DOCUMENT RESUME ED 098 670 · 2013-10-24 · DOCUMENT RESUME ED 098 670 ED 106 508 TITLE Assessment...
24
DOCUMENT RESUME ED 098 670 ED 106 508 TITLE Assessment 6 Accountability in Education: Threat or Promise? An Occasional Paper. INSTITUTION Institute for Developlent of Educational Activities, Dayton, Ohio. PUB DATE 74 NOTE 24p. AVAILABLE FROM I/D/E/A, Mail Orders, P.O. Box 628, Dayton, Ohio 45419 ($2.00, payment must accompany order) EDRS PRICE DESCRIPTORS MF-$0.75 HC-$1.50 PLUS POSTAGE Behavioral Objectives; Conference Reports; *Educational Accountability; *Educational Assessment; Educational Needs; *Educational Objectives; Educational Planning; Elementary Secondary Education; Evaluation Criteria; *Performance Based Education; *Performance Criteria; State School District Relationship; Statewide Planning; Teacher Attitudes ABSTRACT The seminar on assessment and accountability in education was believed to be the first national conference concerned with these coordinate issues. The participants generally concurred that accountability is a wany faceted phenomenon with varying interpretations. It was further agreed that the major obstacle to setting up measures of accountability has been a lack of knowledge: school personnel have not known what to do or what to identify in demonstrating and describing the effectiveness of the educational enterprise. Before school personnel can be held completely accountable, there must be a sharper focus on the goals and objectives of teaching and learning. (Author/WM)
Transcript of DOCUMENT RESUME ED 098 670 · 2013-10-24 · DOCUMENT RESUME ED 098 670 ED 106 508 TITLE Assessment...
DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 098 670 ED 106 508
TITLE Assessment 6 Accountability in Education: Threat orPromise? An Occasional Paper.
INSTITUTION Institute for Developlent of Educational Activities,Dayton, Ohio.
PUB DATE 74NOTE 24p.AVAILABLE FROM I/D/E/A, Mail Orders, P.O. Box 628, Dayton, Ohio
45419 ($2.00, payment must accompany order)
EDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORS
MF-$0.75 HC-$1.50 PLUS POSTAGEBehavioral Objectives; Conference Reports;*Educational Accountability; *Educational Assessment;Educational Needs; *Educational Objectives;Educational Planning; Elementary Secondary Education;Evaluation Criteria; *Performance Based Education;*Performance Criteria; State School DistrictRelationship; Statewide Planning; TeacherAttitudes
ABSTRACTThe seminar on assessment and accountability in
education was believed to be the first national conference concernedwith these coordinate issues. The participants generally concurredthat accountability is a wany faceted phenomenon with varyinginterpretations. It was further agreed that the major obstacle tosetting up measures of accountability has been a lack of knowledge:school personnel have not known what to do or what to identify indemonstrating and describing the effectiveness of the educationalenterprise. Before school personnel can be held completelyaccountable, there must be a sharper focus on the goals andobjectives of teaching and learning. (Author/WM)
IDE
A is
the
serv
ice
mar
k fo
r th
e In
stitu
te f
orD
evel
opm
ent o
f E
duca
tiona
l Act
iviti
es, I
nc.,
the
educ
atio
nal a
ffili
ate
of th
e C
harl
es F
. Ket
teri
ngFo
unda
tion.
I.D
.E'A
' was
est
ablis
hed
in 1
965
to e
ncou
rage
cons
truc
tive
chan
ge in
ele
men
tary
and
.eco
ndar
ysc
hool
s. I
t ser
ves
as th
e pr
imar
y op
eran
t for
the
Foun
datio
n's
mis
sion
s an
d pr
ogra
ms
in e
duca
tion.
Mor
e in
form
atio
n ab
out I
D E
'A a
nd it
s pr
ogra
ms
is a
vaila
ble
from
I D
EA
', 53
35 F
ar H
ills
Ave
nue,
Day
ton,
Ohi
o 45
429.
Cop
yrig
ht19
74 b
y In
stitu
te f
or D
evel
opm
ent
of E
duca
tiona
l Act
iviti
es, I
nc.
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A,
6:. "
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I.
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_4
EH
fA
A.1
66E
F:
''66T
t
asse
ssac
coun
tabi
lity
in e
duca
tion:
The
rep
ort o
fa
natio
nal s
emin
ar s
pons
ored
by
the
Inst
itute
for
Dev
elop
men
t of
Edu
catio
nal A
ctiv
ities
, Inc
.,th
e ed
ucat
iona
l aff
iliat
e of
the
Cha
rles
F. K
ette
ring
Foun
datio
n
DIE
I4bt
hmac
l Par
',
tabl
e of
con
tent
s
Page
Con
fere
es1
Def
initi
on o
f T
erm
s2
Con
fere
nce
Sum
mar
y3
Intr
oduc
tion
4A
sses
smen
t in
His
tori
cal P
ersp
ectiv
e5
Nat
iona
l Ass
essm
ent i
n A
mer
ican
Edu
catio
n5
Stat
ewid
e A
sses
smen
t in
Edu
catio
n7
Sele
cted
Exe
mpl
ary
Stat
ewid
e A
sses
smen
t Pro
gram
s9
Edu
catio
nal A
ccou
ntab
ility
in H
isto
rica
l Per
spec
tive
11C
urre
nt S
tatu
s of
Edu
catio
nal A
ccou
ntab
ility
13T
ypes
of
Acc
ount
abili
ty13
How
Tea
cher
s V
iew
the
Con
cept
of
Ass
essm
ent a
ndA
ccou
ntab
ility
15H
ow th
e C
onfe
rees
Vie
w th
e C
once
pt o
f A
sses
smen
tan
d A
ccou
ntab
ility
16W
hat N
eeds
To
Be
Don
e18
Cha
irm
anL
eon
M. L
essi
nger
Dea
n, C
olle
ge o
f E
duca
tion
Uni
vers
ity o
f So
uth
Car
olin
aC
olum
bia,
Sou
th C
arol
ina
Part
icip
ants
Mild
red
Atk
inso
nR
:o V
ista
Hig
h Sc
hool
Rio
Vis
ta, C
alif
orni
aM
argu
erite
S. B
enth
all
Prin
cipa
lA
lexi
s I.
duP
ont H
igh
Scho
olG
reen
ville
, Del
awar
eR
icha
rd L
. Bye
Atto
rney
, and
Pre
side
nt,
Nat
iona
l Ass
ocia
tion
ofSc
hool
Boa
rds
of E
duca
tion
Dul
uth,
Min
neso
taD
avid
D. D
ar la
ndA
ctin
g D
irec
tor
Tns
truc
tion
and
Prof
essi
onal
Dev
elop
men
tN
atio
nal E
duca
tion
Ass
ocia
tion
Was
hing
ton,
D. C
.
Wel
don
E. D
ayD
irec
tor
of r
ilnni
ng a
ndR
esee
:ch
Edu
catio
n Se
rvic
e C
ente
rR
egio
n X
VII
Lub
bock
, Tex
asE
lliot
W. E
isne
rPr
ofes
sor
of E
duca
tion
and
Art
Stan
ford
Uni
vers
itySt
anfo
rd, C
alif
orni
aSt
anle
y E
lam
Edi
tor
PHI
DE
LT
A K
APP
AN
Blo
omin
gton
, Im
liana
Fenw
ick
W. E
nglis
hA
ssis
tant
Sup
erin
tend
ent f
orPe
rson
nel
Sara
sota
Cou
nty
Publ
icSc
hool
sSa
raso
ta, F
lori
da
Fran
cis
Fox
Pres
iden
tD
. C. H
eath
and
Com
pany
Lex
ingt
on, M
assa
chus
etts
Jam
es W
. Gut
hrie
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
ssor
Uni
vers
ity o
f C
alif
orni
aB
erke
ley,
Cal
ifor
nia
ju n
c:-.
A. H
azle
ttD
irec
t. E
lem
enta
ry/
Seco
ndar
y E
duca
tion
Serv
ices
Edu
catio
n C
omm
issi
,,n o
f th
eSt
ates
Den
ver,
Col
orad
oG
eorg
e Ia
nnac
one
Supe
rint
ende
nt o
f Sc
hool
sPa
lisad
es P
ark
Publ
ic S
choo
lsPa
lisad
es P
ark,
New
Jer
se,
Fred
N. J
ones
Scho
ol A
dmin
istr
ator
Com
mon
wea
lth T
each
ing
Serv
ice
Can
berr
a, A
ustr
alia
Phili
p K
earn
eyA
ssoc
iate
Sup
erin
tend
ent,
Res
earc
h an
d Sc
hool
Adm
inis
trat
ion
Stat
e D
epar
tmen
t of
Edu
catio
nL
ansi
ng, M
ichi
gan
Jean
B. M
cGre
wA
ssis
tant
Sup
erin
tend
ent
Mad
ison
Pub
lic S
choo
lsM
adis
on, W
isco
nsin
Art
hur
R. O
lson
Dir
ecto
r, C
oope
rativ
eA
ccou
ntab
ility
Pro
ject
Col
orad
o D
epar
tmen
t of
Edu
catio
nD
enve
r, C
olor
ado
Wal
ter
St. J
ohn
Cha
irm
an, D
epar
tmen
t of
Edu
catio
nK
eene
Sta
te C
olle
geK
eene
, New
Ham
pshi
reR
alph
W. T
yler
Seni
or C
onsu
ltant
Scie
nce
Res
earc
h A
ssoc
iate
s,In
c.C
hica
go, I
llino
isFr
ank
B. W
omer
Con
sulta
nt, T
estin
g an
dG
uida
nce
The
Uni
vers
ity o
f M
ichi
gan
Bur
eau
of S
choo
l Ser
vice
sA
nn A
rbor
, Mic
higa
n
Rep
rese
ntin
gII
IDIE
IAI
Sam
uel G
. Say
sE
xecu
tive
Dir
ecto
rD
ayto
n. O
hio
B. F
rank
Bro
wn
Dir
ecto
rIn
form
atio
n an
d Se
rvic
esPr
ogra
mM
elbo
urne
, Flo
rida
Em
mat
F. F
raum
anSt
aff
Phot
ogra
pher
Jam
es R
. Ryo
land
, Jr.
Con
fere
nce
Rep
orte
r
1
Iti
defin
ition
of te
rms
Ass
essm
ent
:ta
AC
CO
Uilt
abili
tY\.,
.;,-
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h -c
r\Fo
c 1,
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ey I
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umen
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litN
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e fa
strs
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"rie
t1.1
1
"t' a
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en b
rlie
re tr
aditi
onal
test
ing
prog
ram
s re
port
to n
at s
tude
nts
hare
lear
ned
Whe
12. a
s a
mat
ter
of f
act,
' the
y on
ly id
entif
y th
e be
tter
etud
e nt
s.-
E
"Wha
t con
cern
stit
' in
ci:%
otin
tand
ity is
'..h
e'a
ccou
nt p
art a
nd n
ot r
ate
iP
conf
eren
cesu
mm
ary
The
sem
inar
on A
sses
smen
t and
Aic
ount
abil-
ity in
Edu
catio
n, s
pons
ored
by th
e C
harl
es F
.K
ette
ring
Fou
ndat
ion'
s ed
ucat
iona
l aff
iliat
e, I
n-st
itute
for
Dev
elop
men
t of
Edu
catio
nal A
ctiv
-iti
es. I
nc.,
was
bel
ieve
dto
be
the
firs
t nat
iona
lco
nfer
ence
con
cern
ed w
ithth
ese
coor
dina
te
The
par
ticip
ants
gen
eral
lyco
ncur
red
that
acco
unta
bilit
y is
a m
any
face
ted
phen
omen
onw
ith v
aryi
ng in
terp
reta
tions
.It
WaS
fur
ther
agre
ed th
at th
e m
ajor
obs
tacl
eto
set
ting
upm
easu
res
of a
ccou
ntP.
bi!i
ty h
as b
een
that
sch
ool
pers
onne
l hav
e no
t kno
wn
wha
t to
do o
r w
hat t
oid
entif
y ir
± te
. ins
of
dem
onst
ratin
g an
d de
scri
b-in
g th
e ef
fect
iven
ess
of th
eed
ucat
iona
l ent
er-
pris
e. B
efor
e sc
hool
pers
onne
l can
be
held
com
plet
ely
acco
unta
ble,
ther
em
ust b
e a
shar
per
focu
s on
the
goal
s an
dob
ject
ives
of
teac
hing
and
lear
ning
.C
erta
in b
road
agr
eem
ents
amon
g th
e co
nfer
-en
ce p
artic
ipan
t, ar
e su
mm
ariz
ed:
Ass
essm
ent a
nd a
ccou
ntab
ility
are
not
syno
nym
ous.
How
ever
, som
e ty
pe o
fas
sess
men
t is
a ne
cess
ary
com
pone
ntof
acc
ount
abili
ty.
Syst
ems
of a
ccou
ntab
ility
hav
ebe
ensu
cces
sful
ly im
plem
ente
d in
som
e st
ates
.B
ecau
se o
f th
em
any
vari
able
sin
here
nt ;n
the
educ
atio
nal
proc
ess,
acco
unta
oilit
; per
se c
anno
t be
used
effe
ctiv
ely
as a
tool
for
"w
eedi
ngou
t"te
ache
r.In
anv
stem
of
acco
unta
bilit
y, th
eou
tcom
es to
be
achi
eved
bec
ome
the
goal
s an
d ob
ject
ives
of
the
ente
rpri
se.
Est
ablis
hing
an
acco
unta
bilit
ysy
stem
serv
es m
any
purp
oses
. Am
ong
them
are
dete
rmin
ing
emph
asis
and
di:e
ctio
n,de
velo
ping
con
sist
cyan
d un
ity o
fpu
rpos
e, g
ener
atin
g pu
blic
supp
ort,
and
dete
rmin
ing
need
edre
sour
ces.
A s
yste
mac
coun
tabi
Lty
can
be
func
tions
' my
in th
ose
educ
atio
nal
inst
itutio
ns w
hich
hav
e de
fini
tely
esta
blis
hed
goal
s an
d ob
ject
ives
,cl
earl
yde
fine
dva
li:la
ted
inst
ruct
iona
lpr
ogra
ms
and
stra
tegi
es, a
nd (
awfu
llyin
stitu
ted
spec
ific
pro
cedu
ms
for
mea
suri
ng th
e pr
ogra
ms'
outc
omes
inte
':ns
of th
e st
,4:1
obj
ectiv
es.
Lim
itatio
ns in
the
cu. r
ent m
etho
ds o
fm
easu
ring
stu
dent
ach
ieve
men
tdi
ctat
eag
ains
t the
use
of
any
Tin
gle
crite
rion
for
eval
uatin
g te
ache
rs.
Such
am
isap
plic
atio
n of
ach
ieve
men
tm
easu
rem
ents
is p
oor
man
agem
ent
prac
tice
and
can
lead
to th
eea
rly
dem
ise
of e
duca
tiona
lac
coun
tabi
lity.
In s
yste
ms
whe
reac
coun
tabi
lity
mea
sure
s ar
e fu
nctio
nal,
teac
hers
enj
oyan
incr
ease
d ro
le in
edu
catio
nal d
ecis
ion
mak
ing.
Alth
ough
the
are
som
ewha
t suc
cess
ful
mod
els
of a
ccou
ntab
ility
in o
pera
tion,
any
impl
emen
tatio
n of
the
conc
ept.
mus
t und
ergo
som
e m
odif
icat
ion
to f
itlo
cal c
ondi
tions
.T
he im
plem
enta
tion
ofan
acc
ount
abili
tysy
stem
is li
kely
to b
e su
cces
sful
ifev
eryo
ne a
ssoc
iate
( w
ith th
e ed
ucat
iona
lpr
oces
s ha
s re
ceiv
ed a
n ad
equa
teun
ders
tand
ing
of th
e co
ncep
t, its
impl
icat
ions
, and
its
cons
eque
nces
.
3
intr
oduc
tion
On
Mar
ch 2
8, 1
974
22 n
atio
nally
pro
min
ent
educ
ator
s, k
now
ledg
eabl
e ab
out a
nd in
volv
edin
ass
essm
ent a
nd a
ccou
ntab
ility
, con
vene
d at
a se
min
ar in
Atla
nta
for
the
purr
se o
f an
alyz
-in
g th
is r
apid
ly p
rolif
erat
ing
and
incr
easi
ngly
cont
rove
rsia
l i.,s
ue.
The
con
fere
es w
ere
char
ged
as f
ollo
ws:
"Ass
essm
ent a
nd a
ccou
ntab
ility
are
am
ong
the
mos
t cri
tical
issu
es f
acin
g ed
ucat
ors
toda
y.W
ithin
the
last
sev
eral
yea
rs, 3
7 st
ates
luxe
in-
stitu
ted
som
e ki
nd o
f pr
ogra
m o
f as
sess
men
tan
d ac
coun
tabi
lity,
and
act
ivity
is b
urge
onin
gin
the
rest
of
the
stat
es. T
he p
urpo
ses
of th
isse
min
ar a
re to
exa
min
e th
e st
ate
of th
e ar
t; se
ew
here
we
are
with
the
mov
emen
t; cr
itiqu
e it;
and
repo
rt h
ones
tly to
edu
cato
rs a
nd th
e pu
blic
on w
hat i
s be
ing
done
. how
it is
bei
ng d
one,
and
wha
t sho
uld
be d
one.
"T
he c
enfe
renc
e ag
enda
was
pla
nned
and
impl
emen
ted
to in
clud
e tr
eatm
ent o
f th
e ac
-co
mpl
ishm
ents
and
pre
sent
sta
tus
of n
atio
nal
asse
ssm
ent,
the
stat
us o
f st
atew
ide
asse
ssm
ent
and
acco
unta
bilit
y, a
nd f
utur
e di
rect
ions
of
the
mov
emen
t.T
he c
onfe
rees
wer
e pr
ovid
ed w
ith m
ater
ials
prep
ared
by
the
Edu
catio
n C
omm
issi
on o
f th
eSt
ates
. the
Nat
iona
l Ass
ocia
tion
of S
choo
lB
oard
:, of
Edu
catio
n, th
e C
ente
r fo
r St
atew
ide
Edu
catio
nal A
sses
smen
t, an
d th
e C
oope
rativ
eA
ccou
ntab
ility
Pro
ject
.
4
asse
ssm
ent
in h
isto
rical
pers
pect
ive
Geo
rge
R. B
rain
. dea
n of
the
Col
lege
of
Ed-
u,...
atio
n at
Was
hing
ton
Stat
e U
nive
rsity
, pla
ced
asse
ssm
ent i
nits
his
tori
cal p
ersp
octiv
e w
hen
he w
rote
- "T
he :s
sess
raen
t of
perf
orm
ance
is:7
31
an a
ge-o
ld p
ract
ice.
The
last
ver
se o
f th
e fi
rst
chap
ter
of th
e 12
,ok
of G
enes
is r
eads
, 'A
ndC
odW
eve
ryth
ing
that
He
had
mad
e, a
ndbe
hold
. it w
as e
,00d
.' 'T
hai s
ingl
e ac
t of
the
Cre
ator
app
aren
tly e
stab
lishe
d th
e pr
eced
ent
C.
for
a pr
act:l
e of
ass
essi
ng a
ll hu
man
beh
avio
r.E
ven
thou
gh m
an la
cks
godl
ike
mni
seie
nce,
he tr
ies
to f
ollo
w th
e pr
eced
ent.
and
itw
as o
nly
logi
cal t
hat i
n tim
e th
e co
ncep
t of
asse
ssm
ent
cam
( to
be
:,ptd
ied
to th
e fi
eld
of e
duca
tion.
-The
pro
cess
of
asse
ssin
g th
e ed
ucat
iona
lat
tain
men
ts o
f st
uden
ts b
egan
alm
ost f
our
thou
sand
.'ea
rs a
go. T
he r
ecor
ds o
f th
e Sh
unD
ynas
ty o
f an
cien
t Chi
na r
epor
tan
ela
bora
tesy
stem
of
achi
evem
ent e
xam
inat
ions
whi
chpr
o-vi
ded
the
aven
ue o
f en
try
to th
e ci
vil s
ervi
ce...
.
"Ass
esm
cnt p
laye
d an
impo
rtan
t rol
e in
the
earl
'' dv
velo
men
t of
publ
ic e
duca
tion
in th
isco
untr
y.. H
orac
e M
ann
mad
e pr
ovis
ions
for
asy
stem
nf
eval
uatio
n an
d re
port
ing
in h
is p
lan
edut
atil
n fo
r th
e st
ate
of M
assa
chus
etts
...W
hen
the
1*.S
. Off
ice
of E
duca
tion
was
est
ab-
lishe
d in
1,,t
iT. o
ne o
f th
e du
ties
give
nto
the
U.S
. Com
mis
sion
er o
f E
duca
tion
was
to d
e-
term
ine
'the
prc_
,res
s of
edu
catio
n.-A
sses
smen
t beg
an to
bec
ome
a sc
ienc
e, o
r at
leas
t a d
evel
opin
g te
chno
logy
.in
the
earl
y ye
ars
of th
is c
entu
ry. N
ow w
ith th
epr
olif
erat
ion
ofw
ide.
scal
e ev
alua
tion
prog
ram
s, w
ith th
e pe
r-fe
ctio
n of
ele
ctro
nic
test
pro
cess
ing
equi
pmen
t,an
d w
ith p
ublic
pres
sure
hr
acco
unta
bilit
y in
the
educ
atio
nal e
nter
pris
e,as
sess
men
t con
-tin
ues
to p
lay
a le
adin
g ro
lein
the
proc
ess
ofed
ucat
ion.
'"
natio
nal
asse
ssm
ent
in a
mer
ican
educ
atio
n
'141
1111
111
The
195
4 de
cisi
on o
f th
e U
.S.
Supr
eme
Cou
rt,
in th
e hi
stor
icca
se o
f B
row
n v.
Boa
rd o
f E
d-ua
tion
of T
opek
a, K
ansa
s, s
igna
led
the
begi
n-ni
ng o
f a
revo
lutio
n in
Am
eric
aned
ucat
ion.
Con
gres
s be
gan
appr
opri
atin
gva
st s
ums
ofm
oney
for
com
pens
ator
y ed
ucat
ion
and
a va
-ri
ety
of o
ther
prog
ram
s in
eff
orts
to e
qual
ize
educ
atio
nal o
ppor
tuni
ties
for
all
the
natio
n's
citiz
ens.
Sin
ce th
e U
.S. O
ffic
eof
Edu
catio
n is
resp
onsi
ble
for
desi
gnin
g, im
plem
entin
g,fu
nd-
ing,
and
eva
luat
ing
fede
rally
fun
ded
prog
ram
s,in
196
3. F
ranc
is K
eppe
lI
then
U.S
. Com
mis
-si
oner
of
Edu
catio
n) b
egan
talk
sw
ith a
num
ber
of e
duca
tors
on
the
feas
ibili
tyan
d ne
ed f
or a
natio
nwid
e st
udy
to d
escr
ibe
for
the
4. m
eric
anpu
blic
the
educ
atio
nal a
ttain
men
tsof
var
ious
grou
ps. T
he id
ea o
f a
natio
nal a
sses
smen
tpr
o-gr
am e
ncou
nter
ed c
onsi
dera
ble
resi
stan
cebe
caus
e it
was
con
fuse
d w
itha
natio
nwid
e in
-di
vidu
al te
stin
g pr
ogra
m. M
any
fear
s,in
clud
ing
fear
of
a na
tiona
l cur
ricu
lum
,w
ere
expr
esse
dby
thos
e w
ho w
ere
unsu
re a
bout
the
proc
esse
san
d pr
oced
ures
whi
ch th
eas
sess
men
t pro
gram
wou
ld e
mpl
oy.
As
a re
sult
of K
eppe
l'sco
ncer
n, p
lann
ing
for
natio
nal a
sses
smen
t beg
an in
196
4w
ith th
ees
tabl
ishm
ent o
f th
e E
xplo
rato
ryC
omm
ittee
on A
sses
sing
the
Prog
ress
of
Edu
catio
n(E
CA
PE).
EC
APE
was
est
ablis
hed
with
Car
-ne
gie
Cor
pora
tion
fund
s to
inve
stig
ate
the
pos-
sibi
litie
s of
a n
atio
nal a
sses
smen
tan
d de
velo
ppl
ans
and
inst
rum
cnta
tion
for
itsco
nduc
t. T
hew
ork
of E
CA
F'E
res
ulte
d in
the
desi
gn c
urre
ntly
follo
wed
by
Nat
iona
l Ass
essm
ent
of E
duca
-tio
nal P
rogr
ess.
The
act
ual
adm
inis
trat
ion
o:".
the
exer
cise
s in
the
scho
ols
bega
nin
the
spri
ngof
196
9. T
hepr
ogra
m c
urre
ntly
rec
eive
s its
maj
or f
undi
ng f
rom
the
Nat
iora
lC
ente
r fo
rE
duca
tiona
l Sta
tistic
s in
the
U.S
.O
ffic
e of
Edu
catio
n.Se
min
ar p
artic
ipan
t Ral
ph W
.T
yler
was
chai
rman
of
EC
APE
and
bec
ause
of
his
lead
er-
ship
is c
omm
only
ref
erre
dto
as
the
"fat
her"
of
natio
nal a
sses
smen
t. In
his
initi
alre
mar
ks to
othe
r co
nfer
ees,
Tyl
er in
dica
ted
a m
ajor
pur
-po
se o
f th
e na
tiona
l ass
essm
ent
prog
ram
is to
prov
ide
the
icy
publ
ic w
ith c
ensu
s-lik
eda
taB
ratn
-So
nw V
alor
: of
Ass
essm
ent,-
t',,n
;pac
tpz
ihilc
atto
n of
the
Edu
, it o
n C
omn,
i;,:s
ion
tit.it
,I
/cox
er.
('o
lora
do, V
olti.
No.
1. F
eb-
11.1
.1r
197.
).
On
the
c,iti
catio
nal a
chie
vem
ents
of
child
ren,
yout
h. a
nd a
dults
data
whi
ch w
ill f
urni
sh a
dpnd
ahh.
bac
kgro
und
of in
form
atio
n ab
out
educ
atio
nal a
ttain
men
ts. t
he p
rogr
ess
bein
gm
ade.
and
the
prob
lem
s st
ill to
be
face
d in
achi
evin
g th
e na
tion'
s ed
ucat
iona
l asp
irat
ions
.H
is r
emar
k: m
ade
it cl
ear
that
nat
iona
l ass
ess-
men
t ,z-
is n
ot e
stab
lishe
d to
:tro
vide
acc
ount
-ab
ility
mea
sure
s fo
r pa
rtic
ular
sch
ools
or
scho
olsy
stem
s.T
he ta
sk o
f th
e E
xplo
rato
ry C
omm
ittee
onA
.s.:s
.:ing
the
Prog
ress
of
Ed
ucat
io.)
beg
at-,
with
an e
xten
sive
exa
min
atio
n of
test
ing
prog
ram
sor
dina
rily
use
d in
the
scho
ols.
Thi
s ex
artin
at io
nre
veitl
ed th
at th
.:! c
omm
only
ti.-
:ed
test
ing
pro-
gi-a
ms
do n
ot f
urni
sh in
form
atio
n ab
out w
hat
stud
ents
hav
e le
arne
d. R
ath
they
indi
cate
how
far
a s
t tal
ent i
s ab
ove
or b
elow
the
aver
age
scor
e of
the
grou
p w
ith w
hich
he
is c
ompa
red
and
how
far
aver
age
scor
e° o
f a
clas
sroo
mor
sch
oc)
is a
bove
or
belo
w th
e av
erag
e of
the
grou
p w
ith w
hich
it is
com
pare
d. T
he r
esul
ts,
then
. are
Li,:
eful
for
sor
ting
or c
ateg
oriz
ing
but
are
of li
ttle
valu
e fo
r :t.
.1)s
tant
ially
impr
ovin
ged
ucat
iona
l pro
gram
s_ d
eliv
ery
syst
ems,
proc
-es
ses,
or
ri-o
cedu
res.
Con
vent
atr
ial a
chie
vem
ent
test
s ar
e co
n-st
ruct
ed to
mea
sure
indi
vidu
al d
iffe
renc
es a
ndfu
rnis
h re
liabl
e av
erag
e sc
ores
for
gra
de le
vels
or s
choo
ls. T
est c
ompo
nent
s ar
e co
ncen
trat
edO
n th
ose
tern
s w
hich
are
typi
cal o
f av
erag
epe
rfor
man
ce. t
iNer
cise
s w
hich
all
child
ren
can
do a
nd th
ose
whi
ch o
nly
a fe
wca
n do
are
In r
evie
win
g st
anda
rdiz
ed a
chie
vem
ent t
ests
for
poss
ible
use
in th
e na
tiona
l ass
essm
ent,
EC
APE
fou
nd th
at m
ore
than
SO
per
cent
of
the
item
s in
the
mos
t wid
ely
used
ach
ieve
men
tte
sts
fell
betw
een
the
40 a
nd 6
0 pe
rcen
t lev
els
of d
iffi
culty
. App
roxi
mat
ely
5 pe
rcen
t of
the
item
s w
ere
exer
cise
s w
hich
cou
ld b
e co
rrec
tlyan
swer
ed b
y st
uden
ts in
the
low
er th
ird
of a
clas
s, a
nd a
noth
er 5
per
cent
rep
rese
nted
task
sap
prop
riat
e fo
r th
e up
per
thir
d. I
n or
der
toas
sess
the
prog
ress
of
educ
atio
n an
d in
form
teac
hers
. adm
inis
trat
ors,
and
par
ents
abo
utst
uden
t ach
ieve
men
t, it
is n
eces
sary
to d
eter
-m
int w
hat a
ll ch
ildre
n ha
ve le
arne
d. C
onse
-qu
ently
: for
the
purp
ose
of n
atio
nal a
sses
smen
t,it
was
nec
essa
ry to
dev
elop
exe
rcis
es in
whi
chth
e te
st it
ems
equa
lly r
epre
sent
ed th
e ac
hiev
e-m
ent c
hara
cter
istic
s of
the
low
er, m
iddl
e, a
ndup
per
thir
d of
stu
dent
s at
a p
artic
ular
age
leve
l.Si
nce
one
of th
e m
ajor
pur
pose
s of
the
asse
ss-
men
t pro
ject
is to
pro
vide
info
rmat
ion
that
can
be u
nder
stoo
d by
laym
en, t
he p
roce
dure
s us
edin
the
cons
truc
tion
of a
sses
smen
t exe
rcis
es in
-vo
lved
lay
citiz
ens
In e
ach
of th
e fi
elds
of
know
ledg
e in
clud
ed in
the
prog
ram
, sch
olar
s,te
ache
rs, a
nd c
urri
culu
m s
peci
alis
ts f
orm
ulat
edst
atem
ents
of
obje
ctiv
es th
ey b
elie
ved
refl
ecte
dth
e co
ntri
butio
n of
thei
r fi
eld
tow
ard
the
ed-
ucat
ion
of c
itize
ns a
t the
pre
scri
bed
age
leve
lsob
ject
ives
whi
ch s
choo
ls a
re s
eeki
ng to
atta
in.
For
each
of
the
maj
or o
bjec
tives
, pro
toty
peex
erci
ses
wer
e co
nstr
ucte
d w
hich
pro
vide
d op
-po
rtun
ities
for
stu
dent
s to
dem
onst
rate
the
beha
vior
impl
ied
by th
e ob
ject
ive.
The
list
s of
obje
ctiv
es a
nd e
xerc
ises
wer
e re
view
ed b
ypa
nels
of
citiz
ens
livin
g in
var
ious
sec
tions
of
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es. T
he ju
dgm
ent a
bout
eac
hob
ject
ive
was
mad
e on
the
basi
s of
two
ques
-tio
ns:
(1)
Is th
is s
omet
hing
impo
rtan
t for
peop
le to
lear
n to
day?
(2)
Is
it so
met
hing
Iw
ould
like
to h
ave
my
child
ren
lear
n? T
his
proc
ess
resu
lted
in s
ome
revi
sion
s an
d el
im-
inat
ions
. How
ever
, the
pro
cedu
re w
as d
esig
ned
to e
nsur
e th
at e
very
obj
ectiv
e be
ing
asse
ssed
was
con
side
red
impo
rtan
t by
scho
lars
, acc
epte
das
an
educ
atio
nal t
ask
by th
e sc
hool
, and
deem
ed d
esir
able
by
lay
citiz
ens.
The
ass
ess-
men
t ins
trum
ents
wer
e fi
eld
test
ed a
nd r
evis
edun
til th
e fi
nal b
atte
ry o
f ex
erci
ses
yiel
ded
suff
i-ci
ent i
nfor
mat
ion
abou
t the
ach
ieve
men
ts o
fth
e to
tal r
ange
of
stud
ents
.T
he a
sses
smen
t pro
ject
util
izes
a v
arie
ty o
fap
prai
sal t
echn
ique
s si
nce
man
y im
port
ant
kind
s of
edu
catio
nal a
chie
vem
ents
are
not
valid
ly in
dica
ted
by s
tude
nt r
espo
nses
on
pape
r-an
d-pe
ncil
test
s. T
he p
urpo
se o
f th
e pr
o-gr
am is
to a
sses
s th
e ac
hiev
emen
ts o
f gr
oups
and
subg
roup
s of
stu
dent
s; th
eref
ore,
sam
plin
gm
etho
ds a
re e
mpl
oyed
rat
her
than
test
ing
ever
yst
uden
t with
in a
n ag
e gr
oup.
Und
er s
ampl
ing
proc
edur
es, a
bat
tery
of
test
s di
vide
d in
to 1
4pa
rts
requ
ires
no
one
stud
ent t
o ta
ke m
ore
than
one-
four
teen
th o
f th
e to
tal.
Som
e of
the
test
ing
met
hods
em
ploy
ed a
re p
aper
-and
-pen
cil t
ests
,ve
rbal
que
stio
ns a
bout
inte
iest
s an
d ha
bits
,pe
rfor
man
ce te
sts
desi
gned
to d
emon
stra
tesk
ills,
and
par
ticip
atio
n in
gro
up p
roje
cts
in-
volv
ing
citiz
ensh
ip p
ract
ices
.T
he n
atio
nal a
sses
smen
t pro
gram
is d
esig
ned
for
peri
odic
rea
sses
smen
t bas
ed o
n co
mpa
riso
nof
dat
a fr
om th
e in
itial
ass
essm
ent o
f an
are
a.T
he O
ffic
e of
Man
agem
ent a
nd B
udge
t of
the
Exe
cutiv
e B
ranc
h of
the
Fede
ral G
over
nmen
tha
s se
lect
ed th
e na
tiona
l ass
essm
ent p
rogr
amas
the
soci
al in
dica
tor
for
wha
t it c
onsi
ders
basi
c el
emen
tary
and
sec
onda
ry e
duca
tion.
II
6I
stat
ewid
eas
sess
men
tin
ucat
ion
In D
ecem
ber
1973
, the
Cen
ter
for
Stat
ewid
eE
duca
tiona
l Ass
essm
ent,
an a
ffili
ate
of E
duca
-tio
nal T
estin
g Se
rvic
e, P
rinc
eton
,N
ew J
erse
y,re
port
ed 6
0 as
sess
men
tpr
ogra
ms
oper
ated
by
the
50 s
tate
s, th
e D
istr
ict o
fC
olum
bia,
Pue
rto
Ric
o, a
nd th
e V
irgi
n Is
land
s.
Mos
t pro
gram
s ha
ve f
orm
ulat
cdst
ate-
Nid
ego
als
and,
in 3
1 st
ates
, tho
sego
als
have
bee
nfo
rmal
ly a
dopt
ed. F
orty
-nin
est
ates
ass
ess
bygr
ade
leve
l but
12
of th
ese
also
asse
ss b
y ag
ele
vel.
In th
ose
stat
es th
atut
ilize
gra
de le
vel,
grad
es f
our,
six
, and
eig
htar
e m
ost o
ften
asse
ssed
. How
ever
, sta
teas
sess
men
t pro
gram
sba
sed
on a
ge le
vel m
ost f
requ
ently
asse
ss a
ges
nine
, 13,
and
17.
Prac
tical
ly a
ll pr
ogra
ms
wer
e in
itiat
ed b
yst
ate
educ
atio
nal.
agen
cies
-- s
ome
prom
pted
by s
tate
boa
rds
of e
duca
tion
and
othe
rs m
an-
date
d by
sta
te le
gisl
atur
es.
All
stat
ewid
epr
ogra
ms-
are
coor
dina
ted
and
adm
inis
tere
d by
sta
te e
duca
tiona
lag
enci
es,
ofte
n ut
ilizi
ng o
utsi
de c
onsu
ltant
sor
con
trac
-to
rs. F
ifty
-eig
ht o
f th
e 60
prog
ram
s ar
e m
ainl
yco
ncer
ned
with
ass
essi
ng c
ogni
tive
area
s su
chas
lang
uage
art
s an
d m
athe
mat
ics.
For
ty-o
nepr
ogra
ms
incl
ude
som
e no
ncog
nitiv
ear
eas
with
atti
tude
tow
ard
scho
ol,
self
-con
cept
, and
citiz
ensh
ip b
eing
ass
esse
dm
ost f
requ
ently
. Am
ajor
ity o
f th
epr
ogra
ms
utili
ze s
tand
ardi
zed
inst
rum
ents
alth
ough
man
y pr
ogra
ms
also
empl
oy o
bjec
tive-
refe
renc
ed in
stru
men
ts. T
enpr
ogra
ms
empl
oy s
tand
ardi
zed
and
obje
ctiv
e-re
fere
nced
inst
rum
ents
, whi
le 2
5pr
ogra
ms
utili
ze c
rite
rion
-ref
eren
ced
inst
rum
ents
. Mor
eth
an 5
0 pe
rcen
t of
the
prog
ram
s re
lyon
out
side
data
pro
cess
ing
cont
ract
ors
who
usu
ally
pro-
id,-
sco
ring
ser
vice
s an
d da
ta a
naly
sis.
'In
tere
st in
sta
tew
ide
asse
rsm
ent
appe
ars
toha
ve b
eer:
gen
erat
ed b
y na
tiona
l ass
essm
ent,
need
s as
sess
men
ts r
equi
red
for
rece
ipt o
f T
itle
III
fede
ral f
unds
, and
the
acco
unta
bilit
ym
ove-
men
t. T
hese
thre
e pr
ogen
itors
are
all
aim
edto
war
d ed
ucat
iona
l im
prov
emen
t and
dec
isio
nm
akin
g.T
he n
atio
nal a
sses
smen
tpr
ogra
m m
akes
avai
labl
e to
sta
tes:
1. s
tate
men
ts o
f ob
ject
ives
for
eac
h of
the
ten
subj
ects
und
er a
sses
smen
t with
proc
edur
es f
or a
chie
ving
agr
eem
ent
amon
g sp
ecia
lists
, edu
cato
rs, a
ndre
pres
enta
tives
of
the
lay
publ
ic2.
met
hods
and
gui
delin
es f
or d
evel
opin
gcr
iteri
on-r
efer
ence
d ex
erci
ses
tom
easu
re th
e ob
ject
ives
3. a
sam
plin
g de
sign
and
adm
inis
trat
ive
proc
edur
es f
or im
plem
entin
g it
4. a
sel
ectio
n of
sct
ual c
rite
rion
-re
fere
nced
exe
rcis
es u
sed
in e
arlie
ras
sess
men
ts5.
con
sulta
tion
serv
ices
.C
onse
quen
tly, 1
9 st
ates
are
usi
ngso
me
phas
eof
the
natio
nal a
sses
smen
t mod
el, m
etho
ds,
orm
ater
ials
.A
ppro
xim
etel
y 24
of
the
stat
epr
ogra
ms
uti-
lize
gove
rnm
ent f
unds
as
a m
ajor
sou
rce
of r
ev-
enue
. Thi
s is
an
indi
catio
n of
stim
ulat
ion
toas
sess
pro
vide
d by
Titl
e II
I of
the
Ele
men
tary
and
Seco
ndar
y E
duca
tion
Act
and
oth
er f
ed-
eral
pro
gram
s.T
he th
ird
prog
enito
r, a
ccou
ntab
ility
, has
popu
lar
appe
al a
nd d
eriv
es f
rom
the
abili
ty to
com
pare
res
ults
. It i
s vi
ewed
as
a m
eans
of
nar-
row
ing
the
disc
repa
ncy
betw
een
wha
t sch
ools
prof
ess
to te
ach
and
wha
t stu
dent
s ac
tual
lyle
arn. The
pro
gram
em
phas
is in
17
stat
es is
on
col-
lect
ing
info
rmat
ion
for
deci
sion
mak
ing
at th
est
ate
leve
l. In
11
stat
es, i
t is
on c
olle
ctin
g in
-fo
rmat
ion
for
deci
sion
mak
ing
at th
e lo
cal l
evel
.In
the
24 s
tate
s an
d te
rrito
ries
with
em
ergi
ngpr
ogra
ms,
pro
gram
sal
ienc
y ha
d no
t bee
n de
-te
rmin
ed a
t the
tim
e of
the
ET
S su
rvey
. Som
est
ates
are
acc
umul
atin
g da
ta f
or s
tate
-lev
elde
cisi
on m
akin
g an
d, a
t the
sam
e tim
e,pr
e-pa
ring
rep
orts
kg
diss
emin
atio
n to
loca
l sch
ool
dist
rict
s, h
opin
g th
e da
ta w
ill b
e us
eful
for
pro-
gram
impr
ovem
ent.
Ass
essm
ent i
s m
anda
ted
by s
tate
legi
slat
ures
in 1
6 st
ates
. The
bas
ic r
easo
ns le
gisl
ativ
e bo
dies
dem
and
asse
ssm
ent p
rogr
ams
are:
The
legi
slat
ure
is d
isen
chan
ted
with
repo
rts
from
Cie
sta
te e
duca
tiona
lag
ency
, bec
ause
the
curr
ent
achi
evem
ent o
f sc
hool
s is
unk
now
n or
poor
ly d
efin
ed.
The
legi
slat
ors
and
citiz
ens
are
seek
ing
to im
prov
e th
e sc
hool
s.Im
prov
ed m
anag
emen
t of
educ
atio
nal
reso
urce
s is
nec
essa
ry.
Ass
essm
ent r
esul
ts a
re r
epor
ted
dire
ctly
to th
ele
gisl
atur
es in
the
16 s
tate
s.Se
vera
l sta
tes
repo
rt th
at p
rogr
am o
bjec
tives
are
bein
g m
et s
ucce
ssfu
lly, s
ome
repo
rt o
bjec
-tiv
es a
re b
eing
met
to s
ome
exte
nt, a
nd th
em
a-jo
rity
rep
ort i
t is
too
earl
y to
det
erm
ine
the
exte
nt to
whi
ch o
bjec
tives
are
bei
ng m
et. M
ajor
prob
lem
are
as id
entif
ied
with
in s
tate
asse
ss-
men
t pro
gram
s ar
e:in
suff
icie
nt f
inan
cial
res
ourc
esin
adeq
uate
sta
ffin
gin
suff
icie
ntly
info
rmed
sta
ffla
g in
dev
elop
men
t of
syst
emat
icus
esof
dat
ala
ck o
f ac
cept
ance
by
teac
hers
who
see
the
prog
ram
as
a th
reat
whi
ch p
rovi
des
no d
irec
t ben
efits
inad
equa
te d
isse
min
atio
nin
abili
ty to
ass
ist s
choo
l sys
tem
s in
the
use
of d
ata
mis
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
the
prog
ram
and
its p
urpo
ses
at a
ll le
vels
.So
me
prog
ram
s re
port
ed n
o m
ajor
pro
blem
s.H
owev
er, t
he d
iffi
culti
es e
xpre
ssed
by
man
y in
-di
cate
d th
at s
tate
wid
e as
sess
men
t is
ina
stat
eof
flu
x. T
he m
ajor
ity o
f th
e st
ares
rep
orte
d th
aton
e or
mor
e as
pect
s of
thei
r pr
ogra
ms
wou
ldlik
ely
chan
ge in
the
near
fut
ure
with
surv
ey in
-st
rum
ents
, are
as a
sses
sed,
and
use
of
prog
ram
data
bei
ng m
entio
ned
mos
t fre
quen
tly. P
ro-
gram
goa
ls, p
olic
ies,
and
adm
inis
trat
ion
wer
eci
ted
leas
t oft
en a
s pr
obab
lear
eas
of c
hang
e.E
duca
tiona
l lea
ders
at t
he s
tate
leve
l rec
ogni
zeth
e pr
oble
ms
and
are
seek
ing
thai
r re
solu
tion.
'
s "S
tate
Edu
catio
nal A
sses
smen
t Pro
gram
s: 1
973
Rev
isio
n,"
Cen
ter
for
Sta
tew
ide
Edu
catio
nal A
sses
s-m
ent N
ewsl
ette
r,V
ol. 2
, No.
2, D
ecem
ber
1973
.6Ib
id.,
pp. 3
-4.
sele
cted
exem
plar
yst
atew
ide
asse
ssm
ent
prog
ram
s
Mic
higa
nIn
Mic
higa
n, th
est
ate
depa
rtm
ent o
f ed
u-ca
tion
initi
ated
a st
ate
asse
ssm
ent a
ct w
hich
was
legi
slat
ed in
196
9. T
his
act
requ
ired
the
depa
rtm
ent o
f ed
ucat
ion
tobe
gin
plan
ning
and
deve
lopi
ng a
sta
tepr
ogra
m f
or th
e pu
rpos
eof
con
duct
ing
a pe
riod
ic a
nd c
ompr
ehen
sive
asse
ssm
ent o
f ed
ucat
iona
lpr
ogre
ss. I
n 19
70,
addi
tiona
l leg
isla
tion
man
date
da
mor
e co
m-
preh
ensi
ve a
sses
smen
tpr
ogra
m f
or th
e st
ate.
It r
equi
red
a st
atew
ide
prog
ram
45;
ass
essm
ent
of e
duca
tiona
l pro
gres
s an
d re
med
ial a
ssis
tanc
ein
the
basi
c sk
ills
of r
eadi
ng, m
athe
mat
ics,
lan-
guag
e ar
ts, a
nd/o
r ot
her
gene
ral s
ubje
ctar
eas.
Acc
ordi
ng to
sem
inar
part
icip
ant P
hilip
Kea
rney
, the
sta
ff h
adpr
opos
ed to
con
duct
ath
ree-
year
pilo
t eff
ort.
How
ever
,w
ith th
e en
-
actm
ent e
f th
e 19
70 le
gisl
atio
n,w
ithin
six
mon
ths
norm
:efe
renc
ed te
sts
wer
e be
ing
uti-
lized
to a
sses
s in
the
area
s of
rea
ding
, mat
he-
mat
ics,
and
lang
uage
art
s. T
heda
ta c
olle
cted
crea
ted
seri
ous
tech
nica
l and
polit
ical
pro
blem
sw
hich
res
ulte
d in
nor
m-r
efer
ence
din
stru
men
tsbe
ing
disc
arde
d in
fav
or o
fob
ject
ive-
refe
renc
edba
tteri
es.
Thi
s ch
ange
in in
stru
men
tatio
nne
cess
itate
dth
e id
entif
icat
ion
and
utili
zatio
n of
sch
olar
s,te
ache
rs, a
nd c
itize
ns in
tran
slat
ing
the
com
-m
on g
oals
of
Mic
higa
n ed
ucat
ion
inth
e ba
sic
skill
s ar
eas
into
min
imal
expe
ctat
ions
or
mea
s-ur
able
obj
ectiv
es. T
hese
grou
ps e
stab
lishe
d th
ebe
st e
stim
ates
of
min
imum
com
pete
ncie
s st
u-de
nts
shou
ld a
chie
ve a
tsp
ecif
ic p
oint
s in
the
educ
atio
nal p
roce
ss. O
nce
the
obje
ctiv
es w
ere
dete
rmin
ed, t
he s
tate
dep
artm
ent c
ontr
acte
dw
ith f
our
loca
l sch
ool d
istr
icts
to d
evel
opth
e ite
ms
and
asse
ssm
ent e
xerc
ises
. A te
stin
gag
ency
was
em
ploy
ed to
ass
ist i
n th
e de
velo
p-m
ent o
f th
e ba
ttery
.T
he m
ajor
pur
pose
s of
ass
essm
ent i
n M
ichi
-ge
.n a
re: to
pro
vide
the
stat
e w
;th in
form
atio
nne
eded
for
allo
catin
g st
ate
fund
s an
dpr
ofes
sion
al s
ervi
ces
in a
man
ner
best
calc
ulat
ei. t
o eq
ualiz
e ed
ucat
ion&
oppo
rtun
ities
so
stud
ents
can
ach
ieve
com
pete
nce
in b
asic
ski
llsto
pro
vide
sch
ool s
yste
ms
with
str
ong
ince
ntiv
es f
or in
trod
ucin
g ed
ucat
iona
lpr
ogra
ms
that
will
impr
ove
the
educ
atio
n of
stu
dent
s in
bas
ic s
kills
and
mod
el p
rogr
ams
and
rais
eac
hiev
emen
t lev
els
to d
evel
op a
sys
tem
for
edu
catio
nal
self
-ren
ewal
that
wou
ld c
ontin
uous
lyev
alua
te th
e pr
ogra
ms,
ther
eby
help
ing
each
sch
ool d
isco
ver
and
intr
oduc
epr
ogra
m c
hang
es d
esig
ned
to im
prov
eth
e qu
ality
of
educ
atio
n.
The
ass
essm
ent p
rogr
am in
Mic
higa
n, th
ere-
fore
, is
desi
gned
to p
rovi
de in
form
atio
n fo
r de
-ci
sion
mak
ing
at th
e st
ate,
dis
tric
t, an
d sc
hool
leve
ls. D
ata
is p
rese
ntly
bei
ng c
olle
cted
at t
hebe
ginn
ing
of g
rade
s fo
ur a
nd s
even
. Whe
n th
epr
ogra
m is
ful
ly im
plem
ente
d, d
ata
will
be
col-
lect
ed a
t fiv
e po
ints
alo
ng th
e ed
ucat
iona
l con
-tin
uum
at th
e be
ginn
ing
of g
rade
s on
e, f
our,
seve
n, a
nd te
n, a
nd d
urin
g th
e sp
ring
of
the
12th
year
. Ful
l im
plem
enta
tion
is ta
rget
ed f
or th
e
1976
-77
scho
ol y
ear.
The
Sta
te(
f M
ichi
gan
hall
also
ass
umed
lead
ersh
ip a
mon
g th
e st
ates
in e
xplo
ring
and
appl
ying
acc
ount
abili
ty p
roce
dure
s. A
s a
re-
actio
n to
the
vigo
rous
Mic
higa
n pr
ogrs
m, t
heM
ichi
gan
Edu
catio
n A
ssoc
iatio
n an
d th
e N
a-tio
nal E
dt.m
tion
Ass
ocia
tion
rece
ntly
sec
ured
the
serv
ices
of
thre
e re
sear
cher
s to
exa
min
e th
equ
ality
and
impl
icat
ions
of
that
lead
ersh
ip.
The
spe
cifi
c pu
rpos
e w
as to
ass
ess
the
educ
a-tio
nal s
ound
ness
and
util
ity f
or M
ichi
gan
ofth
e St
ate
Acc
ount
abili
ty S
yste
m w
ith p
artic
u-la
r em
phas
is o
n th
e as
sess
men
t com
pone
nt.
Thi
s ef
fort
cul
min
ated
in th
e re
leas
e of
a h
ighl
ycr
itica
l rep
ort i
n M
arch
197
4.T
he s
taff
of
the
Mic
higa
n D
epar
tmen
t of
Edu
catio
n re
spon
ded
to th
e st
udy
in a
det
aile
dre
ply.
Of
the
nine
rec
omm
enda
tions
mad
e by
the
rese
arch
ers,
six
rec
eive
d th
e fu
ll su
ppor
t of
the
staf
f an
d ap
prop
riat
e m
odif
icat
ions
wer
epr
omis
ed. T
here
was
pro
foun
d di
sagr
eem
ent
with
the
othe
r th
ree
reco
mm
enda
tions
and
the
staf
f ex
pres
sed
hope
that
fut
ure
disc
ussi
ons
will
reso
lve
the
diff
eren
ces
of o
pini
on.
Flor
ida
In F
lori
da, t
he s
tate
dep
artm
ent o
f ed
uca-
tion
initi
ated
sta
tew
ide
asse
ssm
ent l
egis
latio
nin
197
0. A
sta
tute
was
pas
sed
requ
irin
g de
vel-
opm
ent o
f ev
alua
tion
proc
edur
es d
esig
ned
toob
ject
ivel
y as
ses
educ
atio
nal p
rogr
ams
offe
red
by p
ublic
sch
ools
of
the
stat
e.T
he F
lori
da p
rogr
am u
tiliz
es c
rite
rion
-re
fere
nced
and
nor
m-r
efer
ence
d in
stru
men
ts.
As
in M
ichi
gan,
var
ious
sch
ool s
yste
ms
wer
ese
lect
ed f
or th
e de
velo
pmen
t of
perf
orm
ance
obje
ctiv
es, t
est ;
' em
s, a
nd a
sses
smen
t exe
rcis
es.
The
pla
n w
as ta
rget
ed f
or im
plem
enta
tion
inre
adin
g by
the
7371
-72
scho
ol y
ear,
in w
ritin
gan
d m
athe
mat
ics
by th
e 19
72-7
3 sc
hool
yea
r,an
d in
oth
er s
ubje
ct a
reas
by
1973
-74.
A r
an-
dom
sam
plin
g m
etho
d w
as u
tiliz
ed r
athe
r th
ante
stin
E; 0
very
stu
dent
.T
he in
form
atio
n co
llect
ed th
roug
h th
e as
-se
ssm
ent p
rogr
am is
util
ized
for
dec
isio
n m
ak-
ing
at th
e st
ate,
dis
tric
t, an
d sc
hool
leve
ls a
sw
ell a
s fo
r ed
ucat
iona
l acc
ount
abili
ty.
Sem
inar
par
ticip
ant,
Jam
es W
. Gut
hrie
,(w
ho a
ssis
ted
in d
evel
opin
g th
e pr
ogra
m)
be-
lieve
s Fl
orid
a is
the
only
sta
te w
hich
has
mad
ean
eff
ort t
o lin
k as
sess
men
t, ob
ject
ives
, and
acco
unta
bilit
y.T
he E
duca
tiona
l Acc
ount
abili
ty A
ct w
aspa
ssed
by
the
Flor
ida
legi
slat
ure
in 1
971.
It
prov
ides
for
impl
emen
tatio
n an
d fu
rthe
r de
vel-
opm
ent o
f as
sess
men
t pro
cedu
res
desi
gned
toas
sure
that
pro
gram
s le
ad to
the
atta
inm
ent o
fes
tabl
ishe
d ed
ucat
iona
l obj
ectiv
es, p
rovi
dein
form
atio
n fo
r ac
cura
te c
ut.
anal
ysis
, and
fur
-ni
sh d
ata
for
anal
ysis
of
the
diff
eren
tial e
ffec
-tiv
enes
s of
inst
ruct
iona
l pro
gram
s.T
he c
hief
com
plai
nts
abou
t the
Flo
rida
pro
-gr
am c
ome
from
sch
ool a
dmin
istr
ator
s w
hode
plor
e th
e "m
ount
ains
of
pape
rwor
k" c
on-
nect
ed w
ith th
e pr
ogra
m.
Cal
ifor
nia
In C
alif
orni
a, te
ache
rs a
nd a
dmin
istr
ator
sco
nsid
er th
at s
tate
's a
ccou
ntab
ility
reg
ulat
ions
"a p
aper
tige
r."
The
y in
dica
te th
e go
als
rang
efr
om th
e ob
viou
s to
the
bana
l, an
d m
any
teac
h-er
s tr
eat t
hem
ligh
tly. T
he o
nly
virt
ue m
en-
tione
d is
that
it s
timul
ates
teac
hers
to k
eep
talk
ing
and
thin
king
.
educ
atio
nal
acco
unta
bilit
yin
his
toric
alpe
rspe
ctiv
e
The
mov
emen
t tow
ard
a co
ncep
t of
acco
unt-
abili
ty s
eem
ed to
gai
nim
petu
s in
the
sum
mer
of 1
968
whe
na
Com
mitt
ee f
or E
cono
mic
De-
velo
pmen
t rep
ort i
ssue
dan
indi
ctm
ent a
gain
stth
e pu
blic
sch
ools
The
repo
rt in
dica
ted
that
man
y sc
hool
s an
d sc
hool
dis
tric
ts, h
andi
capp
edby
out
mod
ed o
rgan
izat
ion
and
lack
of
rese
arch
and
deve
lopm
ent
mon
ey, w
ere
not p
rovi
ding
the
kind
of
educ
atio
n th
atpr
oduc
ed r
atio
nal,
resp
onsi
ble,
and
eff
ectiv
e ci
tizen
s.T
his
seri
ous
indi
ctm
ent s
tron
gly
sugg
este
da
maj
or r
ede-
velo
pmen
t of
man
agem
ent o
fth
e ed
ucat
iona
lsy
stem
.R
efer
ence
s to
edu
catio
nal a
ccou
ntab
ility
be-
gan
to a
ppea
r in
the
prof
essi
onal
lite
ratu
rein
1969
; how
ever
. the
rea
l foc
usof
atte
ntio
non
it as
a c
once
pt o
ccur
red
in19
70. T
his
conc
ept
seem
s to
hav
e gr
own
out o
f th
epa
ssag
e of
the
far-
reac
hing
Ele
men
tary
and
Seco
ndar
y E
duca
-tio
n A
ct o
f 19
63 w
hich
gave
the
publ
ic s
choo
lsa
new
man
date
. The
cav
eat
was
not
onl
y fo
req
ualit
y of
edu
catio
nal
oppo
rtun
ity, b
ut a
lso
for
equi
tabl
e re
sults
. Und
er th
isne
w p
resc
rip-
tion,
sch
ools
wer
e ex
pect
edto
giv
e ev
ery
stu-
dent
bas
ic c
ompe
tenc
yre
gard
less
of
abili
ty,
inte
rest
, bac
kgro
und,
hom
e,or
fam
ily in
com
e.W
hen
Leo
n 1,
,.iss
inge
r, th
e"f
athe
r" o
f th
eac
coun
tabi
lity
mov
emen
t ',th
enan
Ass
ocia
teC
omm
issi
oner
in th
e U
.S. O
ffic
eof
Edu
catio
n)be
gan
to u
se th
e te
rm a
ccou
ntab
ility
in 1
968,
he w
as p
ropo
sing
a m
etho
d of
ens
urin
g th
ree
basi
c ri
ghts
in e
duca
tion:
1. th
e st
uden
t's r
ight
to b
eta
ught
wha
the
nee
ds to
kno
w in
ord
erto
be
apr
oduc
tive
and
satis
fied
mem
ber
ofso
ciet
y
2. th
e ta
xpay
er's
rig
ht to
be
info
rmed
of
the
educ
atio
nal r
esul
tspr
oduc
ed b
ysp
ecif
ic e
xpen
ditu
res
3. th
e sc
hool
's r
ight
to d
raw
on a
llre
sour
ces
of s
ocie
ty in
stea
d of
bei
ngre
stri
cted
to th
e ov
erbu
rden
edre
sour
ces
of e
duca
tors
.T
he m
etho
d L
essi
nger
cham
pion
ed f
orac
hiev
ing
the
goal
of
guar
ante
ed a
cqui
sitio
nof
bas
ic s
kills
was
an
inde
pend
ent a
udit
of e
d-uc
atio
nal r
esul
ts. T
his
here
ferr
ed to
as
the
proc
ess
cl "
educ
atio
nal e
ngin
eeri
ng."
At
that
1;i
poin
t, di
scus
sion
s of
acc
ount
abili
ty in
edu
ca-
tiona
l cir
cles
shi
fted
to c
onsi
dera
tion
of p
er-
form
ance
con
trac
ting,
ext
erna
l aud
its, p
rogr
ampl
anni
ng, b
udge
ting
syst
ems,
and
vou
cher
plan
s. T
here
fore
, acc
ount
abili
tyw
hich
was
to b
e ac
hiev
ed b
y th
ose
met
hods
beca
me
seco
ndar
y. T
he p
rim
ary
focu
s w
as o
n th
em
etho
ds th
emse
lves
rat
her
than
on
educ
atio
nal
outc
omes
. As
a re
sult,
the
conc
ept o
f ac
coun
t-ab
ility
has
bee
n in
terp
rete
d in
man
y di
ffer
ent
and
conf
usin
g w
ays.
How
ever
, a n
umbe
r of
mis
conc
eptio
ns a
re
grad
ually
bei
ng e
limin
ated
and
som
e de
gree
of c
onse
nsus
see
ms
to b
e em
ergi
ng. P
erha
ps a
cont
ribu
tor
to th
is is
the
real
izat
ion
by e
duca
-to
rs th
at a
ccou
ntab
ility
impl
ies
a sp
ecif
ic k
ind
of r
espo
nsib
ility
a re
spon
sibi
lity
to s
ome-
one
for
som
ethi
ng. T
he f
act t
hat t
here
are
cons
eque
nces
bri
ngs
the
aspe
ct o
f be
ing
acco
unta
ble.
Alth
ough
the
!Res
ent m
ovem
ent i
s bu
t afe
w y
ears
old
, the
onl
y th
ing
that
is r
elat
ivel
yne
w a
bout
the
conc
ept o
f ac
coun
tabi
lity
is it
sap
plic
atio
n to
the
outc
omes
of
the
educ
atio
nal
proc
ess.
S(h
ool o
ffic
ials
hav
e al
way
sbe
en a
c-co
unta
ble
to ta
xpay
ers
for
the
prop
er r
ecei
ptan
d di
sbur
sem
ent o
f fu
nds,
to p
aren
ts f
or th
esa
fety
and
cus
todi
al c
are
of s
tude
nts,
to c
olle
geof
fici
als
for
the
qual
ity o
f co
llege
pre
para
tory
prog
ram
s, a
nd to
acc
redi
tatio
n an
dpr
ofes
sion
alas
soci
atio
ns f
or a
var
iety
of
inpu
t sta
ndar
ds.
The
neg
ativ
e co
nseq
uenc
es in
clud
e di
scha
rge
from
a p
ositi
on, c
rim
inal
indi
ctm
ent,
and
loss
of a
ccre
dita
tion.
The
ben
efits
incl
ude
cont
in-
ued
supp
ort,
incr
ease
d tr
ust b
y cl
ient
s an
dpa
tron
s, a
nd c
redi
bilit
y.
12
4,
curr
ent
stat
us o
fuc
atio
nal
acco
unta
bilit
y
Dur
ing
the
Atla
nta
sem
inar
,L
essi
nger
as-
sert
ed th
at, w
hen
he a
ttem
pted
to d
o a
bibl
iog-
raph
y on
:icc
ount
abili
ty in
educ
atio
n so
me
year
s ag
o, h
e fo
und
very
few
ref
eren
ces.
Tod
ay,
ther
e ar
e m
ore
than
4,0
00bo
oks
and
artic
les
rela
tive
to th
e su
bjec
t; bu
t the
yon
ly a
dd to
the
conf
usio
n by
off
erin
ga
wid
e va
riet
y of
defi
nitie
ns. T
he c
onfe
rees
, how
ever
,se
emed
to a
gree
ther
e is
a w
idel
y ac
cept
edco
re o
fm
eani
ng a
scri
bed
to th
eco
ncep
t. T
he b
asic
idea
it c
onve
ys is
that
sch
ool
syst
ems,
sch
ools
,an
d th
e ed
ucat
ors
who
oper
ate
them
, sho
uld
be h
eld
resp
onsi
ble
for
educ
atio
nal
outc
omes
for
wha
t chi
ldre
n le
arn.
The
conc
ept n
ot o
nly
incl
udes
res
pons
ibili
ty f
orpe
rfor
man
ce in
achi
evin
g go
als
and
obje
ctiv
es, b
utal
so f
or s
e-le
ctin
g ap
prop
riat
e or
rel
evan
t goa
ls.
In s
pite
of
the
atte
ndan
tco
ntro
vers
y, a
c-co
unta
bilit
y ap
pear
s to
be
aliv
ean
d w
ell i
nA
mer
ican
edu
catio
n. B
y th
e fa
ll of
1972
, ac-
coun
tabi
lity
legi
slat
ion
had
been
intr
oduc
edin
29
stat
es, e
nact
ed in
23,
and
at le
ast 1
0 ot
her
stat
es f
ollo
wed
in 1
973.
So
with
the
cond
ition
sth
at le
d to
the
birt
h of
the
conc
ept c
ontin
uing
to p
rolif
erat
e, th
e pr
ospe
cts
for
an e
ven
mor
epr
ecoc
ious
gro
wth
see
m in
evita
ble.
The
con
fere
nce
part
icip
ants
agre
ed th
at a
c-co
unta
bilit
y an
d as
sess
men
tar
e no
t syn
ony-
mou
s ev
en th
ough
som
e fo
rm o
fas
:,.es
smen
t is
a ne
cess
ary
aspe
ct o
f ac
coun
tabi
lity.
The
yal
so
agre
ed th
at a
ccou
ntab
ility
is n
ot li
mite
d to
scho
ol b
oard
s, a
dmin
istr
ator
s,te
ache
rs, s
tu-
dent
s, o
r an
y ot
her
spec
ific
grou
p. N
or is
ac-
coun
tabi
lity
to b
e co
nfus
edw
ith m
etho
dspr
esum
ed to
be
usef
ul in
carr
ying
it o
ut s
uch
as p
erfo
rman
ce c
ontr
actin
g, s
yste
man
alys
is,
prog
ram
pla
nnin
g, b
udge
ting
syst
ems,
or m
an-
agem
ent b
y ob
ject
ives
.T
he m
ovem
ent h
as, h
owev
er,
forc
ed a
nad
ded
resp
onsi
bilit
yon
the
scho
ols
a re
-sp
onsi
bilit
y fo
r st
ipul
ated
outc
omes
, a q
ualit
yas
sura
nce
proc
ess,
a ty
pe o
f ex
tern
alre
view
toas
cert
ain
succ
ess
or f
ailu
re,
and
a sy
stem
for
publ
icly
rep
ortin
g th
e ac
tual
outc
omes
in r
e-la
tion
to e
xpen
ditu
res.
tys
ofac
coun
tabi
lity
The
con
fere
es a
gree
d th
atth
e to
tal c
once
ptof
edu
catio
nal a
ccou
ntai
:ility
is th
ree-
dim
ensi
onal
. Per
haps
, the
delin
eatio
n w
hich
follo
ws
will
ans
wer
the
ofte
nas
ked
ques
tions
,W
ho is
acc
ount
able
to w
hom
? an
d W
hat
are
they
acc
ount
able
for
?
SySt
ern
acco
unta
bilit
y is
a br
oad
conc
ept a
pplie
d to
sch
ool d
istr
icts
. It
invo
lves
the
degr
ee to
whi
ch th
eypr
ovid
e pr
omis
edre
sour
ces.
Sch
ool
syst
ems,
then
, are
acc
ount
able
to th
epu
blic
for
dev
elop
ing
appr
opri
ate
goal
san
d ob
ject
ives
in r
elat
ion
tost
ate
goal
san
d ne
eds
and
expe
ctat
ions
of
loca
lco
mm
uniti
es; f
or e
nsur
ing
the
scho
ols
are
staf
fed
by c
ompe
tent
per
sonn
el; f
orco
ntin
ually
ass
essi
ng th
e ac
hiev
emen
tof
stu
dent
s; a
nd f
or d
isse
min
atin
gth
ere
sults
and
ana
lyse
s to
sch
ool
pers
onne
l, pa
rent
s, a
nd c
itize
nsth
roug
h an
inde
pend
ent a
ndob
ject
ive
met
hod.
Prof
essi
onal
acc
ount
abili
tyre
fers
tosc
hool
adm
inis
trat
ors
and
teac
hers
at
the
build
ing
leve
l. It
invo
lves
know
ledg
e an
d us
e of
thos
eat
titud
es,
skill
s, a
nd te
chni
ques
rev
eale
dth
roug
hre
sear
ch o
r an
alys
is o
f th
est
ate
of th
ear
t to
be r
elia
ble
in p
rodu
cing
des
ired
outc
omes
. Spe
cifi
cally
, bui
ldin
gad
min
istr
ator
s ar
e ac
coun
tabl
efo
rde
velo
pmen
t and
sel
ectio
nof
appr
opri
ate
inst
ruct
iona
lpr
ogra
ms
for
achi
evin
g st
ated
obj
ectiv
es.
Tea
cher
sar
e sp
ecif
ical
ly a
ccou
ntab
le f
orut
ilizi
ng in
stru
ctio
nal a
ppro
ache
sth
atw
ill p
rodu
ce p
rogr
amou
tcom
esco
nsis
tent
with
pre
sele
cted
obje
ctiv
esat
an
appr
opri
ate
leve
l of
perf
orm
ance
for
the
inst
ruct
iona
lpr
ogra
m.
Perf
orm
ance
acc
ount
abili
ty is
conc
erne
d w
ith th
e ef
fect
iven
ess
ofpr
ogra
ms
and
met
hods
in a
chie
ving
desi
red
outc
omes
The
se p
rogr
ams
and
met
hods
mus
t mee
t the
sta
ted
obje
ctiv
es o
r th
ey a
re r
edes
igne
d an
dim
plem
ente
d un
til th
ey d
o.
The
term
edu
catio
nal a
ccou
ntab
ility
Las
freq
uent
ly b
een
equa
ted
with
the
type
of
en-
gine
erin
g pr
oces
s us
ed in
indu
stri
al p
rodu
c-tio
n. T
he a
nalo
gy is
onl
y us
eful
to a
poi
nt.
Bey
ond
that
, it b
ecom
es m
isle
adin
g to
the
ex-
tent
that
eff
orts
to d
evel
op o
bjec
tive
crite
ria
of p
rofe
ssio
nal a
ccou
ntab
ility
can
be
unde
r-m
ined
. Gra
nted
, the
re is
a c
erta
in a
mou
nt o
fqu
ality
con
trol
(or
inte
rnal
eva
luat
ion)
and
som
e qu
ality
ass
.ran
ce in
volv
ed in
bot
h pr
oc-
esse
s. B
oth
invo
lve
com
plia
nce
with
stan
dard
sor
law
s an
d el
emen
ts o
fef
fici
ency
and
eff
ectiv
e-ne
ss. B
ut, i
n in
dust
rial
pro
duct
ion,
onc
e a
qual
ity it
em is
man
ufac
ture
d, r
epea
ting
the
exac
t pro
cess
will
con
tinue
to p
rodu
ce it
ems
of
like
qual
ity. S
uch
is n
ot th
e ca
se in
edu
catio
n.It
mus
t be
kept
in m
ind
that
edu
catio
n is
aso
cial
pro
cess
in w
hich
hum
an b
eing
s ar
e co
n-tin
ually
inte
ract
ing
in w
ays
that
can
nei
ther
be m
easu
red
nor
pred
icte
d. "
... E
duca
tion
does
not
dea
l with
iner
t raw
rri
teri
als,
but
with
livin
g m
inds
that
a--
inst
inct
ivel
y co
ncer
ned
firs
t with
pre
serv
ing
thei
r ow
n in
tegr
ity a
nt:
seco
nd w
ith r
ea,h
ing
a m
eani
ngfu
l acc
onun
o-da
tion
with
the
wor
ld a
roun
d th
em...
."7
14
Hen
ry S
. Dye
r. 'T
owar
d O
bjec
tive
Cri
teri
a of
Pro
-fe
ssio
nal A
ccou
ntab
ility
in th
e ;-
;cho
wls
of
New
Yor
kC
it-,'"
Phi
Del
ta K
appa
a, V
ol. 5
2, N
o. 4
, p. 2
11, D
e-ce
mbe
r 19
70.
how
teac
hers
view
the
conc
ept o
fas
sess
men
tan
dac
coun
tabi
lity
Acc
ount
abili
ty is
a bu
zz w
ord
of in
crea
sing
velo
city
in te
ache
rs'
loun
ges
and
wor
kroo
ms
ofth
e na
tion'
s sc
hool
s. M
any
teac
hers
vie
w th
eco
ncep
t as
a m
erit
syst
em.
or a
wee
ding
sys
-te
m, a
imed
dir
ectly
at t
hem
.C
onse
quen
tly,
teac
hers
fee
l the
ques
t for
acc
ount
abili
ty w
illbe
com
e a
maj
or d
istr
actio
nfr
om th
e re
al b
usi-
ness
of
teac
hing
and
lear
ning
.Ju
stif
icat
ion
for
thes
ene
gativ
e vi
ews
ofas
-se
ssm
ent a
nd a
ccou
ntab
ility
isse
en in
the
1970
-71
Iow
a ca
se in
whi
cha
scho
ol d
istr
ict r
e-fu
sed
to r
enew
the
cont
ract
of
a te
ache
r w
hoha
d be
en te
achi
ng th
ere
sinc
e i9
60. T
here
a-so
n sp
ecif
ied
was
that
her
stu
d,,n
ts'
scor
es o
nth
e Io
wa
Tes
t of
Bas
icSk
ills
and
the
Iow
a T
est
of E
duca
tiona
l Dev
elop
men
tw
ere
too
low
. The
Supr
eme
Cou
rt d
eclin
edto
rev
iew
the
deci
sion
and
left
sta
ndin
ga
Cou
rt o
f A
ppea
ls d
ecis
ion
that
eva
luat
ing
a te
ache
r on
the
basi
s of
her
stud
ents
' tes
tsc
ol-e
s is
a r
easo
nabl
e ex
erci
se o
fsc
hool
boa
rd a
utho
rity
. The
Supr
eme
Cou
rt's
deci
sion
in th
isca
se c
ould
hav
e co
nsid
erab
le in
-fl
uenc
e on
fut
ure
attit
udes
of
teac
hers
tow
ard
educ
atio
nal a
sses
smen
t and
acco
unta
bilit
y.T
he f
ollo
win
g ite
ms
repr
esen
t som
e of
the
conc
erns
exp
ress
ed b
y te
ache
rs a
ndth
eir
orga
niza
tions
:
Pape
rwor
k an
d re
cord
-kee
ping
requ
irem
ents
of
acco
unta
bilit
y w
illre
sult
in b
usyw
ork
and
decr
ease
avai
labl
e in
stru
ctio
nal t
ime.
Perf
orm
ance
con
trac
ting
so f
ar h
asbe
en a
fai
lure
and
has
dam
aged
the
repu
tatio
n of
acc
ount
abili
ty.
A p
ublic
clim
ate
in w
hich
sou
nded
ucat
ion
is a
ll bu
t im
poss
ible
will
plac
e m
ore
of s
ocie
ty's
fai
lure
sat
the
educ
ator
's d
oors
tep
failu
res
with
whi
ch e
duca
tors
will
be
unab
leto
cop
e.M
any
impo
rtan
t goa
ls o
f ed
ucat
ion
cann
ot b
e as
sess
ed u
ntil
stud
ents
hav
egr
adua
ted.
By
emph
asiz
ing
obje
ctiv
em
easu
rem
ent,
atte
ntio
n w
ill o
nly
befo
cuse
d on
thos
e le
arni
ngsk
ills
whi
chca
n be
eas
ily m
easu
red.
Em
phas
is o
n m
easu
rabl
epe
rfor
man
cew
ill te
nd to
stif
le a
nd r
etar
din
nova
tive
teac
hing
eff
orts
whi
char
e ne
cess
ary
toke
ep p
ace
with
the
rapi
dly
chan
ging
need
s of
soc
iety
.T
he a
ttem
pt to
hol
d di
ffer
ent
educ
atio
nal l
evel
s ac
coun
tabl
e w
illcr
eate
con
flic
t whe
re h
arm
ony
ises
sent
ial.
In F
ebru
ary
197:
3. th
ebo
ard
of d
irec
tors
of
the
Nat
iona
l Edu
catio
nA
ssoc
iatio
n un
ani-
mou
sly
appr
oved
a de
clar
atio
n on
edu
catio
nal
acco
unta
bilit
y an
d au
thor
ized
four
imm
edia
test
eps
to f
ight
ove
rsim
plif
ied
appr
oach
es to
ac-
coun
tabi
lity.
The
ste
psar
e:
1. a
sta
te-b
y-st
ate
anal
ysis
of
"har
dda
ta-
to id
entif
yW
her
e th
e da
nger
sno
w e
xist
coor
dina
tion
amon
g N
EA
stat
e an
dlo
cal a
ffili
ates
to d
evel
opan
act
ion
plan
at a
ll le
vels
with
posi
tive
impl
icat
ions
that
will
pla
cete
ache
rsin
the
lead
ersh
ip r
ule
3. in
vest
igat
ion
ofpo
ssib
ilitie
s fo
rin
itiat
ing
lega
l act
ion
chal
leng
ing
mis
guid
ed a
ccou
ntab
ility
rul
es4.
mod
ific
atio
n of
nat
iona
lan
d st
ate
legi
slat
ion
lead
ing
to p
ositi
vepr
ogra
ms
of a
ccou
ntab
ility
for
qual
ity e
duca
tion.
NE
A P
resi
dent
Cat
heri
neB
arre
tt pr
aise
dth
e bo
crd
actio
nas
".
. mos
t sig
nifi
cant
inte
rms
of th
e re
alco
ncer
ns o
f ou
r m
embe
rshi
p."
She
furt
her
note
d "C
ompu
lsio
nab
out a
ccou
nt-
abili
ty in
edu
catio
n ha
sre
ache
d cr
isis
prop
or-
tions
in a
t lea
st 3
0st
ates
and
is s
prea
ding
fast
to a
ll 50
."T
each
ers
natio
nwid
e w
illre
spon
d ha
ppily
to a
ccou
ntab
ility
whe
nth
ey b
ecom
e au
ton-
omou
s en
ough
to h
ave
part
insh
apin
g st
and-
ards
for
cer
tific
atio
nan
d de
term
inin
gcu
rric
ulum
. We
will
be
acco
unta
ble
whe
nou
rkn
owle
dge
abou
t the
nee
dsof
you
ngst
ers
insc
hool
bec
omes
a pa
rt o
f pl
anni
ng th
e to
tal
educ
atio
nal s
truc
ture
. Unt
ilth
en, g
over
n-m
enta
l bod
ies
and
adm
inis
trat
ors
will
hav
eto
bear
the
resp
onsi
bilit
y.St
uden
ts a
nd te
ache
rsw
ill n
o lo
nger
be
vict
imiz
edby
a s
impl
istic
appr
oach
to a
con
cept
that
has
caug
ht th
epu
blic
fan
g."
NE
A R
epor
ter,
Vol
. 12,
No.
2,
Mar
ch 1
973,
p. 1
.
15
_..1
1111
11
how
the
conf
ers
view
the
conc
ept o
fas
sess
men
tan
d ac
coun
tabi
lity
16
The
con
fere
es a
gree
d th
at a
ver
y po
sitiv
eou
tgro
wth
of
the
conc
ept i
s th
e ne
cess
ity to
defi
ne e
duca
tion
its d
irec
tion,
app
roac
hes,
and
outc
omes
. The
y co
nced
ed it
cou
ld p
oten
-tia
lly c
hang
e m
anag
eria
l opi
nion
s re
gard
ing
how
org
aniz
atio
ns o
pera
te. T
he g
roup
als
o as
-se
rted
that
, in
Flor
ida
and
othe
r st
ates
whe
reva
riou
s st
rate
gies
of
acco
unta
bilit
y ar
e be
ing
succ
essf
ully
impl
emen
ted,
a v
ery
posi
tive
type
man
ager
ial s
yste
m w
as in
ope
ratio
n pr
ior
toco
nsid
erat
ion
of a
ny to
ols
or s
trat
egie
s of
ac-
coun
tabi
lity.
In
inst
ance
s w
here
acc
ount
abili
tyis
bei
ng u
sed
as a
n an
ti-co
llect
ive
barg
aini
ngor
ant
i-te
nure
dev
ice,
it is
unde
rsta
ndab
le th
atth
e co
ncep
t is
view
ed w
ith s
uspi
cion
. Thi
sno
tion
was
exp
ress
ed b
y C
ongr
essm
an J
ohn
Bra
dem
as w
hen
he d
escr
ibed
acc
ount
abili
ty a
sa
way
of
poin
ting
apu
nish
ing
fing
er a
t som
e-on
e, p
artic
ular
ly a
t tea
cher
s.T
he c
onfe
rees
sur
mis
ed th
at th
e or
gani
zed
teac
hing
pro
fess
ion
wou
ld r
espo
nd p
ositi
vely
to th
e co
ncep
t if
it m
ade
the
clas
sroo
mte
ache
r's r
espo
nsib
ility
mor
e ex
rlic
itra
ther
than
em
phas
ized
thei
r fa
ilure
s.
As
a re
sult
of th
e co
nfer
ence
del
iber
atio
ns,
the
conf
eree
s co
nclu
ded:
Bec
ause
of
the
man
y va
riab
les
that
affe
ct th
e ou
tcom
es o
f st
uden
ts'
educ
atio
nal e
xper
ienc
es, t
he p
robl
ems
of s
epar
atin
g th
e ef
fect
s of
dif
fere
ntte
ache
rs a
nd a
dniin
istr
at"r
s, in
flue
nce
of p
aren
ts, a
nd o
ut-o
f-sc
noui
expe
rien
ces
nega
te h
oldi
ng in
divi
dual
teac
hers
tota
lly a
ccou
ntab
le f
orst
uden
t fai
lure
s.
Tea
cher
s' c
once
rns
gro
A th
eir
defi
nitio
ns o
f ac
coun
tal-
wity
whi
chpa
rtly
res
ult f
rom
the
man
ner
in w
hich
they
hol
d st
uden
ts a
ccou
ntab
le.
Acc
ount
abili
ty c
an p
oten
tially
for
cecl
oser
rel
atio
nshi
ps a
rnen
g al
l lev
els
ofth
e ed
ucat
iona
l ent
erpr
ise
as th
eyfo
cus
on c
omm
on g
oals
of
stud
ent
lear
ning
.A
ccou
ntab
ility
can
pro
mot
e th
eim
port
ance
of
pare
nts
and
com
mun
ities
os a
n in
tegr
al p
art o
f th
eto
tal
educ
atio
nal e
ffor
t ina
smuc
h as
sele
ctio
n of
lear
ner
obje
ctiv
es a
ndes
tabl
ishm
ent o
f pr
iori
ties
are
emph
asiz
ed.
Acc
ount
abili
ty c
an s
timul
ate
the
sear
chfo
r m
ore
effi
cien
t and
eff
ectiv
e w
ays
ofpr
oduc
ing
lear
ning
and
an
obje
ctiv
ere
exam
inat
ion
of e
duca
tiona
l pra
ctic
esan
d pr
oced
ures
.A
ccou
ntab
ility
can
con
ceiv
ably
impr
ove
com
mun
icat
ion
betw
een
scho
ols
and
com
mun
ities
as
a re
sult
of s
choo
l boa
rds
and
educ
ator
s co
rrob
orat
ing
to c
lari
fypr
oces
s an
d pe
rfcr
man
c6(.
4ije
ctiv
es a
ndre
late
eff
orts
in te
rms
of r
esul
ts.
Acc
ount
abili
ty c
an p
rom
ote
Parl
yd
is.g
n4se
s of
lear
ning
def
icie
ncie
s in
the
clas
srou
nt a
nd p
rovi
de a
bas
is f
orin
divi
dual
izin
g in
stru
ctio
n.T
each
er in
-ser
vice
pro
gram
s de
sign
edto
pro
vide
ski
lls d
irec
tly r
elat
ed to
lear
ner
need
s ca
n ev
olve
fro
m^c
ount
abili
ty.
Inst
ruct
iona
l mat
eria
lsca
u be
sel
ecte
don
the
basi
s of
rel
atio
nshi
pto
iden
tifie
dle
arne
r ne
eds.
As
a re
sult
of a
ccou
ntab
ilit.N
,te
ache
r-tr
aini
ng in
stitu
tions
shou
ldsh
ift e
mph
asis
fro
m th
eac
cum
ulat
ion
of r
equi
re0
cred
itsto
the
acqu
isiti
onof
req
uire
d sk
ills.
In a
ny s
yste
m o
fac
coun
tabi
lity,
eac
hpa
rtic
ipan
t in
the
educ
atio
nal
proc
ess
shou
ld b
e he
ld a
ccou
ntab
leon
ly f
or
thos
e ed
ucat
iona
l out
com
esth
at c
an b
eaf
fect
ed b
y hi
s ow
n ac
tions
or d
ecis
ions
.T
he e
xten
t to
whi
ci'
an in
divi
dual
educ
ator
is e
xpec
ted
to e
ffec
tou
tcom
essh
ould
be
empi
rica
lly d
eter
min
edby
anal
yzin
g re
sults
obt
aine
d fr
omal
lpe
.3on
nel w
orki
ng in
com
para
ble
circ
umst
ance
s.E
nlig
hten
ed m
anag
emen
tte
ams
and
hum
anis
tic m
anag
eria
l pri
ncip
les
are
requ
isite
s fo
r su
cces
sful
impl
emen
tatio
n
of a
ny s
yste
m o
f ac
coun
tabi
lity.
Acc
ount
abili
ty s
houl
d fa
cilit
ate
the
esta
blis
hmen
t of
obje
ctiv
e an
deq
uita
ble
syst
ems
for
eval
uatin
gte
ache
rs.
A c
lear
sta
tem
ent o
f go
alc.
,an
dob
ject
ive-
, is
criti
cal f
or te
ache
rev
alua
tion.
Inf
orm
atio
n ob
tain
edth
roug
h e
valu
atio
n sh
ould
only
be
used
to s
uppl
y fe
edba
ck f
or th
epu
rpos
e of
enha
ncin
g pr
ofes
sior
ml g
row
th.
8 LaJ
CO
rI
1111
1110
4g1
i.
,*".
71'
a
Aes
41IC
A-A
-
ix
wha
t nds
todo
ne
18
All
e .n
fere
es a
gree
d th
at a
ccou
ntab
ility
is a
via
ble
conc
ept t
hat h
olds
eno
rmou
s po
tent
ial f
or A
mer
ican
educ
atio
n. H
owev
er. t
hey
real
ized
that
muc
h ha
s to
he
done
if th
e co
ncep
t is
to b
ecom
e fu
nctio
nal o
n a
natio
n-w
ide
scal
e.So
me
of th
e ap
proa
ches
whi
ch n
eed
to b
e un
dert
aken
are:
The
IO
ffic
e of
Edu
catio
n al
ong
with
var
ious
foun
datio
ns s
houl
d in
itiat
e a
mas
sive
res
earc
han
d di
ssem
inat
ion
effo
rt o
n ex
empl
ary
acco
unta
bilit
y m
odel
s.A
cor
ps o
f pe
ople
kno
wle
dgea
ble
abou
t the
conc
ept s
houl
d be
iden
tifie
d in
eac
h st
ate
and
com
mis
sion
ed to
be
com
mun
icat
ors
in th
edi
ssem
inat
ion
effo
rts_
I.:f
fort
s m
ust h
e in
tens
ifie
d to
app
eal t
o th
eor
gani
zed
teac
hing
pro
fess
ion
rath
er th
anin
divi
dual
teac
hers
. The
logi
cal a
nd p
ositi
veco
nseq
uenc
es o
f ac
coun
tabi
lity
mus
t be
defi
ned_
In a
dditi
on to
pub
licat
ions
, eff
orts
tow
ard
diss
emin
atio
n sh
ould
incl
ude
pers
onal
con
tact
eith
er o
n th
e ba
sis
of r
eque
sts
by s
choo
ldi
stri
cts
or p
repl
anne
d ar
ea c
onfe
renc
es_
The
Nat
iona
i ins
titut
e of
Edu
catio
nan
dfo
unda
tions
with
edu
catio
nal a
ffili
ates
sho
uld
enco
urag
e te
st a
nd m
easu
rem
ent d
evel
oper
s to
spon
sor
prog
ram
s fo
r th
e pu
rpos
e of
hel
ping
the
publ
ic a
nd th
e pr
ofes
sion
cor
rect
ly in
terp
ret
data
pro
duce
d by
var
ious
mea
sure
men
t dev
ices
_
r
*IP
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e, to
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esea
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Prog
ram
; and
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n. G
radu
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John
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Irct
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nnov
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e Pr
ogra
m-:
11. F
rank
Bro
wn
Dtr
t.cfo
r. I
nfor
mat
ion
and
Serv
ices
Pro
gram
Cha
rles
L. W
illis
Prog
rupr
i ()j
eer
Jam
,. P.
S,w
artz
hoff
Con
((:
nd A
ss;s
tant
Tra
Air
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