DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 222 197 LK 010 433

AUTHOR ,Engstrom, KristinaTITLE A Guide td the Use of Technology in Basic Skills

Education.INSTITUTION Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED),

Washington, DC.PUB DATE Aug 81CONTRACT 300-80-0795NOTE 75p.

EDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORS

MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.AUdiovisual Instruction; *Basic Skills; Calculators;Computers; Cost Estimates; *Decision Making;*Educational Media; Educational Television;Electronic Equipmentr Elementary Secondary Education;Material Development; *Media Selection; *TeabhitgMethods; Use Studies

ABSTRACTIntended for use by educators, school administrators,

and other educational decisionMakers, this guide describes what isknown about media, explores school and student characteristics thatcan affect the selection and acceptance of media, and identifies the

conditions under which media can be used most productively in

teaching basic skills. Individual chapters foCus on the challengesfacing administrators in today's ichool systems; the meaning of basicskills, how they are learned, and what techniques are useful inteaching them; currently available educational technologies and theuses to which they can be put, with emphasis on computers,television, calculators, electronic devices, and audiovisual media;the impact of media on school achievement, learning, schoolproductivity, school faculty and staff, and management; instructionalmaterials seleCtion, including the evaluation of published materialsand the design and development of materials; the total cost of media,mathods of assessing cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit, and how to

solicit bids; and steps or activities in deciding whether to use

media in basic skills education.-A glossary, references, and resource

libts are appended. (LMM)

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from the original document.***********************************************************************

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CRC Education and Human Development, Inc.\ U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

(NJ EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION

C=iCENTER (ERIC)

3 This document has been reproducud d

LEOreceived from the person or organizationoriginating itMinor changes have been made to improve

reprodUction quality.

Points of view or opinions stated in this docuwent do not necessarily represent official ME

position or policy

A Guide tothe Use of Technologyin Basic Skills EducationKristina Engstrom, Principal Author

August 1981

4.1

Acknowledgements

CRC Education and Human Development, Inc.,was fortunate in beingable to draw upon many knowl-edgeable and talented people in preparing this Guide to

the Use of Thchnology in Basic Skills Education. Amongthese were four individuals who were involved in theearly days of the project developing the conceptualframework of the Guide, designing its contents, prepar-ing its text, and reviewing it in successive phases:

Robert M. Caldwell, Ph.D., Associate Professorof Allied Health Education, University of lexas'Health Science Center, Dallas, Thxas.Received his Ph.D. in Education from Pennsyl-vania State University in 1973. He has writtentwo books and over 40 articles on the use ofcomputers in education and has developed over300 hours of computer-based education inlanguage arts and reading.

John H. Frumphrey, President, Informedia, Inc.Jackson Heights, N.Y.Formerly with Paramount Communications,Prentice Hall Media, Macmillan: SRA,Underwood/Olivetti, and the InternationalCooperation Administration in three foreigncountries. He has produced, written and directedprograms for almost all media.

Kenneth Modesitt, Ph.D., Corporate EducationDirector, Thxas Instruments Inc., Dallas, lexas.After 20 years of experience in computer scienceas student, employee and university professor,returned to industry in 1978. In his current posi-tion, he is responsible for institutionalizingcomputer-based education for Thxas Instrumentsmanagement, professional, and non-exemptemployees.

Catherine E. Morgan, Educational Consultant,Kensington, Maryland.Formerly the director of the Computer-RelatedInstruction Division, and acting director of theDepartment of Curriculum and Instruction,Montgomery County Public Schools, Rockville,

Maryland.

Four other individuals participated in writing theGuide and in reviewing its contents:

Frank DiGiammarino, Ph.D., Director ofPlanning and Computer Services, LexingtonPublic Schools, Lexington, Mass.Besides lecturing, publishing and teaching uni-versity courses on educational technology hasbecome involved in the use of automated infor-

mation systems for decision-making by students,teachers and administrators. He is currentlyinvolved in writing a long range plan for the useof computers in education.

J.D. Gawronski,.Ph.D., Director of Planning,Research and Evaluation at the San Diego CountyDepartment of Education, San Diego, Cal.Has served on the National Councilof Supervisorsof 'Mathematics Task Force to develop a statementon basic skills. Also a member of the NationalCouncil of leachers of Mathematics Task Forceto develop an Agenda for Action for the 1980's.

Robert M. McClure, Ed.D., Program Manager,Instruction and Professional Development,National Education Association, Washington, D.C.With the National Education Association since1964, has conducted a number of research anddevelopment activities on assessment of studentlearning, inservice education;and educationalprogram planning. Dr. McClure has taught in avariety of school settings and has publishedarticles and books dealing with education issues.

William B. Perrin, Associate Executive Director,

Agency for Instructional Thlevision,Bloomington, Ind.Formerly a teacher in the Milwaukee PublicSchools, a newscaster, writer, producer andprogram director in radio and television, and acollege instructor in television production andspeech. Since 1967, he has been with the Agencyfor Instructional Thlevision, a non-profitAmerican-Canadian organization established tostrengthen education through television andother technologies.

The particular contributions that each of theeight expert writers listed above made to the Guide areacknowledged at appropriate places in the text. Theseindividuals also strengthened other parts of the Guide

4 1

through their constructive reviews and suggestions forimprovement.

We also want to thank the people who reviewedthe Guide in its later stages of development and whoprovided us with helpful advice:

Charles BlaschkeEducation Turnkey SystemsFalls Church, Va.

Domenic R. DiLuglioSuperintendentWarwick School DepartmentWarwick, R.I.

Ronald FitzgeraldSuperintendent-DirectorMinuteman Regional Vocational ThchnicalSchool DistrictLexington, Mass.

Susan FooteConsultant in Instructional MaterialsNon-Broadcast ITV Distribution ProjectMassachusetts Educational Thlevision,Department of EducationCambridge, Mass.

An individual who participated from the beginningof the project in designing and developing the Guide andwho provided inkaluable assistance to us by researchingthe continually changing field of educational technologydeserves special recognition. He is:

Richard C. CarterDoctoral candidate in Education and Psychologyat the Massachusetts Institute of ThchnologyFaculty member at Lesley College, Cambridge,Mass. Mr. Carter has experience in teachingchildren and adults, computer programming, cur-riculum development, and educational research.

The individual responsible for the Guide's designwas Nancy Witting,

Finally, we wish to note our special appreciationfor the contributions of Mr. Sheldon Fisher, Project

Officer in the U.S. Department of Education, Office ofEducational Research and Improvement, Division ofEducational 1bchnology. Mr. Fisher supported ourwork throughout the project, becoming involved in theconceptualization and design phases, providing cogentcomments in his review of the text, and leading us toimportant resources in the field. We thank him and hisassociates in the Division of Educational Thchnology,Dr. Frank Withrow and Dr. Linda Roberts, for theirwork on this project's behalf.

Kristina Engstrom

Table of Contents ^

I. Introduction

II. The Challenge for Administrators in lbday's Schools 3

The Demand ,4 3,

The Claims , ' 4

A Solution/ 5

III. Learning Basic Skills 6

What Are Basic Skills? 7

How Do People Learn? 8

What Instructional Thchniques Are Useful in leaching Basic Skills? 9

Iy. Using Thchnology in Basic Skills Education 12

Computers 12

Thlevision 19

Calculators 23

Other.Electronic Learning Devices 25

Audio-Visual Media 27

Summary of the Contributions of Thchnologies to Effective Learning 29

V. Assessing the Impact of Thclinology on Education 31

What achievement gaitis can our students make with media/ 31

What new skills and knowledge will our students learn with media? 32

What impact will media have on student attendance and on our ability to serve

individuals outside the system? 33

5

What impact will media have on teachers and other schocil personnel? 34

What, if anything, will we have to do to accommodate this medium? 35

Summary 37

VI. Evaluating and Devel4ing Materials 38

A Materials Review and Selection Process 40

Evaluation Criteria 41

Design and Development of Materials 45

Copyright Issues 50

VII. Acquiring Media 52

Cost Analysis 52

Cost-Benefit Analysis 53

preparation for the Acquisition of Media Systems 55

Iievelopment of Specifications for Computer Systems 55

VIII. A Decision-Making Process for the Use of 'Technology in Basic Skills Education 58

Exhibits

1. Steps in Materials Review and Selection 43

2. Evaluation Criteria Summary 44

3. Documentation Items Associated with Design Tasks 49

4. Program Funded by the U.S. Department of Education 51

5. A Decision-Making Process for the Use of Media 59

Si

Appendix 64

A. Glossary 64

B. References 66

C. Resources 67

I. Introduction

This book is about the use of technology in teach-ing basiclkills. It addresses issues of major concern toeducators and school administrators, including:

What are the basic skills needs of our students?Are these needs changing?How do people learn basic skills?What instructional techniques can be used toteach basic skills?What technologies are available?,What are their capabilities?What.are their limitations?How can we determine their cost?

The authors recognize that a great deal more mustbe learned about learning theory, about assessing learn-

ing styles, and about determining educational objectivesbefore we can expect to match all learners with appro-priate educational technologies. Furthermore, if we hada formula that could tell us what technology to use witha specific type of learner for a specific purpose, we wouldnot always be able to apply it. We would, and should,expect other factors to enter into educational decision-making:For example, it may be impractical tohaveequipment readily available for instructional use. Wemay find ourselves in possession of 30 new microcom-puters and have no idea how to use them. A major sourceof funding may support the purchase of one medium andnot another. In the course of this guide, the authorsexplore these conditions and their effects on the selec-

tion and use of technology.

Imperfect as our knowledge is about the learningprocess and the impact of technology upon it, we canacknowledge the things we do know.

I . We know that "media" is defined as a means of com-

munication used for teaching and learning. In thisguide, we use the term to include photographic andelectronic devices used for delivering informationand for building skill in an education setting.

2. We know that "technology" in its broadest senseconnotes the use of a systematic process of designing

and delivering instruction which does not necessarilyinvolve the use of media. This book focuses on tech-nology as represented by media and encouragessystematic decision-making about its applicationto educational problems.

3. We know that, under the right circumstances, mediacan do some things as well as good teachers and somethings better, e.g., a photograph of an ostrich des-cribes ostriches more effectively than a teacher'swords.

4. We know that no single medium is more effectivethan others for all purposes.

5. We know that media are most effective when educa-tors are familiar with their capabilities and theirlimitations.

This guide describes what we know about media,explores school and student characteristics that canaffect the selection and acceptance of media, and iden-

tifies the conditions under which media can be mostproductively used. The authors hope that this book willincrease the knowledge of its readers about media andprovide them with a proce`ss by which they can applythis knowledge to the continuing challenge of meetingthe needs and interests of their students, faculty andcommunity.

The Guide begins with a brief examinationof the

challenges facing administrators in today's schoolsystems. It then proceeds to explore the meaning ofbasic skills, how they are learned, and what techniquesare useful in teaching them. In the fourth chapter,currently available'educational technologies and theuses to which they can be put are described. Five typesof media are addressed: computers, television, calcula-tors, electronic devices, and audio-visual media.

In Chapter V, the authors discuss the impact ofmedia on student achievement, learning, school pro-ductivity, school faculty and staff, and manAgement.Chapter VI deals with one of the most critical factorsin the effective use of educational technology, the sele-tion of the implements necessary to educate learners,i.e., materials. As increasing numbers and types ofmaterials appear in the marketplace, it becomes moreimperative than ever for educators to select materialswisely. Furthermore, the availability of appropriatematerials may change an educator's mindabout usinga medium. This chapter focuses on the evaluation of

1

published materials and provides some suggestions formaterial design and development.

The cost of media is always a concern to schooladministrators and school board members. Many havefound that just as it is difficult to place a specific valueon a medium, it is also a challenge to determine its totalcost. Chapter VII describes the cost components thatshould be included in an accurate cost estimate, dis-cusses some methods of assessing cost-effectivenessand cost-benefit, and provides suggestions for solicitingbids.

Our reluctance to prescribe a system for decision-making notwithstanding, in Chapter VIII we suggeststeps or activities.school decision-makers might under-take in deciding whether not to use media in basic skillseducation.

This book includes a glossary (Appendix A) andlists of references (Appendix B) and resources (AppendixC) which readers may use when seeking more informa-tion about educational technology We hope that thisappendix, as well as the information and suggestionsprovided in the text, will be helpful to educators, schooladministrators, and other educational decision-makersin the coming years.

A2

IL \ The Challengefor Administrators

An Today's Schools

The DemandSchool administrators are well aware of increasing

pressure from parents, institutions of higher education,employers, and the military to remedy the lack of basicskills in the nation's children and youth. The outcryabout our illiterate young and adult population is not anew one; it dates back to the ancient Greeks, to the earlydays of America, and, most recently, to the late 1950swhen schools took a large part of the blame for America'sfailure to win the space race with Russia: WhileFederal,state and local government, and private seCtor responseto this problem has resulted in uncounted programs andlarge expenditures of dollars, public perception remainsthat our schools are not doing enough to teach basicskills.

The evidence that has been used to support thecontention that young people do not know the basicskills has been cited in newspapers, popular magazines,professional journals, and Congressional reports. Thelegislative history of the Basic Skills and EducationalProficiency Program (Title II of the Education Amend-ments of 1978) serves as a summary of examples of theperceived decline in educational achievement.

The National Assessment of Educational Progressfound that 13 percent of 17-year-olds were functionallyilliterate.

The same national assessment found that the writingskills of 17-year-olds were declining.

One university reported that 25 percent of its incom-ing freshmen had to take remedial courses in basicsubjects. Other post-secondary institutions cited theinability of their students to spell, use proper gram-mar, and express themselves clearly in writing.

The Navy reported difficulty in finding recruits whocould read well enough (that is, at the sixth gradelevel) to do military work and was requiring manyof its recruits to enroll in remediaTreading courses.

, Articles published since the passage of the BasicSkills Act reiterate the themes that American educationis not able to teach cognitive skills or to deliver a well-motivated and hard-working labor force. Such state-ments raise another problem about basic skills, thatthere is little agreement among parents, educators, orthe general public about what basic skills are. Are theyonly the three R's? Are they reading, writing, arithmetic,and behavior, suchas good manners, obedience, andrespect? Are a sense ofjob responsibility and dedicationto the quality of work basic skills?' Have our expecta-tions regarding basic skills changed with the introductionof communication and information technology? Since

one job in two is now related to thq handling of informa-tion; that is, Collecting information, storing it, trans-cribing, retrieving, analyzing, packaging or distributingit, shouldn't students be prepared to deal with it? Shouldbasic skills now include critical reading, listening,television *wing, and use of information? Computerliteracy? lbday, educational decision-makers are notonly faced with insistent demands to improve basicskills but also with the difficult task of defining whatthese demands mean.

Administrators are also hearing from their teach-ing colleagues who urge that different theories aboutlearning be accommodated in decisions about instruc-tional programs, curricula, materials, and equipment.The historic model of public school education in whichthe goal was to exposeall students to the same curricu-lum, taught in the same way, is being replaced byindividualization models for meeting the individualneeds, interests, and capabilities of every student.Legislation addressing the education of handicappedand gifted students explicitly cites this goal. Althoughnot yet fully realized, recognition that students of thesame age, in the same grade or class, do not have thesame educational needs or learning patterns is changingthe way that educators plan and deliver instruction.Educators are also working on teaching strategies that

'See, for example, J. Fred Bucy, President of Texas Instruments,Inc. in a speech on "What Industry Expects from the EducationalCommunity," delivered on March 4, 1981, to The Governor's Sym-

posium on Career Education, Texas Education Agency.

'David P. Snyder, "Welcome to the Information Age," VocEd, April

1979, p. 28.

3

actively involve students in the learning process. Ifboth needs, i.e., to individualize instruction and toinvolve students actively, are to be met, additionalresources must be found.

At the same time that demands are being placedon schools to improve basic skills education and toaccommodate individual student needs, costs are rising,school populations declining, and school budgets beingcut. Schools can no longer rely on local taxpayers toapprove large budgets without debate, and funds fromFederal and state sources are not as likely to close thegap as they were in the 1960s; Thus, administrators arenow more inclined to consider all aspects of an educa-tional problem and a number of alternative solutionsbefore committing their meager educational dollars.

The ClaimsAdministrators hearing demands to improve

basic skills, to individualize learning, and to limit spend-ing must balance the various claims that are made forsolutions to the problem. Many of these claims appearunder the rubric of "educational technology," althoughthere are different points of view regarding what edu-cational technology is and how it can contribute to asolution.

Some proponents of educational technology urgethe use of its products to solve educational problemssuch as:

Developing student skills in identifying the majortheme of a story by having students listen to a radiobroadcast of Hansel and Greta

Thaching left to right reading orientation by usinga film strip.

Stimulating ideas for writing a story by viewingThe Waltons.

Storing and maintaining student performance recordsin a computer data bank.

In a broader sense, educational technologyencompasses the systematic design, implementation,evaluation, and management of solutions to educationalproblems. Proponents of this definition claim that edu-cation problem-solving should lead from needs assess-ment to evaluation and inVolve both human andnon-human resources. They stress that solutions to

1.10t...

particular learning problems will not n1.essarily entmlthe use of medhe For'these proponents, educationaltechnology is a process, not products or things..

Finally;administrators will get advice to returnto the old ways of teaching. The back-to-the-basiesmovement represents not only dissatisfaction with thecurrent practices thattre believed tO produce studentswho cannot read, write or do arithmetic, but also dis-comfort with the use, or proposed use, of technology tomeet educatiOnal needs. Because they believe that tele-vision has contributed to illiteracy in today's youngpeople, for example, many people find it hard to reconciletelevision viewing with learning basic skills, despite thecontinuing success of programs like Sesame Street.Similarly, reactions to the use of calculators in schools,partictilarly with young children, are often negative; tiltbelief that using calculators diminishes thinking iswidespread! The fact that computers are still a mysteryto many adults may contribute to skepticism that theycan be part of the solution to educational problems.knowing that equipment schools purchased in the pasthas often tot been used may add to the hesitancy oftaxpayers to purchase new equipment. It is little wonderthat parents, teachers, and members of the communitycontinue to raisehuestions about the use of technologyfor educational purposes.

Another cautionary note comes from educators,who warn of the dangers in believing that the productsof technology will solve educational ills': The use ofmachines to replicate poor educational practices, suchas failing to provide helpful feedback to students,contributes no more to improving education thanteachers who ignore a student's work or punish studentsmaking mistakes. Similarly, computers which greet astudent, "Good morning, Sam," and do no more, arenot individualizing instruction. Fortunately, improve-ments in,the use of technology are made very yearas the knowledge and skills of educators increase.Researchers are using technology to learn more aboutlearning, so that problems that have more to do withteaching than with technology can be resolved.

'Allan B. Ellis, The Use and Misuse of Computers in Education,New York: McGraw-Hill, 1974, p, 53.

'One article that attempts to dispel anxieties about calculators is:Arthur Kessner and Twila Slesnick, "Myths About Calculators inthe Schools,' Calculators/Computers Magazine, Sept./Oct. 1978,pp, 78-81.

'Ellis, op.. cit., p. 54.

4

A Solution?How can school board members, superintendents,

and other educationalde&ion-makers evaluate thevarious claims that are made for and against educa-tional technology? The prospect may appear over-whelming, especially when any decision, even one tomaintain the status quo, will haire organizational andbudgetary implications, as well as educational ones,

..and will have an impacton.students, faculty, staff,parents, and the community at large. The intent of thisguide is to provide assistance in making that decisionan informed one by providing information about tech-nology and its possible impactson curriculum content,instructional techniques; faculty and staff; ind schoolsetting. Since noaingle solution to the problem ofimproving basic skillawill work for all schools, theauthors provide information and suggest processes thatshould contribute to a number of answers.

5

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-,r

III. LearningBasic Skills*

Plato was among the earliest of the philosophersto inquire, "What is worth learning?," and through theages each generation has had to resolve this centralsocial issue. The resolutions have been based on anumber of factors -Convictions about what people need,political-powerthe status of organized knowledge, theinfluence of religion, economic conditions; hationalsecurity, social mores of the time, interpretations ofhistory, conceptions of morality, technological advance-ments, geography, and distinctions among social classes,among others. Resolutions change with time and witheconomic, political, and social conclitions and, conse-quently, affect the definition of what should be taught.

For example, Plato's answer to his questioned basic skills as rooted hi the nature of the uni-

verse nd man's ability to better understand his world.Muchihter, Rousseau, trying to extricate Emile froma coLrupting society, saw education as the way toreconkruct society. In the new world, Jefferson andWebster proposededucation as the way.to construct anew social order. Dewey, observing the growing influenceof industry on all aspects of Alnerican life, saw schoolsas "active centers of scientific insight,into natural .

/materials arid processing points of departure whencechildren shall be led out into a realization of the historicdevelopment of man."

Similarly, the choice of institutions responsiblefor imparting valued learnings to the members of asociety is an expression of that culture's values. In thiscountry, it began informally with families playing thedominant role and schools a relatively minor one. Wehave moyed, particularly since the turn of the century,to reversal of those roles. It is only in the last ten years

[This c apter was creveloi;Kpart by R bert M. McClure, Ed.D.,anager for Instruction a dyrofessional Development., Nationalucation A'ssociation, Washington, D.C.

' John Dewey, The Schootand Society, Chicago: University ofChicago Press, 1899.

or so that serious questions have been raised in theUnited States about the appropriateness of schoolsassuming a larger responsibility in the total educationalendeavor..

Just as society's values affect the definition ofbasic skills and the assignment of responsibility forteaching those skills, society's values control decisionsabout how basic aldlls should be taught. As industrialArnerica created new methods to make itself moreefficient, the concept of the'assembly line was coupledwith behavioristic psychology, and curricula becamedefined as a series of discrete, measurable, observablebehaviors. The movement to quantify the school pro-gram (i.e., to state behavioral objectives, to teach withthe purpose of meeting them, and to test students ontheir attainment) was very much with us at the turh ofthe century? The era of the "science of education" abatedbe. tween the two world wars with the growth of progres-sive education? In the 60s the major yehicle for curricu-lum reform was the revitalization and reorganization ofthe subject matter disciplines! In the 70s the scientificmovement reappeared and continues today;5 what is tobe taught is selected on the basis of what can be mea-sured by testing which, in turn, affects how things aretaught.

The "back-to-the-basics" movement with itsemphasis on reading and arithmetic brought a declinein.the 1970s in time devoted to science, social studies,and mathematics instruction? The question that willconfront teachers and other educational decision-makers, parents ancibther school patrons, and legislators__in the decade of the 80s will be the extent to which the-'trend of narroWing curricular offerings will continle.Despite shrinking budgets and expectationt that havecharacterized the beginning of the 1980s, there aredata to suggest that the trend will be altered.

'See, for example, Charles Hubbard Judd, The Psychology of HighSchool Subjects, New York: Ginn and Co., 1916.

'The Progressive Education Society, "A Quarterly Review of theNewer Thndencies in EducationvPart 1," New York: The Society,Apri11924.

'See Jerome S. Bruner, 7'he Process of Education, Cambridge:Harvardtniversity Press, 1960.

'See, for example, Leon Lessinger and Associates, AccountabilitySystems for Planning inEducation, Homewood, Ill.: ETCPublications, 1973.

'M. Suydam and A. Osbourne, The Status of Pre-College Science,Mathematics, and Social Sciences Education, Volume 11,Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1976, pp. 2-8.

6

What Are Basic Skills?Although what is basic to one may not be so

essential to another, most people see reading, writing,arid arithmetic as central to the public school curricu-bun. Employers, admissions officers in colleges anduniversities, parents, and students themselves arestrongly urging schools to return to an emphasis on theskills of communication and computation. Few of thesepeople, however, would be satisfied with limiting thetotal school offering to the three R's and would variouslyinsist on history, geography, citizenship education,science, art, music, and other subjects as essential cur-riculum components. Considering the trend at thebeginning of the 1980s to increase curriculum offeringsand assuming the validity of data from public opinionpolls; it is possible to predict the most likely basic skillscurricula in the near future and through the end of thecentury.

Clearly, language will continue to be a dominantpart of the curriculum with continuing emphasiS onreading skills. Writing, speaking, and listening will beemphasized with particular attention to improving thequality of communication. The fOcus of language artsteaching will change from grammar and spelling ' o thewriting process and the structure of written products!Critical reading, listening, and viewing skills will becomemore central as societrrecognizes.the need for citizensto distinguish between propaganda and fact. Proficiencyin a second language will be considered a basic skill forall graduates before the end of the.century. Our economicneed to relate with all nations may make it mandatorythat Americans become bilingual.

Educators may increase their use of the computeras a delivery system for instruction in arithmetic andEnglish, but the most dramatic change in the curriculumwill come about in developing student understandingof computers and other technology to prepare them asconsumers, employees, and citizens in the age of infor-mation. It may no longer be enough that students

'Recent Gallup polls, for example, have demonstrated wide agree-ment on the necessity for young people to understand how ourgovernment operates, the interdependence of nations, and theability to write effectively. George H. Gallup, "The 11th AnnualGallup Poll of the Public's Attitudes Inward the Public Schools"in The Phi Delta Kappan, September 1979 (Vol. 61, No. 1), pp. 33-45.

"Andee Rubin, "Vaking Stories, Making Sense," Language Arts,

March 1980, p..286.

A

perceive computers as deliverers of instruction; bothliteracy and future employment may depend on theirlearning to use the computer:

to use computer data bases;

to simulate physical, natural, mechanical, and socialsystems;

to solve problems;

to edit text and to use other functions of a wordprocessor;

to understand computer'models for decision-making;

to create graphs and other pictorial devices thatconvey information?

Education in the physical and natural scienceswill become even more basic in the curriculum. Scienceinstruction will begin with very young children andcontinue throughout the high school where the emphasis°will be on the basic principles of science as they relateto daily living, on new developments in science, and onunderstanding the p.ovesses that result in new Scientificdiscoveries. Science education will not be reserved forthose aspiring to college admission; "...in these offeringsstudents will learn more than they presently do aboutfundamental operations so as to become more enlight-ened decision-makers in the complex affairs of oursociety."1°

Accompanying the emphasis on language, mathe-matics, computer literacy, and science will be renewedcurricular concentration on problem-solving, usingabstractions and symbols, applying knowledge directly,and developing the capacity to deal rationally withunanticipated events. Because such objectives are notbound to single course topics, opportunities to developthese higher cognitive skills will be spread throughoutthe curriculum. In some schools they will be viewedas basic skills, and traditional subject matter will beemployed as a support to their achievement.

'Arthur W. Luehrmann, "Should the Computer Mach the Student,or Vice-versa?," Creative Computing, Nov.-Dec. 1976, p. 45.

mRobert M. McClure, "The Unfinished Agenda," Education in the80's: Curricular Challenges, Lois Edinger, Paul Flouts, DorothyMeyer, editors, Washington, D.C. National Education Association,to be published July 1981.

7

There is a renewed demand in society for attentionto the humanities" which we can expect to increase. Inaddition to proficiency in a language other than English,schools will focus more attention on the human condi-tion through literature, history, and philosophy. Thecurrent trend to "moral education" will continue insome fashion although it is difficult to know in thepresent highly charged political climate what form thecurricular offering will finally take.

The performing and visual arts have become morecentral to American life and as standards have risen andchanged so has the desire for improved education inthese fields. Aesthetic principles, opportunities tobecome proficient in one or more of the arts, and theknowledge necessary to be a discerning consumer ofthe arts will all become more central in the schoolprogram.

As Americans gain more leisure time and increasetheir understanding of health, nutrition, and recreation,programs that develop health awareness and goodhealth habits throughout life will increase. Expertise ina recreational sport will be a basic skill in elementaryand secondary schools:

It also seems likely that the trend toward pro-viding more time for career and vocational educationwill continue and that three related developments willoccur: 1) career and vocational education will be morefully integrated with each other and with parts of thecurriculum, 2) vocational skill training will be broadenough to give future employees more job satisfactionand career development potential, and 3) the role of theprivate sector in preparing youth for the world of workwill become more pronounced.

While there may be agreement among Americansabout the future, broad goals of education, there isconsiderably less agreement as to what the specificcurriculum offerings in schools should be now. For thepurposes of this guide, we will henceforth define basicskills as the acquisition of skills related to effectivecommunication which include:

the abflityto use spoken language;

the ability to understand another person's thoughtsthrough listening and reading;

the ability to use symbolic mathematical conceptsboth expressively and receptively; and

the ability to understand and use common forms ofinformation and communication technology.

In the following section, how people learn theseskills will be the topic of discussion.

How Do People Learn?No matter what the skills that society-at-large, a

community, or a school defines as basic, the ingredientsthat lead to success in teaching them may be the same.Although we still have much to learn about how peoplelearn, educators know from experience, and researchsupports, that the following ingredients are importantparts of learning. People learn:

. . When their current and changing interests,needs, and abilities are accounted for. Most educatorsknow from experience that students have different needsand interests, that they have different learning styles,and that they move through curricula at different paces.Those of us who have been learners recognize that thesignificance of course content to our lives is a key factorin our learning it. We know we learn best when the con-tent matches our abilities in a way that is stimulatingbut not too difficult. We also want flexible instructionthat can meet our changing needs and to know that ourneeds and interests are receiving personal attention.Any teacher who hac tried to incorporate these qualitiesinto daily practice knows the difficulty of planning anddelivering individualized instruction to every student inhis or her clase Nonetheless, many teachers havesuccessfully used instructional techniques and materialsthat enable students to operate at their individual pacesand that respond to-their educational needs. The appro-priate use of educational technology can broaden thisopportunity for all students and, at the same time,relieve the teacher of some of the planning and teachingburden.

the ability to organize one's thoughts in speech andwriting;

"See, in particular, The Rockefeller Foundation, The Humanitiesin Americ-an Life, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981.

"Ludwig Braun notes that the traditional educational systemprovides only 15 seconds of personal attention per hour. Acomputer can provide 100 percent attention. In "Computers inLearning Environments: An Imperative for the 1980's,"BYTE,July 1980, p. 112.

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. . When they are actively involved in learning.Although there is an important place in education forlectures or presentations, reading, listening to recordedsound, and viewing films or television, no strategy thatis non-participatory can be substituted for activeinvolvement in learning. Students learn more and retainmore when they learn by doing and when they can usewhat they are learning. The learning of basic skills is noexception; people learn to speak by talking, using wordsto communicate, not by studying communication.

. . . When they interact with others. People seem toenjoy learning situations and complete their learningtasks when there are others present with whom they caninteract!3 Research is currently in progress on the levelat which human interaction is necessary to produceeffective learning, but it is clear that consultation withteachers and joint problem-solving with other students''are important ingredients in learning.

. . . When a variety of techniques and materialsare used. Just as the stimulation of others helps makethe learning experience more enjoyable, if not moreproductive, so does exposure to a variety of instructionaltechniques and materials. Many educators believe thatlearning is more effective when the learner is reachedthrough more than one sense, although there is some,inconclusive, evidence that simultaneous multisensoryinputs (e.g., the visual and aural aspects of film) may beless educationally productive than media that addressonly one sense at a time!' Some research on sensorypreferences for learning indicates that, except for peoplewith sensory handicaps, there is no significant differencein sensory capabilities among people Should theseresearch findings become firmly established, it will notmean that learners are not stimulated by variety. It willonly mean that they cannot process more than one typeof sensory input at a time.

. . . When the design of the instructional materialsis interesting and stimulating. Visual appearance or

"Jack A. Chambers and Jerry W. Sprecher, "Computer AssistedInstruction: Trends and Critical Issues," Communications of theACM, June 1980 (Vol. 23, No. 6), pp. 336-337.

"David W. Johnson, "Student-Student Interaction: The NeglectedVariable in Education," Educational Researcher: January 1981,

pp. 5-10.

'Research reviewed by Wilbur Schramm, Big Media, Little Media,Beverly Hills: Sage, 1977, pp. 33-34 and 53-56.

"'Schramm, supra., p. 39.

aural or tactile interest is also important to the learner.Materials which are colorful, animated or otherwiseattractive catch and maintain interest and thusmotivate students to begin or continue work on a learn-ing task. Design may also detract from learning if itis irrelevant to the purpose.

. . . When they receive feedback on theirperformance. All learners want to know how they aredoing, that is, whether they know the concepts they aresupposed to know or whether they are performing a taskcorrectly. Feedback may be in the form of speed oraccuracy scores, comparison with other learners, orsubjective judgments by the teacher or student. Nomatter in what form it is given, it is important for thelearner to know whether he or she should move on tonew material or continue to work on the old.

. . When they practice and review a skill orconcept. If new skills are to be remembered, learnersneed to practice them until they are solidly mastered.Sitnilarly, skills and knowledge will be forgotten if theyare not reviewed at some point after mastery. Basicskills can be practiced and reviewed with most kinds ofmedia as well as with textbooks and pencils and paper.

As any good teacher knows the successful use ofthese ingredients depends on their appropriateness tothe learning objective and the manner in which theyare carried out. Thachers who can orchestrate the peopleand things present in the classroom to produce effectiveiearning will find that they have used the ingredientsdiscussed above.

What InstructionalTechniques Are Usefulin Teaching BasicSkills?

It is difficult to imaging an instructional techniquethat would not be useful in teaching basic skills. In fact,as we have FIPPtt ahove, the more techniques that teachershave available the more likely they are to be effective inreaching all the students in their classes. Although

'instructional techniques do not fall easily into distinctcategories, many-educators describe thein in the termsused below. They are described in an approximate orderof familiarity in the classroom environment.

Information DeliveryA student-teacher interchange, a lecture, or the

presentation of information and ideas by media such asfilms, television or computer. It is commonly used in theteaching of basic skills.

DemonstrationDisplays of physical or mathematical relation-

ships shown on paper or a blackboard, on audio-visualequipment, television or computers. Demonstration is acommon technique in teaching basic skills.

Drill and PracticeThe presentation of a number of practice problems

or a sequence of exercises designed to reinforce learninggained from another source. The technique is most use-ful when students must commit material to memory ormust practice certain skills until they can perform themquickly and correctly. In teaching basic skills, drill andpractice is used for learning and applying spelling andpunctuation rules, learning multiplication tables, andapplying basic number facts and operations. In thepast, drills were always conducted by a teacher; now,computers and hand-held electronic devices provide drilland practice efficiently and tirelessly. Other features ofthese tireless teachers may include keeping track of rightand wrong answers, providing feedback, and acceleratingor providing remedial exercises based on performance.

Problem-SolvingAt the most unsophisticated level, this technique

requires the learner to propose a solution to a teacher-generated problem. At more complex levels, the problem-solving technique calls for learners to state their ownproblem, test hypotheses, propose and then evaluatesolutions. The use of computers for problem-solvingmay also involve the student in writing a computerprogram that will solve a problem. The technique is usedin all basic skills teaching and is used with all instruc-tional media from paper-and-pencils to computers.

TutorialThis technique presents a new concept to a learner

in small, sequential bits, give examples to illustrate theconcept, drills the learner, provides feedback on thelearner's performance, and finally summarizes the infor-mation learned and the relationship of that learning toother instiuction and to real world problems and issues.It is a technique that the best teachers have used withindividual students since teaching began. It providesthe basis for programmed instruction texts. Since fewteachers have the luxury of using the tutorial methodin today's schools and programmed instruction islimited in effectiveness, we are fortunate to have com-puter programs which can provide tutorial instructionin topics such as reading and arithmetic. PLATO fromControl Data Corporation and TICCIT from The Hazel-tine Corporation are two examples of systems that haveemployed a tutorial approach!'

Instruetional GamesThe application of one of more specific skills or

concept in a Competitive or cooperative environment.Games are used for instruction on the theory that peoplewill learn something because it is fun or challenging.The game technique is used to develop general probleM-solving skills and to practice the application of specificskills, such as arithmetic, manual dexterity, or spelling,in a different context. lb have any long-lasting effect,games should be integrated with the rest of the instruc-

"The Control Data PLATO (Programmed Logic for AutomatedThaching Operation) System, developed in 1959 at the Universityof Illino Is, is a world-wide network of computer-based educationwhich supports instruction in over 100 cities. It provides instruc-tion to students who range from beginning readers to commercialairline pilots. With over 10,000 PLATO lessons currently available,PLATO is one of the most comprehensive networks of computer-based education.

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Like PLATO, TICCIT (Time-shared, Interactive, Computer-Controlled Information Thlevision) offers a wide variety of lessonson subjects including basic skills instruction. TICCIT can servefrom 20 to 125 students (as compared to PLATO which can serveover 1,000). TICC I'M; use of minicomputers means that the entirecomputer system can be located at the same site where the termi-nals are located. PLATO, on the other hand, uses large mainframecomputers in three central facilities.

TICCIT, also like PLATO. offers graphics and animation capabili-ties, speed of operation, and a feature which a I lows users to.deNelopinstruction for use on-site.

I t)

tional program. A number of instructional games areavailable for audio-visual, video, and computer systems,as well as hand-held electronic devices.

ShnulationsSimulations represent the key 'aspects of an

environment, real or fictional, which the learner canaffect by making decisions to change specific elements.The learner sees the resultsof his or her decision butdoes not experience them perennally as would happenin real life. Simulations can be programmed on com-puters, or audio-visual or printed materials can conveyinformation fibout the environment concerning whichthe learner is expected to make decisions. Simulationsgenerally do not teach basic skills, rather the learnermust apply skills such as mathematics, reading compre-hension, hypothesis formation, and problem solving, inworking out the problems pOsed in the simulation. Infact, many educators believe that learners shouldbecome familiar with concepts through concrete expe-rience before encountering them in simulation.

Exploration (Inquiry)/Allows students to take content introduced by a

teacher or media for the purposes of generating theirown ideas about the infoimation and extending learningthrough experimentation, exploration and discussion.Exploration gives students an opportunity to developresearch skills, to problem solve, and to apply theirknowledge.

Each of the techniques described above can con-tribute to the learning of basic skills. Each servesdifferent educational purposes and in theory has thecapacity to meet the learner needs discussed above.In considering a specific computer program, film orother medium for purchase or use, the school adminis-trator will find that each has-different-cuntri titions tomake in teaching basic skills. In the next chapter, weexamine the capacities of a number of media in teachingbasic skills.

IV. UsingTechnology inBasic SkillsEducation*

In Chapter III we looked at basic skills, how theyare defined, how they are learned, and techniques thatare useful in teaching them. This chapter examines therole of technology in teaching basic skills. Specifically,it describes five kinds of media systems which haveresulted from or been affected by information andcommunication technology:

Computers

Iblevision

Calculators

Electronic learning devices

Audio-visual media

Each system is discussed in terms of its capacity tomeet the criteria for a good learning situation and theextent to which it can accommodate the instructionaltechniques described in Chapter III. Both capabilitiesand limitations are explored. The descriptions closewith a review of the issues that administrators shouldthink about in deciding wheCier or not to acquire or tocontinue use of the delivery systein in their districts.

This chapter was developed in part by Robert M. Caldwell,Ph.D., Msociate Professor of Allied Health Education, The Univer-sity of Micas, Dallas (computers); William B. Perrin, AssociateExecutive Director, Agency for Instructional Thlevision,Bloomington, Indiana (television); J.D. Gawronski, Ph.D.. Directorfor Planning. Research and Evaluation. San Diego CountyDepart-ment of Education. California (calculators); Richard C. Carter,Faculty Member at Lesley_College,Cambridge. Mstanthusetts(electronic learning aids); and John H. Humphrey, President,Informedia, Inc., Jackson Heights, New York (audio-visual media).

ComputersComputers are unique among educational

technologies in that they can be designed to interactwith learner& The other technologies that are beingexamined in this guide are most often used as one-waypaths for disseminating facts and ideas. Neither audiorecordings, motion picture films, nor live televisionbroadcasts interact with students, permit students toadvance at their individual paces, give immediate feed-back, or allow use as.a problem-solving tool to the extentthat computers do. Until recently, one shortcoming ofcomputers was their inability to replicate sound, colorand motion with the same quality as film and television.As we will see, videodisc systems may overcome thislimitation.

The capabilities and cost-effectiveness of inforrna-tion technology have been increasing exponentiallysince World War II! Since 1943 the amount of infor-mation that can be processed within a given time byone dollar's worth of computer hardware has doubledapproximately every two years. This mean that, for thefirst time since the printing press enabled teachers toput their spoken words into a portable and permanentform, a quantum leap in the extent and quality of ser-vices that education can provide is possible? Thetechnological revolution that produced the computer formilitary and industrial use is now available for increasingthe educational productivity of teachers and students asdramatically asthe.introduction of printed books 500years ago.

Although all computers have the same functionalcomponents, i.e., input, memory, output, and centralprocessing unit, each type differs with respect to: 11 theamount of information it can store, its memory; 21 thephysical size of the system; 31 the amount of informationit can process and the speed at which processing occurs,its processing power; and 41cost.

The main frame or macrocomputt.: has the largestmemory capacity and the most power of any of the typesof computer. Its size and costs are also large. It can

1J.C.R. Licklider. "Social.and Economic Impacts of InformationThchnology on EducatiOn," Cambridge, Mass.: MassachusettsInstitute of Thchnology, pg. 8.

Dustin klHeuston.J!TheProrniseand Inevitability of the Video-disc in Education," a paper submitted to The National Institute ofEducation, September 1,1977, pp. 12-14.

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support as many as 1,000 terminals at a time whithmeans that people who are physically distant can com-municate through terminals connected to the mainframe. This capability is useful in situations where astudent cannot attend a class but needs to communicatewith his or her teacher or fellow students for instruction,game playing, electronic mail, and other purposes. Thestorage capacity of a main frame is important becauseit increases the educational strategies available to ateacher as well as the size of the data-base.

A minicomputer is a smaller and less expensiveversion of the main frame. It has less processing powerand can support fewer terminals (at the most, 120 termi-nals), but can perform the same functions as the mainframe.

The lower cost of microcomputers has made themaffordable for schools and home consumers. Althoughthey have a smaller memory capacity and less process-ing power than their larger cousins, their light weightmakes them easy to move from place to place and theirflexibility makes them good candidates for school use.Their capacity can be increased through networks whichconnect microcomputers for the purpose of sharinginformation and through connections with larger sys-tems through modems which allow information to passfrom one system to another through telephone lines.

Because microcomputers are becoming the popu-lar choice among school administrators, the discussionabout the capabilities andlimitations of computers will

focus on microcomputers.

CapabilitiesComputers can transmit information in a variety

of ways that are appropriate to student needs, interestsand abilities and can provide students with immediatefeedback when designed to do so. They can increasemotivation and interest in exploring new ideas and canbe used to-manage student progress.

Transmission of information. Computers havethe capability to store, organize, and present informa-don to students as they or their teachers request it. Thismeans that students and teachers not only have infor-mation available at their fingertips, they also have whatin effect are: 1) a highly competent research assistantto compile, sort, arrange information and 2) a typistto type it out. For example, a seventh grade student

assigned to write a paper on the black-footed ferret cankey in to a computer system like LEXIS and receive fulltext on recent court decisions relating to thisendangeredspecies. LEXIS will also provide the student with othercitations to law journal articles and other relevantliterature!

Using such datif bases as LEXIS and NEXIS,which covers news services, students can have directand immediate access to the particular information inwhich he or she is interested without having to waitwhile irrelevant information is presented.

The ability of computers to store information andstudent records varies depending on the size and type ofcomputer. The memory capacity of microcomputersranges from 4,000 (4K) to 64,000 (64K) electrical codes,each of which generates a piece of information; the larg-est computers, main frames, can store millions of pieces.lb increase the memory of one microcomputer, it can belinked to other microcomputers in networking systemsto share information. In addition, microcomputers andterminals can be connected to main frames through amodem. This capability gives students and teachersaccess to the large data bases stored in main frames,significantly increasing the information available tostudents in schools which have microcomputers only.

Skill practice with feedback. Many skills, suchas mathematical computation, vocabulary, and otherlanguage skills, require repetition and practice beforethey are fully mastered. When designed to do so, com-puters can assist the skill acquisition process, which isoften tiresome for both teachers and students, in severalways:

Immediate response. A computer can respond to astudent's answer to a question or problem as soon asthe student gives it. Students using a computer fordrill and practice do not have to wait for their teacherto review their papers. They know immediatelywhether their answer was right or wrong.

Increased number of question-answer-responsesequences. A computer cap present as much materialto a learner as necessary for him or her to master theskill. A computer will adapt to the pace of the indi-vidual learner; in most cases this means that learnersmove more quickly through exercises than would be

'A true story cited by Beverly Hunter. An Approach to IntagratingComputer Literacy Into the K-8 Curriculum, Alexandria, Va.:Human Resources Research Organization, 1980. p. 3.

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possible in a class that has no computer. It also canselect those techniques which are most appropriateto the student's style.

Effective sequencing of material. Most instructionalmaterial, whether it is in textbooks, workbooks or ateacher's lecture notes, is intended for presentationto the learners in an ascending level of difficulty;computer courseware for teaching basic skills issimilarly designed. Computers, however, can also beprogrammed to diagnose the learner's ability as he orshe enters the sequence and then to place the learnerat the appropriate place in the sequence. Computersmove the learner to the next level of difficulty as soonas he or she has correctly answered a predeterminednumber of questions. Finally, when programmed todo so, computers can route learners throiigh remedialsequences when they are having difficulty in master-ing a particular skill.

Learner controlled drill and practice. Some drill andpractice computer programs give students the optionsof 1) deciding h6w they want to progress through asequence given their present level of ability, 2) deter-mining the number of problems they want to try, and3) determining the level of difficulty of those problems.These features place students in control of the kindand amount of Arilling they wish to have and, as aresult, can be highly motivating.

In serving any of the above functions, computershave limitations. A courseware designer who has notanticipated a particular learner's response or who hasnot designed an alternative path that meets a student'sneeds or learning style offers something that onlyapproaches individualized instruction but does notprovide it. However, a computer can be programmedto enable students to give feedback to the designerabout a lesson; such suggestions can often be incor-porated quite easily into the lesson. Few other mediagive students or designers this opportunity.

Motivation. Some research' has shown, andmany of us intuitively believe, that there is no sub-stitute for teacher-student interaction to encouragestudents to explore new material or to complete a pro-gram of coursework. Student-student interaction canalso be highly motivating. Although no basic skillslearning environment should be without teachers and

',Jack A. Chambers and ,Jerry W. Sprecher, "Computer AssistedInstruction; Current Trends and Critical Issues," Communicationsof the ACM, June 1980, pp. 336-337.

fellow students,.computers can also motivate studentsby serving as a communication link between studentsand their teachers or colleagues who may be physicallydistant.

The motivational qualities of computers include:

Learning at one's own pace which may be slower orfaster than that of peers at any given time.

Initiating learning on one's own; not having to dependon a teacher to begin a lesson.

Learning in privacy and being free from exposure toridicule from one's peers or loss of patience by one'steacher.

Choosing the content that one is interested in pursuing.

Having fun in learning how to control a machine todo what one wishes.

Since there is mounting evidence to the effect thatthe use of computers motivates students to learn and,as a byproduct, to stay in school:' their ability to captureand hold student interest are of major importance toschool officials and parents who are concerned abouthigh attrition rates!

Discovery and exploration. Discovery andexploration are qualities that computers can stimulate,although they are not unique in this regard. Othermedia, including books, films and instrtictional tele-vision, and teachers, are also stimulators of creativity,as we are all aware. Simulations, games, and othercomputer-based activities, such as those provided bySeymour Papert's LOGO programming language forlearning fundamental ideas such as geometry andphysics through exploration, are particularly conduciveto computer applicatioii.

Managing instruction. The ability of computersto keep and update records of student achievementmeans that students are exposed to instructional mate-rial that is appropriate for their particular needs and

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'Chambers and Sprecher, supra., pp. 335-337; Ludwig Braun,"Computers in Learning Environments; An Imperative for the1980's,"BYTE, July 1980, pp. 8-9; Frederick U. Bell, "CanComputers Really Improve School Mathematics?," MathematicsTeacher; May 1978, pp. 431-432.

'Educators and others may well be appalled by today's drop-outrates. In some schools more students drop out than graduateduring any given year,

abilities. Computers can be programmed to adapt theamount and complexity of information provided astudent to that student's response to previous instruc-tion. Although many schools prefer their teachers toperform these functions, computers can also be pro-grammed to diagnose a student's academic problemsand prescribe a course of study based on that student'sweaknesses. The extent to which a program can diagnoselearner' needs, match them with performance objectives,and maintain achievement data, learning style inforrna-tion, and the like depends on the skill of the designer.The more comprehensive and sophisticated programs ofthis type will require more storage capacity than simpleones.

Computers with management programs, orComputer-Managed Instruction (CMI), can:

Generate or give diagnostic tests, or both.

Score tests and print out profiles of individual orclass performance.

Collect and maintain a record of the elapsed time ofprogram use by students, the number of questionsanswered correctly and incorrectly, and the timetaken by a student to answer a single questionl

Make learning prescriptions for a student based onhis or her performance.

Generate a list of materials that address a particularcontent area, skill or learning objective.

Create unique materials for a particular student witha defined need or interest.

Create lists of students with similar needs or interests.With such a list, for example, a teacher can identifyall students in the class that need work in subtractionand list materials that are appropriate for eachstudent.

Direct a student having difficulty in mastering aparticular skill to alternative remedial branches.

Many computer:assisted instructional programsare accompanied by compiuter managed instruction(CM I) packages, although CM1packages are offeredseparately as well and can be used,ko manage instructionoffered in print and other non-compUterized forms.

7Jurg Nievergelt adds that none of thisdata will be oetiny use unlessit is revieWed and acted upon and warns against collecting.rnoredata than is needbd.for a specified task,..In "A Pragmatic Ii4rbduc.tion to Coi*sPvare Design," Computer, Sept. 1980, p. 17.

Increasing the Capabilitiesof Computers

As we have seen, computers by themselves havea number of capabilities which are not completely sharedby other media, including practice with feedback, effi-cient and quick transmission of information, andmanagement of student progress. These capabilitiescan be enhanced and new capabilities can be added bythe use of peripherals, or hardware features, and bylinking computers with other media.

Peripherals. With peripherals, the number offunctions that computers can accomplish increases.Some of the most common and useful peripherals forthe basic skills educator include:

Thxt editors or word processors. These devices, whichsome argue are the most useful technology for teach-ing the communicati9 skills, can help students learna basic writing skill, i.e., editine Using a wordprocessor for editing eliminates its mechanical aspectsof erasing, cutting and pasting and allovis the writerto focus on content and style. When combined withan automated dictionary capability, students canquickly learn the meaning and correct use of words asthey revise text.

Printers. Hard-copy printing units can be used torecord instructions for running a program and toprint student records, tests, and other material.

Voice and music synthesizers. This relatively newtechnology enables a computer to reproduce speechor musical sounds, recognize speech, and respondappropriately to it. Voice synthesizers are potentiallyuseful in teaching sight to sound correspondence, animportant skill in learning reading and speech com-munication. Voice-response and voice-activated unitswill improve the computer's capability to interactwith the basic skills learner,5 when the technologybecomes available for educational use.

Graphic generators. Microcomputers which displaytext only in upper case letters are problematic inteaching reading and language arts: Graphics genera-

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'George A. Miller, Automated Dictionaries, Reading and Writing:Chairman's Report of a Conference on Educational Uses of WordProcessors with Dictionaries, Washington, D.C.: NationalInstitute of Education, Dec. 1979, p. 3.

"Reisman, Sorel, "What is 'Interactive Video'?," E-1TV, June 1981,p. 29.

tors solve this problem by giving computers thecapacity to print lower case letters, letters in varioussizes 'and styles, bar graphs, charts, and mathematicalsymbols.

Joysticks and paddles. These devices allow studentsto move images to different places on the screen andto respond to questions without typing. The featureis particularly useful in teaching very young childrenand students who cannot type, particularly handi-capped students.

7buch-sensitive screens and light pens. Similar tojoysticks and paddles, these devices enable studentsto manipulate images on the screen without typing.Students simply touch some portion of the screen toindicate their response to a question or use a light penfor the same purpose.

Graphics tablets. These devices enable the user totrace or create artwork which is then converted bythe computer into high resolution graphics. Thiscapability is particularly useful in situations whereillustrations help students to comprehend text orwhere graphics represent a concept.

Computer-computer and computer-terminal communication: Computers can belinked with other computers to increase their storagecapacities and other capabilities. One such linkage isthat between a microcomputer and a main frame whichallows the microcomputer to "download" a course oran instructional module from a main frame. That is,material is taken from a larger computer and copiedfor storage and use on a microcomputer. Other typesof linkages include:

Information access systems, which give researchersaccess to a number of resources such as news services,bibliographies, Wall Street price indices. Educatorscan gain access to information about available educa-tional courseware through,at least one such systemrAdaptations and improvements in curriculum madein one school can be passed along to others throughtheir computers.

Electronic mail, which enables teachers, students, oradministrators to communicate with each otherthrough their computer terminals. Thachers, forexample, can leave messages for students about their

'"M IC ROS IFT, operated by the Northwest Regional EducationalLaboratory in Portland, Oregon, evaluates courseware in gradesK-I 2.

assignments, attendance, or progress; and studentscan communicate with each other about joint projects.Students, teachers, and administrators can shareviews on any topic through electronic forums whichoperate similarly to electronic mail.

Games. Students who are physically separated canplay games if their terminals are connected to a com-mon main frame or between microcomputers. In thiscapacity, computers can keep and report scores foreach of the players.

Consultation. Any member of an extended electroniccommunity can request another person to help viacomputers when he or she en&lunters problems witha program. Assistance can thus be provided evenwhen the consultant is not physically present.

A New Technology: VideodiscsAs discussed above, computers generally lack

the ability to produce sound, motion, and color of thesame quality as motion pictures or television. Theadvent of the videodisc greatly expands the capabilityof computers and supplies these missing qualities. Anexample will illustrate one educational potential ofcomputer-videodisc interaction:a

I am writing a paper on the effects of theskiing industry on small town life in Colorado.At my teacher's suggestion, I use the Aspen

.Movie Map videodisc which takes me on a simu-lated drive through Aspen. As I take this driveI find I can go down any street in Aspen, can seeits buildings, and view the nearby. mountains. Ican go anywhere I want because I control thevideodisc on which panoramic photographs,graphic illustrations of buildings, and soundsof Aspen are stored. I can stop and study oneview, turn right or left or go straight ahead atany intersection, back up, and go inside buildingsfacing the street. I can look inside a restaurantfor example and read its menu. I can changeseasons with the monitor's channel knob and seeAspen at different times of the year. Finally,when I am finished with my tour, I can summona list of relevant literature about Aspen and

"The Aspen Movie Map described here exists. See Andrew Lippman,"New Possibilities Presented by Interactive Videodiscs," Reportof Interactive Videodisc Applications Conference, New York, N.Y.American Video Institute, 1980, p. 5.

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other small western towns to help round out mypaper.

Videodiscs:2 which first became available tohome consumers in 1978, are devices capable of storinglarge amounts of information, in a variety of formats,that can be rapidly retrieved!3The thin, plastic-coateddiscs, similar in appearance to long-playing audiorecords, can have a number of features depending on clwhether a disc is read by laser or a stylus and groovesystem. The more significant features of the laserreflective videodisc include:

Large storage capacity A disc has 54,000 frames oneach side, and each frame represents one picture. Stillpictures, moving pictures, text, sounds, and computerinstructions can be recorded and stored on theseframes.

Durability The plastic surface which coats a videodiscmakes it resistant to dust, fingerprints, and hardclassroom use. Players which employ a laser beam toread a videodisc do not subject the disc to wear orscratching since there is no mechanical contact withthe disc ag there is with a stylus.

High fidelitysound and stereo capabilities. The twoaudio tracks on laser-type discs allow the recording ofspeech in two languages and the recording of musicin stereo.

Freeze-frame capability A student can stop action andstudy a single frame or picture for as long as he or shelikes. This feature is particularly useful for studying-charts, diagrams, and graphics.

"Near-perfect image" capability" Videodiscs canpresent pictures that are clear and sharp, and, of course,in color, qualities that are especially important whenone frame is being studied.

Slow motion, fast play and scan in forward and reverse.

Electronic index and direct, automatic random access.These capabilities enable a student to find and useinformation no matter where it is stored on the disc.

"See the March 1981 and June 1981 issues of E-ITV a nd the February1981 issues of Instructional Innotrator which are devoted to inter-_dctive video and videodiscs.

"Frank Clement, "Oh Dad, Poor Dad, Mom's Bought the WrongVideodisc and I'm Feelin So Sad," Instructional Innovator, Feb.

1981, p. 12.

""What's New in Video," Iiistructional Innovator, Feb. 1981, p. 9.

Capability of compressing information. Using encodingand decoding techniques, single frame events can becompressed so that a presentation that takes a fewmoments of actual screen time can be expanded intohours of use by a learnen's

Not all videodisc players have the Capabilities,listed above which accounts in part for the range in theirprices in March 1981 from $500 to $3,000. The majorreason for the range hinges on whether or not the video-disc player includes a built-in microprocessor. Systemswhich have a computer capability, sometimes called"intelligent videodiscs," combine the color, motion andsound capabilities of television, the technology fromwhich videodiscs arise, with the computer's ability toprovide interactive and indiVidualized instruction. If themost sophisticated videodisc systems available at thistime were being used in the classroom:6 students couldgain quick and efficient access to a particular piece ofinformation from the large amount stored whenever heor she chose and could control the kind and sequenceofinformation that they wished to access. Neither studentsnor teachers could record on their videodiscs, however,since they are still a play-back only media. Thus, schoolswill have to buy or rent factory-made discs in the sameway they buy or rent long-playing records or film.

LimitationsThe central place which computers now have and

will continue to have in the information age, as well astheir qu.:, ities as an instructional metlium, make a com-p( Iiing argument for their inclusion in a school's collec-tion of instr..1ctional devices. As with any medium,however, computers have a number of limitations, someof which are inhecent to the medium itself and some areexternal.

Cost. In the past, the cost of computer hardwarehas been so high that only a few schools could afford it.Now, with the advent of microcomputers and the yearly

'John Blizek, "The First National Kidisc-TV BecomesTi Plaything,"E-ITV, June 1981, p. 41. This article describes the first videodiscdesigned especially for children.

TA number of permutations of the basic videodisc are beingannounced and can be expected on the market in the near future.As in considering any media, the careful administrator will investi-gate the variety of formats and interchangeability before selectingone kind.

17

k.)

decline in cost to purchase, computer hardware is moreaffordable.

The costs of courseware and the devices used totransmit electronic messages continue, however, toremain high. Courseware is expensive, whether pur-chased from commercial publishers or developed byteachers in school. Its cost is not likely to decline tothe same extent as hardware, although the contributionsthat teachers and students can make to the design oflessons may reduce costs. The use of satellites, cable

-arid fiber-optics may bring the costs of communicationdown in the future but overall cost may still be a limita-tion for many schools.

Application. Of the limitations that inhibit theuse of computers in education, the most difficult toresolve is that involving inappropriate use. Lack ofunderstanding about what computers can and cannotdo leads to two problems:

Unrealistically high expectations. Without linkagesto other systems, microcomputers have limitedmemories. Buyers who are not aware of this limitationunrealistically expect their microcomputers to per-form complex and sophisticated tasks.

Unnecessarily narrow applications. Mai* educationalapplications of computers have mirrored techniques,such as imparting content by means of the printedword, and programmed instruction, that are alreadyin the repertoire of teachers. Using computers forthese purposes is not cost-effective, since programmedinstruction is probably as effectively learned fromworkbooks!" Similarly, using a computer as a page-turner is extremely costly. Such applications meanthat the full capabilities of computers are not beingrealized and their use as a tool for finding new waysto teach both old and new things has not been fullyexplored.

These misunderstandings reside not alone inteachers but also in courseware designers who simplyadapt conventional techniques and materials for use oncomputers.

Materials. One of the major limitations in effec-tive use of computers for instruction has been the lack

op. cit., p. 15.

'Lou Frenzel, "The Personal Computer -1,11. Chance for CA I ?,"B YTEJuly 19SO, pp. 88-90.

of appropriate materials. As we have seen, one cause ofthis is a lack of understanding about the range of com-puter applications on the part of designers and teacherswho may not know enough about computers to dematidbetter Materials. Newer technologies such as the video-disc suffer even more fromthe lack of materials. As wasthe case witti computers and other technologies, workon hardware development began sooner and has gone

,at a faster pace than work on materials.

Because the materials issue is such an importantone, we have devoted a whole chapter, Chapter VI, to it.

Teacher Preparation. As compared with theapplication of computer technology in business, indus-try engineering, and defense, until recently, educationreceived little attention from designers and manu-facturers nor have educators been as involved in itsapplication to training and education as their counter-parts in other fields!9 Thus, teachers for the mostpart have been left out of planning, research and course-ware design. Many believe that ignoring teachers in thedevelopmental phases has affected their acceptanceof computers in the classroom.

For computers to be perceived by teachers as auseful part of the education procese teachers mustbelieve that computers have a realtive advantage overother teaching devices. The perception of teachers thatcomputers are more complex than any other educationaldevice must be addressed in teacher training programs,in-service training, and through increased exposure tocomputers.

linage. Popular concerns about the use of com-puters and other electronic technologies to emphasizefacts above concepts and principles, to disseminatepropaganda, and to promote uniformity serve as awarning to those who wish to apply technology to edu-cation?' Its potential power over many aspects of ourlives must be channeled toward positive ends.

'9Licklider, op. cit., p. 15; and John H. Grate, "A Systems Approachis Needed," AEDS Moniton Oct./Nov./Dec.1978, p. 17.

"Helena C. Martellaro, "Why Don't They Adopt Us?," CreativeComputing, Sept. 1980, pp. 104-105.

Licklider, "Impact of Thchnology on Education in Scienceand Thchnology," in Thchnology in Science Education: The NextTen Years, Washington, D.C.: National Science Foundation, July1979, p, 9.

18

Issues for AdministratorsMany administrators within the next few years

will be faced with making a decision about whether tobuy computers for instructional purposes or to expandtheir schools' audio-visual capabilities. Pressures byparenes, students, and future employers to prepareyoung people for roles in the information age will influ-ence that decision and may even change the questionto "What kind of computer should the school buy?"Among the issues that will confront the administratorwill be:

Educational goals, instructional and managementobjectives. Is computer-assisted instruction consistentwith the community's or school's goals?, and willcomputers contribute US the attainment of theteachers' instructional objectives and the adminis,trators' management objectives?

Relative merits of computer types for school needs.Irrespective of cost, what kind or kinds of computer,i.e., main frame, mini, or micro, is most appropriatefor the school?

Co t of installation mid operation. How much can theschool afford and what financial trade-offs could be

considered?

Availability of good materials. What materialsare available? Are there enough different materialsavailable to justify purchase of a particular kind ofhardware?

Teacher and staff expertise and knowledge. Do teachersknow how to use computers to their full advantage?What will it take to prepare teachers and staff to usecomputers?

Computers offer a good deal of promise forimproving the quality of education. The problems listedabove as issues for administrations are solvable. Theymust be solved if the promise is to be fulfilled.

TelevisionAt one time television appeared to offer great

potential for teaching and learning, perhaps more thanany other technology. It was easier to operate thanmotion pidture equipment and film, for example. Withcolor, sound, and motion, it broadened learning horizonsbeyond the textbook and the classroom. It offered imme-diacy; viewers could participate vicariously in eventshappening all over the world and in space. And, it wasfamiliae2 as much a part of the home environment asthe kitchen table and almost as available in schoole

Despite these qualities and the wide variety andincreasing numbers of programs now available, instruc-tional television (ITV) has not reached its full potential.The major constraint on its use has been the inflexibilityof broadcast schedules which has meant that bothteachers and students have had to adjust their workto fit them. Furthermore, neither teachers nor studentscould control programs in the following ways:

Programs could not be stopped in the middle of abroadcast and replayed for review.

Similarly, since programs could not be randomlyaccessed, students had to wait until material that wassignificant to them appeared.

Instructional material was designed for the "average"student at a given grade level. The student who foundthe material too difficult or too easy was not offeredanother version that met his or her needs.

Finally, as with audio-visual media, students were inpassive roles. They could not respond directly to whatwas being presented nor could the television respondto them!'

"Such familiarity may be a mixed blessing. On the one hand, exten-

sive exposure to the often frivolous entertainment on televisionwhich young people have at home may result in a le'ss than serious

attitude toward television viewing in school. On the other hand,teachers may be hesitant to open their own teaching styles toinvidious comparisons with the color, animation and variety of

television.

"Thlevision programming for instructional purposes (I'TV) is avail-able in approximately 72'1, of all classrooms in the U.S. Peter J .

Dirr and Pedone, Ronald J., Uses of Television for Instruction,1976-77; Pinal Report of the School TV Utilization Study, NationalCenter for Education Statistics, Washington, D.C., 1979, p. 7.

"Dustin H. Heuston, '"rhe Promise and Inevitability of the Video-

disc in Education," an unpublished paper submitted to the NationalInstitute of Education, September 1, 1977, p: 76.

19

New techi1ogies that have recently become avail-able or that will, become available in the next few yearshave begun to address these problems, by offering anumber of options from which.to select. The next sections.describe the capabilities of these technologies, their limi-tations, and issues for administrators.

CapabilitiesInstructional television p srams reach classroom

television screens in a number of ways: broadcast frompublic television stations or from commercial stations,cable, video tape or cassette, and videodisc, and Instruc-tional Thlevision Fixed Service (ITFS). Each of these .sourcesof programming has educational capabilitieswhich are discussed below in ascending order of instruc-tional flexibility." Satellites, which are distributionsysterhs rather than a program source are discussed last.

Broadcast from public televisionstations. Most of the almost 300 public televisiOnstations in the United States broadcast instructionaltelevision prograths weekdays cluring school hours.Because teachersand students must adjtist their sched-ules to the,time of broadcast, if they have no recordingcapabilities, this source is the least flexible of all. Whilethese stations can originate programs in their ownstudios for use by the local school system, most relyon their network connections with the Public Broad--casting Service for instructional programs since theproduction of high quality programs tend to be extremelycostly. Stations also have access to educational pro-grams from regional or state networks of which they aremembers" About one half of the programs broadcast f

from public television stations come from the Agencyfor Instructiona) iblevision, a non-profit Americe-Canadian education service agency.

A nuMber of the programs prodUced for broad-cast on public television address basic skills in waysthat are creative, colorful and intellectually stimulating.These include The Electric Company (a remedial program

Dirr and Pedone, op cit., p. 9. Also see Herbert S. Dordick,Bradley, Helen G., and Fleck, Glen, ITV: A User's Quideto theThchnology The Washington, D.C.: The Corporation for PublicBroadcasting, 1970

"The regional networks are: Eastern Educational ThlevisionNetwork (EEN), Central Education Network(CEN), SouthernEducational Communications Associdtion (SECA), and PacificMountain Network (PM N).

for primary schoolchildren with reachng clifficulties),AllAbout You (a series on health), Sesame Street for'pre-school children, and a 60-minute program seriescalled Think About which address the skills essential tolearning, i.e., language arts, mathematics, reasoning andstudy skills. Many of theie and other basicskill Øo-grams offer printed guides for teachers suggesting .

pre- and post-program activities, discussion questions,and additional resources.

The cost of this delivery system to schools isrelatively,low, sometimes consisting only of ifbroadcastfee base on the number of hours of use. '

Broadcast from commeicial televisionstations. A number of programs that are brOadcast bycommercia) stations are used by teachers to supplementinstruction. Most broadcasts that are appropriate for - 'this use are made afterschool hours thus somewhatlimiting their use except as homework. Few are aimedpritsarily at teaching basic skills; of course, but they =

- are often the subject of instruction in critical televisionviewing skills witich many believe are basic for today'syoung people?'

Cable television. Cable television has severaladvantages over both public and commercial broadcast-ing. First, the quality of the picture may be greatlyimproved because cable television, whether wire or, morerecently, optical fiber, is relatively unaffected by topo-graphical or weather interference. In addition, cabledistribution has the potential of intreasing the numberof channels that are available. As a result, teachers candhbose programs from commercial television, publictelevision, videotape and cassette recordings, and paytelevision, if desired. Cable can deliver programs pro-duced in schoo) by teachers or students. In some schoolsstudents are producing their own videotapes and livetelevision shows which are delivered to classrooms bycable and other delivery systems. These uses are excel-lent for basic skills development in writing (for example-scripts) and for visual, oral and sensory communication.

Like satellites, cable systems have the capacityfor two-way coMmunication and multichannel delivery."

"See, for example, Ned White, Inside Television: A Guide to CriticalViewing, Palo Alto, Cal.: Science and Behavior Books, 1980. Thiscourse for high school students is intended to teach critical viewingskills. It was produced by the WGBH Educational Foundation andFar West Laboratory for Educational Research and Development.

'For descriptions of two communities' involvement with two-waycommunication for educational purposes, see Robert J. Cooley,

20

4Because cable systems are franchised by local govern-ment, the terms of agreement may include the installa-tion of cable service in public schools at little or no costto the schools. Thus, the cost to schools for establishingor increasing their access to television programming byusing cable is relatively low,perhaps the least expensiveof all television delivery systemP

Instructional Television Fixed Services(ITFS). Instructional Thlevision Fixed Services is atype of over-the-air transmission system designed spi4ci-

ficaliy for deliveringinstructional programs to schoolsand other groups. Its advantages" include:

The ability to transmit up to four channels simultane-ously, thus serving the needs of more than one school.(Cable has this capacity as well.)

The ability to provide round-the-clock serVices.

Variety in choice of programs.

The ability to repeat programs.

Fle ibility cils,cheduling.

Relathrely inexpensive oper ting cost.

The major disadvantag s of ITFS are the highcapital costs of equipment ins allation and the com-plexity of FCC licensing procedures, which probablyaccount tor its limited Use (three percent) in the nation'sschools:"

Because ITFS has multiple chandel capacity, it cantarget its programs to the needs of speCific learners.For example, an ITFS system can offer seven programsdaily for fourth grade students, using its other channelsfor other grade levele In comparison, public broad-casting, which has only one channel, must diversify itsprogram offerings to try to meet many needs.

4

Video tapeannd cassettes. Tile second mostcommon source of prOgramming after public television

of Two Colvdiunitie?," Instructional Innovator, FebruaryLl,pp 26-29.

"Education'a1 Policy/Research Center, Instructional Television:AComparative'Study:of Satellites and Other Delivery Systems,Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse Research Corp., 1976, pp. 17-18.

,SamueI&Sauls. "ITFS andliroadcast ITV-Competition or Symbi-osis?," MTV, October 1979, pp. 8085.

:"Dirr and Pedone. op. cit., p. 9.

"Semis. op. cit., p. 82.

is in the form of tapes or cas§ettes. Schools may buycassettes from the government's National Audio-VisualCenter in Washington, D.C., the-Agency for Instruc-tional Thlevision, the Public Broadcasting Service, theGreat Pla' s National Instructional Thlevision Library,ITV Co-op, à,d cpmmercial companies and may recordprograms off U air. (There are a number of restrictionsregarding the duplication and classroom use of thtelevision and radio programs about Which a , stra-tors and teachers shóuld be aware. These are &scribedin detail in Chapter VI) The ability to.record televisionprograms has freed teachers and students from rigidbroadcast schedules. Not onlycan teachers choose thetime for the presentation of the program, but also theway in which the program is viewed, i.e., all at one timeor in segments,-with no repeat or many repeats, eitherwhole or in part. Because it has been recorded, the pro-

<, gram is availablelor viewing by individuals who mayhave missed theoriginal presentati6n or who wish to seeit again.

-

Increasing numbers of programs are being pre-recorded on cassettes: Selected programs are captionedfor hearing-impared users. Computers can now be linkedto video cassette players, as they can to videodiscs,enabling the presentation of instructional material thatis determined by the student-and appropriate to his orher responses and needs. Thus, the material that appeErson a conventional television screen is the result of com-munication between the studentqi dbmputer program,and a video cassette (or videodisc) player."

21

The popularity of video cassettes in the homemarket can be attributed to their ability to record tele-vision programs off the air. This capability makes themattractive to educators as well since it allows them touse programs at the time of their choosing. Prerecordedcassettes on Music, film, and instruction are alsoavail-able for purchase or rental_to schools as well as the'home consumer.

Videodiscs. As disessed earlier in this chapterin the section on computers, videPodiscs are one of themost exciting technologies to be developed in recentyears. They have the ability to give students access toa large amount of information, from which they canselect the items of most importance to them. Studentsand teachers can also control the sequence of informationthey wish to actess and the rate at which it ip presented.

"James J. L'Allier. "Some Basic Questions About InteractiveVideo," E-ITV, June, 1981, p. 30.

As noted above, few, if any, videodiscs designed forclassroom use now exis0 During the 1982-1983 schoolyear, however, an educational videodisc program willbecome available for upper elementary and junior highuse. This program, ABC/NEA SCHOOLDISC, wasdeveloped by,ABC television and the National Founda-tion.for the Improvement of Education, a creation of theNational Education Association (NEA).

At the heart of the SCHOOLDISC programs isstudent-teacher interdetion, rather than student-machineinteraction which might have been emphasized if thesystem had been integrdted with computer technology,a decision whic,h would haveinvolved higher develop-ment and production costs. pie ten one-hour programsenable the teacherto select as manyyr as few topics ashe Or she considers relevant, to stoP and start programsat will, and to branch as student needs require TheSCHOOLDISC.programs deal with science, math, lan-guage skills, social studies, the arts and current evenis.For teachers, there is a program on trends in educationas well as supplemental printed teaching guides. In thefuture, NE A and ABC will be collaborating again on theproduction of discs for the lower elementary grades.Other commercial and non-profit groups are likely to beinvolved in their own developmental efforts in the nearfuture.

Satellites. Although not a source of program-ming, satellite trandmission is another instructionaltelevi4ion option% Satellites deliver television signals -

ov,er long distances, thus providing transcontinentalandt4anioceanic coverage. While this capability canadd to tfievariety of basic skills and other instructionalprograms available, satellites operate on a brnadcastschedule which limits flexibility. Thii problem can beremedied by recording broadcasts on videotape orcassette.

Satellite systems are the most expensive instruc-tional television delivery system to install. Linldngupwith a satellite requires large capital expenditures fortransmission and reception equipment, and, in addition,operating costs are high. There is a monthly charge for

"Ken Winslow, "Videodisc Systems-A Retrospective," E-ITVMarch 1981, p. 38.

"Thlephone conversations on August 4 and August 31, 1981, withJack H. Kleinman, Executive Director of the National Foundationfor the Improvement of Education, a non-profit, tax-exempt foun-dation created by the N EA.

renting time on a satellite plus the costs of operatingthe transmission facilities.

As we have seen, every television programmingsource has its own technical advantages and limitations.In spite of these differences, they share educationaléapabilities which include:

Good sound, motion, and color capabilities.

Dramatic capability.

Immediacy in viewing current events.

Stimulation of creativity in students, e.gewritingstories based on characters or events seen ontelevision.

Stimulation of reading, e.g., some teachers have foundthat a television program, such as Little House onthe Prairie, can stimulate a desire to read the book-on which it is based or to learn more about the pro-gram's subject through reading"

Like other media television is a good mechanismfor developing students' prediction skills (e.g. Whatdo you think will happen to the Incredible Hulk next?),seqtkeneing, and comparison skills (How is the Increilible--Hulk like Batman?)r The fa^t that students are sofamiliar with television can be used to unique advantagein building problem-solving and critical skills.

LimitationsAlthough the technologies described above have

greatly improved the instructional capabilities oftelevision, disadvantages remain.

Thlevision programs are still designed for the"average" student. Students who wish an easier or aharder version of the material will not have access to it.

Most instructional programs continue to treatstudents as passive recipients of instruction. rlia date,television has been used too often as a one-way medium.The integration of videodisc systems with computertechnology promises td counter that limitation byenabling students and videodisc systems to interact.

'Rosemary Lee Potter, "Using TV to Mach Thinking Skills:"Thday's Education, Sept.-Oct. 1980, p. 54.

"Potter, supra, p. 53.

22

Videodisc technology has limitations. At present,videodisc systems have no recording capabilities, and,as a result, their content cannot be altered by the user.However, with a computer-videodisc combination, eachof the 54,000 individual pictures stored on a disc canbepresented in any order and at any rate of speed that theuser selects. The integration of the two technologiesprovides limitless flexibility.-

A second, more technical, problem with videodiscsystems is that in their present stage of developmentthey loose sound when the disc is played at still frameor slow motion. Thus, if a student wishes to study oneframe, no sound will accompany the picture

Neither videodisc nor cassette systems are neces-sarily compatible which may mean that a videodisc orcassette produced for use on one player cannot be usedon another. Administrators should determine the coin-patibility of various systems before making a purchasingdecision.

Although broadcast television is without parallel,except for motion pictures, in producing well-designed,colorful, and attractive programs for educational use,the lack of similar materials for videodiscs at the initialstage of development poses a limitation for the educationuser. Increased demand for a variety of materials of hightechnical quality will fill this gap.

Issues for AdministratorsThe major constraint in using television as a

basic skills instructional medium in the past has beenthe control exercised by broadcasters over broadcastschedules. Because new copy technologies, i.e., cassettesand videodiscs, have the capabilities of overcoming thislimitation, administrators must decide whether to investin video cassettes or to wait until a variety of videodiscswith good instructional materials are available on themarket.

Video cassettes enable teachers to tape programsfrom their television sets and use the programs in theirclassrooms wAn appropriate. Videodiscs have norecording capabilities. Cassette tapes are not as durableas videodiscs. Videodiscs appear to have more advan-tages than either television or microcomputers standing

'Brizek, supra, p, 43.

alone 4: combining the best of both technologies, but-it-will take time for a wide variety of good videodisc pro-grams to become available for educational uses.

The second major issue is that of copyrights. Areal problem for administrators is that broadcasts canbe copied easily on video cassettes without regard tocopyrights. Readers should refer to Chapter VI for adiscussion of copyrights, and, in any case of doubt,contact the office in the state agency that is responsiblefor collecting and disseminating information on record-ing rights.

CalculatorsAs calculators have steadily decreased in cost and

increasing numbers of people use them in their businessesand homes, they have also been making their way intoclassrooms. At first they were unofficially introduced toschools by students bringing them from home since1975, however, educators have begun to pay seriousattention to their use in school programs. Mathematicsteachers have been in the vanguard of this examination.

Mathematics teachers were among the first edu-cators to realize that calculators could save time oncomputations, thus freeing students to concentrate onproblem-solving, measurement, estimation, and othermathematical competencies. These teachers questionthe high priority that is traditionally given to computa-tion and the low priority given to other mathematicalskills and believe that the use of calculators for com-putation would permit concentration on conceptual

lbachers from disciplines other than mathe-matics, particularly on the high school and college levels,usually support this position, preferring that theirstudents focus on problem identification, analysis, andsolution rather than on numerical calculations. This

It has been reported that 75 percent of the 9-year-olds, 80 percent,of the 13-yearolds, and 85 percent of the 17-year-olds own theirown calculators or have one available for use. See Marilyn N.Suydam, Using Calculators in Pre-College Education: Third AnnualState-olthe-Art Review, Columbus, Ohio: Calculator informationCenter, August 1980, p. 3.

'Arthur Kessnerand Twila Slesnick, "Myths about Calculators inthe Schools, Calculator/Computer Magazine. Sept./Oct. 1978, p..78.According to Kessner and Slesnick, children spend 75 percent oftheir first seven years of mathematics instructimi learning andrelearning the procedures nece'ssary to do addition, subtraction,multiplication, and division computations. They spend the remain-der of their time on all the other mathematics skills.

23

support assumes that mathematics is not only calcula-tion but includes the "basic skills" of problem-solving,estimation, functions, graphs, measurement, and simplestatistics!'

Reactions to the use of calculators for instructional'purposes have nOtbeen uniformly positive, even amongteachers!2 Some are opposed to all uses in school. Otherswould prohibit use by children in kindergarten throughthe third grade and restrict usage thereafter. Accordingto a 1981 report on a survey conducted by the Priori-ties in School Mathematics (PRISM) project:3mathematics educators are, not surprisingly, morefavorable toward increased use of calculators than anyother group sampled, and parents seem to be the leastfavorable. For the school administrator deciding whetherto purchase calculators for basic skills teaching mayinvolve working with both teachers and parents to cometo an agreement!'

Capabilities'For the basic skills teacher, two types of cal-

culators can be considered. (A third type, scientificcalculators, which are appropriate for advanced studiesin high school and colleges, are probably too sophisti-cated for the basics skills learner.) One of these types isthe simple three- or four-function calculator. Thethree-function calculator perfcrms addition, subtraction,and multiplication; division isincluded in the four-function. The simplest calculaequal sign, and clear keys. A.cuseful, as is a memory register

ors have decimal point,ear entry key is alsowhere a number can be

stored while the calculator is performing a computation.The stored number can then bexetrieved, displayed, andused in subsequent calculation .

The second type is the p ogrammable calculator,which usually has the features f the four-function

"Report on the Conference on Needed Research and Development inHand-Held Calculators in School Mathematics, sponsored byNational Institute of Education and National Science Foundation,undated, p. 6.

"Kessner and Slesbick, op, cit., p. 78.

"National Council of Thachers of Mathbmatics (NCTM), Prioritiesin School Mathematics Pmject: Executive Summary Reston, Va.:National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1981.

"Administrators will probably encounter more resistance fromp-arents, teachers, and others to the i4orporation of calculators inthe curriculum than they will to the use of computers for instruc-tional purposes, according to the PRISM study.

I

calculator plus a drill and practice capability. Likecomputers programmed for drill and Jractice, these calcu-lators° present computation problems, such as 5+ 7=?,students push the keys indicating their answers, andthe display indicates whether their answers are correct.The most simple of this type of calculators is pre-programmed by the manufacturer. The more sophisti-cated allows teachers to program exercises.

Calculators of either type are used to develop themore basic computational skills which consist of:

Communication with and about numbers. For studentswho do not have fine Motor skills, a calculator canserve as a writing tool.

Counting

Number recognition

The concept of one-to-one correspondence

The concept of "between"

The concept of numbers before and numbers after

The concept of numbers greater than, less than, andequal to.

Although these basic skills are relatively easy to teachwith calculators, there is more controversy about usingcalculators to teach these than there is about usingthem to teach more advanced concepts in later grades.It appears from the PRISM study that there is relativelylittle argument about whether to use calculators withcollege or eveh secondary students. On the other hand,people are less ready to accept calculators for elementaryschool teaching.

Limitations

24

Like computer courseware, instructional materialsfor use with calculators in basic skills education havebeen not available, inadequate in quality, or not inte-grated into the curriculum. While good materials arebecoming more available every year, they are still scarceand often deal only with a specific topic, such as functionsor exponents. Some materials provide rows and columnsof numbers for students to add, subtract, multiply, or

"Theresa Denman, C'alculators in Grades K-3: Why? What? How?,Calculator Information Center, Bulletin No. 6, Colunibus, Ohio,January 1979, p. 2.

divide. This kind of material is obviously not very useful

or rewarding to the student.

Another factor which limits the use of calculators

is teacher acceptance:Similar to the situation withcomputers, although for different reasons, a few teachersfeel that calculators should be banned completely fromthe classroom. Those who support the use of calculators

do so only for limited purposes. The PRISM project"found support for the use of calculators was in mostcases limited to checking answers and doing chainsof calculations. There was some support for includingthe solution of word problems and equations, homework,development of ideas and concepts, and most computa-tions. On the other hand, there was practically no support

for the use of calculators for learning algorithms; teachingslower students; learning facts about numbers; andtaking tests. Thus, a major limitation is based ontheories and beliefs about learning. It appears that wemust know more about how people learn mathematics,whether they learn the concepts that lie behindmathematical operations or just the computationalmechanics and whether calculators can help teach thoseconcepts, before a judgment can be made about the best

use of calculators.

Issues for AdministratorsIn deciding whether to integrate calculators as

aids to classroom instruction, administrators shouldconsider three questions:

What should mathematics basic skills be? Should they

focus on coMputation or move beyond that to include

estimation, problem-solving, measurement, and the

like?

Should calculators (or computers with calculator-likecapabilities for that matter) have any role in teaching

basic skills?

If so, which skills should be learned using calculators?And, at what point in the mathematics learning pro-cess should calculators be introduce0?

Because the anewers to these questions should reflectthe goals of the community, informae di about thestrengths and limitations of calculator use should bedistributed to teachers, parents, and other members ofthe community. If a decision to use calculators is made,

"NCTM, op. cit., pp. 30-31.

it will be relatively easy to determine the kind of calcu-lator to purchase and to arrange for their maintenance

and safe-keeping. Similarly, training teachers on calm-lator use can be short and inexpensive. Thus, unlike

computers, television, and visual aids for which ques-

tions regarding cost, maintenance, repair, and teacher

training are more troublesome, the key issue in decidingabout calculators is's pedagogical one.

Other ElectronicLearning Devices

Hand-held electronic learning devices, other thancalculators discussed above, use some of the same teach-ing techniques as other media, most notably drill ond

practice and games. Because these devices are inexpen-sive, as compared to the "big media" described in earliersections of this chapter, they may be considered bydecision-makers as a substitute for some of the functions

of computers and perhaps instructional television.

The simplest hand-held electronic learning devices

are limited to drill and practice of elementary arithmeticcomputation skills. The device presents a problem which

the student answers by punching in a number. Thedevice responds to the student's answer by presentinganother problem if the answer is correct or repeatingthe same problem if incorrect. After a predeterminednumber of incorrect answers, the device shows the cor-rect answer and moves to a new problem. At the end

of a predetermined set of problems (usually 10) at the

same level of difficulty, some devices tell the studenthis or her score.

The same kind of simple technique is used in

devices that develop spelling and writing skills. Somehave voice synthesizers that ..:orrectly speak a word

under study for the student to check his or her own

response. (A popular example of this kind of device

is Thxas Instruments' "Speak and Spell.")

Other, more sophisticated, devices are intended

to develop students' problem-solving skills, such assequencing, logical thinking, and estimating. Forexample, a programmable toy called "Big Trak"requires students to move the "Big Trak" robot wher-

ever the student wishes it to go. The student must usehis or her knowledge of numbers, computation skills,and understanding of direction to get the robot to

perform.

25

3i

There are other devices that require students touse their manual and/or problem-solving skills to wina game...Many of these games are computer-based; olderstudents may be familiar with playing "Star '11.ek" andsimilar games in movie theatre lobbies or_at home.

CapabilitiesWell-designed programs for electronic learning

devices which use the game technique have three ele-ments47 in common:

Challenge. 'lb be successful, or to win, the studentmust reach a specific goal the attainment of which isuncertain when the student begins the prograth.

Fantasy" Mental images that can not be sensed orthat are beyond the experience of the person involved.The program must have some element of fantasy inwhich students picture physical objects in their headsor make believe that they are someone whom they arenot (e.g., ruler of a kingdom).

Curiosity 49 Games which arouse students' curiosityby building in elements of novelty and surprise aremost successful.

These elements must be reinforced with immediate feed-back to the student.

Advantages of well-designed programsinclude:

1. The student's privacy can be respected without muchdifficulty since the student can interact with thedevice only and not teachers or other students.

2. They provide variety. A number of different problemscan be programmed so that, while the student is usingthe same skills, he or she is dealing with differentcontent each time.

''Thomas W. Malone, What Makes.Things Fun to Learn?: A Studyof Intrinsically Motivating Computer Games, Palo Alto, Calif.;Xerox Palo Alto Research Center, August 1980, p. 49 et seq.

"Malone, supra., p. 56.

"Malone, sypra. p. 5.

3. They are highly motivating because they containelements of challenge, fantasy and curiosity.

4. Finally, hand-held devices are relatively inexpensive.

LimitationsOne of the most obvious limitations is that the

hand-held devices can be used by only one (in somecases two) student at a time. Also, on most devicesunder ROO the levels of difficulty or the particularproblem sets are programmed into the machine by themanufacturer. If they do not match a student's particu-lar math problem or are different from the reading/spelling vocabulary used in a school's curriculum,there is nothing one can do. It is not unlikely thatinexpensive machines with more flexibility will bedeveloped in the future, but at the Moment this inflexi-bility may be considered a disadvantage.

Hand-held &v.: s programmed for arithmeticdrill and practice usually present arithmetic symbolsand make no connection between the symbols and theoperations or sets of objects that they represent. Ifteachers are not alert to this problem, students willmemorize the patterns in the program and then will notknow the meaning of the operations represented by thesymbols or how to figure out problems that are not inthe program.

Issues for AdministratorsBecause the capabilities of the best programs

for hand-held learning devices are present in micro-computers, one of the first questions an administratorhas to deal with is whether to invest in these deviceswhich have a limited purpose or to apply funds to thepurchase of computers. In schools that have computersfor instruction, administrators might encourage thefull use of their game capabilities.

Administrators should also investigate theextent to which students play video games or gamessuch as "Speak and Spell" at home. Since many.of thegames available today were initially intended for thehome consumer, students may not find them as inte-resting or as motivating as computer games or othereducational media to which they have not been exposed.

Finally, if a decision is made to investigate hand-held learning devices further, the wise administrator

26

34;

will examine the motivational capabilities of theirprograms, their durability, and the extent and qualityof their feedback.

Audio-Visual MediaThe audio-visual media have traditionally had

value as adjuncts or aids to a teacher's instructionalprogram. We deal with them in this guide because they

are generally part of the delivery system repertoirewhich schools have available and should be considered

as viable resources by administrators making decisionsabout the acquisition and use of other, newer technolo-

gies. They perform some instructional tasks, such aspresentation of information and drill, as efficiently as,

any other system and thus a decision to substitute them

with other media should not be made without 'consideringits cost and educational impact. Audio-visual mediainclude audio devices (records, tapes and radio), still

pictures (opaque projections, overhead transparencies,slides), and moving pictures, (filmstrips and movies).

These are the "little media" for which Wilbur Schrammmakes a convincing case in his book, Big Media, LittleMedia. Instructional television and other "big media"are reviewed in previous sections of this chapter.

CapabilitiesAudio media, such as radio broadcasts, records,

cassettes and tapes can provide an almost infinite varietyof content from music and drama to instruction on thepronunciation of vowel sounds. Still or moving projected

images, or visual media, are similarly versatile in con-

tents, providing, for example, graphic illustrations ofsentence or mathematical concepts, animation forvocabulary building, and instruction on word order.Audio-visual media in combination can catch the imagi-

nation through color and sound and can make new ideas,current events, and information about the world anduniverse accessible to students.

Although the needs of the student population are,

as always, the key determinant in making a good selec-tion, audio-visual media have inherent qualities aboutwhich the teacher and administrator should be aware.

Because most audio-visual materials can be previewed

by the teacher or administraior, their authenticity ofcontent, understandability of presentation, absence ofstereotyping, and appropriateness to educational goals

can be determined before exposing students to them.The opportunity to preview materials, the case withmost media, is obviously important to teachers.

Operation of audio-visual equipment in class is usually

directed by the teacher. While students may operatethe equipment, it is under the control of the teacher,who may stop the machine at any point to discuss aconcept, to review, or to give students an opportunityto practice skills. Similarly, the teacher can turn offthe soundtrack and make his or her own presentationto accompany the pictorial representations.

Audio-visual media give students someone other thanthe teacher to listen to and something other thanprinted material to look at and thus add variety toinstructional programs. Visual media add color and

motion to the classroom, unequaled by other media

except television and computer-videodisc systems.They offer new sounds and sights to students andtake them vicariously to places they've never been.

Like other media, audio-visual media allow the teacher

to bring into the classroom scientific, social or otherphenomena which could not be demonstrated or expe-

rienced otherwise.

Audio-visual media are conducive to use with groups.All members of a class or another large group canfocus on one screen or one sound; and all are involvedin the same audio or visual experience. The sharing of

an experience can promote the sharing of ideas asstudents respond to and discuss the event. Interactionwith peers and teachers is an important element indeveloping communication skills which the appropriate

use of audio-visual media can provide.

The availability of rear screen projectors for film andfilmstrips, headphones for radios and record players,and 8mm films which miniaturize motion pictureshas meant that the needs of small groins and indi-viduals (for example, handicapped students) can be

addressed.

11.aditional audio-visual equipment is inexpensive as

compared to some emerging technologies and, usedsingly or in combination with other audio-visualmedia, can be as effective as big media in filling certaininstructional functions. Limitations in the amountand quality of instructional materials available fornew media and the relatively good quality of audio-visual materials may make audio-visual media thepreferred media for a school district.

27

Because audio:visual media are familiar to mostteachers, are relatively easy to operate, and offer instruc-tional flexibility, many administrators have chosen torely on them as the major component of their schools'media capability. As with other types of technology,however, the potential of audio-visual media has notbeen fully realized. In too many cases, attention is paidmore to the input, i.e., the medium, than to the outcome,i.e., what students are expected to learn. Thus, educatorscannot tell whether students have succeeded, what theyhave learned, and whether the medium had anything todo with the success or failure.

The quality of available materials is the othermajor variable in the effective use of audio-visual equip-ment. The difficulty for teachers and administrators is .

not a lack of materials but in selecting from among thelarge number that is available. This important topic isdiscussed in Chapter VI.

LimitationsAlthough audio-visual media have the potential

of serving many educational purposes, they havedrawbacks as well: As with other media, most of thesedrawbacks are a function of uninformed use rather thanan inherent problem with the media. Among limitationsof this kind are:

Failure to match a medium with specific teachingobjectives and with student learning needs. A mediumselected on any basis other than its ability to con-tribute to the achievement of a specific learningobjective will be limited in the effects it produces.

Failure to take advantage of audio-visual media, suchas audio-cassettes, filmstrips, and slides, that can beoperated by students. Some schools have media centerswhich are set up for students to operate the equip-ment themselves and many audio-visual materials aredesigned for individual student use. In many instances,however, teachers use audio-visual media only forlarge group presentations. While large group work hasan important place in education, students also needto control the presentation of material, its pace, itssequence, and content.

In many school districts, especially large ones, audiovisual materials must beordered from a central facility,Because a number of teachers may want a particularfilm at the same time, it may not be available to a

particular teacher at the optimum time in the courseof instruction. As with many other media, schedulingfor use can be a real problem.

In addition to the limitations which arise fromimproper use or from operational difficulties, audio-visual media are limited in their ability to provide indi-vidualized feedback or direct reinforcement to thestudent on his or her performance. Audio-visual mediacan only present information and ask questions.Responses of the student must be judged by the teacher.

Issues for AdministratorsMost schools today have some audio-visual

equipment available; for example, it is not uncommon tofind an overhead projector in most elementary class-rooms in a school district. Many schools have at leastone motion picture projector on the premises; somehave a full complement of equipment including recordplayers, cassette and tape recorders, opaque, overheadand slide projectors. The typical problem for today'sadministrator is not, therefore, whether or not to acquireaudio-visual equipment but, rather, how to ensure thatthe equipment is used.

A radical decision to discard school equipmentis not likely to be received with favor by teachers, schoolmedia specialists, school board members, or communitymembers. Such a decision is neither necessary noradvisable in situations where inefficient use can beattributed to mechanical breakdown, poor scheduling,or inaccessibility of equipment. Most frequently, thecapabilities of the media are unknown to teachers andfor that reason have not been realized.

Understanding that the educational use of audio-visual media may be limited as compared to newertechnologies with respect to student control and respon-siveness to student performance, the major issue foradministrators is whether their school should:

Expend resources to ensure that existing audio-visualequipment is repaired, accessible and used to its fullestcapacity;

Expend resources to train teachers in the instructionaluses of audio-visual media;

Expend resources to acquire more audio-visual equip-ment; and/or

28

Replace or supplement existingequipment with newertechnologies that offer a broader range of educational

1180s.

Summary of theContributions ofTechnologies toEffective Learning

Each of the five technologies described in this

chapter has capabilities that can contribute to basicskills learning. Each also has limitations, eithertechnically, practically, or pedagogically.it is unlikely

that administrators who wish to enhance their schools'current educational capabilities will consider, or select,

one medium and ignore the others. Rather, they will

attempt to plan an educational program which is a com-

plement of different technologies. Although the realiza-

tion of the plan may take a number of years, the moreadministrators know about the presentand predictedcapabilities of each technology, the more likely it is that

their plans will be fulfilledan this section we review theimpact of the media systems examined in this chapter

on the characteristics of effective learning situationsdescribed in Chapter III.

On Meeting the Current andChanging Interests, Needs,and Abilities of IndividualStudents

Media which operate at an individual learner'space and respond directly to the student's input saveboth the student's and the teacher's time. At the presenttime, no media can replace the capability of teachers inthis regard, although computers have the potential inspecifically defined areas.

On the other hand, any medium at any given pointin the learning process, can meet an individual's needs.For example, a filmstrip on a subject of particularinterest to a student can fulfill this goal. For a student

with a hearing impairment, media which rely on visualimages to transmit content will meet at least one of

that student's needs.

On Involving StudentsActively in Learning

Computers have the potential for making the

most significant impact since they can be controlled by

the learner if programmed to do so. Media that rely on

a passive learner oraudience of learners, like film andconventional television, are limited in this respect.

On Promoting Interactionwith Others

A good teacher can ensure that any media is used

to promote human interaction. Media that are parti-cularly conducive to this use include film, television,and other audio and visual media which are usuallyshared by a group of learners. Although most cdmputer-assisted instruction promotes student-computer inter-action, computers with an electronic mail capacity canalso serve as a vehicle ofcommunication for students

and teachers.

On Providing a Variety ofTechniques and Materials

One of the major purposes of using media is to

add variety to the repertoire of teachers. Types of media,

that offer the most variety in terms of instructionaltechniques are computers and videodisc-computer

combinations.

On the Design of Interestingand Stimulating Materials

Just as media add to the variety of learning expe-

riences available to students, media can enable teachers

to add interest and stimulation to the classroom.Whether they actually do so depends on the design

quality of the materials.

On Providing Feedback toLearners

Computers can have the most impact withrespect to this ingredient since they extend the teacher's

29

ability to provide relevant feedback to every individual.No other media has this power.

On Providing Opportunities toPractice a Skill Until It isMastered

Thachers cannot always give students the indi-vidual attention they need to master a skill. A tirelesstutor like the computer is the best media to fulfill thislearning function because it can be desigmed to changethe material presented to the learner or the sequencein which it is presented to meet the individual's needs.

In weighing the impact of a medium on learning,the decision-maker is likely to find that computers havethe greatest potential:to date unrealized, for meetingteaching goals. Little of the potential will be realizedunless program designers and teachers deliberatelybuild these capabilities into the system. None of theseattributes are inherent in any teaching situation; theymust be explicitly planned for and adopted. Suchplanning takes a good deal of time, more than preparinga traditional education program.

30

V. Assessingthe Impact ofTechnology onEducation*

Chapter IV described the capabilities, educational

uses, and limitations of five types of media and sum-marized the issues connected with each type that willbe of most interest to school administrators. Thischapter assesses the impacts that media have onstudents, teachers and administrators, noting thedifferences among media that may affett decisionsabout their use. Although every school district will baseits decisions on its own current needs, available resources,and future plans, the authors hope to contribute to theprocess by examining short- and long-term impacts ofdecisions.

What AchievementGains Can Our StudentsMake with Media?

It i hard to imagine a medium that does not addsomething to student achievement, at least temporarily.New equipment or material often has the effect ofincreasing atudent interest in instructional contentsimply because it is new. Once the novelty wears offihowever, both students and teachers can lose interestand the innovation fade from neglect, if no efforts are

*This chapter was developed in partby Kenneth L. Modesitt, Ph.D.,Corporate Education Director, Thxas Instruments Inc., Dallas,

Thxas, and Frank DiGiammarino, Ph.D., Director of Planning and

Computer Services, Lexington Public Schools, MA.

' I t should be noted ihat the fascination of using computers as anaid to learning "appears to last for months and years, rather thandays and weeks." Frederick H. Bell. "Can Computers ReallyImprove School Mathematics?," Mathematics nacho; May 1978,

pp. 431-432.

made to integrate it into the educational program or toinvolve students in its use.

The type of measurement used to assess theimpact of media on student achievement differs amongresearchers. Measures have included comparative testscores, amount of time to complete a course or instruc-tional module, and-degree of retention of learning. Someresearchers also include in their studies evaluations ofchanges in student behavior or student attitudes towardthe medium under investigation. Although it is difficultto summarize the findings from such studies, thosewriters who have attempted it believe that the studieshave shown no significant difference in learning when amedium is used as compared to teacher instruction andno significant differences between media?

1. Thst scores. Use of media for instruction has resultedin improved scores or in no significant differenceswhen compared to scores of students not using media.However, findings based on the use of standardizedtests may be questioned, as should the appropriate-ness of the comparison measure. For eximple, is itmore appropriate to compare experimental groupscores to the scores of a control group or to the samelearners' scores when they were notusing the medium?3

2. Learning time. Most studies have shown that the useof computers has resulted in more rapid mastery ofskills, usually expressed in terms of progress in gradelevel for each month or year of computer use ascompared to progress with no computer use. Theadvantages of any saving in time are: a) that it allowsstudents to move more quickly to new subject matterand new skills, b) that it helps slower students reachgrade level more rapidly, and c) that such gainsimprove the self-concept of student who may havehad a history of falling behind their classmates.Claims regarding reduced learning time should be

31

2Reviews of effectiveness studies appear in Ludwig Braun,

"Computers in Learning Environments: An Imperative for the

19805," BYTE, July 1980; Marilyn Suydam, "Using Calcu-lators in Pre-College Education: Third Annual State-of-the-ArtReview," Calculator Information Center, August 1980; James A.

Kulik, Chen-Lin C, Kulikearid Peter A. Cohen, "Effectiveness

of Computer-Based College leaching: A Meta-Analysis ofFindings," Center for Research on Learning and Thaching, The

University of Michigan, May 1980; end Wilbrum Schramm, BigMedia, Little Media, Beverly Hills: Sage, 1977.

. .

'Robert J. Seidel, "It's 1980: Do You Know Where Your Computer.

Is?," Alexandria. Virginia: Human Resources Research Organi-

zation, March 1980, pp. 6-7.

exa 'ned closely to determine whether there has beensignificant gain, since we should expect students tomake one year, or month, of progress in one year, ormonth, of work, irrespective of the use of mediat

3. Course completion. This measure, which obviously ismost appropriate for students who are not requiredby law to attend school or complete a specified courseof study, is used on the theory that if students arein school, they are learning. Thus, a reduction inattrition should mean an improvement in studentachievement. Such a reduction might also mean thatstudents are enjoying the course more, which, if alasting phenomenon, should contribute to achieve-ment. On the other hand, a high attrition rate couldmean that the student population is transient, movingfrom one sdOool to another constantly, and havelittle to do with instructional techniques. Additionaldata would be necessary to show a correlation.

Studies that measure retention and transfer oflearning, changes in student behavior, and changes instudent attitude about the medium under study havebeen less common than those mentioned above,although there is some data showing that retentionrates of material learned by means of computer maybe lower than by traditional means lb balance thatfinding, the use of computers seems to improve stu-dent attitudes toward computers both as instructionalmedia and as tools for solving problems outside of theschool setting! One study,' however, found thatstudent attitudes about computers were not positiveand course completion rates dropped when there waslittle or no personal interaction between students andteachers.

Qualitative measures, such as teachers' opinionson student achievement and student involvement inlearning activities, are also used in determining theimpact of media on achievement. These kinds of infor-mation are generally ayailable when quantitative datamay be lacking or questionable.

Since student achievement may not be themost important, or only, criterion for the district,

'Seidel. supra.. p. 5.

'Chambers and Sprecher, op. cit., p, 336.

°Chambers and Sprecher, supra., pp, 335-336.

7A study of the TICCIT project in which entire mathematicsand English courses in a college and a community college wereconducted with computers. Reported in Chambers and Sprecher,

:supra., p. 336.

32

other factors that may be examined are discussedbelow.

What New Skills andKnowledge Will OurStudents Learn withMedia?

It is generally accepted that media add varietyand interest to conventional instruction, but theirpotential for improving education is much greater.Some scholars attribute the failure to realize thatpotential to the inclination of people to couple newtechnology to old purposes rather than using it toaccomplish new ones. Thus, while the use of media maybe resulting in gains in student achievement, its poten-tial for adding new skills to the curriculum, for changingteaching approaches, and for transforming learning hasnot been reached.

The LOGO experiments at the MassachusettsInstitute of Technology, at the Lamplighter School inDallas, Texas, and other elementary schools are goodexamples of the efforts being made to replace oldmethods of mathematics and language instruction withsomething quite different. The LOGO approach is totry to make the processes used in computers as clearas possible to students and to create Lttivities in whichchildren teach or program a computerrather than viceversa. LOGO researchers are finding that students whoare put in control of their learning are becoming adeptin skills such as geometry and writing more quickly add'solidly than students who do not have this opportunity.8

"See Seymour Papert, MINDSTORMS: Children, Computers andPowerful Ideas, New York: Basic Books, 1980; and Coleta LouLewis, "A Study of Pl-eschool Children's Use of ComputerProgram's," National Education Computing C6nference Proceedings,1981, pp. 272-275.

What Impact WillMedia Have onStudent Attendance,Attrition andAbsenteeism and onOur Ability to ServeIndividuals Outsidethe System, LocalG vernment, andB siness?

Ilixpayers feel that the public facilities and equip-merft for which they pay should be used to their fullestcap city and produce results. These concerns mean thatad .nistrators are increasingly being called to accountfor the productivity of their institutions. When con-

si ring the purchase of educational media, one questionto e asked is "What, if anything, will this medium addto ur productivity?"

As described above, there is evidence to supportc ntentions that the effective use of media increasess udent interest and motivation and that interest andmotivation have a direct effect on attendance? Inshort,students who feel they are learning tend to come toschool. Whether the use of a medium will, by itself,increase attendance, especially over the long term, isopen to question. Research'o indicating that dropoutsare more common where interactions between studentsand teachers are infrequent or non-existent leads us tobelieve that the use of media alone will not have anylasting educational effect.

The impact that media can have on increasing theproductivity of school system facilities is much clearer.

'Braun, op. cit., pp. 8-9 Braun cites an example of the communitycollege in which an attrition rate of 60 percent with traditionalinstruction was lowered to 20 ptkent with computer-aided

instruction.

°Chambers and Sprecher, op. cit., p. 336; and John Ti. Grate, "ASystems Approach is Needed," AEDS Monitor; Oct./Nov./Dec.

1978, p. 17.

Within a school system, computers purchased forinstructional purposes can be used in guidance andcounseling, personnel, financial accounting, record-keeping on courses, energy use control, state and federalreporting, and hingitudinal research. Schools alsoincrease the use of their computers, television facilities,and other media capabilities by offering services tonon-students. Such uses include:

Adult education

Continuing education

In-service training for service providers, such asnurses, physicians, as well as teachers

On-the-job training

Workshops for individuals who own personalcomputers

Computer time during non-school hours and weekendsfor the general public

School systems have also afforded libraries, localgovernment agencies, businesses, clubs, and otherorganizations the use of their equipment. Many publicschools share facilities with other school districts oreducational institutions, including universities, colleges,private and parochial schools. Sometimes computersintended for instructional use become so popular withadministrators and other users outside the school thatthere is no time for student use!

Almost all of these activities have cost, as well as

public service, implications since sharing use usuallymeans sharing costs. Consideration of these non-schoolsystem applications could mean a significant differencein a decision to purchase especially when initial costsof facilities, equipment and installation are substantial.On the other hand, extensive use by a number of differ-

ent parties for different purposes will requiie adminis-tration and organization and may increase maintenancecosts as well.

33

3,I

What Impact WillMedia Have onTeachers and OtherSchool Person 4el?

Any innovation introduced to a school system isnot likely to be incorporated unleis it is understood andsupported by those whom it directly affects. Passiveresistance on the part of teachers toward new pine&dures, educational strategies, or teaching devices hascaused the demise of many potentially good ideas andproducts. The experienced administrator will makeevery effort to prevent this by ensuring that teachersand other staff understand the capabilities and limita-tions of a medium and by training them in its use. Alltoo commonly teachers use equipment for the wrongreasons in the wrong way. Result?- disappointedteachers, frustrated students, dissatisfied parents,and angry taxpayers.

Since most teachers have either received formaltraining in, or learned from experience about, overheadslide and film projectors and tape recorders, they areusually willing to use these kinds of equipment. Evenwith audio-visual media, however, teachers are notalways aware of the full range of their possibilities andthus do not take full advantage of them.

The acceptance and use of newer technologicalmedia are even more problematic. Thachers who do notfeel threatened by machinwparticularly computers,may still approach them warily. Who among us has not,at least initially, felt reluctant to use an automatic bankteller machine for fear we will do the wrong thing andlook ridiculous? Imagine being bested by a machine infront of your students! Young people, on the other hand,do not have this fear and often help their teachersthrough the familiarization process.

lb improve the chance of success in introducinga medium to a school, the school's teachers need tounderstand the medium and its instructional uses andlimitations and to become skilled at using it. Severalauthors" have suggestedthat teacher training beginby showing teachers how media can support them in .

the performance of specified teaching functions. A hier-archy of competencies2 which takes this approach intoaccount, might include:

1. Knowkdge about the medium: The medium's role and'use in society in general and education in particular.The extent to which the medium supports the perfor-mance of traditional teaching functi6ns.

2. Skills ih using the medium with techniques such asdrill and practice, simulations, graphic demonstra-tions, calculating tool, and exploration of new contentorconcepts.

3. Skillsin using media in the management of instruction,including test generation, administration and scoring,student recordkeeping, and curriculum materialsgeneration. Skillsin interpreting data for purposes

, of diagnosis and prescription.

4. Skills in evaluating materials: _

Identification of appropriate tjrpes of material tomeet educational objectives and student needs

Assessment of materials relative to content,presentation, and technical quality

5. Skills in adapting published inaterial. Understandingof copyright law as it pertains to reproduction ormodification of material.

6. Skills in designing and devedOng materials.

While there probably is general agreement thatteachers and other staff should attain competence inthe first five categories, .lere is less so regarding thesixth, design and development. Many people'3 feel thatthe disadvantages of relying on teachers to generatetheir own materials, including the time required andtheir lack of technical exciertise, outweigh the advan-tages of creating materials that are specifically designed

"Heuston, op cit., pp, 16-19; and Nick Solntseff, "What Do We Thllthe Administrators?," Creative Computing, March 1981. pp. 100and 102,

"For an example of a comprehensive list of computing competencies,see Robert P. Taylor, James L. Poirot, and James D. Powell,"Computing Competencies for School Thachers," National Educa-tional Computing Conference Pmceedings, 1980, pp. 130-136.

'SC. Victor Bunderson, who has developed a model for designingcomputer-assisted instruction programs, estimates that followinghis system "can require 200. 300, or more hours of work on thepart of a team of authors, instructional designers, programmers,and media specialists to produce a sequence that would take anaverage studentonly.one hour to complete." Cited in Alan B. Ellis,The Use and Misuse of Nmputers in Education, New York:McGraw-Hill, 1974, p. 53.

34

for a particular student with particular learning needs.:Time del/cited to materials development takes time awayfrom critical teacher functions of evaluating, diagnosing,prescribing and instruction. On the other hand, grass-roots movements initiated by teachers who havedeveloped materials and who wish to diScuss designproblems and to share their material wit.% colleaguesproVide evidence of the interest and knovledge thatmany teachers have in using technology to improveinstrnction. Stith teachers and their organizations"can helP administrators make decisions about the acqui-sition and use of media in school systems. Their supportand involvement in educating other teachers cancontribute to the more effective% of media in theclassroom.

The requirements for teacher preparation thatdifferent types of media will demand differ mainly bydegree. Preparation that exposes teachers to a varietyof uses should be a part of theplanning and implementa-tion process whether film projectors or microcomputersare being acquired. Similarly, irrespective of the mediumbeing considered, teachers need to improve thei4 skills

in evaluating the eduCational and technical quality ofmaterials and in adapting materials to meet their needs.Because teachers may be both uncomfortable andunfamiliar with the use of computers and calculatorsfor instructional purposes, preparation should be more

extensive.

Although the preparation of teachers for-the use

of media may take place informally through the acti-vities of teacher clubs and organizations in some schooldistricts, most teachers will have to rely upon ottiersources-for training. Among these sources are:

Pre-service or continuing education courses in uni-

versities. Most universities now offer courses in the

use of media in education, and some offer coursesspecifically in educational television, calculators, and

computers.

Courses offered by profess'onal organizations, such asthe Association for the Development of Computer-

jt`c, for example, Tim G. Kelly, "A Grassroots Approach to Teacher

'fta i ng: the Oregon Council for Computer Education," Topics in

ni4ruct iona I Computing, pp. 47-5:3. Pri a report to the Northeastlityional Education Planning Project on "Applications of Micro-

processors in t he Schools' (May (5, 1980), 'Ibchnical EiducationResearch rent ers, Inc., listed 20 organizations in the northeast

region which were involved in matecials sharing at the time of the

report. -

based Instructional Systems (ADCIS), Associationfor Educational DatkSystems (AEDS), Associationfor Educational Comnilmications and Thchnology(AECT), Society for Applied Learning Thchnology(SALT), and the Calculator Information Center.

In-service training by state education agencies and

groups, such as: s

-The Oregon Council for Computer Education-Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium-Region IV Education Service Center, Houston, Thxas

- New York State's BOCES system

In-service training by equipment manufacturers ordistributors. Manufacturer§ and distributors mayinclude training of customers aspart of a purchase

agreement.

In-service training should both precede and accompanythe introduction of a new medium to a school if its fullbenefits are to be realized.

What, if Anything,Will We Have to Doto Accommodate aMedium?

The introduction of any isinovation Or newequipment into a school or classroom has an impacton management. In assessingdifferent media forinstallation in a facility, it pays to consider any disrup-tions they might cause and/Plan for these changes beforemaking a purchase. Amonig the accommodations thatmay have to be made arebuilding renovations, provi-sions for equipment andimaterial storage, scheduling

use of equipment, proviSion for moving equipment orstudents, provision foy down-time and repair, andincreasing security.

Changing School BuildingsOf the types,;of media reviewed in this book, only

television and cOmputers involve significant environ-mentarchangeS. Requirements placed on the physicalplant might inClude:

35

Changed or increased electrical power which in'turnmay require the installation of new power lines or aseparate service box. Voltage surges can destroy acomputer's memory. 'lb avoid this loss; programsshould be copied on several discs and a printed copyof the Program Should 1..e kept in a separate file.

Modification of walls, ceilings or floors to increasea room's capacity to hold heavy equipment, to installpoWer lines, or to install air conditioning. Heat candestroy the memoryin a computer program.'

Installation of coaxial cables arid outlets or new tele-phone lines. -

Installation of some means of discharginj staticelectricity.

Provision for Equipment andMaterial Storage

Many schools set asiile a storageroom for equip-ment to keep it secure and clean. When equipment,such as calculators, are kept in the classroom, dustcovers or some other means should be uSed to keep themfree from chalk dust and other harmful substances.Whether in a central storage area or the classroom,a check-out system should be instituted _to keep trackof the equipment. Similarly, systems for storing, cata-loguing and locating materials need to be set up.

Scheduling USe Of Media :

IF'ew schools can afford to provide every classroomor every student with instdnt access to equipmentwhenever desired, with the possible exception of cal-culators which are inexpensive enough to provide everystudent. Scheduling has for some been one of the-majordrawbacks to the use of television. The advent of videotape and videodiscs has mitigated this problem to someextent although administrators must,still organize theuse of video equipment. In the future perhaps everystudent will have his or her own computer with videocapabilities, just as all students are given-textbooksfor the year, but, in the meantime, careful scheduling'1*. a necessity.

Provision for MovingEquipment

In situations where equipment must be moved tostudents, rather than students moved to the equipment,it is important that the equipment is both portable anddurable. Most equipment available to schools today isbuiltwith hard use in mind, but wear and tear can belimited by storing equiPment in areas that are accessibleto classrooms.

Provision for Maintenanceand Repair

Depending on the amount of equipment in theirinventories, some schools will find it cost-effective toappoint an in-house specialist to.maintain and serviceequipment. Such an individual may have been educatedas a media specialist in which case a minimum amountof training about the specific equipment being purchasedmay be all that is necessary. While media specialistsipay not be able to do extensive repairs, they can helpdie district avoid needless expense by inspecting equip-ment on a regular,basis and performing maintenanceservices.

- A variety of service contracts are available fromboth vendors and service organizations, includingstandard format and customized contracts. Since eachkind has its advantages and disadvantages, individualcircumstances will dictate what is best for each school.The major variables in making a decision should be:

The tolerance of the instructibnal program for oper-ating without films, computer programs, video tapes,or other media for a period of time.

The repair record for specific type of equipment.

The need of the system for an immediate response toa service request.

The ability of the system to pay.

Types of service contracts include:

1. Flat Rate. Stipulates a monthly service fee which ispaid each month without regard to the number ofcalls or pieces of equipment services.

2. Per Call. Stipulates a fee for each repair made.

36

3. Prime Time. Usually reserved for computer centers,language laboratories, and other uses consideredessential to the day-to-day operation of the school.Prime time is usually considered 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m.or 8:00 a.m. to 12:00 noon, during which hours thevendor is required to service equipment if a requestis made during a specified time.

4. Extended Time. Extends "prime time" to 24 hoursa day. The service provider must also agree to respondwithin an agreed-upon time after receiving a servicerequest. Under this kind of contract, service personnelare required tO remain at the site until the equipmentis repaired.

Provision for SecurityAdministrators should also install security sys-

tems to prevent theft of equipment. This may includelocking each piece of equipment as well as the room inwhich they may be stored. For computers in whichsensitive or confidential material like student recordsmay be stored, special care must be taken to precludeunauthorized access to the data.

Provision for UpgradingThe impact of media on management can be a

significant one in terms of planning effort and expendi-ture of funds. Although some of the management tasks,such as building renovation, described above will occuronly once during the life of the equipment, many willcontinue and perhaps require increasing expendituresas the equipment gets older. As technical improvementsin equipment are being made and instructional materialsimprove in quality, schools will want to upgrade theirmedia. Good management requires that plans forupgrading, repairs, and other continuing costs heincluded in the operations of the school.

37

SummaryWe have examined five kinds of impacts that

media may have within an educational system: onstudent achievement, learning, productivity, schoolpersonnel, and management. Some a these are positive,e.g., increased student achievement and learning; someare negative in the sense that the acquisition of mediawill require additional staff or financial resources. Someimpacts that seem positive may have negative repercus-sions. For example, an increase in the productivity ofa school through continuous use of its equipment willrequire resources to organize and manage that use.Finally, some seemingly troublesome impacts, such asthe planning and training required to prepare teachersfor the use of media, are likely to have a positive long-term return regarding inereased student achievementand learning. In deciding whether or riot to use mediain a district or schooland, if so, what medium to use,these impacts and their long-term effects should bestudied.

VI. Evaluatingand DevelopingMaterials*

The promise of technology for improving thebasic skills of students and preparing them to be produc-tive citizens in adinformation-based society often leadsschools to purchase equipment without finding outwhether it meets a school's needs, whether teachers willuse it, or whether there are instructional materialsavailable. This chapter addresses the last and mostciimmon complaint, that is, the lack or inadequacy ofmaterials, and proposes a strategy which those.whoselect and those who design materials can use to meettheir educational goals. By way of introduction weexamine the nature of the complaint and its basis.

Is there a materials gap?

The briefest glance at any current catalogue ofinstructional television programs, computer software,or audio-visual materials will counter often heard state-ments that no materials are available. In fact, based onthe sheer number of listings, one would think thatenough materials were available to meet every conceiv-able educational need. The problem then seems to lieelsewhere; either available materials do not meet needsor potential users can not determine whether they do.

Most Of the materials currently available havebeen designed to meet a limited number of educationalfunctions: to introduce or enhance subject matter, tocheck arithmetic answers, to provide drill and practice,or to provide programmed instruction. While each ofthese functions is important, the fact that most materials have been designed only forthese functions hasled to redundancy and has meant that other educationalareas have been neglected. For example, it is diffidultfor educators to find good materials that allow a studentto work through a problem which he or she states, from

*This chapter was developed in part by CatheOne E. Morgan,Educational Consultant, Kensington, Mary'enci

thypothesis testing to evaluation of a proposed solution.In a study conducted by the Thchnology-AssistedLearning Market Information Service (TALMIS); it wasfound that computer courseware available for drill andpractice.end tutorial uses met or exceeded the antici-pated demand while the demand for simulations andeducational games was greater than available courseware. Some writers believe that there are innovativematerials available, but because they do not fit theconventional curriculum and traditional concepts ofgrade level, thty are judged to be irrelevant by educatorsand for that reason are not used?

Similarly, more materials for media use are avail-able in some subject areas than others! The supply ofspelling, reading and language arts materials is meeting,if not exceeding, the demand; but the demand for mathematics materials outstrips their supply. Very littlematerial is available for computer literacy education

, in the elementary schools. Thus, while there appears tobe enough to satisfy all needs, there are gaps for someeducational purposes and in some subject areas, parti-cularly those that are not conventional.

The quality of available materials ranges fromvery good to very poor. The educational materials indus-try goes to great lengths to make their films, televisionprograms, computer courseware, and other materialscolorful and physically attractive in order to attractbuyers, but often these materials lack substantivevalue. They are not based on what we know aboutlearning, and the results of their use with studentsare disappointing.'

There have also been problems in linking educa-tors with the materials they want. This means that

. those who are selecting materials have difficulty inevaluating their potential vOue in the classroom, sincethere is no documentation on'the purpose Of the materials, student prerequisites, tetShniques, and the like.

The 1980-1985 Kindergarten-High School Market for InstructionalComputing Hardware and Software," cited in TALMIS IndustryUpdate, February 1981.

2"Applications of Microcomputers in the Schools," A Report to theNortheast Regional Education Planning Project, Thchnical Educa-tion Research Centers, Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts, May 15,1980, p. 20.

'The TA LM IS Report, op. cit.

'In the TALM IS K-12 report cited above, 31 percent of the superin-tendents surveyed complained about the quality of computercourseware.

38

An overriding problem regarding materials is ageneral lack of criteria for evaluating those that areavailable. Thus, while there may be a number of mate-rials available in language arts, those who select themoften rely on intuitive judgrnent about their valuebecause they ve no other criteria. While intuitionoften w , many materials screening committees,

ers, and others who select materials are frustratedbecause they don't know what to look for or how to tellwhen they have found it.

In the end, then, the materials problem is a two-pronged one; in some cases, the right materials are notavailable at all, and in other cases, educators need assis-tance in selecting materials from those that are.

Who should fill the gap?

In those cases where needed materials are notavailable, the major candidates for filling the gapsare teachers and commercial producers. Both groupshave been active in developing materials, and thereis no reason why both should not continue to makecontributions.

There have always been some teachers who preferto prepare their own audio-visual material and, morerecently, generate computer courseware. In fact, Inthe computer courseware area, materials design anddevelopment was begun by teachers who were inte-rested in filling the educational courseware gap. Onthe other hand, most teachers rely on publishers tofill their materials needs, a reliance which is bothexpected and desired. After all, for educational, socialand practical reasons, we do not eipect teachers towrite textbooks or produce films or television programs.For the same reasons, schools rely on publishers to filltheir needs for computer courseware and audio-visualmaterials.

Those teuchers who have developed their ownmaterials have done so for a variety of reasons, includinga lack of funds to purchase materials, to satisfy a cre-ative urge, or simply interest in learning how to use anew medium. Many teachers prepare materials becausethey want control over content, format or design of \materials they use in the classroom. Time and the kindof expertise required generally set the limits to theextent a teacher will go to develop materials. Preparinga set of transparencies for a writing class may take anhour or two of the teacher's time plus a good sense ofdesign. A routine drill and practice computer program

takes somewhat more time, although the time andexpertise required has been reduced 4ce the introduc-tion of authoring systems that guide tlie teacher throughthe design and development process. One student hourof an individualized learning sequence can require 100hours of instructor time to produce. Obviously, thiskind of intensive effort, that is required to produce agood film or television program, or for that matter abook, cannot be supplied by most teachers.

The other major source of materials is, of course,commercial. Because equipment manufacturers andmaterials producers and publishers have greater accessto resources, they are probably better candidates forresearch and developmentIntc new techniquea andnew kinds of materials than are teachers. In the tele-vision and audio:Visual fields, leadership in researchand development, as well as product dissemination, hastraditionally been the role of industry. The computerindustif is following this example. In the future, theirefforts should complement those of educators on a con-tinuing and increased basis.

What can be done to improve materials?

Whether one is designing and developing mate-rials or selecting them, criteria are necessary fordetermining whether or not the materials will fill aneducational need, are appropriate to the learning situa-tion, and will accomplish what they intend. Just as it isdifficult to imagine one textbook that could meet everyeducational need (even McGuffey's Reader had itslimitations), no television or computer program or othertechnological material will be right for every situation.The challenge in both designing and selecting materialsis to understand the situation for which the materialshave been or are being developed. The factors whichmust be considered in meeting this challenge are:

The goals of the school system.

The needs of the target population, the students.

Equipment available.

Curricula.

Interest and skills of teachers.

Funds.

Because educa(-drs are more likely to evalu-ate materials than to design and develop them, thediscussion that follows focuses on the evaluation

39

4

process. At th, end of the chapter, we turn to design ance of racial, cultural or, sex bias or stereotyping,should also be noted.-issues.

)nlatirials Reviewand Selection ProcessAssessing and ArticulatingMaterials Needs

Selection of any kind of material for instructionaluse begins with an assessment and articulation ofneed. Such an articulation can be relatively broad, forexample, "We could use an arithmetic textbook forour third grade students." Conversely, Wean be quitenarrow, for example, "We would like materials on wordcapitalization and sentence punctuation for a few thirdgrade students who are having difficulty producing apiece of writing without violating capitalization andpunctuation rules." lb the extent that the potentiallearner or learners, the kind of media (e.g., printedworkbooks versus instructional television), and theinstructional purpose can be specified, the review andselection process will be more effective and efficient.

Information that is particularly useful in narrow-ing down the materials that will be reviewed includes:

Grade level or ability level of students for whominstructional material is being sought.

Anticipated skills or knowledge of students when theybegin to use materials.

Expected skills or knowledge ef students when theycomplete the materials.

Content or skill arca which the material addresses.

Leatping styles of students. Special instructionalneeds, e.g., visually-oriented materials for hearing-impaired students.

Preferred medium of instruction.

Anticipated plan for integrating material into coursecurriculum and total instructional program.

Resource constraints, if any, e.g., amount of moneyavailable for purchases.

Special needs, interests or constraints, such as appear-ance of materials, durability requirements, and avoid-

Sources of needs information may include testscores, opinions of teachers, administrators, parentsand specialists, and student records. The extent of detaildepends largely on the intended use of the material.That is, if materials are being sought for a course inmathematics, then information on tht, objectives of thecourse, the instructional approaches to be used, thesequence of topics to be eevered, and the instructionalmaterials already planned for use should be described -so that a fully integrated program can be developed.

Assessment and articulation of needs will helpthe materials selector weed out the large number ofmaterials that are not appropriate and to focus on thosethat are,

Obtainhig Material for Review'The first step in reviewing materials is to find out

what has been written about them in magazines, neWs-letters, bibliographies, catalogues, promotionalbrochures, and program guides. (A number of theseresources are listed and described in the Appendix.)Information about material research and developmentalprojects funded by the Federal government is alsoavailable. The purpose of going through this step isto eliminate those materials that are inappropriate forany reasen, including cost and incompatible equipmentrequirements.

At this point, the revieWer may deeide that addi-tional information is needed before he or she requestsa preview copy of the material, especially if there is acharge for preview copies. Writing directly to the pub-lisher with specific questions about materials shouldprovide that information. Some of the questions thatmight be asked are:6

I. For which grade levels or ability level's is thsmaterialintended?

Readers are encouraged to obtain, The National Council ofThachers of Mathematics, Guidelines for Evaluating ComputerizedInstructional Materials, Reston, Virginia, 1981. The Guidelines arethe source of many of the ideas in this chapter; permission\ hasbeen granted by the NCTM for the use of these materials.

6NCTM, supra., p. 10.

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2. Has the material been tested or validated withstudents at those grade or ability levels?

3. What are the instructional objectives of the mate-rials? What content areas are covered?

4. What kind of equipment is required for the material'suse? For computer software, what are the system andmemory requirements?

5. In what form, or forms (disks, cassette iape, cartridge,print), is the material available?

6. What support materials (teacher's guide, tests,printed enrichment materials,, follow-up activities)are available?

7. What are the costs of the basic materials and theaccompanying support materials?

8. What is the procedure for obtaining a copy of thematerial for review? If there is a charge, what is it?

9. Can the publisher provide a list of buyers of thismaterial?

The information obtained from the publisher shouldhelp to eliminate still more materials. Reducing thelist of candidates as much as possible will mean a savingin time when the materials are previewed and a savingof money in those cases where there is a charge for

preview copies.

In addition to obtaining material directly fromthe publisher for review, it may also be possible toexamine materials that have been purchased by anotherschool or school district in the area. A conversationwith users in that school or district can provide valuableinsights about the material.

Reviewing the Material'By the time the reviewer is ready to begin exam-

ining materials for the purpose of selection, the numberof items should be relatively small since candidateswill have been eliminated in the earlier steps in the pro-cess. The four steps described below are recommended.

'NCTM, supra., p. 11.

1. Use the material as it is intended to be used in theclassroom. Simulating actual use helps to identifythe instructional capabilities and limitations of thematerial. When reviewing materials that will be useddirectly by students; e.g., computer courseware orinstructional materiale-for calculators, aiinulating

.<. student responses will indicate the degree to which,and the accuracy with which, the material designerhas anticipated student needs. Reviewing films,television programs, audio tapes, and other mediathrough the eyes and ears of students is also helpfulin selecting the right materials.

2. Evaluate the materials. Evaluations should be basedon the reviewer's use of the materials in order thatthey can be compared to the publisher's claims.Suggested evaluation criteria are discussed in thenext section.

3. Complete the documentation on each piece of materialreviewed. Descriptive information about the materialthat is developed by the reviewer should be comparedto the documentation provided by the publisher andadded to the information collected for that material.

4. Make the selection. After all descriptive and evalua-tive information has been collected, the reviewer or amaterials section team makes a decision.

The process for selecting materials, illustratedin Exhibit 1, is straightforward; the content of the eval-uation is somewhat more complex. Content issues, orevaluation criteria, are described below.

Evaluation Criteria'The feelings and beliefs held by reviewers about

how people learn will affect their priorities and willprovide a specific focus to the review task. Therefore,no set of criteria proposed by one group or individualswill necessarily be important or relevant to another.The criteria suggested here are not intended to beadopted by school districts, schools, or teachers withoutcritical examination.

The criteria listed below are divided into twocategories, requirements and considerations. Therequirement category included all those qualities that

'The material in this section relies in large part on NCTM's guide-lines for material review, cited supra., pp, 14-16.

41

the authors feel must be present in materials for themto have an impact on student achievement and learning.The considerations category includes qualities that maybe present in materials.

REQUIRED QUALITIES

Content

Definition of purposeThe purpose of the materials, its objectives andcontent, should be clearly defined. If it is notspecifically stated, the reviewer may rejectmaterial on this basis alone or examine it furtherto see whether its purpose is implicitly stated.

Significance of program purposeA piece of material may be irrelevant to theneeds of the students for whom it is intended. Itmight treat a subject that is of no importanceto the iearner or, conversely, treat an importantsubject irrelevantly.

Compatibility with instructional programThe material should be compatible with theinstructional progiam in which it will be used,with respect to its goals, its theoretical base,and the learning style or styles of the studentsfor whom it is intended.

Accuracy of contentThe content of the material should be correctand clear. It need not treat a subject compre-hensively so long as it clearly states the areasit is covering.

Absence of bias or steresotypingAll content, pictorial as well as textual, shouldbe free from bias and free from stereotyping onthe.basis of race, ethnicity, sex and handicappingcondition. Content should be representative oftotal popidation.

Instructional Qualities of Importance to Bothlbachers and Students.

Quality of directionsDirections need to be clear and concise. If ,

intended to be understood and followed bystudents themselves, language should beappropriate to the potential users' readinglevel. Directions should tell student users where

they will be going (objectives) and what theywill be doing (content and activities).

Quality of responseIf computer courseware is being evaluated, theiiviewer should determine whether it providesimmediate feedback after each response by thestudent. The student should know whether hisor her answer was right or wrong and, if wrong,what the correct answer is in terms that relatedirectly to the student's input. Responsesshould not be negative, sarcastic, or cute as--students will soon get bored with, if not antag-onistic to, such responses.

Exhibit 1.Steps in Materials Reviewand Selection

Assessing and Articulating Material Needs

Obta ning Material for Review

Review literature

Review information obtained from the publisher

Review information provided by users.

Reviewing Material

Use the material as intended foL classroom use

Evaluate the materials

Complete documentation on materials

42

Ease of useWhen materials are intended for direct studentuse, they should be as simple and as easy to usefor the student as they are for the teacher.

Physical appearanceVisual media should be attractive to the eye.Although graphics, animation and color arenot required for every piece of material, it isimportant that all materials be designed well.Materials which contain too much text or toomany graphics may detract from learning.

Instructional Qualities of Importance to 'leachers

AdaptabilityIt makes good sense to select materials that canaccommodate a number of ability levels andthus be used by more than one student, class orgrade. Adaptability may be an inherent part ofthe material, for example, computer Coursewarethat includes several degrees of difficulty. If itis not built in to the material, guidelines shouldbe included to help the teacher adapt the mate-rial to different student needs.

DurabilityDurability is of interest to both theteacher andthe administrator: the longei material lasts, themore use can be made of it. Durability is parti-cularly important in cases where the same pieceof material is to be used by a variety of people.

Lack of mechanical and technical errorMaterial must be exempt from all errors sothat students are not confused by inaccurateresponses to their input. leachers should notbe put in a posits0 which requires checkingthe material for Orrs. Computer coursewarewhich sends students through repetitive non-productive loops or into dead-end paths shouldbe avoided.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS -

Depending on the capabilities of the equipment orhardware being used and the educational philosophyof the designer, materials may incorporate a numberof other features. While the authors attach no inher-ent value to these features, one or the other in eachcategory below will be apparent in any piece of mate-

43.

rial. The evaluator should know which of the featureshe or she is looking for before making a final judgmentabout material quality. We are calling these "designconsiderations" to distinguish them"from requiredelements.

'leacher Involvement or Lack of InvolvementSome materials are intended to be used indepen-dently by students without the intervention orinvolvement of teachers. Others explicitl: involvethe teacher as consultantepresenter of information,diagnostician, prescriber, or evaluator. Elsewherein this book, we have discussed the research show-ing the negative ffect on student achievementwhen teachers arJab sent. Since the research is notconclusive on this ue, designers may choose toeliminate or limit tea er intervention for a parti-cular kind of material. Evaluators should, therefore,judge each piece of material on its merits in thisregard. For example, if the material is designed tobe used fndependently, the evaluator should decidewhether student independence is appropriate forthe particular content, skills, or instructionaltechnique.

Active or Passive Student Involvement

Although all materials should engage the learner,not all materials need to actively involve him or her.For example, a film or television broadcast doesnot necessarily need direct student input to beinformative and interesting to the student. Mate-rial using drill and practice or tutoring techniquesmust involve the student. Again, the purpose forwhich the material is being selected and the extentto which it is needed to provide variety in thetotal instructional program are the factors to beWeighed.

Student or 'leacher Control

This is another area in which the judgment will bebased on the instructional purpose of the material.In some cases, the teacher may want the studentto select the number of problems to be worked onand their level of difficulty, or to decide what kindof information he or she wishes to explore. At othertimes, the teacher may want to control the selectionof content or sequence of instructional task to besure that stkdents are exposed to or learn specificsubject matter.

Presence or Absence of Graphics, Animation, Color,or Sound

Use of these features may enhance or detract frominstruction, and not all features must be present inevery piece of material. Relevance to the instruc-tional purpose, need to illustrate a particularcontent area or concept, and need to add varietyto the total instructional program are key factorsin deciding whether these features should bepresent.

Personalization or Neutrality of Materials

Some computer courseware has been designed sothat the computer's response to a student's inputis personalized, that is, using the student's name inresponse statements. Not all educators feel thatattempts to humanize the computer in this way areeither necessary or desirable. Many educatorsbelieve that the computer should be seen as amachine since that's what it is. Whether materialsshould be personalized or not and the kind of per-sonalization desired is a matter of philosophyand taste.

Self-Contained Material or Need for SuppleMentaryMaterial

Instructional material may require that the userhave access to information other than that con-tained in the material, for preparation, follow-up,or review purposes. On the other hand:somematerial is entirely selfcontained. Again, materialsmust be judged on their merits. Factors to considerinclude the availability of supplementary materials,their cost as compared to the basic material, andtheir relevance to the learning objectives.

Report of Student Performance

Some materials, particularly computer courseware,have the capacity to report on a student's perfor-mance on completion. Although not a requiredfeature, evaluators should review the manner inwhich the information is given to the student tojudge whether it will have a negative or positiveeffect.

Exhibit 2, which follows, summarizes the criteriareviewed above. Readers of this book are expected toadd criteria they think are important and to eliminate

those that are not relevant, since this set of criteria willnot be appropriate in every situation. A list of criteriasuch as the one we have suggested here can easily betransformed into an evaluation checklist by the additionof rankings. The evaluator's checklist, plus documenta-tion of the material's descriptive characteristics, willprovide a permanent record for potential users.

Exhibit 2.Evaluation Criteria Sum/naryREQUIRED QUALITIES

ContentDefinition of purpose of materialsSignificance of materials to educational goalsCompatability with instractional programAccuracy of contentAbsence of bias or stereotyping

Instructional qualities of importance to teachers andstudentsQuality 'of directionsQuality of responseEase of usePhysical appearance

Instructicinacqualities of importance to teachdsAdaptabilityDurabilityLack of mechanical and technical error

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Teacher involvement or lack of involvemenActive or passive student involvement,Student or teacher controlPresence or absence of graphics, animation, coloror soundPersonalization or neutrality of materialsSelf-contained material or need for supplementarymaterialsReport of student performance

44

U

.77

Design andDevelopment ofMaterials

In the course of this chapter we have examined:1) how to review and evaluate materials [process, SectionAl and 2) what qualities to look for in materials [evalua-tion criteria, Section 13). Throughout thig examinationwe have assumed that appropriate materials were avail-able and could be identified if a rational process wasfollowed and criteria for selection were clear and agreedupon by all concerned parties. We know, however, thatmaterials may not be available that meet specific needsnationally, such as mathematics courseware, or locally,such as' a need to teach fourth grade students to identifythe main idea in expository writing.

Although publishers, equipment manufacturers,and others are beginning to fill this gap, educators maywant to develop materials that are tailored to their

_students and their circumstances. This section describesa process for materials design and development for thosewho consider it a cohtinuing need and a challenge.

The processg described below contains a numberof steps that are performed intuitively by many mate-rials designers. The authors have articulated them inorder to rationalize the process for people just beginningdesign efforts, to stress the importance of documentingdesign decisions, and to promote the integration ofhigh design standards in the design process. The processdescribed below in narrative form is summarized inExhibit 3, which appears at the end of this section.

Analyze the SituationThe education situation drives and, to some

extent, constrains the design of materials. Analysis ofthe situation will inform the designer whatis to betaught, to whom, and under what circumstances. Thestep is important because it helps the designer under-

'Readers are referred to Harold J. Peters and James W. Johnson.Author's Guide,. Design. Development, Sty le1 Packaging, and ReviewCONDUIT. The Peters and Johnson guide will be most useful toteachers and others who are designing computer courseware for thefirst time. In addition, the reader is referred to an article by JurgNievergelt in Computer Magazine, " A Pragmatic Introduction toCourseware Design," September 1980, pp. 7-21.

stand the scope of the task, set limits to it, and matchsubject matter, student and method of presentation.Some of the questions that must be answered include:

What subject matter do you wish to addiess?The answer to this questkm can be fairly broad-at thispoint in the process, e.g., long division, critical reading,capitalization.

Who are the students for whom this materialis intended and what do they /wow withrespect to that content? The answets may ;ncludegrade levels, ability levels, and learning styles that havebeen obtained from school records, tests, and/or obser-vations. If any of the students in the intended audiencehave special needs these should be identified. Thisinformation will affect the choice of learning objectives,teaching techniques, and media.

What are the skills of the teachers who willbe using the materials? Even if the designer andthe teacher/user of the material are the same person, thedesigner should consider whether the material will be soidiosyncratic or difficult to use that other teachers willnot be able to incorporate it into their programs.

What equipment is available? The answer to thisquestion may limit the options available for designersregarding choice of media and thus limit the kind ofmaterial that can be used. The designer should identifythe capabilities and limitations of the equipment andtake advantage of its strengths. For example, a com-puter can be programmed to respond to a user's input.An instructional program that treats the subject matteras a textbook or film would and that does not involvethe student with frequent questions is wasting thiscapability. (This kind of misuse of computers is some-times called "electronic page turning.") On the otherhand, the computer cannot deal with a student's ideasthat are outside the domain of its program.

The technical features of a piece of equipment willalso constrain the designer and therefore should beidentified before design and development work begins.For example, if the available computer does not havespeech capabilities, the designer may want to rethinkhis or her decision to u. 9 the computer as a medium forinstructing students in vowel sounds or other basiclistening and speaking skills.

45

What materials are available? The designershould find out what others have done in developing

materials for the equipment available. This will helpavoid dui)lication and may also stimulate creativity.

How long is the module? Most teacher-designerswill be involved in developing short, discrete instruc-_

tional modules that will last from 30 to 60 minutes.Some will be developing material that will be used forsome period of time every day for a week or more. Anda few might be developing materials for an entire course.In any case, the designer should be able to articulate theapproximate time of use for both planning and designpurposes.

At the end of the analysis phase of a materialsdevelopment project, the designer should know the con-tent of the material, the characteristics and needs of thestudent audiencethe media available, and the estimatedtime of use.

Plan and Schedule theDevelopmental Process

The five basic steps of materials deVelopmentwork, design, development, testing, implementationand evaluation, can now be described and scheduled.The planning phase helps the designer identify: 1) theresources he or she might need (e.g., a computer pro-grammer or an illustrator); 2) the time needed fort,completion; and 3) budget requirements. Any one ofthese factors, ifnot available to the extent needed,may cause a reduction in expectations and require thedesigner to limit the scope of work.

Design the ProductThe design phase is the key phase in the develop-

mental process for it is here that creative decisionsare made that will affect the content and quality ofthe material. Every designer has his or her own way ofsequencing and completing design work, but mostcomplete the following steps.

Where should the studentSiudience be going?This question asks for a goal sta ement, such as, toteach students to become critical eaders. It is derivedfrom and may be the same as the s tatemnt about con-tent area above. Having the goal in mind hrough thedesign and development process helps t e designer keepon track.

What steps, and in what sequence, must theyfollow to get there? This question asks for a setof interim, or enabling objectives, which must be met ifthe goal is to be accomplished. The arrangement of the_objectives identifies the sequence in which:each shouldbe met. Although all objectives must be important toachieving the goal, they may not necessarily be depen-dent on one Another. This is because few learningsequences are linea A common hierarchy of objectivesmight look like this:

4

B C D

where A, B, C and D are prerequisite skills, 1-6 areenabling objectives and G is the goal of the learningpackage. Objectives 2, 3 and 4 depend on 1, but objec-tives 2, 3 and 6 may be taught before 4 and 5, or viceversa. All are needed to accomplish the goal.

Using the goal of teaching students to becomemore critical consumers of television 'as an example,the design may have four objectives:'"

Ability to evaluate and manage one's own television /zviewing behavior.

Ability to question the realism of television programs.

Ability to recognize arguments on television, and tocounterargue.

Ability to recognize effects of television viewing.

None of these objectives are dependent on another andtherefore could take place in any order.

Although the skHl areas of mathematics and basicverbal knowledge are replete with examples of depen-dency hierarchies, reading comprehension,and problem-solving prototypes are almost nonexistene. Therefore,designers must base decisions about the appropriateobjectives and their instructional sequence on theirown experience.

"Ned White, Thaeher's Guide to Inside Theoision: A Guide toCritkal Viewing, San Francisco: Far West Laboratory for Educa-tion Research and Development, 1980, pp. vii-viii.

46

What instructional technique or techniquesare most appropriate to meet this goal,accomplish these objectives, and teach thesestudents? One or a namber of techniquep might beused, such asinformation presentation, followed by drilland practice, and ending with a problem-sofying exercise.The selection should be driven by goals, objectives andthe characteristics of the students.

For materials which are intended to cover a largetopic area over a period of time, variety is also importantto sustain interest.

What other design considerations should beintegrated into the design? During this part ofthe process, the designer identifies the qualities thatthe materials should have in terms of the following:

Thacher involvement in instruction or no involvementor some of each?

Active or passive student involvement or someof each?

Student or teacher control of pace, sequence, etc.,or both?

Presence or absence of graphics, animation, coloror sound?

Personalization or neutrality of materials?

The answers to these questions will affectinstructional group size and selection of mediadescribed below.

What size should the instructional group be?The answer to this questiOn is related to both theprevi-ous and following answers, since some techniques andsome media lend themselves to a particular group size.For example, drill and practice tends to be an individual

<7 activity whereas presentation of informatidn tends tobe a group activity.

What medium or media of instruction shouldbe used? In Analyzing the Situation, the designer wouldhave found out what equipment was available and mighthave had a particular medium in mind when deciding todevelop materials. In this step, the designer reconsidersthat preference. Some of the factors" that should enterinto a reconsideration of the preferred medium are:

"Peters and Johnson. op. cit.. pp. 25-26.

//

The estimated number of users and the expected life-span of the materials. These should be weighed againstthe coA of development. If cost is high and the numberof users is low or the life-span short, then a less expen-sive alternative should be considered.

The requirements of the subject matter. If the subjectmatter requires human iriteraction or development ofmanual skills:media should play a limited part inteaching the course or content area.

The skills and abilities of the target population. Stu-dents may not be ready to work individually, in whichcase media which are based on one-on-one interactionsmay be inappropriate. Similarly, if the entry-levelabilities of students are the same, reliance on mediathat promote individualized learning may be unwar-ranted and wasteful.

The initial assumption favoring the use of a mediumshould be tested against decisions about objectives,student characteristics, instructional techniques,instructionallualities, developmental costs, andgroup size.

-Do you want to verify your data regarding \theentry level or prerequisite skills of thestudent aUdience and, if so, how will they bemeasured? A designer/teacher who knows the stu-dents for,whom he or she is developing materials mayfeel that entry level, placement or diagnostic tests areunnecessary. On the other hand, designers may want toinclude such tests to assist other users who will notnecessarily know how:1the materials fit their students'needs.

How will stUdent performance be monitored=and evaluated? Material§,should include some meansof determining whether students are meeting the objec-tives in a timely fashion. Pre- and post-tests should beincluded in the design as should other means of testingprogress so that students and their teacher can monitorperforMance and spot and resolve problems.

What introductory and follow-up activitiesare needed that will integrate this materialinto the total instiuctional program? Sup-plementary materials may be needed to introduce thematerials and to follow them up. The designer shouldinclude these, or a list of resources in the materials.

47L'

In addition, the extent to which the material relatesto other parts of the instructional program should bedescribed.

Develop' the ProductThe design phase is a decision-making phase in

which determinations of content, scope, appearance,and methodology are made. The development phase is aphase in which design decisions are implemented. Theoutcome of this phase is a product. ,

As Material is being developed, designers shouldtest their material against standards which they ormaterials screening and selection teams in their school

"or district have established. A list of such criteria mightinclude the following (described above as evaluationcriteria):

Have I defined.the purpose of the II:Aerials?

Are the materials significant vis-a-vis my or thescnool's educaiional goals?

Are they compatible with the instructional goals?

Is the content accurate?

Havel avoided bias and stereotyping?

Are the directions clear and concise? .

Is positive and frequent response to stUdentinput providell?

Is it easy for teachers and, if appropriate, studentsto use?

Is it physically attractive?.

Is it adaptable for use by more than one group ofstudents or for more than one purpose?

Is it durable?

Does it lack mechanical or technical error?

Test the Materials and Reviseas Necessary

Pilot testing should be an integral part of thedesign and development process, especially for materialintended to be used by teachers other than the designer.Even the designer/teacher who believes that his or her

material has limited use might consider its first use, apilot test.

Materials should be validated with a sufficientnumber of students to be representative of the popula-tion for whom the materials are designed. The pilot testgroup should work through the whole materials packageand-Wtested on their performance in meeting theinterim objectives and their achievement of the goal.Completion times should be recorded.

Opinions of student-users as well as teacher-usersabout the materials, their clarity, accuracy, and eaeeof use should be solicited.

Complete the DoCumentationAfter pilot testing and revising the materials, the

designer should make sure that the doeumentationabout the materials is accurate and complete. Theinformation that might be included in the documen-tation is listed in Exhibit 3, which shows the itemsof information associated with design tasks.

The documentation should also iidude briefdescriptions of any features that are un sual aboutthe material, e.g., use of graphics or souiI4, alternativedelivery media, or teacher preparation req rements.

Implementation and EvaluadonUse in a classroom setting may persuade a

designer/teacher to make additional changes in thematerial. For this reason, on-going evaluation is acritical ingredient in the continued success of thematerials. The designer should solicit evaluations fromstudents as well as teachers. If changes are made, thedocumentation should be revised to reflect them.

Exhibit 3. Documentationkens Associated with,Design Tasks

DESIGN.TASKS

Analysis of the situationIdentification of contentarea or skillIritended student audience

Required teacher skillsAvailable equipment

- Time for use

Develownent plan andschedule,

liDesign of productInstructional goalInterim objectives

. Instructiorial techniqueOther 'design

considerations

Instructional 'groupMedium of instruction

Measurement of \'prertquisite skills \

Monitoring and evaluationof student performance

Methods for integratingmaterial into totalinstructional program

Vevelopment of Product

Thsting of Product

DOCUMENTATIONREQUIREMENT

Content area

Appropriate gradeor ability level

Prerequisite skills

Estimated time foraverage use (con-firmed in Task 5)

Purpose of materialsPurpose of materialsInstructional techniqueMay be described

characteristics`Instructional group size.Equipment

requirementsIntroductory activities

recommended orrequired

Introductory andfollow-up activities

Additional materials

Validation information

Copyright IssuesFew teachers can resist altering materials to fit

their students' needs, their own instructional styles,scheduling constraints, or preferewes in formattingor design. Thus, material in textbooks may be studiedout of sequence; existing graphics may be replaced bynew ones; more current information may be added. Solong as the overall concept and design remains unaltered,there may not be copyright problems. Substantial alte-rations will involve copyright law. It is not always easy

.to define the line between insubstantial and substantialalterations, which suggests that the copyright holder beconsulted in any case of doubt.

Copyright law extends to the right to duplicatemateriall2 and may prohibit duplication of specific kindsof materials for preview, evalution, scheduling conve-nience_or any other reaSon. Before recording or copyinganythisehoo1plshou1d find out what limita-tions the copyright on that item imposes. For example,with respect to recording an instructional televisionprogram or radio broadcast off die air for later use inteaching, there are a number of restrictions that mightbe placed depending on the particular program!3Theseinclude:

No recording rights. Such 1980-81,programs as OnceUpon a Classic and BBC Shakespeare Plays cannot berecorded under any circumstances;

Year-long recording righl-a Program\s may,be recordedand used within the current year (or another specifiednumber of years) and then tapes must be erased.

Seven-day recording rights. 'napes of prgrams mustbe erased within seven days of their broadcast.

Permanent recording rights or rights in rpetuity No. \restrictions.

Television programs funded by the Depart-ment of Education, Division of Educationaflechnologyhave similar restrictions,' as illustrated in Exhibit 4. lblearn more about the rules that pertain in a specific

"For guidance in matters of duplication, the authors rely on TheNeu. Copy ht Law: Questions Teachers and Librarians Ask,Washington D.C.; National Education Association, 1977.

"Described in the Massachusetts Educational Te16,ision programguide for the 198Q-1981 school year.

state, it is recommended that school personnel contactthe department in their state education agenCy thatdeals with instructional television.

Generally, network television programs carrywith them a prohibition against recording for anypurpose. The "fair use doctrine" in the U.S. CopyrightLaw offers an exception. This doctrine allows teachers,librarians, and specified others to use copyrighted worksunder certain circumstances. Generally, the circum-stances to be considered in determining whether the useis fair" include:

Purpose or intended use of the material; e.g., copy-ing material with the purpose of avoiding purchaseis prohibited.

Nature of the copyrighted material, e.g., workbooks,exercises, published tests, and other material con-sidered to be consumable in thecourse of study orteaching can not be duplicated.

Amount and substantiality of the portion copied inrelation to the copyrighted work as a whole, eg., onechart may be copied from a book but not more.

These rules pertain to any copying including copying16mm films'onto video cassettes or copying graphs orcharts onto overhead transparencies.

Just as the law regarding alteration and modifica-tion is complex, so is the law regarding duplication,particularly with respect to materials associated withtechnology. Again, the authors recommend consultationwith the state education agency, the copyright holder,or the television station before recording or copying anyrhaterial.

"From the Copyright Law (P. L. 94-553( and the text of the agree-ment reached by educators, authors and publishers included in theHouse Judiciary Committee report. Cited in NEA, supra., pp. 18-24.

50

Exhibit 4.Progqms FuncW by the U.S. Department of Education

Award-winning television programs that have been funded by the U.S. Department of Education, Office of

Educational Research and Improvement, Division of Educational lechnology may be taped off-the-air for educational

use without charge. Most of the programs are available for showing over public, commercial, or cable television. Con-

tact your local television station to find out dates/times when any of the listed series may be scheduled for showing in

your area. All programs will have closed captions. These programs have educational objectives and accompanying

teacher, student, or home viewer guides. For information on how to obtain guides, write to:

U.S. Department of Education'Office of Educational Research and ImprovementDivision of Educational Technology400 Maryland Avenue, S.W.Washington, D.C. 20202-3117

Educational Rights in Perpetuity

As We See It (S, A)Bean Sprouts (E, M)

*Carrascolendas (E)Dial A-L-C-O-H-O-L (5, 'A)Footsteps (5, A)Forest Spirits (5, A)

*Franco File (E, M)Getting Over (S)Getting to Know Me (E, M)Jackson Junior High (M, S, A)

*La Bonne Adventure (P, E)*La Esquina (M, 5)

Mundo Real (E)Music...Is (M)Pacific Bridges (E, M)Pearls (S, A)People of the First Light (E,. M)Powerhouse-fall, 1981 (E, M)

*Que Pasa, USA? IS, A)*Nation Builders (5)

Rainbow Movie of the Week-fall, 1981 (E, M)

Reflections (E, M)

Bilingual

Audience level:A-AdultE - Eleblentary

P- Preschoo/M -Middle schoolS- Secondary

Rebop (E, M)Checking it Out-fall, 1981 (M, S)

*Sonrisas (E)South by Northwest (E, M, S, A)The New Americans (E, MIThe Real People (E, M)'Vegetable Soup (P, E)

Retain tapes for .12 years

*Villa Alegre (13, E)Infinity Factory (E, M)Watch Your MOuth (S)Up and Coming4 A)From Jumpstreet , A)The New Voice (5, A

Retain tapes for 3 yea s

3-2-1 Contact (M)Sesame Street (P, E)The Electric Company (E)

51

VII. AcquiringMedia

In considering the acquisition of media, schoolsand school districts are concerned with the extent towhich media can contribute to the learning ofa newskill, the enhancement of curricula, the achievement ofnew educational goals, or the teaching of students whootherwise might not receive educational benefits. Once

. decision-makers have identifiecitheir educational goalsand determined, if only tentatively, that media mighthelp them reach those goals, they should prepare costestimates for alternative media systems! Thischapterbegins by describing the elements that need to be con-sidered in determining costs.

Cost estimation is only one step in planning. Laterin the chapter we examine another step, that ofweighingthe educational value of alternative media systemsagainst their costs. A cost-benefit analysis can help adecision-maker assess the extent to which varioussystems can achieve the school's or district's objectivesand, if so, what the difference in cost among the assessedsystems means to the school's or district's budget!

Yet another step that should be considered is theextent to which the media systems being assessed cancontribute to long-range goals, such as preparing stu-dents for working and living in an information age.Educational deciaion-makers may agree with thoseparents cited in Chapter II that that kind of investmentin the future is worth paying for.

At the end of the chapter we describe the kinds ofspecifications that should be developed in requestingprice quotations from potential vendors.

'In this chapter we are using the phrase "media system" to describeequipment, buildings, instructional materials, personnelcosts, andall other elements involved in the use of technology.

'Robert J. Seidel, It's 1980: Do You Know Where Your Computer Is?,Alexandria, Virginia: Human Resources Research Organization,March 1980, p. 9. Seidel calls this a "tolerable cost analysis."

Cost AnalysisInstalling and using educational media has an

impact far beyond the purchase price of equipment.In previous chapters we have examined the changes andalterations that technological innovation may imposeon teachers, administrajors, and physical facilities. Inthis section we look atthese effects in terms of theircosts and suggest/a method for assessing the direct andassociated, orliidden, costs involved in using media.

The cost components associated with the instal-lation anduse of media can be described as capital costs,i.e., one-time expenditure of funds for items which areexpected to be used for more than one year, and operatingcosts, i.e., costs which are expected to vary from year toyear depending on how much the system is used' andhow much the medium is available and not used, i.e., thefinancial effects of down time.

Capital cost items include:

Equipment. Equipment includes projectors, radios,recorders and players, computer terminals, microcom-puters, television receivers, cameras, monitors, andthe like. Includes peripheral equipment used toexpand the capabilities of computers, e.g., disk drive,modems, printers, and light pens. Also includes pro-grams, routines, and manuals, or system software,which are essential to the operation of equipment.

Transmission and/or reception. Includes the cost ofthe device plus the cost of installation of telephonelines, electric lines, coaxial cables, antennas, micro-wave "dishes" or receivers, and outlets.

Facilities. Includes expansion and renovation costsrequired to store and use media. For example, learninglaboratories, auditoriums for showing films, filmlibraries, computer tape storage areas.

Instructional materials. Includes thecost of books,film, computer courseware, television programs, andother material which is used for the purpose of instruc-tion. The major cost of developing materials in-houseis for personnel, measured in terins of hours of designand development. Whether developed by facultyor

'Wilbur Schramm, Big Media, Link Media, Beverly Hills: Sage 1977,pp. 106-107.

52

purchased, materials may be the single most expensiveitem in installing a media system.

In determining the cost of materials, the administratorshould consider their life span. For those materialslikely to wear out or become obsolete sooner thanequipment, replacement costs should be estimated inlong term planning.

Operating cost items, for initial start-up andsubsequent operation, include:

Salaries. The total cost, including salaries and fringebenefits, associated with personnel who install thesystem, train teachers and others in its use, developinstructional material, manage the system and repairit. If teachers are to receive training during the schoolyeat then their lost services should be accounted for

,or the cost of their replacement by substitute teachersshould be added.

Utilities. The cost of heating or cooling the system,electricity, and telephone services should be included.

Maintenance and repair of materials and equipment.

Expendable supplies. Includes paper, pencils, printedtraining materials, and other supplies that have asingle-use or short life span.

Other costs. Includes travel and per diem of schoolpersonnel for training, trainer travel and per diem,and consultants' fees.

Another way of looking at the cost of media isto assess the initial capital costs againstoperating costs.Some media systems, such as those that rely on satel-lites for program delivery, may have high initial costs.Others have lower initial costs but operating expensesare high enough to make them unattractive to edva-tional buyers. These figures vary not only betweendifferent types of media but also between the sametype. For example, one brand of microcomputer mayhave high repair costs while another may be very reliableand need relatively little maintenance. The wise admin-istrator will request figures pertaining to operatingcosts from manufacturers. In addition, it is stronglyrecommended that administrators talk to their col-leagues who use a medium under consideration abouttheir experiences.

In some schools, administrators may be consid-ering an expansion of their existing media systemthrough the purchase of additional pieces of equipment.There are a number of ways t6compute the cost ofexpansion. For example, Schramm suggests thisformula that depends on making a distinction betweenfixed (e.g., facilities rental) and variable costs (e.g.,instructional materials): TC(N) = F+VN, where thetotal cost (TC) of a media system serving a certainnumber of students (N) equals the sum of all fixed costs(F) plus the variable costs per student (V) times thenumber of students at the optimal schedule. Such acomputation can give an administrator a rough estimateof the cost of system expansion when student usersare added.

Another formula for roughly assessing the effectof .expanding enrollment is: DX HXPXU=N, where thenumber of days of utilization per week (D) is multipliedby the number of hours of utilization per week (H), timesthe number of 30-minute periods of use per week (Ps,times the percent of usage expected (U) equals thenumber of students (N) that can be served by one pieceof equipment for a specific purpose. For example:

D=5 daysH= 6 hoursP= 2 30-minute periodsU=80cio

5X 6 X 2X.8=48 students

The high cost of discontinuing the use of a mediasystem is in itself a persuasive argument for makingdecisions to purchase carefully. A system that is neverused is a total financial loss unless some money can berecovered from selling components of the system.Although the longer a system is used the lower theloss will be, schools and school districts usually cannotrecover any of the remaining assets. For this reason itmakes sense to investigate systems that can accommo-date new features arid that will not readily becomeobsolete.

Cost-Benefit Analysis

53

School administrators may believe that the costassociated with the acquisition and use of a specificmedium is tolerable because they anticipate high gain.

'Schramm, supra., p. 107.

Such decisions are usually made when the school districthas newly established purposes it seeks to achieVe, newteaching methodologies to install, new student popula-tions to reach, or perhaps even when their equipment/materials budgets increase. Administrators in suchdistricts may simply ask themselves whether the districtcan afford to pay for the value which the proposed sys-tem will contribute to meeting their educational goals.

It is largely a matter of individual judgment todeclare that one media system contributes more to thequality of learning than another. In our attempts todefine the characteristics of-a good learning situationin Chapter III and to apply it in Chapters IV and V, wehave seen that different media offer different capabili-ties each of which may have more or less value to adecision-maker.

Because of the difficulty in reaching agreementon the definition of quality, many decision-makers useother measurements in comparing the effectiveness ofone medium over another. Such criteria measure quan-tity, for example, the ability of a media system toprovide instruction to more students at one time thananother system or the reduction in number of hoursnecessary to complete a course or curriculum module orto reach an instructional objective. Other quantitativeeffectiveness measures include:'

Attendance rates or, conversely, absenteeism andattrition rates.

lbst scores.

Repeater rates, i.e., number of students who repeat acourse or part of a course.

Number of additional courses offered.

Amount oi individual attention provided each studenteither directly through the medium or through theteacher.

Two other measures might also be used in com-paring the cost-effectiveness of media. The first of these,cost avoidance, depends on the intended use of a mediasystem. If it is to be used as a substitute for or toreplace media or human resources, then the districtmay be able to avoid costs. For example, a microcom-puter which includes a two-way communication capabil-ity is loaned to a homebound student thus avoiding the

'RobertI. Seidel and flai.old Wagner, Cost.Effectiveness Specifi-cation for Computer-Based Nining Systems, Alexandria, Va.:f furnan Resources Research Organization, 1977, VOL Iii, pp. 71-78.

need for a teacher to provide instruction to the studentat home. On the other hand, if a media system, slid) asa fully equipped television studio, is intended to be usedin a new elective course, it is an added-on cost. Thestudio, in this example, is not a substitute for anothermedium or a teacher; it is an added cost. Administrators,educators, parents and others may agree that thecapacity to provide students training in television pro-gramming is an important addition to their oral andwritten communication courses and thus is worth theadded cost.

Cost per student hour is another valid unit forcomparison although care should be used with thismeasure. (What is the cost per student hour when thestudent is reading a book?) Such an analysis favorsmedia that have a number of uses and are appropriatefor different ages and levels of students, since the greaternumber of students that can use the medium the lowerthe per student hour cost. It also favors media that canbe used 24 hours a day, seven days a week since thatcapability opens up use to other learners or users inaddition to students in school. Neither of these benefits /

can be realized without careful scheduling.

No matter what the measures used to conduct acost-benefit analysis, the key question must be, "Com-pared to what?":6

What is the cost per student hour of computer-basedinstruction compared to the cost per student hour ofreading a book?

What is the cost of a week of a computerized tutorialcompared to a week of teacher-student one-on-oneinstruction? And, how do test scores compare for eachmethod?

How many more course's can we offer using intelligentvideodiscs compared to conventional classroomteaching?

One research study' on costs per student hour ofcompared an instructional television program to a text-book, film and classroom teacher. The findings were:

'Glenn Head, "A Cost Benefit Analysis of Individualized, Criterion-Referenced, Computer-Based Training,' Denver: InstructionalConimunications, Inc., 1980.

'Robert Carlisle!, "1 nvestnwnt in ITV: I lunt for the Wiser Answer,"Patterns of /Wm-mance: Public Broarka,sting and Education19744976, Washington, DC:Corporation for Public Broadcasting,1978. p. 145.

54

G If

Cost Per Student HourMode of Instruction

Television programTextbookFilm (owned)Teacher

$00.00800.01400.07200.290

Finally, administrators might consider the impactof media on their long-range goals for their schools andschool districts. For example, a school district may wantto Prepare its students to be able to cope with the ageof information. Believing that computer illiteracybe as damaging to individuals ten years from now asthe inability to read and write is today, decision-makersmay feel compelled to install and use computers as anobject of instruction as well as an instructional tool.Thus, in terms of their cost-benefits, computers may beof higher value than other media, and their cost may beconsidered low when measured against the benefitsthey can provide to the adults of the future.

Preparation for theAcquisition of MediaSystems

School administrators who have considered thecost of a number of different media systems will want tospecify their requirements for a selected type beforebeginning a bid solicitation process. The necessaryprecedent to this phase of the acquisition process is, ofcourse, to identify the type of medium that will best fitthe educational needs of the school's students. Thisdeceptively simple issue has been the subject matter ofthis guide. Its answer depends on student and teacherneeds, instructional materials available, other resourcesavailable, environmental and budgetary constraints,and school goals which must be deteimined before stepsare taken. A process for answering these is provided inChapter VIII,

Development ofSpecifications forComputer Systems

Because specifications for the purchase of equip-ment must be developed in conformance with state andlocal law and policy regarding bidding procedures,requests for proposals will vary in content and format.Nevertheless, certain categories of information are help-ful for both buyers and prospective vendors and are thuslikely to appear in every set of specifications. Thesecategories are described below.8

Introduction or OverviewA summary statement of what is to be purchased

and what it will be used for. A brief description of theschool and school district.

General Information andRequirements

Information on the bidding process, includingrequests for demonstrations of equipment, descriptionof the buyer's method of financing, requirements for theformat of the bid. Evidence that a sykem has been incontinuous use by a user for a designated.time, e.g.,three months, should be required.

Equipment RequirementsA list of all performance specifications which the

equipment is expected to meet along with the quantitydesired.

In addition to the equipment itself (e.g., videoscreen, film projector, microcomputer), hardware speci-fications might include:

'An interesting model is the Request for Quotation developed bytheRegion IV Education Service Center in Houston, Texas, for itspurchase of 600 microcomputers in 1980. The Invitation to Bidmodel in the Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium(MECO, 1979-80 Micmcornpu ter Report, Lauderdale, Minn.: MECCInstructional Services Division, July, 1979, is also verY helpful.

See pp 59-83.

55

Specifications of Peripherals.

Power Supply Requirements.

Service and Sales.

Performance Requirements (e.g., ability of the systemto run a specified program within a specified timelimit).

Future Enhancements (ability of the bidder to ensurethat hardware devices developed in the future will beavailable to the buyer).

Instructional Materials/Courseware Renirements

A description of materials or courseware that areavailable to be used with the equipment. The buyer mayrequest a list of all materials or a selected list of mate-rials (e.g., basic skills materials), and should ask thatthey be described in terms of their instructional objec-tives, intended audience, or other specified character-istics, as described in the section on documentation inChapter VI. Because the availability of useful materialsis a critically important consideration in selecting equip-ment for purchase, some writers recommend that equip-ment be selected on the basis of availability of com-patible materials.

Evaluation CriteriaA list of the criteria and the weight given to each

to be used by the buyer inmaking an award. Thesemight include°:

The availability of instructional materials.

The quality, availability and adaptability of equipmentrelative to the buyer's required use or uses.

The ability of the bidder to maintain and service theequipment.

The experience and reputation of the bidder.

The ability of the bidder to perform the contract,including the bidder's financial resources.

The ability of the bidder to provide training toteachers and staff.

'Region VI Education Service Center, op cit., pp 28-30.

The capability of the bidder to meet future needs.

The proposed cost relative to other bidders.

Cost Itemsiquipment.

Software.

Instructional Materials.

Training.

Installation.

. Maintenance and Service.

Additional RequirementsAll bidders should be requested to:

Document any exceptions to the specifications listedin the bid.

Provide a warrant on all equipment parts and labor fornot less than (a specified period of time) after accep-tance of the installation.

State a delivery date and a date for completion ofinstallation.

Identify the party responsible for making electricaland environmental changes.

Deliver a specified number of manuals with their bids,as well as model maintenance and service contracts.

Other considerations hat may affect the solicitationprocess include the following:

Alterations that would reduce vandalism or loss mayhave price implications.

Modulators, connectors, and other electronic inter-faces needed to connect with existing equipment maybe included in the bid specifications.

Energy consumption costs estimated by bidders mayaffect the final decision.

If in-service training is not provided by the seller, theschool will have to provide it. The additional cost tothe school may affect the final decision.

As we are all aware, first year models often have"bugs" or "gremlins" which only become apparentwith use in the field. To minimize loss for the school

56

district, the vendor of a new model should agree toreplace or repair the equipment or its parts shoulddefects be found in operation. Most vendors are will-ing to make such an agreement since it is not in theirbest interest, or the school's, to wait for a perfectmodel!

Once the bids have been received, the school or schooldistrict should review them carefully, following stateand local requirements in making an award and writingthe contract.

57

VIII. A Decision-Making Processfor the Use ofTechnology inBasic SkillsEducation*

The preceding chapters of this guide have pro-vided information about technology and the possibleeffect its use will have on the improvement of basicskills, on the administration of schools, and on schoolpersonnel. A number of issues, such as the factors tobe considered in comparing the costs of media systemsand the effect of future developments on present-daydecisions, have been raised and discussed. Throughoutthe text, questions that should be answered by schooladministrators before theyrecommend the use of a par-ticular medium have been raised. This chapter presentsthose questions in terms of steps in a planning process,which is summarized in Exhibit 5.

selected or developed, teachers trained, and use organ-ized in the same ways that are summarized in this

- chapter and described throughout this guide. Clarity ofpurpose and careful planning, even if it occurs after amedia system is available, will help to ensure effectiveand efficient use.

The authors recognize that decisions to acquireand use media systems are not always the result of acareful, logical plan as described in this chapter, butmay be the result of a fortuitous event, such as a foun-dation gift, or of decisions made at a different level ofthe state or local education agency hierarchy. Thus, forexample, an administrator or teacher may be asked todo something with the thirty microcomputers that sud-denly become school property. The decision-makingprocess suggested in these pages may be useful inrationalizing such an occurrence and ensuring that thosemicrocomputers are used to their fullest capacity. Theneeds of students and the capabilities of the microcom-puters both need to be assessed, instructional material

'This chapter was developed in part by Frank DiGiammarino,Ph.D., Director of Planning and Computer Services, LexingtonPublic Schools, Massachusetts,

1. Setting Basic SkillsGoals

The goal-setting step is a necessary preconditionof all that follows since it demands that a school or dis-trict define what it means by basic skills:In Chapter IIIwesaw that there is little agreement about what thebasic skills are beyond reading, writing and computa-tion, and perhaps this is as it should be in a pluralisticsociety. Nevertheless, a community's parents, teachers,administrators and other taxpayers need to come tosome consensus regarding basic skills goals for theirstudent population if education is to be effective andeducators held accountable for the learning of theirstudents. Consensus should be community-inspired. Thecommunity should determine what outcomes it wisheseven when educators and school administrators initiatethe goal-setting process.

2. Assessing the BasicSkill Competencies ofthe Student Population

The basic skill competencies and weaknesses ofthe student population should be measured against thecommunity's goals established in Step 1. Results of theassessme -it should answer the question: is there a needto improve the basic skills of Uhe students in this system?Although it is unlikely, the answer might be "no"; theschool may find that it is meeting basic skills goals, inwhich case it may choose to continue its program with-out alteration.

Assessment may be formal, through testing,review of grades, or some other analysis of educationalperformance, or through teacher, student, parent, orother feedback.

The step is a key one since the needs of studentsshould determine educational strategies, curricula, andmedia usage.

58

Exhibit 5. A Decision-Making Process for the Use of Media

r---1. Setting basic skills goals

4/Assessing the basic skillscompetencies of thestudent population

4/Analyzing currentinstructional practice

)1 4. Setting objectives

Designing anddeveloping strategies

6. Identifying media system needs

r-Media system(s) availableand adequate

Media system(s) availablebut not in use

. Developing rind implementinga plan to overcome useproblems

11. Implementation ofeducational strategies

Media system(s)not available

8. Identifying mediaspecifications

9. Selecting and acquiringmedia systems

12. Evaluation 1

1 . Preparing staff

3. Analyzing CurrentInstructional Practice

At the same time as student competencies are beingassessed, current instructional practice in the school ordistrict should be evaluated. Decision-makers need toknow which of its practices are effective and which arenot. Practices that are contributing to the achievementof the community's basic skill goals should be con-tinued. Those that are not must be changed. It is alsopossible that a current practice which meets limitedpurposes does not address a school system's broadereducational goals, such as enhancing students' criticalthinking capabilities or increasing student contact withlearning resources. A review of current practice, whichcan be based on the experience and observations ofteachers, administrators and parents, will let decision-makers know what the school is doing to meet commu-nity goals, the needs of students and what gaps remain.

4. Setting ObjectivesPlanning objectives are statements of intent,

describing the events that inust take place in order tomeet a goal. Stated negatively, they describe problemsor gaps between what is and what ought to be. Theachievement of objectives should mean that a commu-nity has moved nearer to goal attainment. For example,a community may agree that all students should attainthe knowledge, skills, and understanding necessary forthem to function in a computer-based society. Eventstha must take place to meet this goal might-indude:

All students must know about the growing economic,soCial, and psychological impact of computers onsociety.

All students must know about the use of computersfor personal, educational, and job-related purposes.

All graduating students must be skilled in reading,evaluating and adapting computer programs.

5. Designing andDeveloping Strategies

Strategies are plans for meeting objectiveswhich take into account the physical environment, the

number and type of student population to beserveo,the interests and needs of the faculty, and availablefacilities, materials and equipment. A plan for meetingobjectives will include teaching strategies, e.g., how toteach students about the impact of computers onsociety, and facilitative strategies, e.g., how to prepareteachers for this task. The repertoire of teachingstrategies proposed for meeting an objective should belimited only by the human and financial resourcesavailable./Thud, for example, strategies for teachingcritical thinking include: I) integrating critical think-ing into dne course; 2) into all parts of the curriculum;or 3) developing a separate course on criticaf TV view-ing. Critical thinking may be taught by lecture, dis-cussion, programmed instruction packages, computerprograms, or a combination of these.

6. Identifyhig MediaNeeds

This step involves two operations: first, identify-ing the media systems that might be needed to imple-ment the teaching strategies selected and second, evalu-ating the media systems that are available in the schoolor district to determine whether any can be used toimplement the strategies. All media should be consid-ered in this process, including textbooks, workbooks,film strips, slides, instructional television programs,calculators, and computer courseware. If available mediais not being used, an assessment should be Undertakento find Out why. Typical reasons are:

Appropriate materials are lacking.

Some part of the system is in disrepair.

Teachers resist use: For example, teachers may feelthat calculators should not bensed in teaching basic

One of three possible actions will result frommedia needs identificatia:

1. If the decision-makers determine that the availablemedia systems are adequate to meet student needs,then implementation of the educational strategies,Step 11, is the next action.

2. If equipment is available but not in use, then decision-makers must identify the factors mitigating againstits use and develop and implement a plan for over-coming the problems, a9 described in Step 7.

60

G!)

3. If equipthent is not available, then another seriesof actions must be taken as described in Steps 8, 9

and 10;

members of the t ommunity. If potential users includestudents, then it must be determined whether they can

Ouse'the system independently or whether continuingassistance must be provided by an adult. The variety,types_and numbers of users will have implications fordecisions about requirements for equipment durability,location, and the number-of pieces of equipment to beacquirdd. The answers will have implications regardingthe hiring of personnel to aid students and to maintainthe system.

Assessment of frequency of use. Anestimate of the number of users and the duration of ,

each use should give daily (including non-school hours), 'weekly (including weekends), monthly,"and annual(including Sutool vacations) usage rates. A plan includ-ing a schedule for optimal use, with no or limited!,down-time should be made. Frequent usage by a singlestudent or a number of students will increase durabilityrequirements but can reduce per student hour costs.

7. Developing andImplementing a Plan toOvercome Use Problems

Of the three most common problems which limitthe use of media, it is simplest to resolve the problem ofmalfunctioning equipment or damaged materials. Evenin this case,- however, funds may not be immediatelyavailable for repair or replacement. Teacher attitude andthe lack of appropriate materials demand more complex

solutions.Much equipment goes unused in schools because

teachers do not want to, or do not know how to, use it.Since educational strategies which involve media i-eclikely to fail if teachers are not cOmmitted to their use,.it is in the best interest of decision-makers to involveteachers in planning and to teach them how to use themedium in teaching. ,

Lack of materials is another, and usually themajor, reason why equipment is not used. Althoughsome teachers will develop their own Materials, fromoverhead transparencies to computer programs, mostteachers rely on commercially ayailable materials. Thequality of such materials is uneven but even more prob-lematic is the lack of criteria for teachers, curriculumcoordinators and screening committees to use in evalu-ating materials. Criteria, such as those described inChapter V I, Will help ensure that the materials selectedare appropriate to student and school needs.

8. IdentifyingMediaSpecifications

Assuming that the desired media are not on theschool premises, specifications for the medium or mediato be purchased should be established. Some of the moreimportant specifications include:

Identification of users. The kinds of usersshould be determined and their approZmate numbersestimated. Users might include students, teachers,school administrators, other school staff, town or citygovernment officials, business people, and individual

. 61

Determination of location. The system'slocation will.affect numbers of equipment desired, instal-lation costs, and facility renovAion. Therefore, it shouldbe determinedwhether the equipment will be located in:

One room, one building;

.More than one toom, onrKilding;

More than one room, more than one building; or

Perhaps even the homes of facult'y and/or students.

School administrators should decide whether portableequipment is desirable or whether the equipment will befixed in one place. This decision will also have an effect

on durability requirements.

Identification of enironmental changes.Requirements placed by equipinent on-the physicalplant include:

Changed or increased electrical power which in turnmay require the installation of new,power lines or aseparate service box. Voltage surges can destroy acomputer's memorx.

Mot_ificationof walls, ceilings or floors to increase acoom's capacity to hold heavy equipment, to install

jpower lines, or to install air conditioning. Heat candestr y the memory in a computer program.

Installation of coaxial cables and outlets or new tele-

phone lines,.

Installation of some means of discharging staticelectricity. .

Construction of secure and clean storage areas.

Determination of needs for equipmentand material maintenance'and repair. All typesof equipment need maintenance and repair from time totime, although for some types servicing is more com-plicated and expensive. Several service contract optionsare available which should be examined prior to develop-ing formal contract specifications. These are describedin detail in Chapter V. Whichever option is selected, apreventive maintenance program should be planned andits cost estimated. Such a program should includecov- ,ering equipment when not in use; storing electronicequipment ib a dust-free environment; and training allpotential users, including students and teachers, in care-ful and safe use. For example, users should be taught toturn the power off when the equipment is not in use.Before requesting service, they should cheat the'follow-ing:

That the equipment is plugged in.

That the switch is on.

That Ole reset button is in the correcosition.

That fuses do not need to be replaced.

9. Selecting andAcquiring MediaSystems

If appropriate media systems arenot available inthe school or district, then decision-makers must set inmotion a process to select and acquire the systembrsystems which have the most value immediately and inthe long range. The selection process should include theactions described below.

Identification of available media sys=tems. Some administrators assess the capacity ofequipment first and base their decisions on that assess-ment. Others evaluate aVailable instructional matehalsfirst and select equipment that is most compatible withthe best materials.

Identification of each system's educa-tional and management uses. This information,

as well as that described in the next paragraph, shouldbe found in the system documentation.

Identification of the technical charac-teristics of each system. Characteristics shouldincludethe number of students that can have access toit at one time or over a number of hours, the demand itplaces on facilities and utilities (i.e., space, electricity,telephone lines, and the like), and the teaching and man-agement resources that each requires.

- Identification and evaluation of relatedmaterials. Materials that can be used with the equip-Ment should be identified and evaluated.

Determination of costs. All costs associatedwith each media sydtem's oPeration should be deter- .

mined, as described in Chapter VII.

tomparison of benefits and costs. Thebenefits of each systeM,should be weighed against itscosts.

Selection of the system. In sI electing thesystem or systems, consider which one(s) add(s) themost value to the educatiOnal program..

10. Preparing the StaffAlthough staff development activities may have

preceded the acquisition of a new:media system, teach-,_ers and media specialists should receive in-serviCe train-ing in the use of the equipment and materials afterinstallation as well. Some ven&rs include staff trainingas part of the purchase contract, although the quality'and usefulnesS bf vAdor-provided training should beassessed carefully since it is not always appropriate. Itmay be akvisable to substitute or to expand on thistraining% encotraging staff participation in local orstate user assoclatipns.

11. Implementation ofEducational Strategies

62

Once the system has been installed and is avail-able for use in the instructional program, schedules forthe use and maintenance of the equipment and Materialsshould be set up. A procedure for monitoring its use andevaluating its effediveness should also be established.

GC)

12. EvaluationEvaluation can serve a number of purposes,

including:

Determining whether the system is being used for thepurposes and to the extent intended and if not, whynot.

Identifying unintended, but new and effective, applica-tions and to document and publicize these.

Collecting information on the effects of the system inrelation to student enrollment, student achievement,cost avoidance, usage by non-school individuals ororganizations.

Such information can be used to increase theeffective use of the system within tne schools, to justifythe acquisition of additivnal equipment, to justify thereplacement of ineffective equipment, to improve thedesign and development of new instructiOnal materials,and to help users and potential usks in other schools ordistricts.

Monitoring and evaluation may also provide arationale for expanding a school's goals or changingstudentobjectives if it is found that a system offersmore opportunities for learning than initially supposed.Student achievement and attitudes, teacher and admin-istrator reactic and community responses are allresources for making this determination.

Many resources available to educators today Canbe brought to bear on the serious task of preparing ouryoung people to function in the age ofinformation. Inthis guide we have focused on just one of these resources,educational technology. We tilive described the way inwhich products of technology can. De usea 1,0 instruct.,the limitations of those products, and their effect on thelearning environment. Throughout the guide we haveemphasized the importance of human resources in learn-ing. It is our belief that without the involvement ofthose human resources in planning, in sharing experi-ences, in stimulating ideas, and in developingjudgmentour schools will fail and technology will have been onlyim empty promise. With the participation of parents,teachers, oth?cr school staff, and students, we can begin.to realize the full benefits of an educated citizenry.

634' 1

Appendices

Appendix A: Glossary

Algorithm. Mechanical computational procedure ora computational procedure which uses a formulato determine-each term of a mathematical expres-sion.

Authoring System. Softwareidesigned to help /authors, such as teachers, develop instructioni'llmaterials for computers. BASIC and FORTI,ANare the most generally used authoring langii)agesbecause they can accommodate a number,dinstructional techniques.

Bit/Byte. A bit is the smallest measurebf computerinformation. Eight bits make a byte which is the

,measure used to express the amount of informa-tion a computer can store. Thus, 8K means thata computer can sto're 8,000 bytes.

Cable.* A system that delivers television signals bywire, rather than through the air, thereby elimin-...a Ling problems of poor reception.

ComputeriAssisted Instruction (CM). Processof teac,hing in which instructional material ispresei ted on a terminal undercomPuter control-and s udent responses are processed and fed backto th student by the computer. Also called Com-puter Based Education (CBE).,

Computer-Managed Instructi6n (CMI). Use ofthe computer to select materials, schedule, test,prescribe, and maintain student records.

Omputei Literacy. The ability to control and pro-gram a computer for academic, professional and

personal uses; to OS-gess the technical qualitiesand substantive strengths and weaknesses ofhardware, software and courseware; and to under-stand the impact of computers on society, workand education:

Conventional Instruction. Instruction character-/ ized by Minimal use of technology and maximal

/ involvement of the teacher, chalkboard and text.

Courseware. Originally designating instructionalmaterials for computer-assisted instruction only;now includes instructional materials for any

N medium.

Download. Process of relaying data stored in a mainframe to a microcomputer, thereby expanding itscapabilities.

ducational Technology. 1. The media which are_p_oducts of the application of science to educa-tional problems.2." A systematic approach to solving problemsof teaching and learning which includes the devel-opment of instructional systems, identificationof resources, delivery oi resources to learners,and management.

quipment** Nonexpendable deyices with mechan-ical parts or electric or electronic circuits that areused in the process of instruction.

Har ware.** Originating in the computer field, nowused to refer to all inechanical, electrical or elec-\ronic equipment used in delivering instruction.

Indivi ualized Education. Educational objec-Y,i

s and activities designed to meet the needs,int rests and abilities of an individual student.

64

*DefinitionDurstine a

'from Electronic Media Directory, Batten, Barton,Id Osborn, hic., New York, N.Y., 1981.

**Definitions rom Ivan N. Siebert, A Handbook of Standard Ter-minology um a Guide Thr Recording find Reporting InformationAbout Educa lanai Technology ("I landbook 101, Washington,D.C.: Nationa Center for Educational Statistics, 1975:

I t.)

Interaction. Communicatio, between two people orbetween a person and some sort of technology.

.lnteractiveMedia. Media'that have the capabilityto involve the student actively in the program ofinstruction, the student actively responding to amedium, the medium actively responding to thestudent.

Main Frame. Computers with the most power andlargest memory capacity of any of the types ofcomputers.

Materials.* * Resources used in the process of in-strucOon. These resources are usually consumableand, in our usage in this guide, require,equipmentfor viewing, hearing, orUsing in other ways.

Media. The means by which instruction is displayedor cornmunicatA to the student. The term in-cludes equipment and materials.

Memory. The capability of a computer to store andretrieve information. Varies by computer size andtype. Read Only Memory (ROM). Capability thatis limited to storage and retrieval.

Microcomputer. The smallest of computers andoften the type p eferred by schools. Self-con-tained and light in weight, they have smallermemory capabilities and less power than othercomputers.

Minicomputer. Smaller version of the main frame.

Modem. 1 A device that terminal-computef andcomputer-computer ..:ommunication over a tele-phone for the purpose of moving inform4ionfrom one place to ahother.

Networks. 1.* A group of stationA or cable systemslinked together regionally or nationally by tele-phone lines, coaxial cables, microwave relay, or

satellite transmission.2. Two.or more microcomputers that are linkedtogether for the purpose of sharing data anddevices such as printers.

Peripherals. Devices that can send or receive infor-mation when connected to a computer, thus add-ing to the computer's capabilities'. .

65

Program. Instructions, presented in a language aspecific computer can understand, the purpose ofwhich is to describe the process the computer isto perform. Programtning languages includePILOT, BASIC, Pascal and FORTRAN.

Programmed Instruction. Technique of present-ing instruction in short, sequential segments.Media used is generally print, although com-puters and other media also use this technique.Branching Programmed Instruction. Techniquewhich addresses the particular response of thelearner by referring him or her to next segment orto a remedial segment.

Satellite.* An electronic transmission vehicle locatedin fixed orbit in space. Used by the Public Broad-casting Service network, cable television, andothers to distribute programs to large nationalaudiences.

Software. Originally used in the computer field tomean the programs required for operating com-puters; now used interchangeably with coursewareto connote instructiopal materials used with anyequipment 'or hardware.

Technology. (See Educational Technology above.)

Appendix B: References

Allen, William J., "Media Stimulus and Types of Learn-ing," Selecting Media for Learning: Readings fromAudio-Visual Instruction. Washington, D.C.:Association for Educational Communications andTechnology, 1974.

Blizek, John, "The First National Kidisc-TV Becomes aPlaything," E-ITV, June 1981.

Braun, Ludwig, "Computers in Learning Environments:An Imperative for the 1980's," BYTE, July 1980.

Chambers, Jack A. and Sprecher, Jerry W., "ComputerAssisted Instruction: Trends and Critical Issues,"comminications of the ACM, June 1980.

Dede, Christopher, J., "Educational Technology: Thenext ten years," Instructional Innovator, March1980.

Dirr, Peter J. and Pedone, Ronald J., Uses of Televisionfor Instruction, 1976-77; Final Report of the SchoolTV Utilization Study, Washington, D.C.: NationalCenter for Education Statistics, 1979.

Doerr, Christine, Microcomputers and the 3 R's: a guidefor teachers. Rochelle Park, N.J.: Hayden, 1979.

Dordick, Herbert S., Bradley, Helen G., and Fleck,Glen, ITV: A User's Guide to the Technology,Washington, D.C.: The Corporation for PublicBroadcasting, 1979.

Dwyer. Thomas and Critchfield, Margo, A Bit of BasicA Guide to Computer Literacy, Reading, Mass.:Addison Wesley, 1980.

Ellis, Allan B., The Use and Misuse of Computers inEducation, N.Y.: McGraw-Hill, 1974.

Hargan. Carol and Hunter, Beverly, Instructional Com-puting: Ten Case Studies, Alexandria, Va: HumanResources Research Organization.

Harris, Marilyn and Williams, Melodee, "TV Comes tothe Classroom in Irvine.- Anyone Can Become aStarr: Thrust for Educational Leadership, October1978.

Kessner, Arthur and Slesnick, Twila, "Myths AboutCalCulators in the Schools," Calculators/Com-puters Magazine, Sept./Oct. 1978.

Kulik, James A., Kulik, Chen-Lin C. and Cohen, Peter A.,"Effectiveness of Computer-Based College Teach-ing: A Meta-Analysis of Findings," Center forResearch on Learning and Teaching, The Univer-sity of Michigan, May 1980.

Lewis, Coleta Lou, VA Study of PreSchool Children'sUse of Computer Programs," National Educa-tional Computing Conference Preceedings, 1981'.

Licklider, J.C.R., Social and Economic Impacts of Infor-mation Technology on Education, Cambridge,Mass.: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Luehrman, Arthur W., "Should the Computer Teach theStudent, or Vice-Versa?", Creative Computing,Nov.-Dec. 1976.

Mason, George and Blanchard, Jay, Computer Applica-tions in Reading, Newark, Del.: InternationalReading Association, 1979.

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, GUidelinesfor Evaluating Computerized Instructional Mate-rials, Reston, Va.: National Council of Teachers ofMathematics, 1981.

National Education Association, The New CopyrightLaw: Questions Teachers and Librarians Ask,Washington, D.C.: National Educatitm Associa-tion, 1977.

Nievergelt, Jurg, "A Pragmatic Introduction to Course-ware Design," Computer, Q.ept. 1980.

Olds, H., Schwartz, J. and Willie, N., People aii'd C'om-puters: Who Teaches Whom?. Newton, Mass.:Educational Development Center, 1980.

Papert, Seymour, Mindstorms: Children, Computers, andPowerful Ideas, New York: Basic Books, 1980.

Peters, Harold J. and Johnson, James W., Author'sGuide: Design, Develop Style, Packaging andReview, Iowa City, Iowa: CONDUIT.

Schramm, Wilbur, Big Media, Little Media, BeverlyHills: Sage, 1977.

66

Seidel, Robert J., It's 1980: Do You Know Where YourComputer Is? Alexandria, Va.: Human ResourcesResearch Organization, 1980.

C-Snyder, David P., "Welcome to the Information Age,"

Voc Ed April 1979.

Suydam, Marilyn, "Using Calculators in Pre-CollegeEducation: Third Annual State-of-the-ArtReview," Columbus, Ohio: Calculator Info. Center,Aug. 1980.

Taylor, Robert, Tutor, Too4 Tutee: 77.e Computer in theSchool, N.Y.: Teacher's College Press, 1980.

Taylor, Robert P., James L. Poirot, and James D.Powell, "Computing Competencies for SchoolTeachers," National Education Computing Confer-ence Procedings, 1980.

The Educational Policy Research Center, InstructionalTelevision: A Comparative Study of Satellites andOther Delivery Systems, Syracuse, N.Y.: SyracuseResearch Corporation, 1976.

Appendix C: Resources*

Sources of InstructionalMaterialCOMPUTER SOFTWARE

School Microware- a directory of educational micro-computer software.

School Microware Reviews a review of softwareby educators.P.O. Box 246, Dresden, Maine 04342

Robert Purser's Quarterly MagazineP.O. Box 466, El Dorado, Cal. 95623

Datapro Research Corporation1805 Underwood Blvd., Debran, N.J. 08075

INSTRUCTIONAL TELEVISION PROGRAMS

Most of the instructional television that is produced inthis country is distributed by:

Agency for Instructional Thlevision (AIT)Box A, Bloomington, Ind. 47401

Great Plains National Thlevision LibraryBox 80669, Lincoln, Neb. 68501

Children's Thlevision InternationalSkyline Center, Suite 1207, 5205 LeesburgPike, Falls Church, Va. 22041

The Director of Instructional Iblevision of localpublic broadcasting stations is also a good resource.

*The resources listed here are not comprehensive. As educatorsbecome increasingly involved with educational technology, newresources become available to meet their needs. The authors recom-mend that readers maintain contact with their state departmentsof education, university media departments, and professionalassociations for the most current information.

AUDIO-VISUAL

Educational Film LocatorR.R. Bowker Co.118i/Avenue of the Americas, New York, N.Y.10036

The Audio Visual Equipment DirectoryNational Audio Visual Association (NAVA)3150 Spring St., Fairfax, Va. 22301

Index to Filmstrips, Index to Dunsparencies, and othersfor almost every type of audio-visual media.National Information Center for Educational Media(NICEM)University of Southern California, UniversityPark, Los Angeles, Cal. 90007

Organizations

COMPUTER USERS

Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)1133 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N.Y.10036ACM consists of special interest groups that focus onparticular aspects of computing, such as the SpecialInterest Group on Computer Science Education(SIGCSE), Special Interest Group on Computer Usesin Education (SIGCUE), and E53, a subcommittee onelementary and secondary schools. Among its taskgroups are:

Administrators and School Boards249 High Street, Hartford, Conn. 06103

Microcomputer GroupsDepartment of Computer Science,University of Oregon, Eugene, Ore. 97403

Association for the Development of Computer-Based Instruction (ADCIS)Western Washington State College,Bellingham, Wash. 98225

Association for Educational Data Systems(AEDS)1201 16th St., N.W., Washington, D.C.20036

CONDUITP.O. Box 338, Iowa City, Iowa 55240An information source that also reviews and testscomputer-based instructional materials and publishesa newsletter, Pipeline.

International Council for Computers in Education (ICCE)Computer Center, East Oregon State College,La Grande, Ore. 97850Publishes The Computing Teacher and functionsas an umbrella organization for educational usersgroups sUch as:

Computer Using Educators (CUE)Run by teachers on a volunteer basis, it has ares6urce center and a software swapping libraryand publishes an informative newsletter.Membership: Don McKell, Independent HighSchool, 17776 Education Park Drive, San Jose,Cal. 95133Newsletter: Mountain View High School,Mountain View, Cal. 94001Softswap exchange: Ann Lathrop, San MateoEduational Resources Center Library, 331 MainStreet, Redwood City, Cal. 94063

Northwest Council for Computers in Education(Same address as ICCE)

Ontario Society for Microcomputers in EducationUnit for Computer Science; McMasterUniversity, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L85 4K1

Texas Computer Educators Association7131 Midbury, Dallas, Texas 75230

MACUL33500 Van Born Road, Wayne, Mich. 48184An organization of educators interested in the edu-cational application of computers. They producenewsletters and journals and hold several conferencesper year.

Microcomputer Education Applications Network(MEAN)Suite 800, 1030 15th St., N.W., Washington,D.C. 20005A new organization that plans to develop and dissemi-nate software for educational applications.

Society for Applied Learning Technology (SALT)50 Culpepper St., Warrenton, Va. 22186

68

INSTRUCTIONAL TELEVISION

The Corporation for Public Broadcasting111 16th St., Washington, D.C. 20036

National Association of Educational Broadcasting(NAEB)1346 Connecticut Ave., N.W., Washington,D.C. 20036

The Public Broadcasting System475 L'Enfant Plaza, S.W, Washington, D.C.20024

CALCULATORS

The Calculator Information Center1200 Chambers Road, Columbus, Ohio 43212Publishes resource lists ("information bulletins"),guides, reports ("reference bulletins") on the educationaluse of calculators.

AUDIO-VISUAL MEDIA AND MEDIAIN GENERAL

Association for Educational Communications andTechnology (AECT)1126 16th St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036

Library Information Technology Association (A sub-division of the American Library Association)50 E. Huron St., Chicago, Ill. 60611

National Audio Visual Association (NAVA)3050 Spring St., Fairfax, Va. 22301

National Information Center for Educational Media

(NICEM)University of Southern California, UniversityPark, Los Angeles, Cal. 90007

169 'U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1A91-0-S,I-:109.182