DOCUMENT RESUME - ERIC · DOCUMENT RESUME ED 262 957 SE 046 ... "Regional Applications of Solar...
Transcript of DOCUMENT RESUME - ERIC · DOCUMENT RESUME ED 262 957 SE 046 ... "Regional Applications of Solar...
DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 262 957 SE 046 047
TITLE Sustainable Development of Natural Resources in theThird World: Technological and InstitutionalChallenges. An International Symposium (Columbus, OH,September 3-6, 1985).
INSTITUTION Ohio State Univ., Columbus. School of NaturalResources.
SPONS AGENCY Argonne National Lab., Ill.PUB DATE 85NOTE 71p.PUB TYPE Collected Works - Conference Proceedings (021) --
Reference Materials - Bibliographies (131)
EDRS PRICE MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTC1C Abstracts; Agriculture; Alternative Energy Sources;
*Developing Nations; *Economic Development; Energy;Environmental Education; Forestry; *Fuels; GovernmentRole; *Natural Resources; Performance Factors; *WaterResources
IDENTIFIERS *Environmental Management; *Renewable Resources
ABSTRACTThis booket contains abstracts of papers presented at
a symposium which focused on sustainable development of naturalresources in third world countries. The abstracts are organized underthese headings: (1) factors affecting individual's resource usedecisions; (2) resource conservation and economic development; (3)research on alternative agricultural and forestry systems; (4)renewable energy technologies; (5) fuelwood development: policyissues and case studies; (6) alcohol fuels: policy issues; (7)private sector and government roles in renewable resourcedevelopment; (8) identifying strategies for renewable resourcemanagement in the public sector; and (9) water resource management.Abstracts of keynote presentations and a copy of the symposiumprogram are also included. (IN)
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Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.
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TECHNOLOGICAL
US. DEPARTMENT Of EDUCATIONNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONICENTER fERICI
This document has been reproduced asmewed from the person or organizationonginating It
0 Minor changes have boon made to improvereproduction quality
Points of view or opinions stated in this docu-t merit do not necessanly represent official N1E
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"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY
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TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES
IN THE TH!RD WORLD
AN INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM
SEPTEMBER 3-6, 1985HOLIDAY INN ON THE LANE328 WEST LANE AVENUECOLUMBUS, OHIO 43201
SPONSORED BY:
Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois
Dr. Sinyan Shen, Energy and Environmental
Systems Division
Tropical Renewable Resources Program, The Ohio
State University, Columbus, Ohio
Dr. Robert E. Roth & Dr. Douglas D. Southgate
The School of Natural Resources, The Ohio State
University, Columbus, Ohio
Dr. Craig B. Davis
3
Special thanks and appreciation for the production of this program go nut to:
The Staff of the School of Natural Resources, The Ohio State University, including:
Janice J. Gorsuch
Margie Pleas
Elizabeth A. Poeppetman
Jerri L. Ramage
Nignonne A. Whitlow
Rnudell Byrd Ohio State Extension Office
Emiel Cool, Lesher Printers, Inc., Fremont, Ohio
Cover: Don M. Mortensen
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pape
I. Presentations1
II. Abstracts11
*Steve McGaughey & "Soule Forestry and Sustainable Development" 13Hans Gregersen
FACTORS AFFECTING INDIVIDUAL'S RESOURCE USE DECISIONS
William C. Siegel & "Legal, Institutional and Social Influences on Third WurldRichard W. Guldin Precrene for Reforestation of Devoliaced Land" 15
Jill FL Belsky "Some Implications of Social Stratification and Multiple
Enterprises for Developing Sustainable Hillside Farms for
Small Producers" 15Stephen F. Siebert "Land use Intensification in Philippine Uplands; Effects
on Veget.live cover. Soil Fertility & Erosion" 16Steven E. Kraft "Performance Classification of Soils: The Farmers'
Perspective--Behavioral Implications for Policies of ResourceUtilization 17
*Richard Norgeard "The Economics of Biologioll Diversity" 10
RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
this Ugalde "Role of External Debt in Natural Resource Exploitation
(Precentor) in Latin America" by Dietmar W. Rose 20John E. Carroll "Environmental Quality and International Development:
Removing the Blinders" 20Norman Reek & "Ecnnmic Development and Demands on Agricultural Resources". . . 21Sneed NabeeeTabriz
Jan G. Leaman & "The Caribbean Basin Initiative: What Does it Mean forJohn Muench. Jr. Forestry? 21
Matthew Norman "Natural Resource Implications of Agricultural Development
Under the Caribbean Basin Initiative" 22Arnaldo Lomacho & "Cheap Credit and Sail Conservation: Some Issues" 23Douglas Southgate
Mohammed Mouseevien "Resource Based Development and the Dutch Disease: the
Rulevence of LP Models" 24Peter May. et. el. "The Subsidy from Nature: Secondary Successional Resources
in Rural Development" 25Peter May "Property Rights and the Tragedy of the "NonCommons":
The Casa of the Brazilian Babessu Palm Industry" 26
RESEARCH ON ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURAL AND FORESTRY SYSTEMSJake Halliday & "Sustaining the Productivity of Tropical AgriculturalMarvin Lamborg Systems" 27
i
5
S.K. Kapur &
Y.K. Sarin
M.P. Singh
Nancy K. Diamond
Joseph C. Roetheli &
J. Wayne Barrier
Rabindra N. Bhattacheryya &
Donald L. Snyder
Joseph D. Kasile &
Gregg Maxfield
Merlyn M. Larson
Sheila Bhattacharya,
P.K. Nacos &
M.E.N. Tolbert
Room Singh Thakur &
N.C. Joshi
*Amb. Sunil K. Roy
RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES
Robert E. Bailey, et. al.
John R. Hull
Richard J. Komp
Sri. R.G. Desai &
H. Basanna
Theodore Granovski &
Thomas B. Fricke
Harry Le Fontaine
(Presenter)
*Douglas Southgate &
Fred Hitzhusen
"Seasonal Variation in Plant Biomass and Net Productivity
of Some Important Minor Forest Products"
"Effect of Seed Rate and Spacing on the Primary Production
and Efficiency of Ph:moot:le Aureus Roxbr
"Potential for Technology Transfer of Two California Agro
forestry Systems to SemiArid Mediterranien Areas Worldwide". . .
"Forage Crop AgriRefinery: An Alternative for Producing
Food end Fuel in Developing Countries". .1
"Optimal Forest Rotation When Illegal Exploitation by Non
Operators Depletes Resource Stock"
"Determining Forest Energy Biomass"
27
28
28
29
30
30
"Seedling Production at Tropical Nurseries and Some Suggestions
to Improve Duality" 31
"Comparison of Effectiveness of Various Pretreatment
Nethnds on the Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Sweet Potato (Itiomosa
Batates L.) Biomass" 31
"Distribution and Cycling of Potassium in SoilVegetation
Components Around Pilani, Rajasthan, India" 32
"Sustainable Development of Natural Resources: The Human
Equation" 33
"Solar Pond Costing in the Dominican Republic" 24
"Regional Applications of Solar Ponds" 34
"Photovolteics as a Cottage Industry" 35
"Big Boon of the BioGeber Gas Plant the Case Studies in Sandur
Taluk, Karnatek, India" 39
"FamilySized Metal Grain Storage Bins of Central America:
A Case Study" 38
"Utilizing Wave Power" Research by Kim Nielsen 37
"Economic Analysis of Renewable Resource Conservation in the
Third World" 39
FUELWUOD DEVELOPMENT: POLICY ISSUES AND CASE STUDIES
John W. Tatom &
Kofi B. Bote
Simon Latraverse
(Presenter)
Gar" G. Naughton &
Wayne A. Geyer
G.H. Weever
Eric L. Hyman
"The Influence of Marketing and Government Policy on Biomass
Waste Conversion Technology in =a" 41
"Feasibility of a Short Coppice Rotation Plantation, A
Carbonization System, end the Conversion of e Cement Plant
in Central America" by Pedro Maldonado, et. el 42
"Economic Strategies for Locating Fuelwood Plantations" 43
"Scarcity of Woodfuel Energy: The Tanzanian Case" 43
"Decentralized Production and Distribution of an Appropriate
Technology for a Consumer Durable: The Kenyan Charcoal Stoves
Experience " 43
ii
Pradeep Kotemraju
Kemaruddin Abdullah
ALCOHOL FUELS: POLICY ISSUES
Florian R. Smoczynski
Dowlat Budhrem &
Norman Rask
Donald L. Day,
C.B. Pedlar &
M.P. Steinberg
"The 'Other' Energy Crisis and Economic Development: The Role
of Noncommercial Fuels in Indian Subsistence Agriculture" . . .
"Biomass as Energy Resources in Indonesia"
age
44
44
"The Brazilian Ethanol Program: An Overview" 46
"Sugarcanebased Ethanol: Potential Conflicts for CaribbeanCountries" 47
"Biogas and Fertilizer from Biomass in Developing Countries". . 47
PRIVATE SECTOR AND GOVERNMENT ROLES IN RENEWABLE RESOURCE DEVELOPMENTJoseph G. Massey,
Diane B. Badgley &
C. ALtan Jonas
Robert Walker
Edward M. Bilk*
Tom P. Abates &
David Ellsworth
William S. Dvorak
Robert E. Roth
"The Jamaica Forest Industries Development Company:
A Unique Program for Improving a Developing Country'sTimber Production" 49
"Sustainable Resource Exploitation and Multinational Behavior". 49"An Evaluation of Equity and NonEquity Org. ArrangementsUsed by U.S. WoodBased Firms in Their Foreign Operations". . . . 50"Infrastructure Insues in Private Sector Financing of
Renewable Energy Technology and Fuels in the Third World" 51"Development of an International Cooperative for the
Conservation of Threatened Coniferous Species in CentralAmerica and Mexico"
51
"Environmental Management Education: A Model for SustainableResources Development" 53
IDENTIFYING STRATEGIES FOR RENEWABLE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN THE PUBLIC SECTORDavid M. 0,termeier & "Training and Institutional Building A Key to NaturalEdward Buckner Resource Development"
Jo Ellen Force "Community Participation Training for Extension Forestersin India"
"Women Stitt Denied Access: An Institutional Challenge to
Sustainable Development in the Third World"
"Implementing Agroforestry in a Philippine Village"
"Sustainable Development of Fragile Lands: Differing Agendasin the West African Sahel"
"A LandUse Allocation Model for Development of Natural
Resources in Nepalese Hills"
"Implementing the World Conservation Strategy: Success
Stories from Central. America and Colombia"
"Agroforestry Extension for the Individual SubaistenceFarmer: A Strategy for Sahelian Reforestation"
D, Richard Smith
Roburt C. Salazar
David D. Gow
Kesheb M. Shakya
James Barborak
Gabriel Tucker
WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
W. Gerald Matlock
Ajith H. Parera
55
56
58
57
BB
59
59
80
"Application of Water Management Options in Arid Lends
Agricultural Development" 62"Developing a Self Sustained Forest Cover in the Mahaveli
Catchment of Sri Lanka: Problems and Some Solutions" 62
iii
7
Pane
Robin Gottfried & "Tropical Storms and the Problem of Erosion and Sedimentation
Jerry Ingles in Puerto Rico" 63
Thomas B. Fricke "Rainwater Collection and Storage Technology Dissemination in
Northeastern Thailand" 64
Sharda R. Gupta, "Watershed Management for Integrated Development of Morni Hills
V.K. Asthana & in NorthEast Haryana" 64
S.K. Rout
Rafael A. Veloz & "A TwoCompartment Cement BLock Tenk for Field Measurement of
Terry J. Logan Runoff and Erosion" 65
Scot E. Smith "Effect of Sub Saharan Drought on Water Resource Management in
Egypt" 65
*Lawrence Hamilton & "What are the Soil and Water Benefits of Planting Trees in
Andrew J. Pearce
Keynote Speakers
Developing Country Watersheds" 67
iv
PRESENTATIONS
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 4TH
TIME NAME & AFFILIATION
8:00
8:10
8:55
9:40
9:45
10:00
10:15
10:30
10:45
10:55
11:00
ROBERT BAILEYProfessor
Mech. Engineering
The Ohio State University
DAVID HANSENJoint Career Corps
USAID and The Ohio State University
STEVE MCGAUGHEYInter American Dev. Bank
HANS GREGERSENUniversity of Minnesota
ROBERT BAILEYProfessor
The Ohic State University
WILLIAM C. SIEGELProject Leader
Forest Resource Law & Economics
Forest Service
JILL M. BELSKYDept. of Rural Soc.
Cornell University
STEPHEN F. SIEBERTDept. of Nature'. Resources
Cornell University
STEVEN E. KRAFTAssociate Professor
Southern Illinois University
BREAK
BYRON BONDURANTProfessor
The Ohio State University
RICHARD NORGAARDUniversity of Ce. Berkeley
9
TITLE,
To introduce Dr. Hansen
The Social Dimension of Natural
Resources Management
Social Forestry and SustainableDevelopment
To introduce topic of "FactorsAffecting Individual's Resource
Use Decisions"
Legal, Institutional and Social
Influences on Third WorLd Programs for
Reforestation of Defoliated Lend
Some Implications of Social Stratifi
cation and Multiple Enterprises for
Developing Sustainable Hillside Farms
for Small Producers
Land Use Intensification in Philippine
Uplands: Effects on Vegetative Cover,
Soil Fertility and Erosion
Performance Classification of Soils:
The Femora' PerspectiveBehavioral
Implications for Policies of Resource
Utilization
To introduce Dr. Norgeerd
The Economics of Biological Diversity
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 4TH
TIME
11:45
NAME &_AFELLIAT1_014
DANIEL STRUVEAssistant Professor
Dept. of Nerticulture
The Ohio State University
11:50 LO Is UGALDEPh.D. Student
College of Forestry
University of Minnesota
12:05 JOHN E. CARROLLProfessor
Dept. of Forest Resources
Univ. of New Hampshire
12:20 NORMAN RASKProfessor, OAFEIC
SAEED NABAEE-TABR I ZPostdoctoral Res. Assoc.
Dept. of Ag. Econ. & Rural Soc.
The Ohio State University
12:35 JAN 6. LAARMANAssoc. Professor
School of Natural Resources
NC State University
JOHN MUENCH. JR .
Forest Enterprise Coord.
USDA Forest Service
12 : 51) MATTHEW NORMANDept. of Ag. Econ. & Rural Sociology
The Ohio State University
1 :05 ARNOLDO CAMACHODOUGLAS SOUTHGATEAsst. Professor, OA DC & Ag. Ed.
Dept. of Ag. Econ. & Rural Soc.
The Ohio State University
1 :20 LUNCH
2 00 MOHAMMAD MOUSSAV I AfiAssistant Professor & Senior
Research Associate
The Maxwell 21hoel
Syracuse University
2
TITLE
To introduce topic of, "Resource
Conservation and Economic Development"
Role of External Debt in Natural
Resource Exploitation in Latin
America
Environmental Quality and Internation
al Development: Removing the Blinders
Economic Development and Demands on
AgricutturaL Resources
The Caribbean Basin Initiative: What
Does it Meen for Forestry?
Natural Resource Implications of Agri
cultural Development Underths Carib
bean Basin Initiative
Cheep Credit and Soil Conservation:
Some Issues
Resource Based Development and the
Dutch Disease: the Relevance of LP
Models
10
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 4TH
TIME NAME & AFFILIATION
2:15 PETER MAYInternational, Ag. Program
Cornell University
ANTHONY ANDERSONMuseu Perm:nee Emilio Goeldi
2:30 PETER MAYInternational Ag. Program
Cornell University
2:45 CRAIG DAVISDirector
The School of Natural. Resources
The Ohio State University
2:50 JAKE HALLIDAYDl rector
MARVIN LAMBORGAssoc. Director
Battelle-Kettering Research
3:05
3:20
3:35
S.K. KAPURRegional. Research Lab
Jamu Tewi, India
Lab
M.P. SINGHAssistant Professor of Botany
Bhopal, India
NANCY K. DIAMONDGraduate Student
California Polytechnic State
University
3:50 JOSEPH C. ROETHELIAssistant Manager
TVA
4:05 BREAK
4:20 RAB I NORA N. BHATTACHARYYAPost-Doctoral Research Assoc. &
Assoc. Professor
DONALD L. SNYDERAssoc. Professor
Utah State University
3
11
TITLE
The Subsidy from Nature: Secondary
Successional Resources in Rural
Development
Property Rights and the Tragedy
of the "Non-Commons": The Case of the
Brazilian Babessu Palm Industry
To introduce topic9 "Research on
Alternative Agricultural and Forestry
Systems"
Sustaining the Productivity of
Tropical Agricultural Systems
Seasonal Variation in Plant Biomass
and Net Productivity of Some Important
Minor Forest Products
Effect of Seed Rats end Spicing on the
Primary Production and Efficiency of
ehinsaujaniak Roxb
Potential for Technology Transfer of
Two Cakifornis Agroforestry Systems
to Semi-Arid Mediterrenien Areas
Wortdwide
Forage Crop Agri-Refinery: An Alterna-
tive for Producing rood and Fuel in
DevIloping Countries
Optimal Forest Rotation When Illegal
Exploitation by Non-Operators Depletes
Resource Stook
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 4TH
TIME tiAmE & MFR. 1AT 1014
4:35 JOSEPH D. KASILEAssoc. Professor
GREGG MAXFIELDSchool. of Natural Resources
The Ohio State University
4:50 MERLYN M. LARSONProfessor, OARDC
& Natural Resources
The Ohio State University
5:05 SHEILA BHATTACHARYACarver Research Foundation
Tuskegee Inst., AL
5:20 ROOM SINGH THAKURPrincipal Investigator
Himachal Pradesh Univ.
Shimlw, India
7:25 JOHN DRYZEKAssistant Professor
Dept. of Political Science
The Ohio State University
7:30 AMTS , SUNIL K. ROYNational Committee for
Environmental Planning
New Delhi
THURSDAY,
8:00
SEPTEMBER 5TH
PETER FYNNResearch Assoc.
Ag. Engineering, OARDC
The Ohio State University
8:05 GARY KEMPHUSAID, Dom. Republic
ABEL HERNANDEZDir. Proyecto MARENA
8:50 PETER FYNNReseirch Assoc.
The Ohio State University
4
TITLE
Determining Forest Energy Biomass
Seedling Production of Tropical
Nurseries end Some Suggestions to
Improve Quality
Comparison of Effectiveness of Various
Pretreatment Methods on the Enzymatic
Hydrolysis of Sweet Potato (eomows
Rotates L.) Biomass
Distribution and Cycling of Potassium
in SoilVegetation Components Around
Pilani, Rajasthan, India
To introduce Mr. Roy
Sustainable Development of Natural
Resources: The Human Equation
To introduce Dr. Kemph and Mr.
Hernandez
Initiating and Implementing a Resource
Conservation Project in a Developing
Country
To introduce the topic, "Renewable
Enoegy Technologies"
12
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 5TH
TIME NAME & AFFLLIATIoN
8:55 ROBERT E. BAILEYDirector
Ohio Tech. Trans. Org. Academic
Affr. Admin. & Professor
R. PETER FYNNReaearch Assoc.
The Ohio State University
9:10 JOHN R. HULLArgonne National Lab.
9:25 RICHARD J. KOMPVice Pres., R 8 D
SunWatt Corp.
9:40 SRI. R.G. DESAILecturer & Ph.D. Scholar
SES College
Sandur, India
TITLE
Solar Pond Costing in the Dominican
Republic
Regional Applications of Solar Roads
Photovoltaics as a Cottago Industry
Big Boon of the SioBober Gee Plant
the Case Studies in Sandur Taluk,
Kernatak, India
9:55 THEODORE GRANOVSKI FamilySized Natal Grain Storage
THOMAS B. FRICKE Bins of Central America: A CaseTech. Consultant Study
Appropriate Tech. Intl.
10:10 HARRY LA FONTAINEPres. of C.E.O., Prasentor
Biomass Energy Found., Inc.
10:25 BREAK
10:40 DOUGLAS SOUTHGATEAsst. Professor
FRED HITZHUSENProfessor
Ag. Economics
The Ohio State University
11:25 FRED HITZHUSENProfessor
The Ohio State University
11:30 SINYAN SHENArgonne National Laboratory
Argonne, Illinois
5
13
Utilizing Wave Power
Economic Analysis of Renewable
Resource Conservation in the Third
World
To introduce Dr. Shen
Aporopriate Energy Syetens for
Developing Countries
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 5TH
TIME NAME & AFFILIATION
12:15 DOUGLAS SOUTHfiATEAg. Economics
The Ohio State University
12:20 JOHN W. TATOMResearch Professor & Senior Fellow
KOFI B. BOTAProfessor of Ches. & Physics
Atlanta University
12:35 SIMON LATRAVERSESaucher Pringle Consultants
Montreal, Quebec
12:50 GARY G. NAUGHTONProfessor
WAYNE A. GEYERDept. of Forestry
Kansas State University
1:05 LUNCH
2:00 G.H. WEAVERAssoc. Professor
Dtpt. of Forest Econ. & Marsgenent
Mississippi State University
2:15 ERIC L. HYMANAppropriate Tech. Intl.
2:30 PRADEEP KOTAMRAJUAsst. Professor
Dept, of Economics
University of Minnesota
2:45 KAMARUDDIN ABDULLAHLembege Penelitien Institut
Pert:mien Bogor
Indonesia
3:00 FERN HUNTProfessor
Home Mgt. & Mousing
Thy Ohio Stets University
8
TITLE
To introduce topic of, "Fuelwood
Developments Policy Issues end Case
Studies"
The Influence of Marketing andGovernment Policy on Biomass Waste
Conversion Technology in LOC.
Feasibility of a Short CoppiceRotation Plantation, A Carbonization
System, end the Conversion of a
Cement Plant in Central America
Economic Stratevies for LocatingFuelwood Plantations
Scarcity of Woodfuel Energy: The
Tanzanian Case
Decentralized Production and Distribu
tion of an Appropriate Technology for
a Consumer Durable: The Kenyan
Charcoal Stoves Experience
The 'Other' Energy Crisis and Economic
Developments The Bole of Noncommercial
Fuels in Indian Subsistence Agricul
ture
Biomass os Energy Resources in
Indonesia
To introduce topic, "Alcohol Feels:
Policy Issues"
14
THURSDAY. SEPTEMBER 5TH
TIME NAME 8 AFFILIATION
3:05 FLORIAN R. SMOCZYNSKIInstructor of Env. Studies
Madison Area Tech. Collage
3:20 DOWLAT BUDHRAMGrad. Research Assoc.
NORMAN RASKProfessor
Ag. Econ. & Rural Soc.
The Ohio State University
3:35 DONALD L. DAYC.B. FEDLERM.P. STEINBERGDept. of Ad. Eng.
University of Illinois
3:50 BREAK
4:00 NORMAN RASKProfessor
Ag. Econ. & Rural Soc.
The Ohio State University
4:05 JOSEPH 6. MASSEYAssoc. Professor
Dept. of Forest Science
Texas A & M University
4 :20 ROBERT WALKERRegional Research Institute
West Virginia University
4:35 EDWARD M. BILEKResearch Fellow
Dept. of Forest Resources
University of Minnesota
4:50 TOM P. ABELESe negotiates, inc.
Minneapolis, MN
5:05 WILLIAM S. DVORAKDirector, CAMCORE
School of Forest Resources
North Caroline State Univ.
7
15
TITLE
The Brazilian Ethanol Programs An
Overview
Sugarcen -based Ethenols Potential
Conflicts for Caribbean rountries
Bioges end Fertilizer from Biomass in
Developing Countries
To introduce topic, "Private Sector
end Government Roles in Renewable
Resource Development"
The Jamaica Forest Industries Develop-
ment Companys A Unique Program for
Improving a Developing Country'sTimber Production
Sustainable Resource Exploitationand Multinational Behavior
An Evaluation of Equity and Non-
Equity Org. Arrangements Used byU.S. Wood-Based Firms in TheirForeign Operations
Infrastructure Issues in PrivateSector Financing of Renewable Energy
Technology and Fuels in the Third
World
Development of en International
Cooperative for the Conservation of
Threatened Coniferous Species in
Central America and Mexico
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 5TH
TIME NAME & AFFILIATION
7:25 ROBERT E. ROTHSchool of Natural Resources
The Ohio State University
7:30 GERARDO BUDOWSKICentro de Ag. Tropical pare
Investigacion y Ensenenza
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 6TH
8:00 RODGER MITCHELLProfessor
Zoology Dept.
The Ohio State University
8:05
8:50
8:55
ROBERT E. ROTHSchool of Natural Resources
The Ohio State University
ROBERT E. ROTHSchool of Natural Resources
The Ohio State University
DAVID M. OSTERMEIERAssoc. Professor
EDWARD BUCKNERDept. of Forestry, Wildlife &
Fisheries
University of Tennessee
9:10 JO ELLEN FORCEAsst. Professor
Dept. of Forest Resources
University of Idaho
9:25 D. RICHARD SMITHProf. of General Studies &
Assoc. Dir.
Intl Programs in Agriculture
Purdue University
9:40 ROBERT C. SALAZARDept. of Anthropology
The Ohio State University
9:55 DAVID D. GowDevelopment Alternatives, Inc.
Madison, WI
8
TITLE
To introduce Dr. Budowski
To be Announced
To introduce Dr. Roth
Environmental Management Education:
A Model for Sustainable Resources
Development
To introduce topic, "Identifying
Strategies for Renewable Resource
Management in the Public Sector"
Training and Institutional Building
A Key to Natural Resource Development
Community Participation Training
for Extension Foresters in India
Women Still Denied Access: An Insti
tutional Challenge to Sustainable
Development in the Third World
Implementing Agroforestry in a
Philippine Village
Sustainable Development of Fragile
Lands: Differing Agendas in the West
African Sahel
16
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 6TH
TIME NAME & AFFILIATION
10:10 KESHAB M. SHAKYAGrad. Research Assistant
School of Forestry & Wildlife
Sciences
VPI & State University
10:25
10:40
10:55
11:05
11:10
11:25
11:40
11:55
12:10
JAMES BARBORAKCentro Agronomico Tropical De
Investigacion Y Ensenanza
GABRIEL TUCKERGrad. Research Asst.
Cornell University
BREAK
TERRY J. LOGANProfessor Agronomy & OARDC
Oept. of Agronomy
The Ohio State University
W. GERALD MATLOCKProf. of Ag. Engineering &
Director of Agriculture
Drolle Center
The University of Arizona
AJITH H. PERERASchool of Forest Resources
Penn State University
ROBIN GOTTFRIEDAsst. Professor
Dept. of Economics
The University of the South
THOMAS B. FRICKETechnical Consuntant
Appropriate Tech. Intl.
SHARDA R. GUPTAReader in Botany
V.K. ASTHANAS.K. ROUTBotany Dept.
Kurukshetra University, India
12:25 TERli: J. LOGANProfessor Agronomy & OARDC
The Ohio State University 9
17
TITLE
A LendUse Allocation Model for
Development of Natural Resources
in Nepalese Hills
Implementing the World Conservation
Strategy: Success Stories from Central
America end Colombie
Agroforestry Extension for the
Individual Subsistence Farmer: A
Strategy for Sahelian Reforestation
To introduce the topic, "Water
Resource Management"
Application of Water Management
Options in Arid Lends Agricultural
Development
Developing a Self Sustained Forest
Cover in the Mahaveli Catchment of Sri
Lanka: Problems end Some Solutions
Tropical Storms and the Problemof Erosion and Sedimentation in
Puerto Rico
Rainwater Collection and Storage
Technology Dissemination in North
eastern Thailand
Watershed Management for Integrated
Development of Moral Hills in North
Eest Haryana
A Two Compartment Cement BLock
Tank for Field Measurement of Runoff
and Erosion
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 6TH
NAME & AFFILIATION
12:40 SCOT E. SMITHAsst. Professor
Dept. of Civil Engineering
The Ohio State University
12:55 LUNCH
1:25 DOUGLAS SOUTHGATEThe Ohio State University
1:30 LAWRENCE HAMILTONEast West Center
Honolulu, Hawaii
10
TITLE
Effect of Sub Saharan Drought on Water
Resource Management in Egypt
To introduce Dr. Hamilton
What are the Soil and Water Benefits
of Planting Trees in Developing
Country Watersheds?
18
SOCIAL FORESTRY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Hans Gregersen, College of Forestry, Univ. of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN
Steve McGaughey, InterAmerican Development Bank, Washington, D.C.
Social forestry is a term which refers to all
activities involving trees and forests undertaken by
and for rural people -- farmers, the landless, com
munities. By its very nature, social forestry tends
to be integrated with other land uses. While var
ious forms have been practiced for thousands of
years by rural. people all over the wnrld, social
forestry has only caught on as a development concept
in the international development community during
the past 15 years or so.
If properly guided and supported, social fores
try can have a critical role to play in alleviating
two widespread and rapidly mounting problems in the
developing world: i) food crises due to declining
agricultural productivity caused in part by poor
land use practices and deforestation, which Lead to
erosion and declining water availability in critics:
times, and ii) energy crises in many rural areas
which in most cases are caused by fuelwood short
ages. United Nations agencies estimate that at
present about 100 million persons experience hunger
and cold because of fuelwood shortages and other one
billion persons experience some constraints on fuel
mood availability and face severe fuel crises in the
next decades.
There are many successful social forestry pro
grams in the Third World. However, they do not
affect or involve many families relative to the
total number affected by the crises and needs being
addressed. Thus, given the mega dimensions of the
needs, these projects only represent a very small
first step toward solving the problems. Yet it is
an important step if we can learn from the current
projects how to develop systems that are technical
ly, socially, culturally and economically acceptable
ah4 can be easily diffused and duplicated on a very
large scale.
Based on review of past project experience,
five factors stand out as major prerequisites for
significant expansion of sustainable land use sys
tems incorporating social foreatry elements. The
13
five prerequisites are as follows:
20
i) Technologies developed and used must
be simple and have high probabili
ties of successful implementation
under varying environmental condi
tions and levels of skill in appli
cation.
ii) Per unit costs should be low so
large numbers can be reached or
affected by limited and relatively
fixed resources available through
aid channels.
iii) Programs and projects Should take a
holistic or systems approach to
social forestry and rural develop
ment which considers the interaction
of all land uses and specifically
integration of agriculture and
forestry elements.
iv) Programs must have effective and
widespread local participation,
including that of woman who often
have the major role to play in tree
related activity -- fuelwood collec
tion, tree planting and tending,
gathering of fruits and nuts, and so
forth.
v) Finally, projects must be supported
adequately by government resources
and institutional structures and
administrative mechanisms, including
nongovernmental ones. This factor
is related to the critical issue of
absorptive capacity for investment
and the questions of appropriate
financing mechanisms and incentives
and support for research, extension
and training.
The paper discusses these requirements and
summarizes the types of actions which have been and
could be taken in different situations to meet
them.
The lower the per unit coot of implementation
is, the larger the population and area are that cal.
be reached with relatively limited aid resources.
Similarly, the simpler end more adaptable a social
forestry system is, the more likely that it will be
diffused, adapted and adopted in a wider area and
by a wider cross section of population, including
the very poor.
The most widespread sustainable form of social
forestry integrated with agriculture is shifting
cultivation, which has been practiced successfully
for thousands of years. An estimated 250 million
persons still practice this form of egroforestry.
However, population pressures on the land are euch
that this form of lend use is no longer sustainable
in en increasing number of countries or regions.
Alternative systems are needed which can increase
land productivity on a sustainable basis. That is
what the current egroforestry work is all ,bout.
Quite beyond agroforeatry is the need to better
understand the energy relationships involved in
14
local rural. communities. Evidence from some
studies suggests that many agricultural communities
depend on the forest for energy far beyond the
narrow confines of fuelwood.
It is clearly evident from past project exper
ience that early and continued local participation
is a key to success in social forestry programs.
Local participation is achieved through involvement
of local people in the initial design of programs.
It is also essential that projects be designed to
respond to the actial incentive structures of local
people, not merely those which might seem relevant
to expatriate taohnicians and other outsiders.
Finally, the absorptive capacity of realistically
messed end considered in design and implementa
tion. Too much too soon can spell digester.
The final ingredient discussed is government
support and the need for development of appropriate
institutional meohanisms. Consideration is given
to the form and continuity of support, including
use of nongovernmental organizations and desirable
levels of government involvement, and to the nature
of the inetitutional machanisma needed in such
areas os research, extension and training and
logistical support.
21
FACTORS AFFECTING INDIVIDUAL'S RESOURCE USE DECISIONS
LEGAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND SOCIAL INFLUENCES ON THIRD WORLD PROGRAMS
FOR REFORESTATION OF OEFOLIATED LAND
William C. Siegel, Project leader, USDA Forest Service, 10210 M.S., 701 Loyola Ave., New Orleans, LA70113
Richard W. Guldin, Assessment Coordinator, Resources Planning Act Staff, USDA Forest Service, Washington,
0.C.
The traditional emphasis of third world fores
try has centered on largescale development and
exploitation of forest resources. Until quite
recently, most forestry legislation in developing
countries was adopted within this content without
adequately addressing reforestation. As problems
with such an approach became apparent during the
last decade, many third world nations reacted by
passing regulatory laws that stress reforestation.
forest protection, and control of trespass and
cutting practices. These attempts have in many
instances, however, been less than successful in
coping with the issue of defoliation. The reasons
are essentially threefold: (1) the newer statutes
have largely ignored the economic and ecological
benefits of afforestation to local communities, (2)
their enactment and enforcement have lacked in
volvement by the local people, and (3) many contain
clauses that conflict with both established custom
and statutory low pertaining to traditional -- and
sometimes chaotic -- lend tenure patterns. On the
other hen[!, there have been some success storiac.
In Asia, particularly, the importance of institu
tional and social factors has sometimes been recog
nized and these elements melded into the legisla
tive approach. This paper analyses the institu
tional legislative social interactions associa
ted with third world programs for reforestation of
defoliated land, concludes that in many instances
new approaches are needed, and presents recommenda
tions for change.
SOME IMPLICATIONS OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION AND MULTIPLE ENTERPRISES
FOR OEVELOPING SUSTAINABLE HILLSIOE FARMS FGR SMALL PRODDERS
Jill M. Belsky, Department of Rural Sociology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853
Social stratification and multiple enterprises
characterize the livelihood strategies of many
smallfarm households, yet how they effect research
and development to promote sustainable hillside
farming systems are not generally known. One year
of field research in the village of Kurile, Central
Leyte, Philippines revealed that there are important
differences across social strata in how and why
lowlanders farm hilly, public for1..st lend. This
variation reflects differential household access to
15
on and offfarm earning opportunities in the low
lands and results in different priorities and
resource allocation strategies among farmers with
respect to hillside farming.
Households that are lease self sufficient in
the production of lowland mat rice (i.e. they
produce none or Lass than half of their annual rice
staple), tend to intensively cultivate hillside
farms primarily with annual food crops, spacifi-
22
sally corn and sweet potato. Low stratum hillside
farmers emphasize food crop production because they
do not have access to other farmland and as a re
sult, must rely on seasonal nage labor and forest
product collecting for income to purchase food.
Environmental degradation in low stratum hillside
farms has led to agricultural intensification in an
effort to compensate for reduced productivity, which
in turn, has resulted in increased labor demands for
both male and female household members. Efforts to
improve the sustainability and agricultural produc
tivity of low stratum hillside farms must appreciate
the labor shortgeges and other resource constraints
faced by these farmers. Most importantly, they must
understand that food crop production is their high
est priority.
In contrast, households that are more self
sufficient in rice production (i.e. they produce
over half of their annual rice staple) cultivate
hillside farms less intensively and are more likely
to plant perennial cash crops of abaca (Musa
Textilis L.) and fruit tt:-.es. Farmers in this
stratum have hillside farms to obtain supplementary
food, fodder and cosh for the purpose of stretching
rice supplies between harvests, feeding livestock
and purchasing household commodities and chemical
inputs required for wet rice production. Programs
to improve hillside farms of this stratum would be
facilitated by farmers' access to nonhoumehold
labor and a more steady food supply. Mixed food
and tree crop systems mould likely be acceptable to
this stratum. However, any hillside farm interven
tion efforts among higher stratum households would
have to be coordinated with farmers' other economic
activities, especially wet rice production.
Implications of strataspecific differences
end multiple enterprise strategies are discussed
for Cosigning appropriate agroforestry systems in
terms of crops, labor intensity and coordination
w ith male and female farmers' other livelihood
e ctivities. In addition, the importance of viewing
nonforest, lowland dwelling households as forest
resource users is emphasized, as are the dynamics
of lowland -- upland interaction. Same conceptual
and methodological issues for differentiating
smallfarm producers are discussed as well.
LAND USE INTENSIFICATION IN PHILIPPINE UPLANDS:
EFFECTS ON VEGETATIVE COVER, SOIL FERTILITY AND EROSION
Stephen F. Siebert, Department of Natural Resources, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. 14853
The use of public forest reserves by landless
lowlandsrs is widespread and increasing throughout
the tropics. One year of field research in central
Leyte, Philippines revealed that public forest lands
provide an important source of subsistence food and
income to many lowland farmers, primarily through
forest product collecting and the cultivation of
annual food (corn and sweet potato) and perennial
cash (abaca and coconut) crepe.
Analysis of aerial photographs, Around mapping
and farmer interviews indicated that both forest
product collecting and hillside farming activities
are intensifying in the study area. The environmen
tal effects associated with land use intonsification
include the loss of indigenous flora, alteration of
16
soil nutrient and physical characteristics and soil
e rosion.
The unregulated collecting of forest products,
specifically rattan and timber, has depleted all
mature, commercially valuable rattan in the water
shed and eliminated commercial hardwood species
(e.g., Dipterocarpaceae and Pterocaroys indicus)
from the lower half of the watershed. Analysis of
sample plots in hillside farms indicated that
intensified agricultural activities (e.g., short
e ned swidden fallow cycles) has also resulted in
the expansion of a depauperate, exotic, xerophytic,
w eedy flora dominated by Inert cYeLindrice,
Saccharum ppontaneum and various Compositae.
23
Analysis of soil samples collected from hill-
side farms over the course of one year indicated
that continuous cultivation of corn and sweet potato
resulted in the gradual depletion of base nutrients
(i.e., calcium, magnesium end available phosphorus)
and organic matter, and increased soil acidity.
However, the data also suggested that sweet potato
monocropping may slow soil degradation due to man-
agement practices (i.e., mounding and periodic
bunying of vines), which resemble mulching, and the
maintenance of a complete ground cover.
Soil erosion appears to be the most serious
constraint to agricultural production in the re-
search area. An average of 3.4 cm of soil (approxi-
metely 435 tons/ha) was removed from hillside farm
study plots during the first six months of cultiva-
tion following the clearing of fallow vegetation.
Physical evidence of erosion is widespread through-
out the region as is the farmers' concern about the
problem.
Recommendations for the development of sus-
tainable end productive forest use and hillside
farming include: 1) cultivation of commercially
valuable rattan (e.g., Celamus ceesius and C.
merrilji), 2) planting of cover crops and mulching
and 3) construction of live contours (using nitro-
gen-fixing Legumes) and drainage ditches at slope-
dependent intervals.
PERFORMANCE CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS: THE FARMERS' PERSPECTIVE BEHAVIORAL
IMPLICATIONS FOR POLICIES OF RESOURCE UTILIZATION
Steven E. Kraft, Agribusiness Economics, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale
Policies fostering rural development whether
domestic or international are frequently land based.
They implicitly involve efforts to influence farm-
ers' land-use practices. Such policies are usually
premised on the recommendations of pedologists,
agronomists, agricultural economists, and other
specialists in land use. While rural development is
necessory, lano-based policies to achieve this are
commonly disputed or ignored by the farmers affec-
ted. This study reveals the information farmers
have about land and the way in which this informa-
tion determines their lend-use practices. In addi-
tion, farmers' and land epoch:ills:et perceptions of
land are compared. The effects of disagreement on
land-bused, rural- development po,icies are eval-
uated.
A research framework encompassing concepts of
natural resources, economics, and cognitive psyzhol-
ogy and anthropology is developed. The conceptual
framework, within a phenomenological context, is
used to specify a qualitative model of farmer's
Lend-use decisions. The model directs the analysis
of data and is used to identify variables influen-
cing farmers' land-use decisions and to hypothesize
17
24
relationships among these variables. Additionally,
the results provide a basis for comparing 7ermars'
and land specialists' perceptions of lend.
The farmers' distinct images of agricultural
land and the disagreement between farmers and lend
specialists over their respective perceptions of
land have important implications for rural develop-
ment. First, land-based, rurel-davalopment poli-
cies premised on perceptions of land that diverge
from those held by the effected farmers era doomed
to be ineffectual. Second, the formulation and
implementation of rural development policies should
include the participation of the farmers. At e
minimum, efforts must be made to ascertain the
farmers' images of land. This knowledge should be
used in designing policies and carrying then out.
Third, sustained land-based, rural development must
be predicated on the maintenance of lend quality
over time. Hence, attention must be given to
factors effecting farmers' decisions to degrade or
maintain their lend: tenurial arrangements, past
and projected lend uses, and cost end benefits of
lend renewal end maintenenus.
THE ECONOMICS OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY:
APOLOGETICS AND THEORY
Richerd B. Norgeerd, Associate Professor of Agricultural and Resource Economics, University of California,
Berkeley
Economists have responded to the current inter-
est in biological diversity with a plethora of
apologetics. Species become extinct because they
are common pool resources. Since no one can own and
manage them over the long run without others enjoy-
ing the gains, ell exploit them for immediate prof-
it, frequently to extinction. Or species become
extinct because they are public goods. All people
can 'freely' enjoy the beneMs of knowing a species
exists or of the knowledge that might be gained
through learning from its biochemical and other
ecological adaptations. Since none can be excluded
from enjoying species existence or sharing in the
knowledge that can be learned, a price cannot be
charged and there is no private incentive to proteJt
species. Species also become extinct because their
natural rates of increase are less than the market
rate of interest. Both rational entrepreneurs and
responsible public officials divest the species
and invest where earnings are higher. Lastly,
extinction is forever, but economic decisions ere
necessarily made over limited time horizons with
incomplete knowledge of the future. The 'trouble'
with extinction is that it is irreversibla.
These arguments are apologetical rather than
theoretical. They accept existing economic theory
and the c-Aventions that have evolved around it.
Existing theory assumes natural systems have separ-
ate components that can be owned. Existing theory
assumem procesces are reversible. Existing theory
assumes interest rates are generated in markets
where future generations with rights to property
including species and environmental syetsms
bargain with current generations. For questions
where these atamistic-machenistic and intePgenere-
tionel assumptions are especially false, new prem-
ises and theory should be developed. Instead,
economists have explained extinction, developed
decision models to optimize extinction, and sugges-
ted institutional modifications to rationalize
extinction an the basis of somewhat extended, at
best, inappropriate theory. If sustainable develop-
19
ment and biologicel diversity are social goals,
existing economic theory, itself patterned on the
Newtonian view of the world as a machine, is an
inappropriate template for economic thought end
social prescription.
An eoological-evolutionary world view provides
an elternative template. In this view, economic
thought and social proscription are premised on the
patterns of complex systems and interactive change.
A coevolutionary view, emphasizing the evolutionary
interaction between social and ecological systems,
is elaborated in this paper, This view highlights
how most of the pest seven millennia of development
since the origins of agricultural technulogies and
social organization was a process of ecological
system transformation and adapti'a social system
response. Development was a process of systeri
coevolution. Cultural knowledge 'explained' pact-
ple's relations to their environment and prescribed
social organization. The coevolutionary vantage
provides a good perspective on how the otomistic-
mechanistic world view faciLitated technologies to
exploit stock resources and rationalized both the
capitalist system of individual ownership and
markets and centralized social organization and
bureaucratic authority. With development success-
fully fad by stock resources end our collective
understanding of systems functionally reduced to
the formalities of mechanics, systems began to
breakdown and species to disappear.
Convisctionat economists as well as practical
people with some of the reins of pu.r might object
that coevolutionary theory doesn't onager their
questions. And this is true, for world views and
evidence, questions and answers, and social organi-
zation and possible responses an all bundled. The
increasing social diesatiefection stemming from the
incongruities between expectations generated by
current world views and outcomes in reality, how-
ever, provides hope for a new template and an
alternative bundling.
25
gp
RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND ECONOMIC FVELOPMENT
MOLE OF THE EXTERNAL DEBT IN NATURAL RESOURCES EXPLOITATION
IN LATIN AMERICA
Dietmar W. Rose, Professor of Forestry Economics, University of Minnesota, 110 Green Hall, St. Psul, MN55108
Increasing population pressures have been
mentioned most frequently as a major cause of defor-
estation of steep hillsides and tropical rainforests
in developing countries of the world. This paper
examines the impact of the external debt of develop
ing countries in Latin America on natural resource
decisions and exploitation. The role of the exter
nal debt and the need for export earnings as major
factors in resource exploitation are :t.rateated
for several controversial development projects in
Latin America. The burden that huge external debts
are placing on developing countries must be reduced
to ease pressures for exploitation of natural
resources that could have longterm detrimental
consequences not only for the developing countries
but developed countries as well.
ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY AND INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT:
REMOVING THE BLINDERS
John E. Carroll, Professor of Environmental Conservation, University of New Hampshire
Western industrialized society normaLly vines
environmental pollution/environmental quality prob
lems as one of many different and separable types of
problems afflicting developing societies, and of
less affordable concern than seemingly more immedi
ate problems of starvation, food production, dis
ease, and societal instability. Yet, environmental
problems, in both urban industrialized and rural
nonindustrialized areas of the developing rorld,
rated as among the most serious of environmental
problems facing human society, crnnot realistically
be separated from problems of hunger and health,
disease and poverty, nor even of social instability
with which they ere closely interdependent. Environmental challenges are also fundamentally inter
dependent. Environmental challenges are also fund
amentally interdependent wish increased industrial
ization, food and fibre production and economic and
social planning, and can only be resolved with
these interdependent contexs.
20
In the broader context, problems of environ
mental quality, environmental health, end environ
mental planning can only be successfully approached
from a knowledge of the anthropological and social
context in which they exist. As there is interde
pendence between environmental and other major
social concerns in these societies and, as well,
ir,terdependence between environment and the chal
lenges of production, so also there is interdepen
dence between successful resolution of environmen
tal problems and the linkage of that resolution to
the sociocultural reality of the society in ques
tion.
Western industrial society, and Aterican
society in particular, has difficulty in avoiding
neat but fatally artificial unrealistic separations
and divisions of problems and peoples. Unless
"blinders" presently in place are removed, unless
conditioned mindsets toward the world and toward
26
other peoples' conception of life are removed,
development, sustainable or otherwise, is doommd to
failure.
ECONOMIC OEVELOPMENT AND OEMANDS
ON AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
Norman Rai*, Oept. of Agricultural Economics and Direl Sociology, The Ohio State University, 2120 Fyffe
Road, Columbus, Ohio 43210
Saeed Nabeee-Tabriz, Dept. of Agricultural Economics end Rural Sociology, The Ohio State University, 21211
Fyffe Road, Columbus, Ohio 43210
Economic development (per capita increase in
income) and popuation growth ere two principal
factors influencing a nation's needs for food and
fiber, and hence the intensity of demand on its
agricultural resources. As development proceeds,
per capita income grows, and with higher incomes
individuals demand more food in the form of improved
diets such as milk, meat, wheat, etc. In fact,
several FAD studies have shown that at early and mid
stages of development, per capita consumption of
animal protein always grows with rising GNP. Since
livestock products are less efficient convertors of
1,esic grain concentrates, an increase in consumption
of these products may double or triple the demand on
a country's basic crop agriculture. Furthermore,
evants in the world food economy over the past
decade [e.g., steady rise in per capita food con-
sumption in leading food-deficit, developing coun-
tries such as South Korea) have reflected the
impacts of economic development on demand for food.
Understanding the dynamics of the linkage
between economic development end food consumption
patterns would have important implications for the
long-term utilization of cropland resources and
agricultural trade in both developing and developed
nations. The general objective of this paper is to
investigate the impacts of economic development on
food demand over the past three decades for a
selected group of developing and developed coun-
tries in the Southeast Asia, the Middle East,
African Europe, and North and South America.
The specific objectives are to analyze trends
in per capita GNP, food consumption, food produc-
tion, end population growth in those countries.
Furthermore, the changes in ratio of food consump-
tion to production will be used to measure the
changes in those nation's deperdency on their
domestic agricultural resources and/or foreign food
imports over the past two or three decades.
Oata sources include FAO Food Balance sheets
und the World Bank's date on GNP and population
which ere available for the pest twenty-five years.
THE CARIBBEAN BASIN INITIATIVE:
WHAT DOES IT MEAN FOR FORESTRY?
Dr. Jan G. Leaman, Associate Professor, School of Forest Resources, North Caroline State University,
Raleigh.
21
27
Dr. John Muench, Jr., Visiting Associate Professor, School of Forest hesources, North Carolina State Univer-
sity assigned as Forest Enterprise Coordinator with the Forest Service's Forestry Support Program,
Washington, D.C.
By providing duty-free access and markating
assistance for regional exports to U.S. markets and
by encouraging U.S. firms in joint ventures, subcon-
tracting, licensing and other offshore operations in
the region, the Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI)
provides opportunities for both Caribbean woos
products and producers and U.S. firms. Programs by
both the U.S. Department of Commerce and the U.S.
Department of Agriculture include marketing assis-
tance to buyers and sellers of wood products, as
well es other products. The Agency for Internation-
al Development hes many projects benefiting indus-
tries in the region but none specifically directed
at the wood products firms and, although wood prod-
ucts producers are not precluded from most private
enterprise development projects, none are known to
be participating.
A telephone survey of US wood products Indus-
tl trede associations showed they were aware of
the CBI but had no activities in conjunction with
it. Furthermore, none of the associations ware
aware of any of their members initiating or expan-
ding activities in the Caribbean region. A similar
survey of advertisers in the CBI Business Bulletin
revealed much interest in the buying and selling
opportunities advertised but not much business
actually consummated. Several stories were found
of failures of regional producers to be able to
produce products of adequate quality or for the
right markets or to at:se timely deliveries.
If the wood products industry can be said to
be typical of small industries in the Caribbean
Basin, tariff reduction, general workshops on
exporting and development projects aimed at ina,,s-
try in general may be insufficient to stimulate
much export activity. The financing, technical
production and marketing knowledge needs of an
industry may be too specific for effective assis-
tance to be rendered by anything other then en
industry-focused and product-specific program.
NATURAL RESOURCE IMPLICATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH
AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT UNDER THE
CARIBBEAN BASIN INITIATIVE
Matthew Norman, Graduate Research Associate, Department of Agricultural Economics end Rural Sociology, The
Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
The Caribbean Basin Initiative the Caribbean
Basin Economic Recovery Act) was signed into law on
August 5, 1983. The purpose of this legislation was
to promote economic development in the Caribbean
Basin, in pert, by granting duty-free status to a
wide range of imports originating in the region. Of
particular importance to the nations of the Carib-
bean Basin are agricultural product:, most of which
(except for sugar, beef, end processed tuna) are
'overed by duty-free provisions of the CBI.
To the present, there hes been little rigorous
etudy regarding the "market windows" for Caribbean
22
Basin egricultural products in the United States'
markets, and for the potential impacts on the
natural resources of these countries from agricul-
tural development. This paper defines the condi-
tions necessary for the succesaful penetration
by Caribbean Basin agricultural exports of U.S.
markets and suggests some issues regarding the
natural resource implications of this agricultural
development that may occur under the CBI.
The concept of market windows was elaborated
by Colette and Well in 1978 to assist Florida
formers in choosing among alternative crops were:
28
the actual yield and production potentials of crops
in a given region; the prices received for the
crops in the markets end the costs of producing and
marketing those crops; and, the effects on prices
of increased quantities of those crops moving
through the markets. The main emphasis of market
windows then, is the net return position of produc
ers after all these variables ere accounted for.
this study expands the work of Colette and
Wall to the Caribbean Basin countries by integrating
a multimarket dimension, as well as the effects of
the CBI into the analysis of market windows. The
dutyfree provision of the CBI have great potential
for granting m cost advantage to Caribbean Basin
Producers over their nearest rival, Mexico, in the
form of eliminating the tariffs for their exports
(which Mexico is ineligible for) entering the U.S..
Moreover, the Caribbean Basin countries enjoy an
advantage over Mexico in transportation costs where
in the letter generally ships fresh fruits and
vegetables to U.S. markets via truck whereas the
former ships primarily by water, for the most part a
cheaper perunit mode of transportation.
Given the relative comparative advantage of the
Caribbean Basin nations, it is most likely that much
of the expansion of agricultural production wilt be
in land intensive crops. The question then arises,
If the Caribbean Basin nations are successful in
their attempt to expend their agricultural produc
tion and penetrate U.S. markets under the CBI,
what does this augur for the natural resource .,sees
of these countries?
A close parallel to this situation is what
occurred in some Caribbean Basin countries during
the 1960's when world cotton prices increased. In
response to these higher prices, lower value crops
such as corn and bees were displaced from the
lower valley areas to marginal production erase
such as the valley slopes which were more vulnera
ble to erosion. In edition, cotton producers
engaged in overly intensive use of pesticides and
fertilizers causing runoff problems, and engaged in
highly mechanized cultivation practices which in
some cases lead to soil compaction. In sum, higher
prices in these areas lead to a geographic dis
placement of lower vutued crops and increased
mismanagement of agricultural production which only
partly subsided when world cotton prices began to
fall in the 1970's.
Caribbean Basin producers ars now facing a
similar situation: not one in which world prices
for their commodities are increasing, but one in
which the cost advantages of the CBI are increasing
their net returns. Whether or not the above scen
ario will again take place in Caribbean Basin
notions as producers take advantage of the oppor
tunities granted by the CBI remains to be seen.
If it does, then the benefits that these nations
gain under the CBI could full well be offset by the
deterioration in their natural resource bases.
CHEAP CREDIT AND SOIL CONSERVATION:
SOME ISSUES
Arnaldo Camacho and Douglas Southgate, Dept. of Ag. Economics, Tha Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
In general, soil conservation requires that a
sacrifice be made in the short run so that future
Land productivity can be enhanced. For example,
when grassed terraces are installed, some land is
taken out of production and labor and other inputs
ere used. Over the longrun, however, this action
results in higher yields on tend Left in production.
Similarly, altering lend use in order to reduce
23
erosion often involves a tradeoff between near-
term and longterm benefits; many soilconserving
land uses (e.g., mgroforestry end forestry) begin
yielding output only after the passage of several
years.
When rural financial markets are competitive
end when interest rates era not subject to regute
29
tion, those markets furnish reasonably accurate
information regarding the opportunity cost of capi-
tal used to finance soil conservation. In many
developing countries, however, rural financial
markets are heavily regulated. Real interest rates
era often set too low; entry into the formal finan-
cial sector is restricted; the costs of financial
intermediation are high. Under these circumstances,
the cost of credit to be used to fund soil conserva-
tion is, in general, too high. Furthermore, many
farmers cannot obtain financing for erosion control.
Recognizing the financial impediments to soil
conservation that exist in many developing coun-
tries, those interested in erosion control often
advocate extending subsidized credit to farmers who
adopt appropriate management practices and land
uses. This recommendation is incorporated in the
design of many on-going conservation projects. As
we point out in this paper, however, extending
subsidized credit is probably an ineffective way to
promote erosion control. We Inset this conclusion
on an analysis of lender and borrower behavior when
financial markets are regulated. That analysis
also suggests that general deregulation of rural
financial markets might promote soil conservation
more effectively than a "targetted" subsidized
credit scheme.
RESOURCE BASED DEVELOPMENT AND THE DUTCH DISEASE:
THE RELEVANCE OF LP MODELS
Mohammed Moussevian, Asst. Prof. of Economics, Senior Research Associate, The Maxwell School, Syracuse
University, Syracuse, New York
Resource trade as an engine for growth appears
to be the model of development pursued by a number
of developing countries, notably sons members of the
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OPEC). The resource in the ground is used to
generate various types of physical and human capi-
tal. The prominent role of trade in this process
has produced a somewhat new version of r egging
sectors" phenomenon, with ensuing output and price
effects, in a package generally known as the Dutch
Disease. Thus, while it is not always recognized as
such, the Dutch Disease appears to be, at least in
essence, a Ovnamic problem.
Elsewhere I have delineated the conditions for
the viability of the long tern development of the
non-resource sector of such economies, and also for
the emergence of the Dutc:i Disease price changes, in
a general aggregate model. In this paper the conse-
quences of following a strategy of "resource as an
engine for growth" in a specific and somewhat diseg-
gregated model are examined. A linear programming
(LP) optimal planning model is used. The case
considered is a five production sector-three consum-
er group model of Iran in the 1970's. Thus, the
24
model is also amenable to an optimal-depletion-and-
development policy (ODD).
Computible General Equilibrium (CGE) models
have now been in use for a number of years in the
area of planning for development, particularly in a
number of World Bank related investigations. How-
ever, the fundamental problem of optimization
which, at least in the past, was sometimes impli-
citly the basis for the very definition of Econom-
ics as science, is one thing CGE models are not
well suited for. Therefore LP models appear to be
a better medium to trace the effects of OD'.
Along with an almost universal linearity
assumption, the drawbacks of LP models lie in the
remnants of the so celled big-bang problem. Even
the incorporation of the most relevant economic
constraints still leave the solutions susceptible
to non-trivial transformations, due to relatively
minor poramotric changes. In pragmatic sense
this presents e more serious challenge to the
applicability of LP medals than the requisite
assumptions. Mir. paper suggests and applies a
procedure to deal with this problem.
30
THE SUBSIDY FROM NATURE:
SECONDARY SUCCESSIONAL RESOURCES IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT
Pater H. May, Dept. of Agricultural Economics, Cornell University
Anthony B. Anderson, Botany Department, Museu Peraense Emilio Goeldi, Belem, Brazil
Susanna B. He6nt, Graduate School of Architecture and Urban Planning, University of California, Los Angeles
Constraints on resource access are making it
increasingly dillicult for rural populations to
survive on the basin of agriculture alone. The two
major additional sources of cash income are wage
labor and extractive activity. Production of market
goods from successional resources constitute one of
the few sources of income for rural women, and
represent a means for making productive use of
female and child labor.
Secondary successional vegetation and fallow
management practices have frequently been ignored in
development planning. This paper discusses the
reasons for this oversight, and suggests that suc-
cessional systems constitute essential resources for
rural development. Palm forests of bebassu
(Orbionve spp) in Marantillo, Brazil and lonter
(Boressus eundaicus) in Eastern Indonesia are treat-
ed as case studies to characterize and differentiate
the economic and environmental significance of
successional palm forests as resources for develop-
ment.
Their low diversity, ease of management and
provision of a variety of subsistence and market
goods and services make these palma extremely valua-
ble to the rural poor. However, the degree of
pressure they are experiencing from exogenous
development forces greatly affect their relative
potential for maintenance as essential elements of
subsistent) agriculture strategies. In the case
babessu, fertile soils and stable moisture condi-
tions have motivated large-scale expansion in
cattle ranching on improved pasture. Although not
agronomically incompatible with babessu palms,
pasture development has frequently implied clear-
cutting of palms and expulsion of peasant farmers
who rely on babassu for an important part of their
livelihood.
In the case of limitary on the other hand, the
dry and infertile conditions of the agro-ecological
environment in which palm forests have developed
have apparently not been propitious to activities
which compete with palm management under tradi-
tional systems. In such a situation, there is more
time available for work on improvement of manage-
ment systems and native plant resources. In the
case of babassu, it may already be too late for
current efforts in palm domestication and appropri-
ate agronomic and processing technology development
to make an impact on the resource's degradation and
parallel dispossession of peasantry.
PROPERTY RIGHTS AHD THE TRAGEDY OF THE "NONCOMMONS":
THE CASE.OF THE BRAZILIAN BABASSU PALM INDUSTRY
Peter H. May, Dept. of Agricultural Economics, Cornell University
This paper provides a theoretical treatment
from a resource economics perspective of social
equity effects of property rights changea in renew-
25
31
able resource development. The case study focuses
on effects of agricultural transformation and
industrial innovation on the historical role and
resource potential of forests of bebessu palms
(Orbionya see) in an economy of landless shifting
icultivators and cattle ranchers in the Brazilian
state of Maranhao.
Modern resource economics hes tended to pin the
blame for resource depletion on an insufficient
degree of exclusion o" ?,r resource use exercised
through property rights. Privatizetion is the
neoclassical economists' usual prescription for
commons resource depletion. A forceful swing toward
barredentry resources concentrated in the hands of
a few has often increased rather than decreased the
rate of resource exploitation, however. Property
rights delimitation over extractive resources fre
quently results in population pressures on limited
remaining resources traditionally managed in common,
thus hastening their degradation.
The objective of this study is to examine how
changes in property rights (access to palms and
land) and technical innovation in the bebassu fruit
processing industry may affect the welfare position
of the peasantry. The set of circumstances surroun
ding the dispossession of peasants' property rights,
28
where the gainers are under no pressure to compen
sate the losers, are defined as a "tragedy of the
noncommena." Investments in pasture establiehment
and whole fruit processing may constrain current
lend resource users' access to the multiple bene
fits they have traditionally enjoyed from the palm.
The initial rights over palms and land contribute
to the ultimate inequitable distribution of rewards
from innovation.
One solution to the tragedy of the naacommone
is found in the formalization of traditional usu
fruct, so that those who depend on the resource for
en important share of their incomes are those who
control its exploitation end management. Such a
solution can bring about praetor bargaining power
over the partitioning of returns from innovation.
However, intermediary manipulation of marketing
margins end industrialists' efforts to extract
rents from processing necessitate that producers
gain control not only over the resource itself, but
also over marketing channels and decisions regar
ding subsidized capital investment in processing
industries to achieve an equitable solution to the
noncommons tragedy.
32
RESEARCH ON ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURAL AND FORESTRY SYSTEMS
SUSTAINING THE PRODUCTIVITY OF TROPICAL AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS
Jake Halliday and Marvin Lemberg, Bettelle-Kettering Research Laboratory, Yellow Springs, Ohio 45387
The management of population growth, crop
production and the impact of man's activities on the
natural resource base that supports his existence
are critical and highly interrelated challenges.
Despite the best efforts of development agen-
cies, more people are starving in Africa today than
was the case ten years ago. While many factors are
at play, the discrepancy between crop yields on
experiment stations and those obtained in farmers'
fields remains a particular case for concern. Such
date underscore the impact of the stresses at play
under tropical circumstances on crop production, and
indicate that practices to moderate environmental
stress may have a more significant effect on crop
productivity than research to raise absolute yield
potential of the crops in question.
This paper describes those factors which
threaten the sustainability of tropical agricultural
systems and appraises measures with the potential to
make agriculture more sustainable. In particular,
biological sources of essential inputs, management
practices requiring minimum inputs and the need for
crop varieties which were stress tolerant are re-
viewed.
The intricacies and sophistication of mixed
cropping systems that are commonplace in the trop-
ics are described in comparison with agriculture as
practiced in the United States. Progress towards
novel crop associations is reviewed, with emphasis
on systems involving fast-growing, nitrogen-fixing
trees.
The interrelationships of the food and fuel-
wood demands of rural communities is explored
in the context of the negative impacts on land and
forest resources.
No strategy for sustained agricultural produc-
tion is complete without mention of the need for
limiting population worldwide. There are finite
limits to food production. If we ere to avoid the
misery of malnutrition and starvation of ever
greater frequency, each and every nation must
regulate its population to its food production
resource.
SEASONAL VARIATION IN PLANT BIOMASS AND NET PRODUCTIVITY
OF SOME IMPORTAW MINOR FOREST PRODUCTS
S.K. Kapur and Y.K. Sarin, Regional Research Laboratory, Canal Road, Jammu Tawi180001 (India)
The studies on biomass production and not
productivity of some medicinal and aromatic plants
growing in association with the Oak-Coniferous
forests of Jammu hills reveal that the aboveground
parts show maximum productivity during monsoon and
immediate post-monsoon period when the plants ere
under profuse leafing and flowering. There is a
27
33
decline in the overall biomass during the autumn
months. Exception to this rule is viola ()Orate
where aerial portion dies off with the onset of
rains. The optimum values in this case are recor-
ded towards the end of the annual vegetative cycle
in the month of May. Analysis of ash end organic
matter content reveal that the species which
chiefly inhabit the forest floor hold comparatively
lower concentrations of organic matter, though they
ere rich in mineral composition.
EFFECT OF SEED RATE AND SPACING ON THE PRIMARY PRODUCTION AND
EFFICIENCY OF PHASEOLUS AUREUS ROXB.
M.P. Singh, Department of Botany, M.V.M. Bhopal-46200B India
The investigations were made at Government Seed
Multiplication Farm, Indore [M.P.), India, by har
vest method. In Phaimotus aureus Roxb., a direct
relationship sigricant et 1% is seen between the
standing crop (g/m ) of various spacings end seed
rates, and the !ember of days after sowing. The
standing crop (g/n ) decreased with the increase in
row to row spacing (6i.e. S1 = 217.88, S2 = 194.42
and S3
= 151.77 g'm ) and increased with the in
crease in seed rate (i.e. W1
= 157.87, W2 = 186.83
and y = 218.54 g/ml. The rate of dry matter pro
uction between various harvests was slow between
sowing to 25 days, then increased and highest was
between 40 to 55 days after sowing and then declined. The net primary productivity decreased
significantly at 5% with the increase in row to row
spaging [i.e. Si = 3.112, So = 2.777 and = 2.1813
g/m /day) and Increseed with the increase in seed
rat [i.e. W = 2.255, W2 = 2.888 and W = 3.138
g/m /day).1
The efficiency of net primary production of
Phassolea gums, Roxb., decreased with the increase
in row to row spacing (84 = 0.88%, s2 = 0.81%, S3 =
0.48%) and increased with the increase in seed rate
(W1 = 0.50%, W2 = 0.59%, W = 0.88%).
POTENTIAL FOR TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER OF TWO CALIFORNIA AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS
TO SEMIARID MEDITERRANEAN AREAS WORLDWIDE
Nancy K. Diamond, Graduate Student, Natural Resources Management Department, California Polytechnic StateUniversity, San Luis Obispo, California 93407, [805) 546 -2702
Agroforestry systems are presented as effective
and sound landuse strategies which hold high poten
tial for sustainable development of marginal semi
arid mediterrenean lands. Energy and food needs can
Imo supplemented through the use of nonirrigated
egroforestry systems which integrate droughtresis
tant, nitrogenfixing *Jody plants, biomass tree
crops, perennial grains and legumes, and livestock.
Demonstration projects of systems are needed to
determine appropriate species, establishmentand maintenance practices, both short and longterm
management practices and potential yields. Two
agroforestry species screenings are planned for
2B
marginal rangeland sites in the Central Coast
region of California. Dne site is characterized by
a cool, coastal mediterraneentype climate and the
other site has an inland, winter rain semi arid
climate with greeter extremes of annual temperature
and precipitation.
The purpose of this study was to assess the
potential applicability of systems of this nature
to other regions of the world, particularly those
areas of the Third World with similar climatic,
soil and vegetative conditions. Recommendations
for technology transfer will be made based on both
physical and biological data and in addition to
34
information on the current status of agroforestry
research in germane countries. Experimental design
and management plans have been prepared for each of
the two sites, in addition to funding proposals for
project establishment.
FORAGE CROP AGRI-REFINERY:
AN ALTERNATIVE FOR PRODUCING FOOD AND FUEL IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Joseph C. Roetheli, Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), Muscle Schools, Alabama 35880, (205) 3:: -2825
J. Wayne Barrier - TVA, Betsy Amin-Ars:Ile - TVA, Bruce E. Dale - Colorado State University
The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) is evalua-
ting a system for reclaiming eroded, marginal land
by forage crop cultivation and refining of the crops
to produce crude protein (suitable for human or
animal consumption), fuel ethane,' and cnamicals.
The system potentially is applicable under a wide
variety of agricultural situations and scales,
produces marketable products, increases income from
marginal lands allowing farmers to enter the cash
economy, and contributes to food and fuel self-
sutficiency at the national level. Use of the
system also could assist in meeting environmental
problems associated with some marginal lends as mall
as sustain its productivity. Successful application
requires managerial and institutional capacity to
develop internal and/or external markets for by-
products.
From the process refining system conceived, the
protein would initially be marketed as cattle or
poultry feed but with future potential for producing
protein isolate for human food. The cellulosic
materiel could be processed into ethanol for uee as
a motor fuel or fuel additive, utilized for direct
combustion, or processed into chemicals such as
acetic acid.
TVA has designed end constructed en experimen-
tal unit capable of processing about 4 tons per day
of nonwoody cellulose materiels such is forage
crops into ethanol. Initial testing underway util-
izes a low temperature, concentrated sulfuric' acid
hydrolysis process which is relatively simple.
Operation is at atmospheric pressure and sophisti-
cated control systems ere not required. No toxio
by-products to inhibit fermentation have been
detected in initial tests, which aohieved BO per-
cent conversion of cellulose to sugars.
Successful completion of TVA's development end
implementation of this mg- processing technology for
an integrated forage refinery system in appropriate
less developed countries could result in effioient
and sustainable use of the soil resource, new cash
markets for crops, economic activity, and jobs in
rurals areas. Domestic production of important
feed, food, and fuel supplies necessary for sus-
tainable growth would be realized and an improved
standard of living obtained for Third World coun-
tries.
35
OPTIMAL FOREST ROTATION WHEN ILLEGAL EXPLOITATION
BY NON-OPERATORS DEPLETES RESOURCE STOCK
Rabindra N. 8hattecharyya, Post-Doctoral Research Associate, end Donald L. Snyder, Associate Professor,
Economics Department, Utah State University, Logan, Utah
The Feustmann model has played a key role in
determining the optimal forest rotation period. The
optimal rotation problem, as viewed by him, is
a timber management problem when knowledge of the
forest operation about the resource biomass is
certain, depending on the biological characteris-
tics of growth of the tree population.
In many parts of the third world countries,
local inhabitants of forested areas resort to illeg-
al and indiscriminate felling of trees. From the
viewpoint of a private forest owner this is a deple-
tion of resource stock caused by human agents. To
a greet extent it is predictable.
This paper represents en attempt to account
for this predictable depletion of tree population
caused by human agents in determining the optimal
rotation. Our simple end modified Faustmann model
shows a shorter rotation period to be optimal,
which also seems intuitively apparent. We attempt
also, to explore the implication of this shorter
rotation period for the third world countries in
terms of a lose of positive externalities which
flow from more mature forests.
DETERMINING FOREST ENERGY BIOMAZS
Dr. Joseph D. Kesile, Associate Professor, and Gregg Maxfield, Schwil of Natural Resources, The Ohio State
University, 2021 Coffey Road, Columbus, Ohio 43210, (814) 422-2818
Forests are an important energy source for
developing countries of the third world. Land
management of these forests requires a forest inven-
tory methodology that will assess the total forest
biomass; the biomass usable for fuel; and the poten-
tial energy of the biomass.
A comprehensive energy biomass inventory system
was developed for the dry land forests of The Domin-
ican Republic. The system consists of two stages,
supported by biomass regression equations and energy
values. A stratification of the forests based on
visible human interactions was conducted using
aerial photographs. Within each stratum, sample
30
plots were established and all trees greater than
five centimeters in diameter at 0.5 meters above
ground were measured.
Energy values at oven-dry, 14 percent mois-
ture, and green moisture content levels were gater-
mined to be 581.5, 508.5, end 314.0 x 10 BTU/
hector; this converts to 102, 88 end 54 barrels of
oil energy equivalent, rewectively, For The
Dominican Republic the total energy available at 14
percent moisture from the dry lend forests repre-
sents the energy equivalent of 52 million barrels
of oil.
36
SEEDLING PRODUCTION AT TROPICAL NURSERIES AND SOME SUGGESTIONS TO IMPROVE QUALITY
M.M. Larson, School of Natural Resources, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210
In several tropical species, seedling tops are
pruned off when the trees ere lifted from nursery
beds to product "stump" stock. During lifting,
grading end transporting operations, seedlings often
lose most of their smeller roots and growing tips.
When outplanted, timely root regeneration is required to prevent critical water stresses and die
back in the new shoots.
Certain hormones can stimulate root development
if properly applied at appropriate concentrations.
Experiments were carried out at CATIE, Costa Rice in
which root regeneration of "stump" seedlings of
pochote (Bombecoetie autnatum) and matins (Gmeline
orbores) was greatly increased by soaking roots of
trees in solutions containing indoleacetic acid
(IAA) prior to planting. The optimum hormone level
for root regeneration appeared to be near 300 ppm
IAA. Other hormones end methods of application
were either of no benefit or less effective.
Some species ray have an optimum nursery size
for outplenting. Pochote "stump" seedlings with
taproot diameters near 30 mm grew better than seed
lings with larger or smaller taproot diameters.
Nursery schedules could be adjusted to produce this
size of seedlings during the planting season.
Cuttings from seedlings may be an excelltat
way of increasing nursery production. Cuttings
taken from the prunedoff tops of pochote "stump"
seedlings quickly rooted and grew vigorously in
containers, effectively doubling the number of
plants available for outplanting.
Results of these experiments indicate that
additional research, especially in the area of
seedling physiology, could greatly improve nursery
efficiency and quality of stock.
COMPAFIISON OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF VARIOUS PRETREATMENT METHODS
ON THE ENZYMATIC HYDROLYSIS OF SWEET POTATO (ROMOEA BATATAS L.) BIOMASS
Sheila Bhettacharya, P.K. Biomes and M.E.M. Tolbert, Carver Research Foundation of Tuakeges Institute,
Tusksgse University, Tuskegee Institute, Alabama
Lignin, phenolic substances and other interfer
ing constituents in agricultural biomass act as
physical barriers and diminish the rate and extent
of hydrolytic degradation of cellulose. In order to
enhance the enzymatic susceptibility of cellulose
substrates, e variety of pretreatment processes
prior to cellulose hydrolysis have been investiga
ted. Lesvos and stems of sweet potatoes produced as
waste et harvesting the potatoes, have been examined
ea cellulosic substrates for the production of
fermentable sugars for conversion into ethanol.
This investigation considers the effect of a wide
variety of single and multiple pretreatment methods
31
on the rate of subsequent enzymatic hydrolysis of
pretreated stems and leaves by cellulsse from
ilichoderme viride.
For the single pretrestment, each substrate
was either treated with 2.0% or 4.0% (m/v) sodium
hydroxide at room temperature (24 hours) or 70%
(v/v) ethanol at 60C (3 hours) of extracted direct
ly in 75% zinc chloride (w/v) solution in OMhydrochloric sold et 140C (12 minutes). The multi
ple pretreatment, consisted of a series of meth
anolacetone, sulphuric acid (1%, -v/v), sodium
hydroxide (2.0% of 4.0%, w/v) and ethanol (70, v/v)
pretreatments in various combinations followed by
zinc chloride-hydrochloric acid treatment.
The yield of enzymatic hydrolysis was mainly
dependent on the type of pretreatment and the kind
of substrate (leaf or stem) used. It is interesting
to note that, in general, single pretreatments were
not promising, since the hydrolysis rates did not
exceed much compared to multiple pretreatments when
leaves were used as substrates. However, single or
multiple pretreatment of leaves bnhanced the enzy-
matic hydrolysis and yields of glucose es compared
to untreated ones. Neither single or multiple
pretreatment was found to be effective for stem
substrates, and overall glucose yields did not
increase much as a result of pretreatments. Among
all the pretreatments, thou' involving zinc chlori-
de-hydrochloric scid treatment generally resulted
in higher glucose yields in Ill the cases. Othe,
factors which influence the extent of suchsrifi-
cation of pretreated sweet potato biomass were
enzyme-substrata retie, the enz-ime concentration
and period of incubation.
DISTRIBUTION AND CYCLING OF POTASSIUM
IN SOIL-VEGETATION COMPONENTS AROUND PILANI, RAJASTHAN, INDIA
Room Singh, Department of Bio-Sciences, Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla-171005, India
M.C. Joshi, Biological Sciences Discipline, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Rajasthan, India
The distribution and cycling of potassium in
the herbaceous vegetation in sand end dune regions
around Pilani (28 .37'N, 75P .37', elevatico 350 m)
have been studied from June, 1973 to May, 1974.
Four sand dune sites, viz. Site I (windward), Site
II (top), Site III (leeward), and Site IV (inter-
dunal lcws) were selected on sand dunes at Narhar,
10 Km from Pilsni and Site V (axclosure) at Central
Electronics and Engineering Research Institute
(CEERI), PAlani. The concentration (%) and standing
state (g/m ) of potassium in sand and dune herba-
ceous vegetation fluctuated between sites and
months. Only 3-7 % of the total potassium was in-
32
volved in biological circulation and the rest (83-
87%) was retained in the soil. Maximum uptake ..of
potassium (3.00 g/le) occurred in Site IV (inter-
dunal lows) during the rainy season, out of which
83% was reflected in aboveground live shoots and
about 17% in roots. The transfers were higher
during the winter season. Annually, on all the
five sites, the total potassium absorbed by the
vegetation ranged from 1.45 g/m2
to 3.35 g/m2of
which 47-70% wee returned to the soil through
litter and root daemposition.
38
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES -
THE HUMAN EQUATIONt
Sunil K. Roy, National Committee for Environmental Planning, New Delhi, India
Based on experience working with a Rural hospi-
tal and an village development, and in assessing the
environmental impact an life support :systems of
foreign aided projects both officially and unoffici-
ally, the paper analyzes the relationship between
the attitudes of the people involved and the suc-
glassful implementation. It starts at the project
formulation stage, covers the kind of personnel
selected and their prior briefing, and only then
deals with the structural aspects, local government
regulations, and government fficials, field person-
nel and local communities.
Projects are too often formulated by scholars
in affluent societies with little understanding end
regard for the people affected. They are discussed
with and cleared by officials in national or state
government capitals who have little, if anything to
do directly with implementation. Their role is to
relate the project and to identify funding for
officiaLly decided priorities. In this process,
there is a dilution in the real benefits for local
communities. It is almost invariably at a dispro-
portionately higher cost and tends to benefit the
already more prosperous elements.
The degree of understanding between the foreign
personnel and local government officials and field
workers is related to anticipated benefits. A view
is offered an the choice of in-coming personnel
(where applicable the influence of wives) and their
capacity to function in en alien environment, work-
ing with local individuals and groups who often
combine a measure of chauvinism and self - importance
with resentment at the implication of their lack of
expertise end of the abundant funding.
There is n in-built communication gap border-
ing on hostility between officials and local commun-
ities and sometimes even between field personnel and
senior officers. This has counto.e-productive
impact an ell projects end emphasizes the critical
importance of perceptive liaison by the project
director and his colleagues. There are no easy
answers as conditions very not only in countries but
33
in different areas. An Indian and en African com-
ment best reflect en aspect of the field reality.
We need outside help for analysis and under-
standing of our situation and experience, but not
for telling us what we skouLd do.
An outsider who comes with ready-made solu-
tions and advice is worse than useless. He must
first understand from us whet our questions ere,
and help us articulate the questions better; and
then help us find solutions. Outsiders also have
to change. He alone is friend who helps us to
think about our problems an our own.
The baobab contributes daily to the life of
the village, with its bark for medicines, its
delicious fruit for the children, and its precious
leaves for the sauce made every day to go with the
millet porridge there is a square of eucalyp-
tus trees planted by the people from the Waters and
Forests Department nearly two aeasons ego. There
were some whites with them when they came to ask
the villagers what they should plant.
said: "Neres, karites for their fruits,
butter, end acacias for the animals in
season, where there is no more grass".
Nikiema
oil and
the dry
The whites wrote everything down in a note-
book, but when they came beck they brought eucalyp-
tus trees, Those thin, sickly trunks will
not provide more than poles for huts. Furthermore,
tha wood does not burn well and the leaves are good
for nothing. The people from the Department caked
e lot of questions but they did not listen.
In the pest, the village had asked the gron-
omist for a grain bank to store their millet et the
end of the harvest, some small dikes to prevent the
earth from being washed away by the rain, some
fencing, and a well to do some market gardening
during the dry season Nothing ever arrived.
The extension agent explained later that none of
that was important and that the whites preferred to
build a new road and dig wells.
39
RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES
SOLAR POND COSTING IN THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
Robert E. Bailey and R. Peter Fynn, Ohio State University
John Hummell, Alden Stilsen and Associates, Columbus, Ohio
Figures on the engineering design and costing
of a large solar pond project for the production of
electricity in the Oominican Republic are presented
together with the criteria for pond siting in the
islaud. The island has a 100% reliance on imported
fuels for electricity production, and a system for
producing electricity locally, from local resources
(the sun and salt), will enhance the security and
balance of payments of the country. Thus the ques-
tion of producing electricity from solar energy is
not solely nne of cost, but one of security and
employment as well.
This paper demonstrates the interplay between
system costs and a), the parameters which describe
the physical environment, and b), the engir.eering
design parameters. For example, the financial
structure of this solar pond project depends heev-
ily on the price of salt and a pond liner - either
plastic or clay. The correlation between the capi-
tal costs and the thermal conductivity of the soil
under the pond is discussed to demonstrate the
value of soil insulation under the solar pond.
A listing of research and engineering problems
is presented that is prioritized on the basis of
cost of electricity. Furthermore, there is en
indication of the payback associated with a given
problem resolution.
Finally, the future of solar ponds in the
environments encountered in many tropical countries
is discussed, together with any advantages or
disadvantages that the authors see in the use of
these devices for the production of energy in the
tropics.
REGIONAL APPLICATION OF SOLAR PONDS
John R. Hull, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL 60438
Sac: panda combine low-cost solar collection
with long-term storage for a variety of low-temper-
ature thermal applications. At first glance, solar
ponds ere relatively simple in concept, consisting
mainly of a hole in the ground, water, end somesalt. In many locations excavation, salt, and water
are readily available, resulting in low cost plus
the use of indigenous resources. Operating costsare expected to be low. While fluid pumping is
usually necessary to extract heel from the solar
pond, collection and storage are completely passive.
34
In this paper the general features of the
solar pond are briefly described and research
activities around the world ere summarized. A
survey of potential applications in different parts
of the world is made based on selected examples.
At higher latitudes the seasonal storage capability
suggests use es winter space heating. In temperate
agriculture'. areas where salt is plentiful, such as
Tux Golu, the great salt Luke in Turkey, heat from
the pond may be used for grain drying at harvest
time. In humid tropical areas, such as Toga, the
solar pond has good potential for grain drying on a
4u
more or less continuous basis. In sunny and dry
climates, such as Cape Verde Islander heat from the
pond may ba used for water desalination. Under some
circumstances, solar pond techniques can be adapted
to solution mining, as demonetratA by a sodiumsulphate pond in Argentina. In some very special
circumstances, such as the Deed Sea, the cost of
energy from the solar pond may be low enough to
justify converting the Inatemperature haat to
electricity, even though the total efficiency is
only a few percent.
Several emerging solar pond technologies hold
promise for areas where salt is not available or
where traditional solar pond salts would impose too
large of an environmental hazard. Several researchers have investigated floating honeycomb
structures over fresh water bodies, and development
of inexpensive golf-, that float at the surface of
solar ponds la making steady progress. In addition, it is suggested that several ammonium salts
are candidates for salt gradient solar ponds in
agricultural areas, where the salt runoff can be
used as fertilizer.
PHOTOVOLTAICS AS A COTTAGE INDUSTRY
Richard J. Kamp, SunWatt Corporation, Rt. 2, English, Indiana 47118
Photovoltaic systems very often are the bast
sources of electric power in rural areas of develop
ing nations but the cost of the systems, the unfe
maliarity of the new technology and the need to use
up valuable foreign exchange currency to import the
expensive modules has to date kept the use of solar
cell PV systems to a few demonstration projects
funded by outside sources. It is now possible in
small scale labor intensive plants to make PV
modules from purchased cells and even to make the
cells themselves tram industrial grade silicon using
fabrication techniques that have recently been
developed. The economics of using a few extra
workers to replace a large capital investment in
automated equipment is very favorable. A detailed
analysis of a 1/2 megawatt PV fabrication plant now
being planned for Indid will, be given, showing how
11 extra productinn workers can displace about
1800,000 of capital investment. The production of
small solar cell modules to charge batteries for
portable lights, radios end other smell electric
appliances cam be accomplished using even simpler
shops and can be done on a village level.
Three examples of "cottage industry" plants at
different scales of production are given below:
I. A SMALL SHOP PRODUCING 5 TO 10W SOLAR
BATTERY CHARGERS
Solar cells, plastic for cases, etc.
purchased.
35
41
Outputs 1000 charges per year, 4
per working day
Personnel,: 1 to 2 persons
Oapttel: $15,000 startup, $16,000
per year material cost
II. LABOR INTENSIVE FACTORY MAKING 40W
LAMINATED PV MODULES
Solar Calls, glass and other sup
plies purchased.
putout: 1/2 NW per year (12,500
olodules), 50 per day
Pareonnel: 18 production workers
capital: $150,000 startup,
$2,000,000/yaar material cost
III. PLANT MAKING SOLAR CELLS FROM INDUS
TRIAL GRADE SILICON
Casting polysilicon shapes from
cheaper grade silicon, cutting into
square wafers, doping, adding metal
contacts anti reflection coating,
etc.
Output: 1 MW per year (1,000,000
wafers), 4000 par day
Personnel,: 20 workers (8 highly
skilled)
Capital,: $1,500,000 startup,
$3,000,000/year operating.
BIG BOON OF THE BID-GOBEe GAS PLANT - THE CASE STUDIES IN
SANDUR TALUK, KARNATAK, INDIA
Sri. R.G. Decal, SES College, Sandur
Dr. W. Susanna, Veeraseiva College, Boltery
The non-conventional sources of energy are of
vital importance in the present situation of energy
crisis in the Third World Countries as well as for
protecting the environment. They are non-pollu-
ting and non-exhausting in nature, and they areideally suited for rural India, because of their
decentralized and small scale energy systems.
Biogas is one sup,' important component of
renewable supply of energy. The by-product ofbiogas is a very valuable enriched fertilizer. It
reduces the demand for firewood and helps woman in
cooking amicably. It can also be used for lighting
and other purposes.
In the present study, the authors have investi-
gated the state and status of the Gober -bio -gas
plants in Sandur Taluk of Bellary Dist., Karnataka
State (India). The specific objectives of the study
relate to the examination of the economic compati-
bility of the technology, problems faced by the
owners, and subsequent attempt to solve them, and
examine the organizational network for the speedy
execution of the scheme,
The study is based on both primary end secon-
dary data collected through personal interview and
questionnaire method. Out of eighteen commissioned
plants in Sandur Taluk, ten have been selected
randomly representing four small, four medium, and
two big plants. The analysis of the data revealed
that these plants have proven to be a boon to the
owners, because, they help in saving time, money
and cost. Besides they also help in lighting the
houses, getting enriched manure, saving denudation
of forests and th6reby help in maintaining the
ecological equilibrium.
However the study also revealed that plant
owners have confronted some problems such as low
production of gas during winter, frequent replace-
ment of mantle for lighting purpose, etc. Based on
the identification of the problems the authors have
suggested remedial immures to improve the opera-
tional efficiency of the plants.
FAMILY-SIZED METAL GRAIN STORAGE BINS OF CENTRAL AMERICA:
A CASE STUDY
Dr. Theodore A. Prenovski, R.P.E., Granoveky Associates, Urban & Postharvest Pest Management Specialists,
3208 Wilderness Road., Bryan, Texas 77801
Thomas R. Fricke, Professional Program Associate, Experiment in Irternational Living, Projects and Grants
Diviaton, Brattleboro, Vermont
This paper will summarize recent findings about
the family-sized metal grain storage bins which are
a widespread, little-known appropriate technology in
Central America. Around 150,000 end 100,000 of
these inexpensive, locally - produced post-harvest
36
storage systems are currently in use in El Salvador
and Guatemala, respectively, with limited use also
in Honduras and Costa Rica, In the first two
countries, bins are produced end distributed with-
out development programs or subsidies to local
42
farmers by itinerant tinsmiths or small-scale sheet-
metal industries. In the latter countries, national
government and bilateral aid agencies are attempting
to promote dissemination.
This technology provides significant social and
environmental benefits which have been largely
overlooked by national planners, agricultural minis-
tries and international devet-pment agencies.
Properly managed, this technology excellent
conservation and storage of task grains (maize,
beans, and sorghum) for over 2 years to farmers with
limited resources. With proper drying, handling,
Research and development by Kim Nielsen
and fumigation, losses due to rodents, birds, in-
sects, fungi, and other pests can be reduced to a
minimum.
Based on reoent field research, the paper
clarifies the agroclimatic, financial/economic,
environmentaL, end institutional factors which
favor the technology's adoption one sustained use
in Central America. The paper will also review and
compare various current research, development and
dissemination techniques emrLoyed in the transfer
of tc, technology and present useful policy guide-
lines to decision makers.
UTILIZING WAVE POWER
Presented by Harry La Fontaine, C.E.O., 1995 Keystone Boulevard, Miami, FL 33181
A method of converting ocean-wave-power into
electricity is proposed and initially described.
The principle is based on floating bodies, damped by
single-working piston pumps, placed on the sea-bed
end connected to a central submerged water turbine.
An expnrimentel investigation concerning the
ability of Voating bodies to absorb wave power has
been carried out. Experimentally determined effi-
ciencies are presented for different body shapes and
mass distributions in heed and beam sees. A compar-
ison with efficiencies obtained by other elongated
wave-power converters show that the peak values
compare well, but the band-width of high efficien-
cies are much broader in the principle investigated.
With regard to future development of the wave-
power converter, a dimensioning procedure is pro-
posed. The procedure takes into account the long
term Weibull distribution of wave heights of a
chosen ocean location and is based on general empir-
ical relations, derived from the model experiments
combined with ISSC spectrial description of the see
surface.
37
43
During the project, mapping of Danish wave
potential has been carried out, too. The potential
is ,:5,000 GWIyeer equal to a year's consumption of
electricity in Denmark.
The above described wave-power absorber has
the advantage of being made of simple concrete
construction, easily adaptable to moat parts of the
world . There is no patent on the principal, and
the submerged turbine and generator is a standard
product.
The best way to epread knowledge of the utili-
zation of wave energy is to demonstrate how it
works, and to improve the construction.
Other types of wave power systems ere placed
on the coast in a very vital environment for wild-
life. This ie not the case with this save power
converter, which in order to work must be placed in
a minimum of 100 feet, deep water, offshore. In
this way it will not pollute the shoreline, but
preserve it, and help ti, prevent erosion.
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF RENEWABLE RESOURCE CONSERVATION IN THE THIRD WORLD
Douglas Southgate, Aset. Professor and Fred Hitznusen, Professor, Dept. of Ag. Economics, Ohio State Univer-
sity, Columbus, Ohio 43210
Estimating the benefits and costs of an envi-
ronmental improvement usually requires resolution of
complex issues, regardless of whether one is working
in the developing world or in an affluent country.
It is a challenge to model well the physical impacts
created as humans alter their interactions with the
natural environment. Furthermore, assigning econom-
ic values to physical impacts like amelioration of
acid precipitation problems in Europe or North
America or reduced sedimentation of a tropical
reservoir is rarely a straightforward exercise.
To be sure, the research agenda for resource
economists working in wealthy countries differs from
the agenda of their counterparts in the developing
world. Because the share of income spent on ser-
vices derived from amenity resources tends to in-
crease as income grows, estimating recreational
benefits is a major research area for resource
economists in the wealthier countries. By contrast,
resource economists in poorer countries focus more
on cases where environmental degradation is affec-
ting or will affect the flow cr natural resource
inputs used in agriculture and industry.
In spite of this Ofference in research agen-
das, there is substentiul correspondence between
what resource economists in affluent and developing
countries do. Estimating the on-site and off-site
costs of soil erosion, for exempla, is a major topic
of study throughout the world. Recognizing this
correspondence causes one to consider the following
question: how well do the techniques developed in
wealthy countries to analyze environmental problems
transfer to the developing world?
While studying the economics of renewable
resource conservation in Latin America, West Africa,
and the Pacific Basin, the authors have encountered
three limits on the transferability of analytical
techniques utilized in affluent countries.
A. Data are generally not readily avail-
able in third world countries as in
developed countries. Furthermore,
39
due to communication costs and
bureaucratic constraints, primary
data are difficult to obtain.
B. Given scientists' rudimentary under-
standing of tropical and subtropiyal
ecosystems and sediment delivery
systems, it is difficult to precise-
ly model the physical impacts of a
change in resource management.
C. Conceptual frameworks developed in
effluent, industrialized countries
must often be extensively amended to
elect social and political insti-
tutions that are particular to
developing countries.
Any resource economist who has worked in a
developing country is intimately familiar with the
first limit. Features of third world bureaucracies
that impede coordinated management of resources
also constrain collection of needed for eco-
nomic analysis. What one encounters in most coun-
tries is a series of agencies, each with a narrow
polio maiklate, that do not communicate regularly
and well with each other. One often experiences
frustration trying to culLact data from several
such agencies.
Watershed management is a good illustration.
Quite often there is more than one entity utilizing
water from a reservoir. One agency might be in
charge of running an irrigation system while anoth-
er is trying to produce hydroelectricity. While
the two agencies might have evolved a mechanism for
allocating water in times of scarcity, neither is
likely to be doing much about erosion in the region
upstream from the reeervoir. The mandate fur
watershed management is often split among a forest
service (which plants and/or protects tress), a
parka deportment (which protects wildlife), and an
agriculture ministry (which is not apt to be famil-
iar with farming systems that conserve soil).
Entering this milieu, one must expend a lot of
44
effort obtaining reliable information on how (a)
soil conservation affects farm income, ;13) erosion
control affects reservoir sedimentation, (c) sedi
mentation effects hydroelectricity production et the
dam end irrigation water withdrawals from the reser
voir, and other related topics.
The second Limit on reliable estimation of the
benefits and cost of resource conservation is easily
appreciated by natural scientists. To continue with
the watershed management example, it is only now
becoming clear that sediment travels through tropi
cal watersheds and reservoirs in ways unfamiliar to
sedimentologists who have worked exclusively in
North America. For another example, a tropical
rainforest is more speciesrich then forests in more
northerly or southerly latitudes. Accordingly,
predicting the effects of tropical deforestation is
more difficult than predicting the effects of clear
cutting in a temperate climate.
Pe-haps the least well understood impediments
to resource conservation in the developing world
fall in the category of institutional factors.
Models developed to analyze resource use under the
institutional conditions found in Europe or North
40
America often do not facilitate understanding of
the institutional roots of environmental degrada
tion in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Tc cite
an important case in point, resource management
decisions made by agricultural colonists in those
parts of the third world where Lend is treated as
an open access resource cannot be described well by
referring to a model developed to explain conserve
tionfdepletion decisions made by a U.S. landowner.
Obviously, the research agenda is full foreconomists interested in third world renewable
resource depletion. As environmental degradation
creates higher social costs in developing countries, government agencies ought to have a stronger
incentive to coordinate policy making and datacollection. Similarly, improved understanding of
tropical and subtropical environments will allow
for more precise analysis of resource management
options. Finally, because polio's makers must know
how individuals will respond to conservation proj
ects, there exists an opportunity for economists to
develop models of individual conservation/depletion
decisions that reflect better the institutional
realities now prevailing in the third world.
45
FUELWOOD DEVELOPMENT: POLICY ISSUES AND CASE STUDIES
THE INFLUENCE OF MARKETING AND GOVERNMENT POLICY ON
BIOMASS WASTE CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES IN LOCs
John Teton', Research Professor and Senior Fellow, Institute for International Affairs and Development,
Atlanta University
Kofi B. Bota, Professor of Chemistry and Physics, and Vice Presioont of Academic Affairs, Atlanta University
Agriculture and forestry process wastes repre-
sent a major renewable energy source in the Develop-
ing World. Generally, the quantity 7f wastes pro-
duced at a typical processing plant contains energy
far in excess of that required to power the plant.
From a national perspective, full, efficient utili-
zation of these materials is mandatory. Therefore
conversion technologies such as pyrolysis, digestion
and fermentation which can efficiently convert as
the wastes while providing liquid or gaseous fuels
for plant needs end an array of easily transportable
by-products such as char, tar, fertilizer, etc.,
probably offer the most attractive means for utili-
zation. This is in contrast to technologies such as
direct burning and gasification which intrinsically
require only a fraction of the wastes available,
thus frequently liming the remainder practically
unavailable as fuels and simultaneously producing a
serious disposal problem.
However the difficulty with the technologies
for fuel utilization of the wastes is the marketing
problem, since for them to be economical the char,
ter, fertilizer, and other by-products, must be sold
to the public. The lack of a proven market demand
hoe seriously inhibited development of these tech-
nologies and unless soiathing is on soon, these
wastes will remain unavailable economically due to
growing use of combustion and gasification conver-
sion technologies.
41
Thus there appears to be no practical alterna-
tive but for government intervention. In a related
situation, the Indians reached a similar conclusion
25 years ago with the formatien of permanent, gov-
ernment-owned corporations to provide supply-side
support to their fledgling soft coke industry. The
results have not been completely satisfactory. For
this end other reasons it appears that demand-side
support would be better with assistance initially
provided in the form of guaranteed prices, tax
incentives, government purchase of by-products etc.
that could be phased out gradually es the industry
prospered.
Likewise, the Indian experience teaches that
medium production scats conversion systems utili-
zing mid-level technology and an Intermediate
Capital Intensive design approach - is opposed to
the opposite extremes - is perhaps most appropriate
to LDCe. This is because practical marketing of
the by-product demands a phased production program
which itself requires a technology applicable et
small and medium production Bosley. That does not
produce too wide a variety of by-products end is
environmentally acceptable.
Because the seriousness of the Energy Problem
in LOCs can only increase with time, there ie
pressing need for recognition of these factors end
for the implementation of government programa to
overcome the marketing problems described.
46
FEASIBILITY OF A SHORT COPPICE ROTATION PLANTATION, A CARBONIZATION SYSTEM,
AND THE CONVERSION OF A CEMENT PLANT IN CENTRAL AMERICA
Pedro Maldonado, Senior Consultant, Renouvables Energy Sources, 10360, Jeanne Nance, Nontraal, Quabec, H3L3C1 CANADA
Alfredo Unde, Forestry Consultant, Energy Plantation Management, 150 Berlioz, Ap. 108, Verdun, Ouabec, H3E1K3 CANADA
After analyzing several alternatives to fuel
oil, charcoal was selected as being the optimal
solution to a Cement Plant conversion problem.
The project hes been scaled to satisfy the
energy needs of a cement factory producing 380,000
tonnes of clinker per year. To meet the factory's
charcoal needs, fuelwood will be produced from
plantations covering an area of 11,000 hectares.
The main tree species to be planted will be &calve
la RR, Leuceena InLomghelle and (Retina arboreal
in a four year rotation system over a project life
span of 23 years.
The carbonization wilt be done in two produc
tion centers, made up of 8 beehive kiln's batteries.
Total annual charcoal production will be around48,000 tonnes, including losses.
The cement factory conversion will be set into
a unique process of preparing and handling charcoal
and fuel. The new installations are calculated on
the basis of a maximum capacity, without precalcina
tion, of 1,400 tonnes of clinker a day.
Feasibility studies were carried out on:
the establishment and management
of short coppice rotation plantation,
near the current fectory.
the establishment of efficient,continuous and high quality carboni
zation system.
42
the conversion of the plant's clin
ker kiln, so as to maintain current
efficiency while keeping production
proceee, security and quality stan
dards.
The project presents the following benefits:
contribution to regional economic
balance and lessening of outmigra
tion,
introduction of new technology,
foreign currency saving in the order
of 5.5 million $US.
create in a short period a large
plantation in a zone where the
vegetation cover is either poor or
lacking,
the protection of remaining native
forests by reducing wood felling,
the development of various forestry
techniques and activities (nurser
ies, plantation, management systems,
etc.).
47
ECONOMIC STRATEGIES FOR LOCATING FUELWOOD PLANTATIONS
Gary G. Naughton and Wayne A. Geyer, Kensas State University, Oepartment of Forestry, 2810 Ctaflin Rd.,Manhattan, Kansas 66502
The availability of land for afforestation is a
socioeconomic issue of great importance worldwide,
and is rapidly becoming a critical concern in many
of the less developed countries (=el. The unique
ness, scarcity, end accessibility of suitable lands
for tree planting projects must be addressed in the
early stages of planning strategy if the investment
is to meet its socioeconomic objectives.
Von Thunen's classic model of land allocation
provides important considerations for the selection
of afforestation project sites. Because charcoal
is readily substituted for wood as transportation
distance increases, and because charcoal production
wastes half of the potential fuel value of the wood
resource, the location of afforestation projects
close to the center of consumption is suggested.
SCARCITY OF WOODFUEL ENERGY: THE TANZANIAN CASE
G.H. Weaver, kasociate Professor, Forest Economica/Management, Mississippi State University, MississippiState, Mississippi.
Current levels of woodfuel consumption in
Tanzania are too high for the indigenous forestresource base to support on a sustained basis.Continuation of this level of consumption wilt
drastically reduce the natural woodland area of the
nation and present associated problems in agricul
tural production and environmenUA protection.
Large scale fuelwood plantations would be required
to meet projected fuelwood requirements. Investments needed to develop such large scale fuelwood
plantation projects would be high and compete di
rectly with development projects that could earn
foreign exchange capital. Alternatively increased
management and protection of the indigenous forest
resource could meet projected requirements within a
20 year time period. This management program would
reduce the need for major fuelwood plantation pro
grams and yet provide an adequate supply of wood
for rural consumption.
DECENTRALIZED PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF AN APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY
FOR A CONSUMER DURABLE: THE KENYAN CHARCOAL STOVES EXPERIENCE
Eric L. Hyman, Appropriate Technology Internationa', 1331 H. Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005
Efforts at promoting more fuelefficient char
mil stoves to replace traditional charcoal stoves
in Kenya offer soma lessons for the dissemination of
appropriate technologies in energy and also in other
43
sectors. A marketbased approach hes made the
Kenyan charcoal stoves project much more successful
than most of the improved woodetoves projectsthroughout the world. The leseons from this axper-
48
ienco are of broader significance than the particu-
lar designs of a charcoal stove. A Large number of
different designs have been tried in Kenya and
although the technology is relatively simple, it is
still evolving.
The Kenyan experience shows the dee"rability of
relying on Local artisans to manufacture consumer
durables and using existing private sector channels
to market these goods. It also highlights the
importance of going beyond a laissez-faire approach
and supporting training, demonstration, and publi-
city to facilitate the workings of the private
sector. In the Kenyan case, technology choice was
relatively unsubsidized and left to the choices of
consumers. Since many different characteristics of
a technology affect its acceptance by consumers,
designs should not be optimized for a single char-
acteristic alone.
The relative success of the design, develop-
ment, and early production and dissemination ef-
forts for charcoal stoves in Kenya does ea mean
that further efforts are unnecessary. In fact, the
time is ripe for infusion of additional resources
to extend production and servicing especially
outside of Nairobi. Even in Nairobi, a system to
ensure better quality control would be desirable
and consumer education and marketing activities
should be expanded.
THE 'OTHER' ENERGY CRISIS AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTi
THE ROLE OF NONCOMMERCIAL FUELS IN INDIAN SUBSISTENCE AS°TCULTURE
Pradeep Kotemraju, University of Minnesota- Duluth, Duluth, MN 55812, (218) 726 -8140
For many subsistence agricultural economies,
the "other" energy crisis ill the only energy crisis
of any relevance today. The major thrust of this
paper is to analyze, assess, and evaluate the dimen-
sions of the "other" energy crisis. In Indian
villages, this is seen as a replacement of fuelwood
by dung in the household's energy budget. While
relying mainly on descriptive statistics obtained
from different village and household surveys, cor-
relation analysis and multiple regression techniques
are also used.
First, while Indian consumption and supply of
nonoommarcial fuels is determined by socio-economic
conditions, the noncommercial fuel mix is dependent
on the agro-ecological resource base end use in end
around villages. Second, shrinking resource bases,
due mainly to a change in Indian mural development
and economic policy, have affected not only the
total amounts, but also the mix, of noncommercial
fuels. Third, the regression results confirm the
above findings by showing that mix of noncommercial
energy is negatively and significantly related to
the level of economic development. On the other
hand, the mix is positively and significantly re-
lated to the resource base and use in the village.
Thus, in attempting to provide a swooth tran-
sition from noncommercial to other fuels through
"new" energy technologies and systems, LDC policy-
makers may have failed to take into account the
role of noncommercial energy in the rural subsis-
tence's household decision-making process.
BIOMASS AS ENERGY RESOURCES IN INDONESIA
Kaaaruddin Abdullah, Energy and Rural Electrification Laboratory, Dept. Agricultural Engineering, FATETA,
Bogor Agricultural University
44
49
Indonesia is covered with approximetety 143
million hectares of tropical forested lend producing from 2 to 10 ma/ha/yr of biomass resources.
In addition to this, lend for food production as
well as for estate plantations are also producing
biomass in the form of waste at reasonable quanti
ties each year.
The current issues on energy problems in Indo
nesia are focused mainly on determining the best
strategy to: a). assure a gradual shift from a
monoeaargy to a polyenergy economy, b). ensure the
availability of energy at reasonable prices for
domestic market and e). ensure a continuous and
positive contribution to the balance of payment and
public revenues.
Biomass in Indonesia had played an important
role in economic development particularly in supply
ing basic energy need for the rural and even to the
urban household, sgro end small scale rural indus
tries.
In 1872 the estimated consumption of biomass in
the household sector was 88.2 million m2 or equival
ent to 117.3 million 80E. This amount is about
58.7% of the total national energy consumption. In
1882 the amount increasee to 133.1 million m3 which
is about 34% of the national consumption. Many
attempts has been made to obtain more reliabte
figu.es for futu-m forecasting b, cGroducting an
integrated survey using a standardized methouology.
As a result a combination of econometrics and engin
eering model had been proposed by some resesrchers
48
50
although some key problems are remains to be solved
such as those related to the impact of keroses
subsidy reduction on the degree of deforestation.
In this paper, the author described a differ
ent approach to the problem by establishing s
macroscopic model by taking into sccount the vari
ous factors relatea to the supplydemand balances
of biomass resources such as the reforestation
program, forest conversion to new settlement in the
outer island of Java, shifting cultivation, food
production and estate crop plantation and industri
al purposes. In addition to this, the model can
also be used to study the impact of future bioener
gy development for power supply, the impact of
interisland impePt/export of biomass and other
related problems.
Preliminary analysis indicated that biosnergy
development is still possible in Indonesia. To
support this idea further, it was suggested that
more basic data such as the forested land 'reap
species and its productivity (e.g. the mean annual
increment), standing biomass, similar data for the
home yards all in terms of quantities measured over
a certain time span should be provided. To do this
the utilization of the remote sensing technology,
now already available in the country, was recom
mended and an experiment with LANDSAT imagery for
Northern West Java had been conducted. More ground
truth data are stilt required to obtain better
correlation and the comparison of the above test
result with data from the NOAA AVHHR is now under
study.
ALCOHOL FUELS: POLICY ISSUES
THE BRAZILIAN ETHANOL PROGRAM: AN OVERVIEW
Florian R. Smoczynski, Instructor of Environmental Studies, Madison Area Technical College, 211 North
Carroll Street, Madison, Wisconsin 53703, (608) 286 -8168
Brazil is faced with a growing number of com
plex economic problems. Recently the issue of
energy has taken on a central role in Brazilian
affairs, rapidly becoming a major economic concern.
In order to wean itself from expensive imported oil,
the Brazilian government has launched a bold fuel
substitution program (Proalcool) which is primarily
directed toward turning sugar cane into ethyl alcohol. The government's objective is to power the
nation's entire automobile fleet with pure alcohol
by century's end.
Ostensibly, Proalcool has been quite success
ful; its 1982 ethanol production accounted for 23.6
percent of Brazil's automobile fuel. The program
is, however, fraught with problems, and an increa
sing number of Brazilian scientists claim that its
costs will outweigh its benefits. It is said that
the program changes the pattern of land use and
employment, concentrates economic power in the hands
of a power elite, adds huge amounts of pollution to
the environment, destroys virgin tropical forests,
is too energy intensive and wasteful so that a net
energy gain is questionable, and competes with food
crop production.
Under Brazilian conditions, it is necessary to
use one hectare of land to feed an average size
family (five people). The average Sao Paulo family
requires two kilowatts of power for transportion
which is mainly by automobile. This energy could be
obtained from one hectare of land if ethanol were
produced from sugar cane. To achieve selfsuffi
ciency in automobile fuel by century's end through
the use of sugar cane would require the use of one
half of all the land in Brazil that is presently
under cultivation.
48
Meanwhile, scientists are searching for new
and Less costly weya to produce energy from biomass. Recent research in the production of bio
fuels has included the use of cassava, hydrocarbon
producing trees, wood cellulose, grass, and °til
lage waste. It was found that liquid stillage
waste from ethanol production when subjected to
anaerobic fermentation produced a byproduct that
could be turned both into a methane fuel and a
nitrogen rich slurry that could be used as liquid
fertilizer. If Proalcool is willing to search, it
would most undoubtedly discover large warehouse
full of untapped biomass energy resources.
Soft technology energy resources are not broad
spectrum ones like oil or natural gas and should be
utilized in smaller packages. Perhaps Brazil could
get 20 percent of its automobile fuel from sugar
cane, another 20 percent from hydrocarbon producing
trees, and so on. Ethanol production should be
considered together with other forms of biofueL
production to help establish more stable, com
plete and efficient fuel producing infrastructure.
This would be especially true if cellulosic mater
ials from well managed forest plantations were
used.
If the Brazilian government follows a single
minded sugar cane oriented path in its biofuel
program, it could teed to the destruction of irre
placeable primary forest ecosystems, soaring food
prices, increased urban migration, and increased
social inequality. The program's costs would must
undoubtedly outweigh its benefits. If they, how
ever, follow path based on environmentally sound
planning and a diverse and decentralized energy
infrastructure, the program could scome a positive
force with a bright energy future.
51
SUGARCANE-BASED ETHANOL: POTENTIAL CONFLICTS FOR CARIBBEAN COUNTRIES
Dowlat Budhram, Graduate Research Associate, Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology, The
Ohio State University
Noreen Rask, Professor, Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology, The Ohio State University
Many Caribbean countries depend on sugar for
their economic prosperity. Sugar is a valuable
source of foreign exchange earnings, government
revenue, employment and rural incomes. The current
situation in the preferential (EEC end US) PS well
e s world markets necessitate alternative uses for
sugarcane. Production of ethanol (fuel alcohol)
from sugarcane provides one alternative for sugar
e xporting countries. Ethanol as en energy source
offers dventages end for countries in the Carib-
bean, the Caribbean Basin Initiative offers possi-
bilities for exporting ethanol to the U.S.
Assuming transferability 67 alcohol technology
to the Caribbean and ethanol being priced competi-
tively with petroleum, this paper examines potential
impacts of a sugarcane-based ethanol program in
Jamaica and the Dominican Republic. These impacts
will be analyzed at two main Levels - changes in the
demand for resources, mainly land due to adjustments
in agricultural production and net impacts on for-
e ign exchange earnings.
Both countries have small lend areas with
pressures from population growth, deficit gricul-
tural production and have large areas of marginal
land. Land is therefore critical factor and
policies should aim at maximizing net returns to
lend used in agricultural production. Given domes-
tic and export demands, several production ertivi-
ties are modelled to determine each country' oom-
parstive advantage, end tradeoffs involved in the
production of food, sugar end ethanol.
The mar also examines the opportunity costs
from trade in food, ethanol, sugar end petroleum
and their net impacts on foreign exchange earnings.
These include replacement of exports of sugar end
molasses with exports of ethanol to the U.S. mar
ket, partial substitution of imported petroleum
with domestically produced ethanol and importing
food to meet each country's food requirements.
BIOGAS AM FERTILIZER FROM BIOMASS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Authors: D.L. Day, C.B. Feciler, and M.P. Steinberg
Dr. D.L. Day, Agricultural Engineering, University of Illinois, 1304 W. Pennsylvania Avenue, Urbana, IL
81801, (217) 328-2874
This project is en engineering technology
e lement of a USAID Title XII Strengthening Grant to
the University of Illinois. Cur project la entitled
Miorobisl Conversion of Biomass into Fuels, Feed,
e nd Fertilizer in Developing Countries. We are
presently working with Egypt and Kenya.
.7.
Fuel, feed and fertilizer ers critioal re-
sources that in many instances must be imported st
s groat expense. The high cost of these resources
along with high interest rates are major economic
problems for agriculturalists, especially in devel-
oping countries. Conversion of locally available
by-products (biomass) to fuel, feed end fertilizer
47
52
can greatly improve community development and wel
fare. Waste materials and byproducts have at least
four advantages as sources of biomass: (1) they are
available nearby, (2) they ere continuously availa
ble, (3) they generally have negative value and may
be a source of pollutants, and (4) they are amenable
to biological upgrading to useful products.
The objective of this study, is to provide
fuel, feed, and fertilizer by utilizing the wastes
and byproducts from a Kenya farm service center.
Each farm service center is planned to operate a 4
hectare fermi 1 hectare of corn, 1 hectare of wheat,
and 2 hectares of legume/grass mixture. There would
48
also be 10 dairy cows, 35 pigs, and 300 chickens.
Wastes and byproducts from these crops end Live
stock can be used to produce methane and possibly
alcohol to supply locally needed fuels end to help
operate a food processing plant.
We are collecting background information on
the quantity and characteristics of the wastes end
byproducts. We era performing laboratory researoL
on mixtures of the wastes and byproduote to match
biogas production with energy requirements. Final
ly, the residues from biogas production will be
used to provide feed and/or fertilizer to be used
on the farm service center or in the local com
munity.
53
PRIVATE SECTOR AND GOVERNMENT ROLES IN
RENEWABLE RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
THE JAMAICA FOREST INDUSTRIES DEVELOPMENT COMPANY: A UNIQUE PROGRAM FOR IRPROVINS
A DEVELOPING COUNTRY'S TINIER PRODUCTION
Joseph G. Massey, Associate Profesatr. Department of Forest Science, Texas A & M University, College Sta-
tic,n, Texas 77843
Diane B. Badgley, Biological Technician, USDA-ARS, Temple, Texas 76503
C. Allen Jones, Plant Physiologist, USDA-ARS, Temple, Texas 76503
In March 1985, two of the autaors conducted a
one week tour of Jamaican forestry, hosted by the
Jamaican Deportment of Forestry and Soil Conserve-
t.on, and by the government-swned, Forest Industries
Development Company (FIDO0J. The tour and litera-
ture provided a basis for outlining iesues associa-
te with this unique approach toward timber self-
suf:iciency, comVning a government-owned company
with a more traditional government agency.
The goal of the two organizations is to reduce
the island nation's BOX dependency on wood imports
to a point of self-sufficiency. FIDCO's own goal is
economic solvency. The ccm!mny has exclusive rigLts
to the harvest and primary processing of all soft-
wood in the country. To carry out its mission, it
manages nurseries and softwood plantations, harvests
with sophisticated highleed equipment, and pre eases
the timber 1, a modern sawmill. The more tradi-
tional Deportment of Forest and Soil Conaervatiun is
responsible for the timber resource and the Land on
which this timber is grown. Before FIDCO's crea-
tion in 1976, the Department was responsible for
all timber. ho4, because of the authority over
softwood vested in FIDCO, the Department's purview
is primarily the hardwood resource which is subse-
quently processed by the private sector.
This unique approach has brought to light
issues which can aid other developing o.untries
considering similar approaches. By granting sole
rights to softwood to FIDCO, this more profitable
timber resource is taken from tha private sector.
Also, there is potential for conflict between the
two ofjinizations. Both organizations draw from
the aame professional forestry labor pool and lend
resource which is orpable of growing either hard-
wood or softwood. Finally, the objective of self-
euffiolency uay encourage a sub- optimal use of the
land.
SUSTAINABLE RESOURCE EXPLOITATION AN) MULTINATIONAL BEHAVIOR
Robert Walker, Regional Research Institute, West Viinie University, Morgantown, WV 28506
Because en optimel process is conditioned by
the agent or agen.s attempting to optimize, optimal-
ity for one agent need not be optimality for anoth-
er. This can lead to misallocation in ocuntries
48
54
which are pursuing devoLopment objectives by at-
tempting to attract multinational corporations.
Snil fertility and forests may oe managed as renew-
m.ile resources, and it is optimal. to do so if the
social discount rate is low, as it should be with
forward-looking development plans. Multinationals,
however, maximize income streams with a much higher
discount rate, which transforms renewable resource
stocks into inferior assets, end thereby promotesdepletion. At the same time, multinationals intro-
duce new technologies and improve the human capital
of the work force. In attempting to attract multi-
nationals, planners should consider these benefits,
but should also take into account possible deple-
tion effects brought about by multinational behav-
ior. This paper presents en analytical framework
whereby benefits end costs of multinational siting
can be ascertained.
AN EVALUATION OF EQUITY AND NON-EQUITY ORGANIZATIONAL
ARRANGEMENTS USED BY U.S. WOOD-BASED FIRMS IN THEIR FOREIGN OPERATIONS
Edwaro M. Bilek, Research Fellow, Department of Forest Resources, Cctlege of Forestry, University of Minne-sota, 1530 N. Cleveland Avenue, St. Paul, Minnesota 55108, (612) 378-9355
Research supported by the National Timber and Wood Requirements Preject, Forest Products Laboratory, USDA,Madison, Wisconsin= and the College of Forestry and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Institute ofAgriculture, Forestry and Home Economics, Univarsity of Minnesota, St. Pauly Minnesota.
The United States contains the largest wood-
based companies in the world. Of the world's 27
toaest multinational wooe-based companies, 14 ofthem are U.S. firms. These companies lead the
world's wood-bseed industry with respect to totalsales. The U.S, companies have a firm foundation on
which to compete -- the U.S. market. But they have
moved abroad and established operations in foreign
countries.
The presence of foreign companies within their
borders is a concern to most third world countries.
A strong sense of nationalism and a distrust of
foreign involvement within their countries are
common sentiments. Forestry operations are espe-cially visible. The operations require the owner-
ship or control of vest tracts of land. This can
create conflicts between the companies, which need
stability for long-term sustained-yield forestry,
and the foreign governments, which do not wish to
relinquish control of their natural resources.
50
This paper contains a discussion of the types
of orgenizationst arrangements which may be used by
the U.S. wood-based industry abroad -- the types of
operations established, the reasons those organiza-
tional forms were utilized, the types of organiza-
tions which would be preferred by the companies,
and where the industry appears to be headed with
respect to its foreign involvement.
There ere 10 basic ways of organizing foreign
operations. They may be diiided into two types
those not requiring equity investment and thoserequiring equity investment. Each type of opera-
tion has advantages and disadvantages from the
viewpoint of both the parent company end the host
country. Each operation is a compromise between
parent company and host country desires. The major
influencing facture dictating the type of organiza-
tion established are discussed.
INFRASTRUCTURE ISSUES IN PRIVATE SECTOR FINANCING OF
RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGY AND FUELS IN THE THIRD WORLD
Tom P. Abeles and David Ellsworth, 1 e associates, ink., 3704 11th Ave. PJuth, Minneapolis, MN 55407,
(B12) 823-3154
Because of current debt and foreign exchange
problems, developing countries are having difficulty
in locating capital for new projects much less for
improvement of existing operations which may be
impacting the issue because of inefficient energy
consumption. Decrease in foreign aid acerbates the
issue. Public sector ownership or control of the
energy /power sector also vovide potential obstacles
both from a bureaucratic and technical perspective.
A unique program is currently under development
in Latin America which has the following elements:
1) en infrastructure teem of policy
makers, civil service personnel
and private sector entrepreneurs,
2) use of the extant foreign debt to
leverage third party investments,
and
3) a private sector technical/business
management team and educational
program.
This approach is being used for production of
energy and conventional agricultural crops es well
es for improvement in productivity of extant proc-
essing operations. An example will be provided
utilizing one specific country.
DEVELOPMENT OF AN INTERNATIONAL COOPERATIVE FOR THE CONSERVATION OF
THREATENED CONIFEROUS smus IN CENTRAL AMERICA AND MEXICO
William S. Dvorak, Director, CAMCORE Cooperative, School of Forest Resources, North Carolina State Univer-
sity, Research Annex West - Box 8007, Raleigh, North Caroline 27885-8007; (818) 737-2738
The Central America and Mexico Coniferous
Resources Cooperative (CAMCDRE) was formed at the
School of Forest Resources, North Carolina State
University in 1880. Its rejective is to conserve
and etudy threatened populations of conifers in
Central America and Mexico by making seed collec-
tions in the region and planting the genetic mater-
ial in protected field trials throughout the Tropics
and Subtropics. The program is unique because the
primary driving force behind its formation was
private forest industry in North and South America.
Prese-tly, the Cooperative has 11 corporate members
nor:melting Brazil, Colombia, South Africa, the
United States and Venezuela. Host country forestry
organizations in Guatemala, Honduras and Mexico are
honorary members of the program. 2AMCORE's success
demonstrates the value of an international collabor-
ative effort that includes researchers from the
51
private sector, the scedemiascientific community
at the university and government officiale in host
countries.
The CAMCDRE Cooperative is governed by en
Advisory Board made up of one representative from
each member organization. The director of the
program, who is an university employee, has broad
based power and makes decisions on technical mat-
ters and helps formulate policy for the program
with the assistance of the Advisory Board. Annual
meetings are held to discuss proposed budgets, vote
on the applications of new members, and appraise
tho status of the work being conducted in the
field.
International cooperatives patterned after
CAMCDRE should work well in other biologicaVagri-
56
cultural fields. The objective(s) for the formation
of the cooperative program should be simple and
straightfob "ard. Private industry, not the univer-
sity, should Ln the one that initiates the coopera-
tive's formation. If not, industry support will
decline during periods of economic instability or
when the excitement of the new program mars off.
The work Load for each cooperative member must be
62
the same. Good communication between the univer-
sity and cooperative members can not be overstressed. This not only includes constant corres-
pondence, but annual, personal visits by the direc-
tor or his staff to inspect field activities of
each organization. Results of the cooperative's
work era shared by all members and made available
to the public.
57
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT EDUCATION: A MODEL FOR SUSTAINABLE RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT
Robert E. Roth, Ph.D., Professor, Environmental Education, School of Natural Resources, The Ohio State
University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, (814) 422-2285
Global concern about environmental problems,
quality of human life and the impact of development
led to the convening of the United Nations Confer-
ence on the Environment in Stockholm, Sweden, in
June of 1972. The recently concluded tenth anniver-
sary of the Stockholm Conference stressed the need
and role for environmental education.
Recommendation 88 of the Stockholm Conference
called for the establishment of an i.,ernational
program in environmental education that would be
interdisciplinary in approach, formal and non-for-
mal, encompassing all levels of education and direc-
ted toward the general public.
Against this backdrop, the focus on resources,
economics and the abilities of developing countries
to cope with escalating problems was increasing. It
can be concluded that essential environmental re-
sources of developing countries are subjected to
stresses of unprecedented magnitude and the health,
nutrition and general wall-being of large portions
of the population are directly dependent on the
integrity and productivity of these resources.
Governmental aoility to manage resources effectively
over time may be the most important prerequisite to
the eradication of poverty, the fulfillment of basic
human needs, obtaining a quality life and the ulti-
mate achievement of sustained development.
While the natural resources of most developing
countries are being rapidly depleted by general
deforestation, habitat da2truction, desertification,
eoil erosion, and the pressures of rapid population
growth, government agency and non-government organi-
zation ability to educate and inform the people
about the effective management of natural resources
may be the meet important prerequisite to achieving
a quality life.
A model for the strengthening of developing
countriee'Environmentat Education end Information
capabilities for building an appropriate institu-
tional framework to deal with conservation problems
53
and sustainable renewable resource and energy
development is presented. Examples from the Domin-
ican Republic and Barbados will be discussed.
Public anvironmental management education and
training programs will be discussed in relation to
the establishment of sound renewable resource
management plane, developmental goals, and the
establishment of an environmental ethic. Evalua-
tive approachee are presented in relation to pro-
gram and workshop effectiveness and knowledge gain
and attitude shift in relation to selected environ-
mental management and energy Imes.
Environmental Management education is concern-
ed with an individual's self understanding, an
understanding of the co-inLbitants of the Earth,
and interrelationships within and among eeoh of
these constellations of concern. A major goal is
to encourage the individual to develop the ability
to make thoughtful decisions which will create an
environment that allows one to live a quality
life. Specifically, environmental management
education is concerned with developing a citizenry
that is:
I. knowledgeable about the biophysical
and soniocuttural environments of
which man is a part;
2. aware of environmental problems
and management alternatives of use
in solving those problems; end
3. motivated to act responsibly in
developing diverse environmen:s that
are optimum for living a Duality
Life.
(Roth, 1889)
Thus it can be eeen that environmental manage-
ment education is ooncerned with knowledge of the
universe, society, and the individual, in that it
not only attempts to provide the individual with
environmental understandings, but also views one as
58
e potential creative being and encourages accep-tance of the responsibility for decision-making
which ie ours by virtue of being human.
Another characteristic of environmental manage-
ment education ie that it deals with attitudes, the
attitudes people hold about themselves, toward other
individuals and groups of individuals, and toward
their environment. These constellations of ideas
greatly effect our level of living and quality of
life.
Because environmental management education isnot just ecology, resource-use, sociology, art
appreciation, philosophy, or management, an inter-
disciplinary focus ie required that embraces the
sciences, humanities, social science, and technology
in like measure for purposes of developing cognitive
understanding, belief and attitude change, and
providing motivation for behavioral change and
effective action.
The proposed model has the advantage of being
concise, graphic, and logical in its application.
It provides an eaaily visualized guide to the proc-
ess of progrem development in both formal end non-
formal educational settings regardless of cultural
and nationel context. The program developer is
reminded that the identification of appropriate
environmental management/education goals, objectives
with a behaviorial or measurable orientation, and
54
well defined and implemented communications or
teaching strategies are essential for achieving a
"Quality Life." Feedbaok of both a formative end
summative nature are to be utilized in relation to
impact on the recipient or target audience.
Through rigorous evaluation atrategies involving
pre end post testing of concepts and attitudesassessment of skills end performance, end the
echievement of anticipated goals in documentable
form, it will be possible to demonstrate achieve-
ment of intended goals in relation to the improve-
ment of the "Quality of life."
The proposed model for Environmental Manage-
ment Education has been utilized in both the Span-
idn and English speaking Caribbean for the imple-
mentation of training and education programs.
Concepts appropriate for the development and imple-
mentation of both conservation and environmental
management education appear to be relevant. The
variety of methodologies employed for the formal
and non-formal education settings have been effec-
tive. The established goals and objectives of the
program examples are being achieved as evidenced by
the various preliminary evaluative strategies. It
is suggested that the model for Environmental
Management Education be utilized ea a guide for the
development of either formal or non-formal environ-
mental management education programs in developed
es wall as developing countries.
59
IDENTIFYING STRATEGIES FOR RENNABLE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR
TRAINING AND INSTITUTION BUILDING A KEY TO NATURAL RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
David Ostermeier end Edward Buckner, Professors, Department of Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries, University
of Tennessee, P.O. Box 1071, Knoxville, TN 37801
The "Sustainable Development of Natural Re-
sources in The Third World" initially and ultimately
should focus on people; on the rural inhabitants
that are a part of the human ecology which links
them to natural resources; and on urban people who
work in factories based on these resources and/or
consume resource based products. The focus of this
paper is on the former group. The view is taken
that sustainable development of natural resources is
a component of sustainable rural development which
is part and parcel of the sustainable development of
people.
Any effort designed to impact change should
elamys consider "who" is Impacted: who gains, who
loses, who bares risks and what is et stake.
Webster defines sustain as "To maintain, keep in
existence, keep going, prolong...." Conservation is
defined as "protecting from LOOS, waste." In apply-
ing these concepts to rural development, it is
important to consider who gains end loses from
"sustaining" and "conserving." In essence, who is
the "customer," who is the major actor in rural
development? The answer is, of course, the land
user, the farmer.
The extent to which small farmers in developing
countries act economically rational has boon debated
considerably. If a consensus view exists, a more
recent one is that: they are rational, but fear
ohange due to their perception of high risks related
to their subsistence level. Farmers often view
innovation es placing them in more vulnerable posi-
tions such as reliance on outside markets, conser-
ving a given section of land, or changing practices
that are unproven to them.
BB
60
However, in order for meaningful progress to
be made to sustain natural resources in many areas
of the developing world, land use techniques must
change. Farmers must adjust their attitude toward
the lend end land use decisions. This difficult
behavioral change will require long term commitment
and support, innovative strategies, and strengthen-
ing institutions that interface with the land user.
To be effective, this change w:LL require that the
farmer be a central participant in the design of
any change.
The farmer has often not been a key partici-
pant in the development of strategies for addres-
sing the degradation of natural resources. Some
institutions that act es "change agents" exclude
farmer input. The approach suggested here proposes
the inclusion of the farmer in the evolution of the
product. This will require that institutions,
dealing with farmers, undergo an institutional
metamorphosis in order that their approach to
program development meats the needs of their custo-
mer, the farmer.
A framework is suggested for bringing about
this metamorphosis. The foundation of this frame-
work is that the institutions have to perform the
change themselves. By working within groups and
with "sister" agencies, institutions are encouraged
to collectively develop approaches that will work
for them end encompass the concept of high farmer
involvement. The approach involves a progression
of phases and will require at least 2 years to
complete. A specifio example is discussed regar-
ding erosion control and lend restoration in the
Andean Region of South America.
COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION TRAINING FOR EXTENSION FORESTERS IN INDIA
Jo Ellen Force, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Forest Resources, University of Idaho, Moscow,
Idaho 83843, (208) 855-7311
In the fall of 1984 three two-day workshops in
community participation techniques were conducted in
Madhya Pradesh, India, with support from the Consor-
tium for International Development/Woman in Develop-
ment Project and USAID, New Delhi. The primary
focus of the USAID-Madhya Pradesh Social Forestry
Project is the establishment of tree plantations
that will meet the villagers' needs for fuelwood,
fodder, and a variety of minor forest products.
The purpose of the project is to create the institu-
tional capability to assist villagers to manage
communal and private land for sustained production
of these products. Based on a questionnaire given
to workshop participants, they do understand the
goal of increasing the flow of forest products to
villagers through social forestry, but they do not
understand the purpose is institutional development.
Sixty-two Social Forestry Exteneion Foresters
in the Madhya Pradesh Forest Uepartment completed
the workshops. The focue of the workshops was on
group decision-making and consensus-reaching techni-
ques that can be used by forest extension workers to
increase comrunity participation in eocial forestry
projects. The Nominal Group Process was used to
achieve consensus on the major factors influencing
villager participation. The 5 most important fac-
tors given were villager apprehension that commun-
ity forests will take land currently being used for
grazing; village politics; uncertainty about the
distribution of the benefits from the community
forest; villagers' lack of knowledge about fores-
try; and difficulty in getting community forest
land from the Revenue Department. It should be
remembered that these factors represent what a
eelected group of foresters say are the problems.
They may not be the factors that would be mentioned
if villagers themselves were asked.
Techniques to increase participation of target
groups were developed with attention given to tech-
niques directed towards village women and the land-
less. Informal discussions held with various women
associated with the project indicate research is
needed before the role of women forestry extension
workers and village women involved in community
foreste can be adequately assessed.
The information gained from these workshops
should be used to make project modifications and to
design future training opportunities which minimize
the lecture mode of learning and concentrate on
problem-solving and interpersonal communication
skills. Because community forestry world-wide is
in the pioneering stage, extension foresters and
villagers must learn to be their own problem-solvers through creativity, experimentation and
risk-taking. These characteristics should be
encouraged by the Social Forestry Directorate to
enhance the probability of euccess for the project.
WOMEN STILL. DENIED ACCESS; AN INSTITUTIONAL CHALLENGE
TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN THE THIRD WORLD
D. Richard Smith, Profeseor of General Studies end Associate Director, International Programs in Agricul-
ture, Internationnl Education end Research, Purdue University, Room 26C, Agricultural Administration
Wilding, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, (317) 484-8483
One of the greatest institutional challenges sustainable development of natural resources and to
faced by developing nations is their effort to do do sustainable development of human capital. Both
58
61
are required for successful development. They have
en interlocking and synergistic relationship with
progress. Human capital invested generates fiscal
capital which in turn unlocks access to natural
resources, and a major pert of Third World human
capital is being wasted.
The blocking of accapa of aomen by LDC's to
receive advanced education is still a major problem
of the LDC's that clearly impacts sustainable natu-
ral resource development. Easily overlooked, it is
one that is seldom addressed by institutional infra-
structures, be they governmental, donor agencies, or
private sector organizations. UNESCO, U.S. Govern-
ment, The Institute for International Education, and
other statistical documents show ;hat still today
only 5-7% of the enrollment of U.S. graduate schools
are women from Third World countries. There is an
ever increasing number of males from LDC's entering
U.S. higher education, but that picture is not
changing for females from those nations.
Many of us may overlook their plight and fail
to realize that despite the achievements of many
women there still are those who exist within systems
where the economy and education available offer to
those women only about three choices: (1) physical
labor in the fields; (2) production of babies for
additional labor availability or bartering; and (3)
slight possibility of becoming an elerentary teacher
if "born well."
Oil dollars, money from the sale of precious
minerals, dollars from multinational corporations,
U.S. foreign aid -- all have made available to
these intellectually gifted males loan funds,
scholarships, grants, end training dollars that
enable them to pursue postsecondary education in
their own countries (or in the U.S.). With good
records they may also be able to pursue that ulti-
mate entry into the elite of their nations, those
who have benefitted from graduate education in the
U.S.
The individual returns to his country a
"specialist," destined to become part of an elite.
We are talking about such sophisticated areas as
remote sensing; international Nuking and finance;
agronomy; macro- economic planning; industrial and
?roduction management; farm management; soil test-
ing; civil, electrical, petroleum and nuclear erlgi-
nearing; land development; and the like.
Whereas about 30% of the international stu-
dents in higher eduzation in the U.S. are females,
the Institute for International Education estimates
that only 5-7% are studying at the graduate level.
The passage and funding (in 1975) of Title XII, en
amendment to the Foreign Assistance Act of 1881,
portends a sizable increase in the involvement of
Land Grant and other "eligible" universities in the
training of international students to solve prob-
lems of famine, nutrition, and food scarcity. One
success model is the AAUW International Fellowships
Program.
FIRE IN THE FOREST IMPLEMENTING AGPOFORESTRY IN A PHILIPPINE VILLAGE
Robert C. Salazar, Deportment of Anthropology, The Ohio State University, 124 West 17th Ave., 208 Lord
Hall, Columbus, Ohio 43210, (814) 421-2580
The introduction of agroforestry as an alterae-
tive land management system for rural communities is
influenced as much by the structurel+ and processes
of implementation as by the community's structure
and organization. Bottle-necks in the flow of
resources are traced to problems in inter-agency
coordination and to the ethos of hierarchical con-
trol, conformity to procedures, and personal aggran-
dizement which characterize the supra -local bureau-
57
cracy. In turn, in the arena of th6 local imple-
menting organization, alliance groups heeded separ-
ately by the mayor, the project manger, and the
deputy manager, are seen to compete for the proj-
ect's limited resources, including the staff's
support. As a result, inefficiencies in project
administration and management as well as in the
extension end delivery system are exacerbated. On
the other hand, the farmers' condition of uncer-
6 2
tainty end their limited access to resources also
beer upon their responses to agroforestry. Their
decisions, however, are not simply the result of
expediency but the cutcome of a rational calculus
of economic, political, and social costs and bene-
fits.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 3F FRAGILE LAMS: DIFFERING AGNDAS IN THE WEST AFRICAN SAHEL
Dr. David D. Gow, Development Alternatives, Inc., a/o 1827 West Lawn Avenuz., Madison, WI 53711
This paper will examine the institutional
challenges to sustainable development of fragile
lands in the Third World from the differing perspec-
tives of the principal parties involved: the looal
population, governments end their ministries, end
the international donor community. These parties,
both institutional and individuelc try to achieve
different and sometimes contradictory ends. When
agendas differ, sustainable development will rarely
receive priority attention. As a result, differing
agendas have been a recurring source of problems in
the implementation of a variety of developmentpt ejects.
Furthermore, it is only recently that the issue
of sustainability and the factors that can contri-
bute to its achievement have been seriously ad-
dressed - at least by the international donor com-
munity. The same holds true for fragile lands and
their developments the relevant, appropriate tech-
nologies ere still in their infancy. To clarify the
importance of these three issues - differing agen-
das, sustainability, and the development of fragile
lands - case study material will be presented from
the Sahel. of West Africa. Particular cmphaois will
be placed en the experiences of nomandic herders end
sedentary femora.
This area of the world is of particular inter-
est for the following reasons:
58
In order to survive both groups developed
extensive, rather then intensive strate-
gies for dealing with environmentaluncertainty;
The famine of the 1870's indicated that,
to a certain extent, such strategies were
becoming redundant - a lesson reinforced
by the present experiences of several
counties in sub-Saharan Africa. The
factors contributing to this redundanoy -
political, economic, demographic, and
social - will be examined; end
As a result of the famine, in which both
herders and farmers were often directly
blamed for degrading their environments,
various developmental efforts were moun-
ted to protect these fragile lands. Ten
years later such efforts appear to have
had Little effeotive impact. The paper
will attempt to explain why these efforts
have been so fruitless.
The final suction of this paper mill examine
what donors, governments, end local populations
have learned from these experiences and what steps,
if any, have been taken to ameliorate the situa-
tion. Recommendations will be made in terms of
research needs, policy implications, end strategies
for implementation.
63
A LANDUSE ALLOCATION MODEL FOR DEVELOPMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES IN NEPALESE HILLS
Keshab M. Shakye, Graduate Research Assistant, Virginia Politechni Institute and State University, Blacks
burg, Virginia
A typical Nepalese hill farm is en integrated
system producing food, fuelwood and fodder simultan
eously. Local people abuse the inefficiently admin
istered forestcovered government land by extrac
ting fodder and fuelwood and cultivating it for food
production. Absence of a rational landuse alloca
tion scheme and the government land's common proper
ty nature have caused forest resource depletion
and serious soil erosion problems.
Programs to increase crop yields take 10 or 2D
years before becoming effective due to several
organizational and inetitutionel limitations.
Forest resource depletion problems are serioue and
need to be addressed quickly. They cannot be post
poned until crop yield programs reduce on the land.
Shortterm progress, viable within the local tech.io
logical capacity, need to be developed to complement
the time lag in crop yield progress.
Land is divided into lend classes band upon
the variability in soil depth, slope, physical and
chemical properties. Various landuse options and
their management level are identified within tho
local technological capacity. A multiobjective
programming model allocates land classee to meet the
local demand for food, fuelwood and fodder within
resource and soil lose constraints. The variation
between optimum lenduse and existing landuse
identifies the land use changes needed 'or the
locel hilt community.
Parametric linear programming is ueed to
generate the multiobjective solutions to avoid the
prior judgement about the relative values of dif
ferent objectives. This provides an explicit
analysis of trade offs among the conflicting objec
tives.
The landuse allocation model is e useful tool
to (1) evaluate the potential of increasing the
local production of food, fuelwood and fodder
through landuse changes, (2) analyze the impacts
of policies or programs which directly or indirect
ly change landuse, and (3) help determine the size
and scope of each government agency's program by
estimating program outputs.
The model ie demonstrated with data from
PhewaTal watershed covering 117 square kilometers
of typical Nepalese hill agroecosystem.
IMPLEMENTING THE WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY:
SUCCESS STORIES FROM CENTRAL AMERICA AND COLOMBIA
James Berhorak. IUCN .nd WWF Regional Project Coordinator, Wildlends and Watrshed Program, Renewable Natu
ral Resource Dept., Centro Agronomico Tropical De Investigecion Y Ensenanza, Turralba, Costa Rica
Severe environmental degradation is occurring
in Latin America, including deforestation, soil
depletion, mismanagement of watersheds, destruction
of coastal environments, and overharvestunder
utilization of wildlife and fisheries resources.
These trends reduce options for sustainable develop
ment in the region, are destroying its biological
59
64
cepital, and are major factors promoting civil
strife.
However, a number of successful pilot conser
vation for development projects are underway in the
region. These include the La Planada Ecodevelop
sent Project, Colombia; Kuna Indian Wildlends
Project, Panama; Costa Rican National Perk System;
and the conservation training program of CATIE.
Each project deals with priority themes identified
in the World Conservation Strategy.
Ls Plenede is a combined wildlands conservationrural development project of tha Colombian
Foundation for Higher Education (FES). FES hasdeveloped La Planade as a model private preserve to
protect its extremely diverse ecosystems end promote
scientific research. To eliminate reserve degrada
tion and improve resouroe utilization and living
standards of colonists and Indian neighbors, FES
carries out extension and environmental education
programs, and contributes to improvement o' infra
structure end social services.
The Kuna illustrates the possibilities for
conservation based development of Indien reserves.
With considerable outside assistance, they estab
lished a 60,000 he protected area within their
reserve, to protect downstream agriculture and
fisheries, maintain water supplies, and prevent
invasions by colonists. A team of Kune professionals is finishing a reserve management plan, a
Kuna ranger force is in piece, resouroe inventories
are under way, boundaries are being surveyed endbasic infrastructure to promote scientific and
natural history tourism is being constructed.
Environmental education and agroforestry projects
have been initiated in buffer zones.
Costa Rice is one of the smallest, yet most
ecologically diverse nations on the American main
land. A large pert of its heritage is protected
in a model national park system, covering over
of the country. The 14year old park service has a
highlytrained staff, basic infrastructure has been
established in all parks, most inholdings have been
purchased, and environmental education has increased public and political support for the sys
tem, now emulated by any countries. The perks are
a mecca for researchers, have increased foreign
exchange earnings through nature tourism, and
protect watersheds which provide potable water and
electricity to much of the country's population.
The support of CATIE's Midlands end Watershed
Programs has contributed to the success of these
projects. Since 1876 it hes trained over 1200
Latin Americans in short courses on wildlands and
watershed management, interpretation and environ
mental education, ranger skills and similar themes.
Over 20 students have graduated from its M.S.
program in wildlands and watershed management; most
hold key positions in natural resources agencies in
their countries. This program has created a criti
cal mass of trained and motivated conservationists
responsible for major extension of protected areas
systems in the area.
In addition to these efforts, other projects
to put the world conservation strategy into action
in Central America and Colombia are briefly men
tioned.
AGROFORESTRY EXTENSION FOR THE INDIVIDUAL SUBSISTENCE FARMER:
A STRATEGY FOR SAHELIAN REFORESTATION
Gabriel F. Tucker, Dept. of Natural Resources, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
Desertification caused by population pressures
end triggered by recurrent droughts is currently
reaching catastrophic proportAcne in many areas of
the sehel region of Africa. The degradation ofarable land and the permanent loss of range and
forest land threatens the very existence of millions
of nomadic herders and Jadentery farmers.
60
Sahelien reforestation projects have histori
cally been in various forms of ine.Astrial large
scale plantations or more villagelevel conserva
tion and woodlot plantings. In almost all cam,en understaffed local government must maintain the
ill'Antations following establishment. Consequently,
the stands are often unmanaged with seedling
i;ertality and stand protection se major problems,
65
and at maturity the wood is often not openly acces-
sible to the local population. Needless to say, the
local villagers' support for and participation in
these projects has often been minimal at best.
Based on the general hypothesis that local
people will respond best to projects which show
them the most direct real benefit, several projects
have been started recently by non-governmental
organizations to provide individual farm families
with the means to establish perennial tree crops in
their own fields in conjunction with their normal
subsistence agriculture. The author will present a
strategy which is based on six years of experience
in the region and which was tested for projects in
northern Cameroon and Mali during 1883 and 1884
respectively.
The strategy is composed of six basic elements
as follows: 1J Direct involvement of the local
population in the diagnosis of their agroforestry
needs and the design of a workable scheme on tho
individual farm level, based largely on the model
described by Raintree1
. 2J Agroforestry training
and extension work at all levels from elementary
school children to the farm families to local for-
esterg to government leaders. Material developed by
GRAAP has proven to be en excellent teaohing aide.
3) Silviculture emphasizing decentralized seedling
production and natural regeneration. 4) Seedling
protection and survival is assured by the families
themselves without the provision of wire fencing.
5J Frequent follow-op visits by extension agents to
encourage farmers and monitor map progress. 8) At
each juncture project participants must be assured
that the management and harvest of the trees is en-
tirely at their discretion and for their direct
benefit. Operational .onstraints of land tenure and
program organization will also be addressed.
1. Raintree J.B. (1883) I.C.R.A.F. working paper
no. 8, Nairobi.
2. G.R.A.A.P. (undated) Live in a Green Environ-
ment, flannelgram series (in French), B.P.
785, Bobo -Dioulasso.
WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
APPLICATION OF WATER MANAGEMENT OPTIONS IN ARID LANDS AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
W. Gerald Matlock, Professor of Agricultural Engineering end Director of Oreclt, Agricultural Center, TheUniversity of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, (802) 821-7224
The key to agricultural development of arid
lends is water. The ability of farm femiliee to
manage tho water resources available to them is the
primary limiting factor in their production systems.
In this paper the range of water management
activities from reeource development through water
application to waste water disposal is examined in
the context Elf) the spectrum of average annual preci-
pitation vs. potential evapotranspiration as it
varies from extremely arid to semi arid.
Appropriate meter management technologies for
various portions of the spectrum aro described
including conventional irrigation, water harvesting
and runoff farming, recession farming end rainfed
farming. Examples from the developing countries
are given.
Opportunities for large scale water projects
are discussed, and the technical and sociel advan-
tages of mall scale water management systems are
presented. Ways to preserve large systems aresuggested.
Farming systems research (FSR) has been recog-
nized es a methodology to be used in development
projects. The close relationship of the proposed
water management technologies to the FSR approach
is demonstrated.
DEVELOPING A SELF-SUSTAINED FOREST COVER IN THE MAHAVELI CATCHMENT OF SRI LAtXA:
PROBLEMS AND SOME SOLUTIONS
Ajith H. Perera, School of Forest Resources, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 18802
The Maheveli is the largest river in Sri Lanka
and the most important in terms of irrigation,
hydroelectricity end community settlement°. The
catchment of Mahaveli occupies about 5% of the lend
area of the island and is situated in the central
highlands. Forested area in this catchment at
present is only 13% of the catchment area. Inten-
sive grazing end fuelwood gathering end sporadic
clearing for cultivation could lower this area
further.
Sites available for afforestation have inherent
problems. Abandoned agricultural lands are infer-
tile end severely moded after years of neglect.
Xwoerato and Cvmboonon, the dominant grass species
82
in savanna-typo gresplande are Wong lospetitore
with tree species. These grassland also exper-
ience recurrent fires which favour grasses. Some
denuded lends ere difficult to reforest simply due
to rugged terrain and inaccessibility. Most of
local tree species have not been studied for their
silviculturel characteristics. As a result, the
an-made forests are composed exclusively of two
exotic genera, EuceLvotun and Pines. These mono-
cultures, though established well, do not appear to
regenerate in situ. Forest fires are frequent
beoeuse the slow-decomposing litter of both genera
is inflammable. Regeneration of other tree species
also appears to be scarce which could ba attributed
to inadequate seed supply and forest fires. Resta-
6 7
tent single-storied forests are hydrologically
inferier to multi-storied forests and raise ques-
tions about the self perpetuity of the forest cover.
Popularizing agroforestry practices in arable
lands of the catchment area aseme have advan-
tages. Presumably, they will relieve the pressures
on existing forests for grazinu and fuelwood and
also contribute to tree cover. A good foundation is
found in agroforestry techniques already traditional
to the area (e.g., Kandyan forest gardens and cardo-
mum-high forest syst_imi. These could be extended
to plantation forests to increase their canopy
complexity and to provide an incentive for fire
proteotion. It is imperative to screen native tree
species for competitiveness, adaptability, fire
tolerance and most importantly, for ease in self
regeneration. Some potential candidates are
getonia, Ltikkal, Carve end Acacia, species. Thus
selected species say be used to underplent/seed
existing plantation forestt and to establish mixed
species forests in the future,
TROPICAL STORMS AND THE PROBLEM OF EROSION IN PUERTO RICO
Robin Gottfried and Jerry Ingles, Department of Economics, Tt.2 University of the South, Sewunee, Tennessee
37375
Puerto Rico, like many tropical developing
countries, experiences high rates of erosion and
sedimentation due to its mountainous terrain and to
deforestation. The sedimentation creates nmairous
problems, incluoing flooding, the lose of reser:::r.
capacity, the destruction of coral reefs, and the
subsequent threats to fishing and popular beeches.
Although concern abounds, relatively few hydrologi-
cal end empirically-based economic studies exist a.,
the effect of afforestation/deforestation on the
rate of sedimentation in avers and the economic
impact thereof in the tropics, This paper attempts
to fill a portion of that gap.
The principal previously published paper deal-
ing with erosion and sedimentation in Puerto Rico
felled to find any significant relationship between
land use and sedimentation, a finding that rune
counter to theory and the results of studies else-
where. However, the methodology 4sed in that paper
is unzleer. The article dues point out that tropi-
cal storms constitute the major factor in the pro-
duction and transport of sediments.
83
68
This working peper represents the first part
of a study of several watersheds in Puerto Rico.
The authors are working toward a relatively simple
method of predicting the impact on aownstream
reservoirs of afforesting a portion or ell of a
w atershed in mountainous Puerto Rico, a method
w hich takes into account the impact of tropical
storms. This, of course, would allow the astiza-
tion of downstream benefits from decreasing ero-
sion. It also could prove useful in environmental
monitoring.
The authors review thu problem of erosion on
the island, selected studies dealing with the
determinants of erosion, and studies of the sedi-
ment/disoharge rel./tic/whip in the tropics. They
discuss the problem of seasonality end of storms in
estimating the sedimuntdischarqe relationship for
one watershed. The /trams than present the re-
sults of analyzing approximately fifteen years of
daily discharge and sediment date for one watershed
in Puerto Rico. The paper ande with a discussion
of the direction of the authors' ongoing resec7.h.
RAINWATER COLLECTION AhD STORAGE TECHNOLOGY DISSEMINATION IN NORTHEASTERN THAILAND
Thomas B. Fricke, Professional Program Associate, Experiment in International Living Projects and GrantsDivision, Brattleboro, Vermont
Over the last ten years, the poor drought-prone
region of Northeastern Thailand has witnessed a
remarkable effort to extend rainwater collection
technologies to village families. Various Thai
government agencies, non - governmental organizations
(NGO's), and entrepreneurs have mounted programs
throughout the region successfully disseminating
appropriate cistern designs providing for domestic
drinking water needs. Although available date is
incomplete, it appears that ow" 100,000 individual
rainwater tanks and jars appear to have been built
to date. This large-scale effort ie continually
expanding according to local. and international
observers. Evidence suggests that within two dec-
ades a majority of villagers in many parts of North-
east Thailand will have access to this relatively
sanitary form of water supply.
This ease study will review the various tech-
nologies, institutions, and promotional approaches
behind the Thai Rainwater Collection phenomenon.
This experience appears to be among the foremost
examples of its kind in the world. The technolo-
glee and approaches, promoted in Northeastern Thai-
land have broader relevance; end applications in
other areas. Most of the dissemination programs
have used cost-recovery or market-oriented ap-
proaches, which is an uncommon practice for water
supply programs. In this report, special emphasis
will be placed on the particular programs of the
Population and Community Oevelepment Association
(POA), a Thai NGO which has effectively combined
technical assistance, user involvement, and finan-
cial end organizational support.
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT FOR INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT OF MORNI HILLS IN NORTH-EAST HARYANA
S.R. Gupta, Botany Department, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra-132119, India
V.K. Asthene, Department of Geography, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra-132118, India
S.K. Rout, Botany Department, Kurukshotre University, Kurukshetra-132119, India
Morni hills represent an ecologically important
natural habitat in north - Eastern Haryana (30 35' to
30 0 70o
to 70015' E). The :iiveirsified and mul-
tiple resources of Morni hiLle have a potential to
provide timber, fuelwood, food, fodder, fruits and
minor forest products. This paper discusses water-
shed management approach to conserve and utilize the
resources in a sustained manner for integrated de-
velopment of the area. The importance end need for
conservation of excess rain-water in small storage
structures for controlling soil erosion, emeliora-
84
Ling water scarcity, crop production, horticulture,
forestry development and livestock production are
discussed. The social and economic benefits of
watershed management to provide increased economic
opportunities to rural ;motet achitying productive
lend use systems, increased food supply to people
end maintaining satisfactory health and nutritional
levels ere projected. The importance of people's
participation for improving the natural environment
and maintaining ecological balance in this region
of unstable Siwalik° is also emphasized.
69
A 1WD-COMPARTMENT CEMENT BLOCK TAW FOR FIELD MEASUREMENT OF RUNOFF AND EROSION
Rafael A. Velez, TeiAnician, Department of Soil and Water, Subsecretary of Agriculture, Dominican Republic
Terry J. Logan, Professor, Department of Agronomy, The Ohio State University
This work is part of tho USAID-Governmont of the Oominican Republic Natural Resource Management Protect
(MARENA) and iz excerpted from the M.S. Thesis of the senior author, Department of Agronomy, The Ohio
State University
A design of equipment for collecting and
measuring runoff and sediment from erosion plots on
steep land (-30%) in the southern Cordillera Central
of the Dominican Republic is described. Each plot
(3 m x 15 m) in connected downslope to a two -cony
pertinent cement block tank; each compartment is
1.0 m wide, 1.2 m long end 1.0 m deep. Fifteen
tubes at a height of 0.7 m in the first (sediment)
compartment allow runoff in excess of the capacity
of the first compartment to overflow, with one of
the tubes connected to the second compartment which
can effectively hold up to 28 cm of runoff. Moat
of the sediment is retained in the firat compart-
ment and tubes placed in the side of the tanks
permit sampling and draining after each event.
This facility has been in operation eines Uctober
1884 and the equipment has been shown to work
according to design specifications.
EFFECT OF THE SUB SAHARAN DROUGHT ON WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN EGYPT
Scot E. Smith, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, The Ohio State Univ., Columbus, Ohio
The current drought in East Africa and the
Sahel has affected nearly 14 million people Living
in nine countries. Ethiopia and Somalia have been
especially hard hit with famine and related disease.
Approximately 80 percent of the Nile river's
discharge into Egypt derives from the highlands of
Ethiopia. Over the past six years this watershed
hee received only about half the normal rainfall.
85
70
This charge has resulted in reduced inflows to the
Aswan Reservoir in Upper Egypt and the Sudan.
Operating procedure modifications for the
Aswan High Dam will have to be initiated soon,
should the drought continue. Outlined here are
some of the options open to Egypt to mitigate
losses from a prolonged drought.
WHAT ARE THE SOIL AND WATER BENEFITS OF PLANTING TREES
IN DEVELOPING COUNTRY WATERSHEDS
Lawrence S. Hamilton, Research Associate, Andrew J. Pearce, Fellow, East -West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii
There are many excellent reasons for forosting
upland watersheds and both present programs, and the
projected large increases in global f.irestetion over
the next decade, make good sense,. These programs
are needed to esteblieh "wood factories" for fuel,
timber, and other wood projects, and to reduce the
harvesting pressure on ever-diminishing resources of
natural forests. Forestation is a proven means of
rehabilitating degraded, unproductive land, and
eventually restoring productivity to levels where
useful crops can be produced, even though the eco-
nomic viability of such projects may be questionable
on poorer sites.
Once understory plants and/or leaf litter are
established, forest plantations provide good protec-
tion against surface erosion. Once substantial root
biomass has developed, especially in the subsoil,
greater resistance to mass movement erosion also
develops. Both of these erosion-protection func-
tions can be lost temporarily if harvesting is done
carelessly, if litter is removed for fuel or live-
stock bedding, and if rapid regeneration or replan-
ting is not achieved.
Other justifications for reforestation, based
on other aspects of water end soil conservation or
protection, are often claimed. Many of these are
unrealizable, and may be mutually contradictory.
Such claims must be avoided if watershed planners
and foresters are to retain their credibility over a
Woman of more then one forest rotation. Foreete-
tion has got been shown to increase rainfall, to
reduce the size of major floods, to increase the
flow of springs and streams, or to increase ground-
water levels. Localized increases in stresallow end
groundwater Levels may occur in forests planted
where cloud or fog occurs for hundreds of days per
year. Under these conditions, additional occult
precipitation may be intercepted. Open sites that
67
have been long abused and have eroded or compacted
soil surfaces may eventually have their infiltra-
tion capacity improved by forestation, end hence
permit greater groundwater recharge. If this more
than balances the extra evaporation and transpira-
tion losses, then there could possibly be soma
higher groundwater levels and increased base flow.
Reforestation may greatly decrease both peek
flow rate and runoff volume in small rainstorms
that occur every few creeks or months, may signifi-
cantly decrease peak flow and runoff volume in
storms that occur every few months to every few
years, but will not substantially reduce either
peak flow or runoff volume in storms that. occur
only once every decade or even less frequently.
Reforestation will almost always decrease total
streamflow over the course of a year, and the
largest proportional decreases will be during dry
seasons or periods of low flow. Reforestation will
generally lower water table (and well) levels, and
may reduce the discharge from springs.
Watershed management planners may not have
been aware of many of the real effects of forest,-
Lion, or may have been prepared to accept the
support of folkloric beliefs or myths to achieve
the desirable effects of forestation. In either
case, the time has come for honest and forthright
presentation of both the desirable and less-desir-
able effects of forestation to policy makers. If
we reforest waterehede and yet still have floods,
and if the streams yield lees water or even dry up
in some seasons, then there will be a well-deserved
backlash against forestation and its proponents.
The credibility of watershed management profes-
sionals will be rightly celled into question, end
decadee of progress toward better and more rational
land use could be lost.
71