. Roosevelt's speeches and interviewed his personalstenographer concerning the details of his speechpreparation. According to the research, Rooseveltrelied upon several advisors for content and style,but served as the primary source of ideas and argu-ments and reserved to himself the final decisionon phraseology.

Brigance, W. Norwood. "Ghostwriting Before Franklin D.Roosevelt and the Radio," Today's Speech, IV(September, 1956), 10-12.

Traces briefly the history of ghostwritingduring the 2,300 years between Antiphon and Presi-dent Franklin D. Roosevelt, listing in the main thepresidential ghostwriters. Brigance laments thatlittle is known of the operating practices of theghostwriter.

Crowell, Laura. "The Building of the 'Four Freedoms'Speech," Speech Monographs, XXII (November, 1955),266-283.

Crowell says President Franklin D. Rooseveltcomposed the first draft of the "Four Freedoms"speech of January 6, 1941 and it was revised sixtimes by several ghostwriters. Nevertheless, thefinal product remained Roosevelt's own: his ideasand his style. Crowell delves deeply into themotivations for the changes in each draft in oneof the most detailed analyses of the ghostwritingprocess.

12

Cox, John H., and Cox, LaWanda. "Andrew Johnson andHis Ghostwriters: An Analysis of the Freedmen'sBureau and Civil Rights Veto Messages," Missis-sippi Valley Historical Review, XLVIII (December,1961), 460-479.

The Coxes speculate as to the authorshipof President Andrew Johnson's first two vetomessages, on the Freedmen's Bureau and CivilRights. Although they say it is impossible toascertain Johnson's role in formulating themessages, the Coxes say their study provides newinsights for understanding Johnson and his rela-tionships with his advisors, namely Henry Stanbery(who later became Attorney General), Secretaryof State William H. Seward, and Secretary of theNavy Gideon Welles.

Donohue, James F. "How To Use the Fourth Person Singular,"Public Relations Journal, XXVI (March, 1970), 24-25.

The "fourth person singular" is the "I" ofanother, or ghostwriting. Suggesting that theprincipal's acceptance of a ghostwritten speechis "in inverse proportion to the amount of ghostin it," Donohue recommends providing a complete-sentence outline of the proposed speech, followedby a detailed review of the outline with theprincipal before preparing the final text. Onlyin this manner, Donohue suggests, can the ideasand style of the principal be truly presented ina ghostwritten speech.

Ek, Richard A. "Working with a Ghost," Today's Speech,XV (April, 1967), 23-25.

Admitting the need for and the value of theghostwriter, Ek lists ten suggestions for the mosteffective and efficient implementation of theghostwriter's talents. In addition to such mundanematters as securing a competent ghostwriter andagreeing upon the fee, Ek recommends that theprincipal work personally with the ghostwriterthroughout the speech preparation stage, provideaccess to confidential material as required, heedthe ghostwriter's advice, and arrange for unbiasedcriticism of the delivered speech. Ek's sugges-tions are directed toward the principal and hisrelationship with the ghostwriter.

13

Farrar, Larston D. "How To Be a Ghost for Profit,"Author and Journalist, XLII (October, 1957),13-15.

Although Farrar describes the techniquesof ghostwriting books, magazine articles, andother printed matter, his recommendations maywell be applied to speech ghostwriting. Farrarsuggests that the successful speech ghostwriteris one who knows how to handle words effectivelyin expressing ideas and presenting to the publicthe best image of his principal. Nevertheless,he warns the potential ghostwriter to protect hisreputation by investigating thoroughly his prin-cipal and his organization to ensure that theiractual aims are to help society.

Freshley, Dwight L. "Gubernatorial Ghost Writers,"Southern Speech Journal, XXXI (Winter, 1965), 95-105.

In an effort to determine the attributes ofthe ghostwriters on the staffs of the nation'sfifty governors, Freshley sent questionnaires toeach governor in 1964, asking his assistance.Freshley received replies from thirty-one guberna-torial ghostwriters, from which he determined thecharacteristics of the ghostwriters, includingtheir preparation for ghostwriting, their operatingprocedures, and the factors that influenced theirtheory of ghostwriting.

"Ghost Writing Bureau," Current History, LII (May, 1941), 49.Discusses the operations of one of the

first ghostwriting bureaus in Washington, D. C.Quotes its director as saying ghostwriting providesa service much the same as that of an assistant whocomposes business letters.

Golden, James L. "John F. Kennedy and the.'Ghosts,"Quarterly Journal of Speech, LII (December, 1966),348-357.

Through information from some of PresidentJohn F. Kennedy's ghostwriter-advisors and throughnewspaper accounts, Golden says Kennedy was theprincipal architect of his speeches, usually suggest-ing the guidelines, providing the ideas, and editingthe final draft. Occasionally, Kennedy prepared theentire speech without the aid of his ghostwriters.

14

Hall, Richard W. "The Doppelganger Effect," PublicRelations Journal, XXV (February, 1969), 21-22.

Suggests that the effective ghostwriterwill become a "doppelganger," a wraith-likedouble of the principal, and suggests how bestto achieve this result: interview the principalto learn facts for the speech and to evaluatehis personal style. Hall warns the ghostwriter,through anecdotes, of the pitfalls of writinga speech for himself rather than for the principal.

Hall, Robert N. "Lyndon Johnson's Speech Preparation,"Quarterly Journal of Speech, LI (April, 1965),167-176.

Hall says political speeches are notwritten, they are rewritten, by the principal'sghostwriters. President Lyndon B. Johnson, whorelied heavily upon manuscript speaking, said hehad no particular rules for speech writing.Although Johnson relied upon various individualmembers of his staff of eighty aides according tothe topic of the speech and the occasion, he puthis trust in George Reedy, his press secretary,for the final decision on content before the draftwas given to the President. Regardless of whoprepared the speech, the delivered speech was pureJohnson, replete with his own style and ideas.

Heinen, R. W. "Ghostwriting in Departments of the FederalGovernment," Central States Speech Journal, VII(Spring, 1956), 10-12.

Heinen, an administrator for a federalagency, describes his role as a part-time ghost-writer, one forced by the job he holds to writespeeches for his boss. Heinen urges speechinstructors to accept the existence of ghostwritingand to teach its techniques.

Huebner, Lee W. "The Debater, the Speechwriter and theChallenge of Public Persuasion," Journal of theAmerican Forensic Association, VII (Winter, 1970),1-12.

A ghostwriter on President Richard M.Nixon's staff, Huebner includes in a forensicassociation speech some information on what Nixonrequires of a ghostwriter.

Massoth, Clifford G. "That Sneech-Writing Chore," PublicRelations Journal, XVI (April, 1960), 19-21.

Although much of nassoth's article suggestssome of the mechanics of speech preparation,research, and delivery, he does defend the businessof ghostwriting as being ethical. Moreover, heattributes to the ghostwriter alone the foresighted-ness of analyzing the audience in advance ofpreparing the speech. The effective ghostwriterwill write from the viewpoint of his principal, andwill provide him with memorable phrases that couldbe picked up by the news media.

May, Ernest R. "Ghost Writing and History," AmericanScholar, XXII (1952 -1953) , 459-465.

Deplores the reliance by history's leadersupon ghostwriters because they build an impene-trable thicket around the historical truth, foggingthe testimony of firsthand observers. Fortunately,though, he argues, ghostwritten documents usuallyare factual because the ghostwriters tend to verifythe facts. It is not the ghostwriters but theirprincipals who are at once "the culprits and thevictims in this conspiracy against history."

"The Month at Random," Wilson Bulletin for Librarians,V (May, 1931) , 594-596.

Discusses ghostwriting in general, and inthe field of literature and newspaper and magazinewriting in particular.

Oliver, Robert T. "Syngman A Case Study in Tran-sitional Oratory," Quarterly Journal of Speech,XLVIII (April, 1962), 115-127.

After describing the life and achievementsof Korea President Syngman Rhee, Oliver, who servedas Rhee's ghostwriter, describes in some detail hisassociation with Rhee. Oliver defends the practiceof ghostwriting as ethical, saying it was his jobto help Rhee to be as effective as he wanted to bethrough presenting his own ideas in his own style.As a result of their long, intimate relationship,Oliver says his speech drafts actually were Rhee'sideas couched in Rhee's phraseology.

16

Ray, Robert F. "Ghostwriting in Presidential Campaigns,"Central States Sneech Journal, VIII (Fall, 1956)8-11. (Also Today's Speech, IV (September, 1956) ,

13 -15.)

Arguing in favor of ghostwriting, Ray askschallengingly why a man should be praised for beingwell-advised but censured for relying upon a ghost-writer. It is preposterous to believe the ghost-writer manipulates his principal. Ray describesthe speech preparation of candidates Franklin D.Roosevelt and Thomas E. Dewey during the 1944presidential campaign.

Scott, Lionel. "No Ghost Wrote 'The Four Freedoms'--TheyEvolved," Western Speech, XV (March, 1951), 56-57.

Quoting Ghostwriter Robert E. Sherwood assaying that no ghostwriter wrote President FranklinD. Roosevelt's "Four Freedoms" speech of January 6,1941, Scott traces the development of the fourfreedoms from various Roosevelt speeches and newsconferences in 1939 and 1940.

Smith, Donald K. "Ghostwritten Speeches," Quarterly Journalof Speech, XLVII (December, 1961), 416-420.

Challenges Ernest G. Bormann's charge("Ethics of Ghostwritten Speeches," QuarterlyJournal of Speech, XLVII (October, 1961), 262-267)that ghostwriting is unethical. Smith questionsthe propriety of Bormann's denunciation of allghostwriting, and of including in his blanketdenunciation both the cheating student and thePresident, both of whom rely upon ghostwriters.Smith suggests examining the context in whichghostwriting occurs before making a judgment.

17

. "The Speech-writing Team in a State PoliticalCampaign," Today's Sceech, IV (September, 1956),16-19.

Analyzes the successful 1954 campaignof Orville L. Freeman for governor of Minnesota,concluding that the public speaking activitiesare a minor portion of the overall campaigneffort. 1e suggests that all of the ghostwritingactivities are based upon the campaign policiesand must adhere rigidly, reinforcing other facetsof the campaign. Much of Smith's article describesthe inner workings of a political campaign. Smithargues that the question of ethics need not beraised concerning ghostwriting because the princi-pal assumes the responsibility for his utterances,regardless of who wrote them, and because publicofficials should not take the time away from theirofficial duties to compose their own speeches.

Spitzer, Carlton E. "Case for the Honest Ghost," PublicRelations Journal, XIX (November, 1963), 11-12, 14.

In an effort to defend ghostwriting, Spitzersays it cannot be intrinsically evil. As a group,he says, ghostwriters represent a powerful influencefor truth and objectivity. The ghostwriter'sproduct, generally, reflects his principal. Never-theless, the principal should challenge and changehis ghostwritten speech because it represents onlya recommendation. Generally, those who rely uponghostwriters do so only to conserve time.

Starr, Douglas P. "The Ghost at Work," Public RelationsJournal, XXVII ('larch, 1971) , 10-11.

Describes in detail the techniques employedby the nine ghostwriters who wrote speeches forFlorida's seven elected officials, details securedthrough interviews with the ghostwriters. and theirprincipals. Operating completely openly, the ghost-writers also serve the function of press liaison,a function they serve well, having been, by andlarge, members of the press themselves beforebecoming ghostwriters.

18

. "Ghosts in the Florida Statehouse." Quar-terly Journal of Speech, LVII (February, 1971),97101.

This article is Starr's abstract of hismaster of arts thesis, The article centers on adescription of how the state governmental ghost-writers ply their craft. He recommends thatuniversities initiate speech ghostwriting coursesto provide the ghostwriter with greater understand-ing of his business and give him greater skill anda sense of ethics.

. "Ghosts in the Statehouse: A Study of theSpeechwriting Operations of Ghostwriters inFlorida's State Capitol." Unpublished M. A.thesis, The Florida State University, 1970.

Starr interviewed each of the nine speechghostwriters for Florida's seven statewide electedofficials, including the governor, in an effortto determine their methods of operation, theirviews on the business of ghostwriting, and theirbackgrounds and preparation for their tasks. Eachghostwriter defended his job as ethical, labelingit largely mechanical and a necessary part ofgovernment. Starr urges the establishment of ghost-writing courses at the university level to provideacademic leadership and ethical input.

Stelkovis, Walter J. "Ghostwriting: Ancient and Honorable,"Today's Speech, II (January, 1954), 17-19.

The speech profession largely ignores ghost-writing, although the business dates back to ancientGreece. Stelkovis offers two Principles upon whichto judge the acceptability of ghostwriting: Aris-totle's principle that the speaker must have someknowledge of the topic, which the ghostwriterprovides; and ghostwriter J. Douglas Knox's prin-ciple that the ghostwriter must know his principal'sbackground and style to produce a proper speech.

White, Eugene E., and Henderlider, Clair R. "What HarryS. Truman Told Us About His Speaking," QuarterlyJournal of Speech, XL (February, 1954), 37-42.

To determine President Harry S. Truman'sviews on public speaking and speechwriting, Whiteand Henderlider interviewed him in detail forforty minutes. Reconstructing his statements fromtheir notes, White and Henderlider present Truman'sideas in the first person, generally in his ownwords, his relationship with his ghostwriters andhis evaluation of the ghostwriting process. Trumansays he would list the major points he wanted in aspeech and the ghostwriters would gather the neces-sary data and prepare the first of several drafts.Truman says he reviewed every draft and suggestednumerous changes, which, of course, were incor-porated.

Windes, Russel, Jr. "Adlai E. Stevenson's Speech Staff inthe 1956 Campaign," Quarterly Journal of Speech,XLVI (February, 1960), 32-43.

Windes interviewed thirty-one members ofAdlai E. Stevenson's ghostwriter-advisor staff todetermine the techniques of his operation on thepresidential campaign trail. One key techniquewas the broad use of an "issue book," a bookcomprising separate papers on each policy pointin the campaign that served as a ready referencefor ghostwriters. Stevenson, who disapproved ofusing ghostwriters himself, was forced to relyupon them because of the tremendous demand upon himfor public addresses during the campaign.

Popular Journals

Butterfield, Roger. "Ghostwriters," Life, July 5, 1968,pp. 62-64.

Goes behind the famous statements ofhist)ry's leaders and cites the sources of suchphrLses as Abraham Lincoln's ". . .government ofthe people, by the people, and for the people."He attributes the modern boom in ghostwriting totYe electronic public address system, radio, andtelevision, all of which are major means ofreaching vast audiences.

20

"The Capital: The Trouble with Ghosts," Time, December 5,1949, p. 25.

Cites Kingland, Commissioner of Patentsv. Dorsey, 338 U. S. 318 (1949) in which UnitedStates Supreme Court Justice Robert Jackson saysthat ghostwriting of books had debased theintellectual currency of the nation, as a pointof departure to discuss ghostwriting in generalin federal offices.

Dart, Rufus, II. "The Ventriloquists of Washington,"Scribner's Magazine, XCII (November, 1932), 268-274.

Dart holds ghostwriting in low esteem,saying that ghostwriters serve as ventriloquistsfor the dummies their principals become and forwhom the ghostwriters do all the thinking. Whatmakes Dart's article particularly interesting isthe fact that it was written before Franklin D.Roosevelt became President and established ghost-writing on a grand scale. Nevertheless, Dartdenounces ghostwriting, saying it engendersinvisible government that could result in the fallof democracy in the United States. In support ofhis thesis, Dart cites anecdotes in the politicallives of senators and Presidents.

Farrar, Larston D. "Live Ghosts in Washington," AmericanMercury, November, 1956, pp. 108-119.

Describes, almost ungraciously, theactivities and antics of not only some of the majorghostwriters for the better-known principals in thefederal government, but also of the principalsthemselves. Some of his descriptions imply thatthe business of ghostwriting is a necessary evil,almost the butt of a joke on elected officialswho rely upon the practice. Nevertheless, he doesprovide some insight into the business, largelyfrom the vantage point of an insider, insightnot ordinarily available elsewhere.

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Fuess, Claude M. "Ghosts in the White House," AmericanHeritage, X (December, 1958), 45-47, 97-99.

Says that although ghostwriting should becontinued as a necessary adjunct to government,ghostwriters tend to dilute powerful speeches.Yet, he cites numerous contributions by ghost-writers of such memorable phrases as "rendezvouswith destiny" and the humorous, rhythmic sequenceof "Martin, Barton, and Fish." And he lamentsthe absence of a ghostwriter from the staff ofPresident Grover Cleveland, who, he says, "couldat least have supplied . . .a little warmth,color, and human appeal." The basis of Fuess'article is a description of the ghostwritingoperations of many of the Presidents' staffs.

"Ghost Writers Give Boss the Word," Business Week,January 21, 1967, pp. 72-74.

Describes the role of the ghostwriter incorporations, saying the continuing demand forspeeches by corporation executives, coupled withthe other pressures of the business world, makesthe ghostwriter indispensable in business.

"Guiding the Ghost," Newsweek, February 4, 1952, p. 71.Discusses the controversy surrounding the

announcement by American University in Washington,D. C., that it planned to offer a course in ghost-writing (in 1952-53), taught by a professor whodoubled as a federal agency ghostwriter.

Heckler, Louis R. "Getting Your Point Across," The MilitaryJournalist, VII (Spring, 1972), 20-21.

Describes the results of a 1971 survey ofgraduates of the United States Army Defense Infor-mation School at Fort Benjamin Harrison, Indiana,37 per cent of whom reported some ghostwritingactivities following graduation. As a result,the school incorporated into its speechwritingcourse some information on ghostwriting.

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Johnson, Seneca. "In Defense of Ghost Writing," Harper'sMagazine, CLXXIX (October, 1939), 536-543.

Johnson, a pen name for J. K. Atkins,defends ghostwriting, saying it is socially use-ful and has earned the status of respectability.Moreover, ghostwriting is a manifestation of theprinciples of division of labor and mass produc-tion. All writing is not the same, he says,giving as an example Shakespeare's "Hamlet" andthe housewife's grocery list. Unethical ghost-writing is that which "misrepresents the role ofthe principal" and ethical ghostwriting is thatwhich does not misrepresent either the role orthe function of the principal. Ethical ghost-writing has been regarded as commonplace forcenturies.

"Notes and Comment," The New Yorker, February 23, 1952,p. 23.

Chides American University in Washington,D. C., for offering (in 1952-53) a course inghostwriting, and denounces ghostwritten speechescategorically as being less than great.

Roberts, Charles. "A Presidential Ghost Story," Newsweek,January 11, 1971, pp. 21-22.

Uses President Richard M. Nixon's pending1971 State of the Union Message as a point ofdeparture to discuss the ghostwriting activitiesof other Presidents. The article includes inter-views with several presidential ghostwriters dis-cussing the ethics of ghostwriting.

Rovere, Richard H. "The Minds of Barry Goldwater,"Harper's Magazine, CCXXIX (September, 1964), pp.37-42.

Denounces Senator Barry Goldwater as beingincapable of being President, largely because ofhis heavy reliance upon ghostwriters. He quotesGoldwater as saying he had sixteen ghostwriterson his staff who wrote speeches, books, and news-paper columns under his name. Rovere asks theintriguing question of whether the author of recordof ghostwritten matter is bound to adhere to thepositions delineated by his ghostwriters. Unfor-tunately, Rovere does not provide a definiteanswer.

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Stern, Edith M. "The Cash-and-no-Credit Business,"Saturday Review of Literature, XXIII (October 26,1940), pp. 11-12.

Discusses the rise of the business ofghostwriting since 1940, describing its spreadinto nearly every facet of society. Stern viewsghostwriting as a labor-saving device, a deviceto help the public understand its leaders andto help the leaders reach their audiences. "Menalready distinguished in their particular fieldsare not looking for literary laurels, but for amedium of expression," she says in defense ofghostwriting.

"Stevenson's Ghost Writers: 'Big Names' Lend Hand . . .

New Dealers Chip In, Too . . .But Adlai DistillsHis Own Quips," U. S. News and World Report,September 26, 1952, pp. 57-59.

Provides thumbnail sketches of Adlai E.Stevenson's ghostwriters and advisors during his1952 Presidential campaign, and the roles theyplayed. In general, the speeches as deliveredwere Stevenson's own product; and he often wrotehis own speeches based upon the ghostwrittendrafts.

"Term-Paper Hustlers," Time, April 19,-1971, p. 67.Discusses several ghostwriting agencies

specializing in university term papers, sayingthat the universities are powerless to actagainst this threat to academic morality. More-over, it is the student, not the ghostwriter,who is guilty, say the universities.

"When Johnson Plans a Speech," U. S. News and WorldReport, February 3, 1964, p. 33.

Discusses the difference in ghostwritingneeds between President Lyndon B. Johnson andPresident John F. Kennedy, and describes someof the ground rules for ghostwriting Johnsonestablished. The article says that the ghost-writer collects the data and prepares the draftsof the speeches, but it is the President himselfwho decides what he will say and how he will sayit.

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Newspapers

Bendiner, Robert. "Ghosts Behind the Speechmakers,"The New York Times Magazine, August 17, 1952,pp. 15, 36.

Seeks to justify the business of ghost-writing as a craft needed in the offices of manytop-level public officials whose expertise doesnot include speechwriting. One justification isthat public officials must make many publicaddresses and simply do not have the time toprepare them. Bendiner lists briefly the essentialattributes and techniques of ghostwriting.

Lallos, Robert E. "A Term Paper Tycoon Sells Ghosts ofChance," St. Petersburg Times, January 23, 1972,p. 21-A.

Describes the operations of Term Papers,Unlimited, an agency dealing in ghostwritten termpapers for university students. Quotes the founderas saying he became a millionaire within six months,selling ghostwritten term papers from $2 to $4 perpage. Some universities expel students who relyupon ghostwriters for term papers.

Evans, Rowland, and Novak, Robert. "Priest Vetoed AsNixon's Speechwriter?" St. Petersburg Times,June 14, 1971, p. 15-A.

Evans and Novak speculate on reports thatthe Rev. Father John McLaughlin, a Jesuit, wouldnot be accepted as a member of President RichardM. Nixon's ghostwriting staff.

"Ghost Term Papers Spread West," Tallahassee Democrat,February 24, 1972, p. 22.

Describes the preparation and sale ofuniversity term papers by ghostwriting agencies,and the concern of educators who want laws banningsuch practices. Explains the spread of TermPapers, Unlimited, from the east coast to thewest coast.

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Gilroy, Harry. "Survey of the Ghost Writers," TheNew York Times Magazine, March 27, 1949, pp. 20,60-61, 63.

A former governmental ghostwriter, Gilroyscathingly denounces the business of ghostwriting,saying that public officials who must rely uponghostwriters do not belong in public life. More-over, ghostwriting, although not basically evil,is a form of deception and engenders cynicism anddissolves trust among people. He calls upon thepublic to vote against candidates for publicoffice who rely upon ghostwriters.

Honan, William H. "The Men Behind Nixon's Speeches," TheNew York Times Magazine, January 19, 1969, pp. 20-21, 63, 65-67, 73, 75.

A lightly written article published shortlybefore President Richard M. Nixon delivered hisinaugural address in 1969. Provides brief des-criptions of the four ghostwriters Nixon selected:Raymond K. Price, Jr.: Patrick J. Buchanan,William F. Gavin, and William Safire, all accom-plished writers and politically knowledgeable.Honan describes the writing styles of each of thefour men, with the implied invitation to try yourhand at discovering which one wrote what portionsof Nixon's speeches.

"Move Underway to Curb Term Paper Ghost Writing," Talla-hassee Democrat, March 1, 1972, p. 18.

Detailed explanation of the operations ofTerm Papers, Unlimited, from its inception in1970. Discusses state governmental efforts toenact laws banning the sale of ghostwritten termpapers to students in universities and colleges.

Phillips, Kevin P. "Playboy Padre, Nixon Speechwriter aPriest," Tallahassee Democrat, August 2, 1971,P. 4.

Discusses the personality and backgroundof the Rev. Father John McLaughlin, a Jesuitwho joined President Richard M. Nixon's staff asa ghostwriter.

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Roche, John P. "The Speechmakers Vs. The Speechwriter,"St. Petersburg Times, December 3, 1970.

Discusses the relationship betweenpolitical leaders and their ghostwriters, usingas a point of departure the question whether aghostwriter drafted a 1970 election-eve speechfor Presidential candidate Senator Edmund Muskie.His analysis brings in some of the activities ofother ghostwriters and their principals.

Shearer, Lloyd. "How Two Brothers Struck It Rich,"Parade Magazine, August 29, 1971, pp. 6-7.

Detailed discussion of the inner workingsof Term Papers, Unlimited, a ghostwriting agencyin Boston, Massachusetts, specializing in univer-sity term papers. Ward Warren, one of the founders,is quoted as saying the term papers are sold withthe admonition that they are not to be passed offas the product of the purchaser.

Taylor, Henry J. "Men Behind Kennedy, Who Are GhostWriters?" Tallahassee Democrat, April 30, 1971,p. 4.

Taylor obviously despises the business ofghostwriting, describing it as an evil that mustbe abolished. The business of ghostwriting is abusiness of deception, misrepresentation, hypocrisy,insincerity, and intellectual dishonesty. Taylorcoins the terms "ghost-speaker" and "ghost-reader"for those who deliver ghostwritten speeches with-out crediting the author. The Kennedy he mentionsis Senator Edward M. Kennedy.

"Their Business--Term Papers, To Order," St. PetersburgTimes, January 12, 1970.

Describes the operations of WeinsteinResearch Agency. of Bridgeport, Connecticut, aghostwriting agency dealing in university termpapers.

Van Gieson, John. "Writer Polishes Image of Askew,"Tallahassee Democrat, July 25, 1971, p. 10-A.(Also "Writer Puts Words in Governor's Mouth,"St. Petersburg Times, August 22, 1971, p. 9-B.)

This Associated Press dispatch (publishedin two different newspapers a month apart) carriesthe results of an interview with Roland Page, oneof Florida Governor Reubin O'D. Askew's ghostwriters.Page describes briefly his own background and someof the details of his ghostwriting duties.

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