DOCUMENT RESUME ED 045 079 AUTHOR TITLE INSTITUTION D.C… · 2013-10-24 · ED 045 079. AUTHOR...

ED 045 079

AUTHORTITLEINSTITUTION

PUB DATENOTE

AVAILABLE FRCM

EDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORS

ABSTRACT

DOCUMENT RESUME

JC 710 007

Yarrington, Roger, Ed.International Development of the Junior College Tdea.American Association of Junior Colleges, Washingtcn,D.C.70300p.; Collection of articles reprinted from theJunior College JournalAmerican Association of Junior Colleges, One DupontCircle, N W or Washington, D.C. 20036 (%2.50)

EDRS price MF-$1.25 HC Not Available from EDRS.*Comparative Education, Cooperative Programs,Developing Nations, Educational Needs, *poreianCountries, *International Education, *InternationalPrograms, *Junior Colleges

This document is a reprint of the report of theAmerican Association of Junior Colleges 1970 International Assemblyand a selecticn et articles that have appeared in the Junior CollegeJournal since 1964. The purpose is to bring together a summary ofrecent discussions on the role of the junior college in the field ofinternational education. With the dramatic growth of the juniorcollege in recent years, there is a great desire to explore how thejunior college idea can be adapted to the needs of other countries.The nations discussed in this bock are: Japan, Canada, Taiwan,Jordan, Iran, Ceylon, Dominican Republic, India, South America,Britain, and Norway. The Shell Companies Foundation, Inc. assisted inthe publishing of this book. [Pecause of marginal reproducibility oforiginal, this document is not available in hard copy.] (Author/CA)

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. EDUCATION& WELFARE

Na OFFICE OF EDUCATIONTHIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED

Cg)EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON ORORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT. POINTS OFVIEW OR OPINIONS STATED DO NOT NECES-SARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDU-CATION POSITION OR POLICY

mg*1.

Q1..LJ

V-R\AV_LOPM

1- L\COLLEC- ID

DNAL

OR

Articles reprinted from the Junior CollegeJournal. Including a report on the 1970 AAJCInternational Assembly.

EDITED BY ROGER YARRINGTON

American Association of Junior Colleges

UNIVERSITY OF CALIF.LOS ANGELES

JAN 18 1971

CLEARINGHOUSEFOR

JUNIOR COLLESE

Copyright 1970

American Association of Junior CollegesOne Dupont Circle, N.W.Washington, D.C. 20036

Printed in U.S.A.Price: $2.50

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS

COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED

BY THE /woe #404 Wig AmetlitAssoaroi eF Tvooz CoosTO ERIC AND ORGANIZATIONS OPERATINGUNDER AGREEMENTS WITH THE U.S. OFFICE OF

EDUCATION. FURTHER REPRODUCTION OUTSIDE

THE ERIC SYSTEM REQUIRES PERMISSION OF

THE COPYRIGHT OWNER."

CONTENTSPreface

Edmund J. Gleazer vii

IntroductionRoger Yarrington ix

I. DEVELOPMENTS IN OTHER COUNTRIESJapanPotential in Japan

Edmund J. Gleazer, Jr. and Leland L. Medsker . . . .1

Genesis of the Japanese Junior CollegeAkira Watanabe 11

Junior Colleges Blossom in JapanAkira Watanabe 19

About the Japanese Junior CollegesHiroshi Naito 27

Junior CollegesStrengthening Japan's EconomyCheryl-Lynn Walker 32

CanadaCanada's Evolving Two-Year Colleges

Lou S. Grant 41

The Community College in CanadaGordon Campbell 50

TaiwanCommunity Colleges for Taiwan: Are They Needed?

Robert N. Knoebel 61

JordanJunior Colleges in Jordan

John Gilliam 69

IranHigher Educational Developments in Iran

Karim Fatemi and Franklin T. Borrough 80

CeylonCeylon Begins a Junior College System

I.M.RA. lriyagolla 91 iii

iv

Dominican RepublicNew Junior College in Santa Domingo

Charles B. Green and Eduardo Cavallo R. 97

IndiaJunior Colleges Proposed in India

Shri K.L. Joshi 101

South America (Chile, Colombia, Peru, and Brazil)The Junior College Idea in South America

Joseph M. Jacobsen 120

BritainCommunity Colleges in Britain

Louis Eisenhauer 134

NorwayCentennial of Norway's People's Colleges

Kathryn Parke 141

II. IDEAS IN INTERNATIONAL EDUCATIONThe Story Is Beginning to Unfold

William G. Shannon 149

Exporting the Junior College IdeaCharles C. Collins 156

Developing Colleges for Developing CountriesDerek S. Singer 169

Where Do Junior Colleges Fit In?Harold Epstein 180

Our Common Challenge in International EducationJacob Canter 188

A Role in International EducationDaly C. Lavergne 196

Taking Inventory of Our Resources in Interna-tional Education

William L. Irvine 207

We Should Do More in International EducationW. Merle Hill 213

Educators from Abroad: Welcome!Donald E. Deyo 224

International Students and the Junior CollegeJohn J. Connolly 231

The Dilemma of Foreign Student AdmissionsF. George Elliott 237

Foreign Student Patterns in American Com-munity Colleges

Clive L. Grafton 246

F.I.T. Serving the World CommunityWilliam Leader 250

Colby's East Africa ProjectMargaret A. Kurtz 260

What One Small College Can DoW. Merle Hill 266

11I. THE BEGINNING OF A DIALOGReport of the 1970 AAJC International Assembly

Roger Yarrington 270

ew .AY .... - , ^ ..,.4 -'''

V

PREFACE

In 1970, its fiftieth anniversary year, the Ameri-can Association of Junior Colleges sponsored thefirst international assembly of persons interested ineducation at the junior college level. We had severalreasons- for undertaking such a meeting. Most im-portant, it seemed to be the next logical step in aseries of events. A number of American educatorsfamiliar with junior college development had madevarious studies and contacts in other countrieswhere there was interest in the two-year collegeidea. And a number of countries had demonstratedtheir interest by sending educators to the U.S. tostudy the development of junior college education.Many educators from the U.S. and from abroadseemed to feel that the need for middle manpowerdevelopment in other countries could be assisted bybroader understanding of the American communityjunior college idea and how it has developed. Also, vii

viii

1970 was the year our convention was to be in Hono-lulu. The East-West Center at the University ofHawaii was willing to assist as host for a meetingof educators from the Pacific area. And severalfoundations and agencies of the U.S. governmentwere interested in offering assistance. The meetingwas a success in opening a new dialog. In this bookare some of the articles from the Junior CollegeJournal which served as forerunners of that dialog,as well as a report of the assembly itself. We sin-cerely hope the channels of communication that havebeen opened can be kept operative and that otherchannels can soon be created.

Edmund J. Gleazer, Jr.Executive DirectorAmerican Association of Junior Colleges

INTRODUCTION

The first issue of the Junior College Journal, pub-lished a little over forty years ago, carried an articletitled "The Junior College in Greece." Other earlyissues included articles on junior college develop-ments in India, the Philippines, and other countries.2More recently the Journal has printed many articleson developments in other countries and on ideas ininternational education that would be of interest tojunior college educators in the U.S.

This book reprints a selection of articles that haveappeared since 1964. In addition there is reprintedhere a report on the International Assembly spon-sored by the American Association of Junior Col-leges and held February 26-March 1 at the East-West Center in Honolulu.

The purpose of the book is to bring together intoone source a summary of the discussion that hastaken place in recent years on the role of the juniorcollege in the field of international education. It is ix

hoped that the availability of such a resource bookwill help promote continued interest and activity inthis field. We appreciate the assistance of the ShellCompanies Foundation, Inc., in making it possible topublish this book.

It seems apparent that development of social andeconomic pressures in other countries are creatingthe kinds of educational needs to which the juniorcollege has successfully responded in the UnitedStates. This thought has occurred to many personsin the U.S. and other countries. And, with thedramatic growth of the junior college in recentyearsparticularly in the United States, Japan, andCanadathere has developed an increased desire toexplore the ways in which the two-year college ideacan be adapted and applied to the needs of othercountries. The following articles give an indicationof the point at which the discussion stood, as re-flected in the columns of the Junior College Journal,as the American Association of Junior Colleges ob-served its fiftieth anniversary year.

Authors of the articles are identified, as follows:

Edmund J. Gleazer, Jr., is executive director ofthe American Association of Junior Colleges, andcoauthor Leland L. Medsker is director of the Centerfor Research and Development in Higher Educationat the University of California, Berkeley.

Akira Watanabe is director of the Japanese Pri-vate Junior College Association and president ofFukuyama Women's Junior College, Japan.

Hiroshi Naito is president of the Junior Collegeof Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan.

Cheryl-Lynn Walker is a former graduate studentat the University of Minnesota.

Lou S. Grant is assistant dean of instruction atVancouver City College, British Columbia, Canada.

Gordon Campbell is professor of education, Uni-versity of Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada.

Robert M. Knoebel is director of the Bureau ofCommunity Colleges, Department of Public Instruc-

x tion, Pennsylvania.

John Gillman is associate dean of the School ofBusiness Administration, Texas Technological Col-lege, Lubbock, Texas.

Karim Fatemi is dean of Iran Girls' College,Tehran, Iran, and Franklin T. Borroughs is chair-man of the English Department.

I.M.R.A. Iriyagolla is the minister of educationand cultural affairs of Ceylon.

Charles B. Green is higher education adviser forthe U.S. Agency for International Development Mis-sion in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, andEduardo Cavallo R. is the director of the Institutode Estudios Superiores in Santo Domingo.

Shri K. L. Joshi is vice-chancellor of the Univer-sity of Indore, India.

Joseph M. Jacobsen is foreign student adviser atthe City College of San Francisco, California.

Louis Eisenhauer is an associate professor atCatonsville Community College in Maryland.

Kathryn Parke is librarian at the State Universityof New York Agricultural and Technical Collegeat Cobleskill.

William G. Shannon is associate executive directorof the American Association of Junior Colleges.

Charles C. Collins is associate director of theJunior College Leadership Program at the Univer-sity of California, Berkeley.

Derek S. Singer was director of the former AAJCFaculty Development Project.

Harold Epstein is vice-president of the Instituteof International Education, New York.

Jacob Canter is visiting professor of law anddiplomacy, Tufts University, Medford, Massachu-setts.

Daly C. Lavergne is director of the U.S. Agencyfor International Development, Mission to the So-mali Democratic Republic, Mogadiscio, Somalia.

William L. Irvine is president of Vermont College,Vermont.

W. Merle Hill is president of Columbia College,Missouri.

"""'" _,..

Donald E. Deyo is president of Dean Junior Col-lege, Massachusetts.

John J. Connolly is dean of Hartford Junior Col-lege, Bel Air, Maryland.

F. George Elliott is assistant professor of educa-tion at Sonoma State College, California.

Clive L. Grafton is assistant professor of highereducation, University of Southern California.

William Leader is dean for instructional affairsat the Fashion Institute of Technology, New York.

Margaret A. Kurtz is instructor of the SecretarialDepartment, Colby Junior College, New Hampshire.

The contributions of these authors as well as theeditorial assistance of Tina Britz and Marcie Avramare gratefully acknowledged.

Roger YarringtonEditorJunior College Journal

Mills, Minnie B. "The Junior College in Greece."Junior College Journal. October 1930, pp. 17-19.

2For examples see the following Journal articles:Buckish, Walter G. M. "Private Junior Colleges in the

Philippines." March 1936, pp. 288-293.Caliver, Ambrose. "Development of the Community

College in the Virgin Islands." November 1951, pp. 144-149.

Eells, Walter Crosby. "Junior College Development inJapan." September 1951, pp. 3-11.

. "Junior College Education in Thailand."March 1952, pp. 380-381.

. "Junior Colleges in Japan." September 1957,pp. 33-34.

".Junior Colleges in the Republic of thePhilippines." December 1951, pp. 189-192.

Fields, Ralph R. "Community. College Counterparts inEurope." October 1952, pp. 77-86.

Hyde, Eva Louise. "A Junior College in Brazil."March 1947, pp. 286-289.

Johnson, B. Lamar. "Is the Junior College Idea Usefulfor Other Countries?" September 1961, pp. 3-8.

Mitchener, R. D. "Junior Colleges in Canada." March1960, pp. 400-412.

Nishioka, Norton 0. "The Japanese Junior College."November 1955, pp. 149-158.

Xi i Odgers, George Allen. "A Junior College Movement in

India." October 1933, pp. 3-7.Percival, W. P. "Canada Plans for Junior Colleges."

January 1944, pp. 195-196.Richardson, Otis Dunbar. "Crisis in the Norwegian

Folk High Schools." December 1953, pp. 225-232.Watanabe, Akira. "An Analytical Study of the Present

Status of Junior Colleges in Japan." March 1960, pp.390-395.

"Reform Problems of Present Junior Collegesin Japan." October 1957, pp. 79-85.

By Edmund J. Gleazer, Jr., and Leland L.Medsker

POTENTIAL IN JAPAN

Japanese junior colleges, like their American cous-ins, face some tremendous opportunities in the yearsimmediately ahead.

Recent developments in social patterns, industrialgrowth, and educational aspirations have placed thejunior colleges squarely before a door of opportunitythat may or may not open, depending on several pos-sibilities. Some of these possibilities can be realizedby the Japanese junior colleges themselves. Otherswill depend on legislation and public attitudes.

These impressions were recorded in October, 1963,during a brief assignment in Japan. We do notpose as experts on Japanese higher education, but wedo feel we can relay some ideas gained during ourvisit which will be interesting to Journal readers,particularly, perhaps, because some interestingparallels exist between the present situation in Japanand some parts of the United States. 1

A word about the assignment itself is perhapsfirst in order. For some years there had been in-formal discussion between officials in the Associa-tion of Private Junior Colleges in Japan and theAmerican Association of Junior Colleges regardingthe possibility of a team visiting Japan to assessthe development of the junior college association.In late summer, 1963, a specific invitation was ex-tended to AAJC and arrangements were made forus to spend approximately three weeks in the coun-try during October. These arrangements were madepossible through a grant from the Ford Founda-tion with the understanding that we would under-take to discuss the current and potential role of jun-ior colleges with individuals representing a varietyof Japanese agencies and assess this role within thecontext of higher education in that country.

Japanese higher education is built on top of awell-developed system of elementary and secondaryeducation organized on a 6-3-3 basis similar to manysystems in the United States. Education is com-pulsory and almost totally universal through thejunior high school. At the upper secondary level itis far from universal but is becoming increasinglyso. In 1960, only 60 per cent of lower secondarygraduates entered upper secondary schools, whereasin 1961 the percentage was 66. In fact, this per-centage has increased steadily since 1957 and natur-ally has implications for higher education. On theother hand, absolute numbers of students in thelower schools are decreasing due to a gradual de-cline in the nation's birth rate since World War II.

Demographic data. In April, 1962, there were 591collegiate institutions in Japan of which 321 wereclassified as junior colleges and 270 as universities.'

A definite characteristic of Japanese higher edu-cation is the predominance of private institutionsand of students enrolled in them. Of the 270 uni-versities in existence in 1963, 164 or 60 per centwere privately controlled, and of the 321 juniorcolleges operating at that time, 252 or 78 per cent

2 were private. Of the more than 600,000 students

enrolled in universities almost 394,000 or approxi-mately 65 per cent were in private institutions. Theprevalence of private education, incidentally, is alsomarked in the upper secondary schools. Of all stu-dents (some 2.65 million) enrolled in upper secon-dary schools in 1961, almost one third were in pri-vate institutions.

Cultural factors. The professional and businesslife of the nation is largely carried on by men. Therole of women is still oriented primarily toward mar-riage and homemaking. Although women are oftenengaged in gainful employment before marriage,they tend to leave the labor market after they aremarried. The number of women seeking a univer-sity education is comparatively small. On the otherhand, many young girls are likely to seek a two-yearcollege education which gives them further back-ground in general education and at the same timeprepares them for home responsibilities which theytend to assume soon after graduation from juniorcollege. Of all students enrolled in universities in1961, only 14 per cent were women, whereas the re-verse was true in junior colleges where about 68 percent were women.

Another. factor is the great influence which theprestige universities have upon the aspirations andapparent status of men. A young man's initial posi-tion in business or government, and indeed his latersuccess and station in life, appear to depend primar-ily upon the rank of the university to which he is ad-mitted. This situation results in a lack of intereston the part of men in any institution other than auniversity, and the greater the prestige of the uni-versity, the better. In any event, there appears to belittle interest in junior colleges on the part of men.

Still another societal influence relates to whatmight be called an underdeveloped professionalstatus which is reflected in the lack of specializationthrough graduate education. Of the total universityenrollment in 1961 of well over 600,000 students,only some 17,000 were in graduate schools. Even inthe older prestige universities which were visited

i

and these are the institutions in which most of thegraduate education is carried onthe proportion ofgraduate to undergraduate students was small.

Access to Higher Mediu

If only one phenomenon concerning Japanesehigher education were to be singled out for discus-sion, it undoubtedly would relate to the matter ofstudent access to higher education. The compara-tively large number of colleges and universities, to-gether with the fact that upper secondary educationis not universal, might suggest that the young Jap-anese man or woman should find it relatively easyto enter college. Such is not the case, however, duein part to the fact that the demand for admissiontends to concentrate on a few of the prestige univer-sities, and on certain programs within them, but alsoto the fact that higher education in general is rec-ognized increasingly as an important asset to the in-dividual and to the nation in its ability to move for-ward politically and economically.

The admission requirement for higher institutionsis graduation from upper secondary school or itsequivalent. However, this is only the minimum re-quirement. Because there are more applicants thanspace, each university conducts independent en-trance examinations, primarily of the achievementtype. The Ministry of Education, through a Uni-versity Entrance Examination Council, exercisessome degree of control as to the nature and timingof these examinations. While data on the numberof applicants for admission and their success are notalways consistent, some idea of the problem may begained from the fact that in 1961 there were morethan 800,000 applicants to universities' of whomonly some 168,000, or approximately 21 per cent,were successful.1

So desirous are many of the candidates to entercollege that they repeat the examinations the nextyear, or in many instances, for several successive

4 years. (Of all students admitted to college in 1960,

only two-thirds were graduated from the secondaryschool that year) . During the intervening year (s)most of the individuals enroll in private prepara-tory schools, the number of which is increasingrapidly. A Japanese educator has said :

Japan formally has a 6-3-3-4 system of schools, likemany of the school systems in America. But as severalJapanese educationists have pointed out, the system isreally a "6-3-3-X-4" system, where the "X" refers to aperiod when the senior high school graduate spends timeon his own (ranging from a few months to several years)preparing for college entrance examinations.4

In the same article the author forcefully describesJapan's "examination hell." The tragedy is that thesituation is likely to worsen as the competition forcollege admission is intensified by growing economicprosperity. One hopeful sign on the horizon is thatplans are now under way for one national unifiedexamination which would replace the individual ex-aminations of each university. This would enablestudents to prepare for one exam only (and wouldinstitute certain other controls) although it wouldnot, of course, eliminate competition for scarceplaces in college.

The huger Cage System

Of the 321 junior colleges in Japan in 1963, 252were private, forty-one were prefectural, and twen-ty-eight were national. One hundred seventy-fivewere women's colleges.

This type of college was introduced, by name, intoJapan in 1949 by the late Waiter C. Eells. The origi-nal colleges and the ones established subsequentlywere given temporary legal status as junior collegesby the Dieta status that still exists despite effortsto get the Diet to make them part of the permanentsystem of education. A majority of the private jun-ior colleges are attached to a high school. A few in-stitutions maintain junior colleges along with afour-year college, although when this is the case,both institutions are unitary in the sense that the 5

junior college is not the lower division of the four-year college.

For the most part, junior colleges in Japan maybe characterized as terminal institutions. Only alimited number of their graduates transfer to four-year colleges. In fact, the incidence of transferfrom one college to anothereven among four-yearcollegesis almost nil.

Since the majority of junior colleges are forwomen who plan to and usually do marry soon afterjunior college, it is not surprising that home eco-nomics should be an important part of the curricu-lum. It was a delight to visit innumerable classes infood preparation, nutrition, clothing, flower arrange-ment, and related work and to find classrooms fullof lively, interested girls being taught well with theaid of seemingly good teachers and good equipment.

But while home economics forms the base of theterminal program, there are almost invariably alimited number of academic specialties in each col-lege. Often, one of the specialties is in literature.Art is also popular. In private junior colleges formen, the base program likewise is some terminalcurriculum such as agriculture, automotive mechan-ics, electronics, photography, or food processing.

New Techical CI Neges

The majority of the junior colleges are boardinginstitutions and provide residence facilities for partof the student body. Since most of them are locatedin cities, however, many students live at home.

A new type of institution similar to a juniorcollege has come into existence recently. It isknown as a five-year technical college and is a com-bination of the three upper secondary years plustwo additional years beyond. Authorized by the Dietin 1961 in recognition of the need for training tech-nicians, these schools now number thirty-four andenroll more than 15,000 students. The curriculum isintegrated in a way that combines general and tech-

6 nical education through the five years with greater

h..0,c.,..,.....:

specialization in the last two years. So far, thefields of training are limited to mechanical, electrical,civil, chemical, and architectural phases of semipro-fessional work. It was reported that the ministrymoved to establish and encourage these technicalcolleges upon the insistence by industry that techni-cians were badly needed.

The junior colleges are greatly concerned abouttheir temporary legal status and are exerting con-siderable pressure in the Diet to give them perma-nent status. An opinion was expressed to thevisitors by government officials to the effect thatpermanent status would undoubtedly come eventu-ally; that the importance of the junior colleges asterminal institutions, especially for women, is wellrecognized and hence that their recognized value tothe nation would certainly never permit their re-moval from the educational scene. But junior collegeofficials claim, and with considerable justification,that lack of permanent status is bad for prestigepurposes .and that this affects adversely the rolethese institutions can play. It is to be hoped thatthrough the Ministry of Education, the governmentmay assess the situation soon.

The future of Japan can be characterized by ad-vancing technology, an increasing awareness of thesocial needs of its people, a continuing trend towardthe adoption of western cultures, an increasingawareness of the value of education both to the in-dividual and the nation, and an increasing intereston the part of secondary school graduates to con-tinue their education. If any or all these charac-teristics obtain, it seems reasonable that they willresult in several possible educational developments.

Possible Ilevelspoisits

In the first place, there will undoubtedly be a de-mand for easier access to higher education. It isquestionable that with a growing recognition of thevalue of higher education the road blocks nowplaced in its way through the present examination 7

,a004.14.'

01.........0==..0.1.11111=11111g./Mat\411116 41111.

system will be tolerated indefinitely. At the veryleast there may well be a reform in the examinationsystem. It may also be, however, that new types ofmid-level institutions will be created which will ad-mit students on a more open basis than do the uni-versities and in so doing provide an opportunity forstudents to prove their ability to do post-secondarywork. As a matter of fact, it would not seem far-fetched if the preparatory schools, which today arelittle more than coaching schools for those who havefailed examinations, would themselves become bonafide educational institutions providing opportunityfor people to learn rather than merely to compete inexaminations. Whatever the development, it wouldseem that the pressures for more education for morepeople would inevitably reach the point where accessto higher education would be easier and governedby human values more than is the case today.

A second possible development, related to the firstone, is that new types of higher institutions arelikely to be created for special purposes. The recentdevelopment of the five-year technical colleges is agood example of how an institution was broughtinto being to meet a social need. It is possible thatas new needs are identified, other institutions willbe established. New needs may include semiprofes-sional training in business occupations as well as insuch fields as medical and social services.

It would appear that while the practice of wide-spread transfer from junior colleges to universitiesmay be some distance away, it could eventually be-come one means by which access to higher educationcould be expanded. This suggests that in time thepresent junior and technical colleges may becomecomprehensive in nature, providing outlets for bothstudents who will wish to pursue a university degreeand for those who are interested in only two yearsof college before marriage or employment.

In other words, it is entirely possible that eventu-8 ally the role of the junior college in Japan will differ

considerably from the somewhat narrow objectivesof the private junior colleges as they operate todayor of the newly established technical colleges. Sucha change is likely to be more in the nature of agradual evolution than a drastic revamping of edu-cation which would give the junior college a suddenand spectacular focus.

As one views the higher education scene in Japan,certain questions and possible steps come to mind.In the first place, there is the question of whetherthe manpower needs of the nation have really beenstudied carefully or, at least, whether they havebeen assessed as far as their implications for highereducation are concerned. It would seem, therefore,that an appraisal of available information of thiskind should be made and, if need be, a study initi-ated to assess the need for college-trained personnelin the many segments of Japanese society.

A second possible step is that of a thorough ap-praisal of the college admissions program as it oper-ates today. What are the real facts with respectto demand for and supply of collegiate opportuni-ties? What are the students like who are denied ad-mission each year? What eventually happens tothem when they are not admitted? From the pointof view of sheer economics, does the nation gain orlose by its present program?

Still a third step might well be that of some ex-perimentation with the transfer of students fromone type of higher institution to another. Some ex-ploration could determine whether mid-level insti-tutions could contribute to the flow of students fromsecondary schools to the university degree.

Since Japan and the United States have much incommon, there is little doubt that each can learnfrom the other. This suggests finally that it mightbe exceedingly profitable if some cooperative rela-tionships between Japanese and United States insti-tutions of higher education, as well as between pro-fessional associations in the two countries, could be 9

developed. Perhaps this would be especially helpfulin the case of junior colleges.

' Unpublished data from the Ministry of Education. Seealso Education in 1961, Annual Report of the Ministry ofEducation, Government of Japan, 1963.

= An applicant who applied to two universities was countedas two applicants, etc.

' Reports prepared by Daishiro Hidaka and others for theInternational Study of University Admissions, Frank Bowles,director, p. 18. See also Education in 1961, Japan, p. 98.

'Kobayashi, Victor N. "Japan's Examination Hell." TheEducational Forum 28:20; November, 1963.

10

li

1

By Akira Watanabe

GENESIS OF THEJAPANESE JUNIORCOLLEGE

Junior colleges were started in Japan in April,1950. They were unique institutions in our new de-mocracy. And they revolutionized our entire systemof traditional education.

Japanese junior colleges were put into a tryingsituation politically, socially, and educationally, inthe very process of gaining their existence. Article109 of the Current School Education Law made jun-ior colleges temporary higher institutions. Never-theless, they have made quite an impressive de-velopment leading to today's flowering prosperity.

Whenever we look at the developing Japanesejunior colleges, we cannot help recollecting the lateDr. Walter C. Hells, former education officer onGeneral MacArthur's staff in Tokyo after the war.He was indeed a leader. He gave birth to this uniqueinstitution of higher education in our land during aperiod of educational reform. Dr. Hells might be 11

12

i

E

called "the father of the Japanese junior colleges."There is no doubt that he took his ideas from

the junior colleges in the United States. His careeras executive secretary of the American Associationof Junior Colleges testifies to this more eloquentlythan anything else. The writer himself was honoredwith the privilege of translating into Japanese,"Why Junior College Terminal Education?" whichwas quite helpful at the very outset of the Japanesejunior college movement.

During these thirteen years our junior collegeshave been playing an important role in the democ-ratization of higher education, though being con-fronted with distressing needs such as revision ofthe School Education Law, betterment of employ-ment conditions, and construction of a desirableterminal curriculum, to say nothing of larger collegebudgets. In addition to these difficulties, the veryname of "tanki-daigaku," which literally means"short-term college," has tended to decrease theweight of junior colleges. This is the general feelingof the junior college people concerned. Thus, fromtime to time, academic-minded, high-brow personscriticize junior colleges as "half colleges," unworthyof being called "college," in the real sense of theword.

Corresponding to the strong demand from the im-pressively developing industrial world, the Ministryof Education tried to put the revision of the SchoolEducation Bill before the Diet for the third time in

TABLE lNumber of Junior Colleges Classijtat into Two Typosof afsn's mod Women's Mending to Voir Powders

Salami Mir MyattressIsil Iltss Total Total Nes Wows Taal 116ss Wawa Tar less Wows

INO 1411 17 10 1 182 al 711161 ISO 4 4 16 10 8 162 N 841162 223 7 7 37 N II 114 M OS1163 233 12 12 37 26 II 184 M IS1164 261 17 17 d1 N 14 113 N 181165 215 III III R O se NI N 106111141 US III III W N 13 204 N 1101167 249 III III 3P 17 12 211 N 11611168 327 21 II 37 O 14 Ye IN 181111611 2711 24 24 16 >w 14 210 11 1111

1160 2811 211 28 N 16 16 222 16 1321161 110 se se N 16 16 1121 11 11211411 306 se se Io ri 16 237 17 14011163 321 se se 16 WM N 167

M0 shove is seesediss to tlis otalistles report of Tetbaisal 114sssiiss intim Nisbet riassides sad Seism isms, KWfury .1 WW1& INS.

etiti

..:zx i

R0

^010S.R.G

.G.Sw

eysisiaS

G -

14.0t-38341=%

X=

ZI

.

44§

1

d de--aet.14.1:faeaaaaaaaa4.dda

a

EifiluillipiliaaiSE2pigiSi

t

u4e.e.:...4::.;

10: .....ze.nr4.74..10..4.

1A

..,.., - . . ..1

.-

....

.. .... ....

....

X

IX a i XIX

4

gag

g 2 11

i

..; a a da 23 a a a diig A 1F

z

1959.

The

proposal

was

to establish

junior

colleges

on a permanent

basis.

How

ever,

it also

aimed

at a

completely

new

establishment

of

specialized

voca-

tional

colleges,

called

"senkadaigaku,"

into

which

all

existing

junior

colleges

would

have

been

requiredto move

within

five

years,

beginning

in 1959.

This

experiment

was

opposed

by all

the

staff

of the

As-

sociation

of Private

Junior

Colleges

in Japan

whichis supported

by those

highly

interested

in the

democratization

of higher

education.

Naturally

this

resulted

in the

failure

ofthe

Ministry

of

Educationin gaining

approval

of the

bill.

It was

the

most

try-ing

time

for

the

Japanese

junior

colleges

during

these

thirteen

years.

13

14

Paradoxically, it may be said that this adversesituation stimulated our junior colleges to their pres-ent prosperity. The development of junior colleges,unique in the history of democratic higher education,is to be valued highly. Throughout Japan theseunique higher institutions have been increasing innumber and, consequently, the number of studentsadmitted annually has also increased. Tables I andII indicate the latest situation.

Our junior colleges are developing not only quan-titatively but also qualitatively. Above all is thecurricular improvement in terminal education. Chal-lenging efforts and endeavors are required in therealization of this essential purpose.

Tokyo Metropolitan Association of Private JuniorColleges, under which seventy-two junior collegesare united, has begun an extensive program of re-search. Next year Tokyo Metropolitan Office willhave a subsidy for the expense of staff researchamounting to y3,000,000, approximately equivalentto $8,333. This timely offer has given impetus toresearch in education activities.

Our junior colleges have gained increasing popu-larity among high school graduates desirous of hav-ing a college education in their own community. Bydint of this popularity, junior colleges have beendeveloping in almost all the local districts on pre-fectual level. They are now gradually extendingto comparatively smaller cities. In this trend, onemight well call them "people's colleges." We caneasily imagine how they are satisfying the earnestdesires of the high school graduates, especially thoseof young women, providing them with a variety ofcourses useful for their future work as better house-wives and mothers as well as office workers. At thepresent time, they have come to be a center ofwomen's higher education in the local community.Meanwhile they are trying to be a cultural center,too, providing extension courses of community serv-ice programs.

Junior colleges in Japan, contrasted with thosein the United States, are, to a great degree, terminal

institutions. This can be favorably interpreted asdemocratizing higher education in a local com-munity. And in consequence, only a small percent-age of transfer-minded students can avail them-selves of these institutions as a stepping-stone tofour-year colleges. At any rate, Japanese juniorcolleges are serving higher education through bothfunctionsterminal and preparatoryjust as theydo in the United States.

According to their background, the colleges areusually classified into national, public, and private.Table III indicates this situation. The writer is ofthe opinion that Japanese junior colleges are grow-ing rapidly as "sister colleges" of the Americanjunior colleges.

Generally speaking, Japanese junior colleges offerfew courses on a semiprofessional level. Bulletinanalysis demonstrates this fact. Some provide daycourses only and other evening courses only, whilestill others offer both courses. In connection withthis situation, our junior colleges can be classifiedas shown in Table IV. The writer assumes all thejunior colleges should provide both day and eveningcourses, if possible, for different kinds of students.It is quite clear that in this way they can contributefar more to both youth and adults.

The number of students to be admitted into vari-ous types of junior colleges annually is indicatedin Table V. However, private junior colleges usually

TABLE III*Number of Junior Colleges Classified into

Men's and Women's

Founder Men Women Total

National 28 28Public 25 16 41Private 95 157 252Sum Total 148 173 321

Data drawn from the synopsis of junior colleges, HigherEducation and Science Bureau, Ministry of Education, 1963. 15

16

TABLE IV'Day Gismo Oily Nailivenivi Come Ots, Day evasive Germneeds" Nu_ Mews Total Men Memos TMd

National 6 6 29 23Public 14 16 29 4 1 6 7 7Private 43 141 184 18 18 34 IS 60Sum Total 62 156 218 45 1 46 41 16 67

Data from the synopsis of Junior cellars, Higher education and Science Bureau, Ministry of edmatks, 1943.

admit more than their fixed number of students sothey can enlarge their budgets. Urgent demand byindustry for skillful technicians on the semiprofes-sional level stimulated the Ministry of Education togive some financial aid for the management of pri-vate technical junior colleges, excepting agriculturalones. This is heartily welcomed by the junior collegepeople in general.

Japanese junior colleges are still on a temporarybasis, as far as the School Education Law is con-cerned, despite their impressive development duringthese thirteen years. All the junior college peopleconcerned, particularly leaders of the Associationof Private Junior Colleges in Japan, repeatedly em-phasized the importance of establishing junior col-leges on a permanent basis through revising theSchool Education Law with respect to article 109which regulates junior colleges. This has not yetbeen solved due to rather complicated factors, whichinclude the difference of opinion held by members ofthe Diet and Ministry of Education, and also thetraditional concept of German-type academic col-leges.

Continued efforts are expected to come to a fruit-ful result in the current session of the Diet. Thisexpectation is supported by the increasing popular-ity of junior colleges throughout Japan.

There is also the problem of constructing a desir-able two-year terminal curriculum. Terminal stu-dents compose a major part of the Japanese junior

TABLE V°Plod Mentor of Modesto to B. Admitted intoJunior Colleges Accord* to Typos of Powesdoro

(ranoism atittal TagPosollor lloillisalle)Told

Hatimal 1110 TO MLg t:FM* TAN Me ON IAN 110 I 1.141 lMale IWO UXO WM Ma UN 7.4$ UAW UXO $7111Total 11.411 *$M 114410 9.111 IMO IOU $0.430 Ma AM

Data hoe Os onspolo of beam NOM IOW OlostOoto sial &Woo Itroug, Illalary of Mau" OK

colleges. This construction is a most importantproblem, directly influencing their learning on thesemiprofessional level. Some educators emphasizethe desirability of lengthening junior college coursesso that high school students can be admitted fromthe eleventh grade. With the enthusiastic demandfor technical Ocilla, industrial arts, and commercialarts, caused by the rapid development of the world,general education, an essential factor in higher edu-cation, is being neglected. Extremists contendrather boldly, "We see no use for this sort of edu-cation." Under the circumstances, general educationneeds to be stressed all the more.

Without general education junior colleges cannotbe a member of the higher education family. Need-less to say, such junior colleges are not worthy ofbeing called "college" in the real sense of the word.

Then, what are the successes of junior college inJapan ? As can be seen already in the above dis-cussion, they are contributing a great deal to thedemocratization of higher education, providingabundant opportunity for the high school graduatesin the local community. Most of the Japanese juniorcolleges are private. The major part of them are forwomen. Why are they so successful? They areevidently identified with the particular social andeducational situation into which young women areplaced. As already referred to, democratic Japandemands higher education for women all the moreas the years advance.

Junior colleges in Japan are pioneering in thediffusion of culture to many local communities allover Japan. They are contributing considerably tothe development of manpower both in youth andadults. In this sense they might rightly be calledan institute of manpower development in the localcommunity. Communities are proud to have theircolleges evaluated this way.Future M: is

With the increasing popularity of junior collegesamong the people and the united, continued efforts 17

of the leadership people concerned, the problem ofestablishing junior colleges on a permanent basisthrough revision of the current School EducationLaw is going to be solved, presumably, in this Forty-Third Ordinary Session of the Diet. The solution ofthis problem is expected to have a most desirableinfluence on all the problems present and future.With junior colleges established on a permanentbasis, the pride and the spirit of the junior collegepeople will be strengthened to an outstandingdegree.

According to Mr. M. Nakahara, general directorof the Association of Private Junior Colleges inJapan, approximately twenty junior colleges will beestablished during 1964.

Prediction is hazardous work, yet taking allthings into consideration, the future of the Japanesejunior college can be foretold in all the continuingdevelopment of democratic higher institutions. Theprospect of this unique institution is presumed to bebrighter as years go on. All the junior college peoplehere are looking forward to the promising future.

18

Ill

By Akira Watanabe

JUNIOR COLLEGESBLOSSOM IN JAPAN

June 17, 1964, will be kept in memory forever as one ofthe brightest and most delightful days in the history of thejunior college movement in Japan. On this day the RevisionBill of the School Education Law was passed by the Forty-Sixth Session of the Japanese Diet. The law gave long-awaitedrecognition of junior colleges, started in 1950, as full-fledgedhigher institutions of learning.

Drastic educational reforms in post-war Japan, motivatedby a desire for greater "democratization of people's educa-tion," resulted in a system in which the responsibility forhigher education was given to the four-year college. ManyJapanese colleges could not be easily reorganized intofour-year institutions, however, and thus 149 ofthem were allowed to function as temporary twoor three-year colleges. The late Walter C. Eel ls,former higher education officer on General DouglasMacArthur's staff in Tokyo, contributed greatly tothe birth of this unique college. His vision, vigor,efforts, and endeavors toward the democratizationof higher education for the new Japan, are qualities 19

20

greatly admired and appreciated by the Japanesepeople. His great contributions to our educationalsystem, have earned him the respected name,"Father of Japanese Junior Colleges."

Developing Junior Colleges

Although in great distress at their outset, juniorcolleges have been making unparalleled strides inJapanese education. Presently there are 413 juniorcolleges in Japan, with an enrollment of 67,841. Thisis sixty-seven more colleges than there are four-yearinstitutions although the four-year schools enrollabout 799,700 more students. There are presentlyforty-six new junior colleges being considered foraccreditation. It is expected that the total number ofjunior colleges will reach 450 with the coming year,a tripling in their number over their seventeen-7i earhistory. This has indeed been a speedy developmentand the speed speaks eloquently for their contribu-tion toward the goal of more democratic higher edu-cation. Table I indicates the existing number ofvarious types of junior colleges.

Junior colleges are developing throughout Japan,satisfying the urgent needs of those young peopledesirous of higher education for their future careersand for life. However, most junior colleges arelocated in city districts, especially such metropolitanareas as Tokyo, Osaka, and Nagoya.

Curriculum offerings at Japanese junior collegesare intended to meet the aims of Article 69 of thenewly revised School Education Law which reads:"The aims of the junior colleges are to instruct and

TABLE INUMBER OF JUNIOR COLLEGES IN JAPAN

Founder Men Women TotalNational 24 24Public 26 18 89Private 108 242 850

Total 158 255 418

From the Synapsis of Junior Colleges, Higher Educa-tion and Sciences Bureau, Ministry of Education, 1966.

encourage intensive study in the arts and scienceson the semiprofessional level, equipping graduateswith the abilities necessary for the vocational andpractical way of life."

In keeping with this law, the institutions, over-whelmingly geared to the terminal program, offersemiprofessional courses as well as other, often col-orful, curriculums. Junior colleges in Japan cannever be called "half-colleges" in view of theirenriched curriculums.

Table II lists the numbers of junior colleges offer-ing particular course subjects and Table III presentstypical offerings of the Toyo Eiwa Jogakuin JuniorCollege, a representative junior college in Japan.

Some junior colleges offer day courses only, othersevening courses only, and some both. A breakdownis included in Table IV. It is the feeling of mosteducators that all the junior colleges should provideboth day and evening courses so that they can con-tribute to the youth and adults in the community.Of course, those junior college graduates who fulfillthe necessary requirements are permitted to trans-fer to four-year colleges.

Junior college enrollments have already been dis-cussed briefly but reference to Table V will revealmore details. This table lists so-called "fixed enroll-ments"or desirable enrollments. Like junior col-leges in the United States, however, many are over-enrolled and the overenrollment is not indicated.Actually overenrollment in Japanese junior collegesis an economic necessity, although an undesirablenecessity. Eighty-five per cent of the junior collegesare private institutions, getting no public support,and they are faced with the need to enroll, and gettuition payments from, as many students as possibleto provide needed capital to run the institutions.

The Problems Involved

Junior colleges in Japan are fresh, recent mem-bers of the higher education family and of courseare confronted with challenging problems. Presentlytheir future course of development is being deter- 21

O5

i. a"

co' 1

5c4: r

A 5

gT

AB

LE

II

,..o

8 .4

- 0

sn m

o P.

0N

UM

BE

R O

F JU

NIO

R C

OL

LE

GE

S W

ITH

EST

AB

LIS

HE

D C

OU

RSE

SU

BJE

CT

SP

Prt

Z5

0Mpo

Z:

rAC

iq 0

4 E

OQ

~ 1:

1+e-

t- W

e': C

'4 a

L.+ ="

r12

Me4

0O

ct.

'6a

as =

0 0

5.1

E:P

V 2

° n

0 la

'm

02

WC

fQ =

01

a)pr

o W

0 0

4 0

= r

120C

1(1

)C

DP"

' 01.

a ll

cla

w 5

%W

.e

.s.r

.4-

fai°

01

OQ

0 c

p 0

t" n

4CD

CD

ei-

0 °

' 0 0

'0 C

iqm

rt"

O. g

i- g

z0

aoe.

,C

A4

rg =

011

.g

O. g

ton

ow01

e-t-

,....

ri2

0(1

2. 0

CD

0...

iael

- 0

pq1.

...6

. P.

n1.

10

r4 0

A)

02 0

et

OR

0 T

A.

cp. C

D0.

,to

eV

= ii

;0,

mO

.ri

l=

' p r

n%

W. 0

. C

I.m

5 r

e. r

p ar

ZZ

(AM

C"§

624

f.e. 0

O C

M.4

- p

0 z

R O

R"

0 'C

SC

64L

-t-

hp,

II e

+ 0

1po

CD

OR

nrm

4 f

26ra

j '(5

.-P

06.

to5

724.

(A

O C

idlig

el. e

+ ..

M M

. 'M

Subj

ects

D.

Nat

iona

lE

.T

.*Pu

blic

D.

E.

T.

D.

Priv

ate

E.

T.

D.

Tot

al E.

T.

Lite

ratu

re1

6(6)*

7(6)

112

13147(1)

2016

7(1)

159(

1)28

(6)

187(

1)C

ultu

re13

1313

13

Soci

al w

ork,

soci

al w

elfa

re2

13

55

71

8

Rel

igio

n13

(1)

316

(1)

13(1

)3

16(1

)E

duca

tion,

nur

sing

88

103

911

211

19

120

Law

, eco

nom

y,co

mm

erce

11 (

1 )

11 (

1 )

77

1436

(2)

3410

0(2)

43(2

)41

(1)

84(3

)In

dust

ry4(4)

4246(4)

94

1343(10)

21(2)

64(12)

56(14)

67(2)

123(16)

Agr

icul

ture

99

12(1

)12

(1)

21(1

)21

(1)

Hom

e ad

min

istr

atio

n24

2422

915

244

253

1526

8

Sick

-nur

sing

,w

elfa

re2

24

46

6Ph

ysic

als

22

1414

1616

Mus

ic, f

ine

arts

33

32(2

)4

36(2

)35

(2)

439

(2)

Etc

.**

11

9(1)

6(1)

15(2

)9(

1)7(

1)16

(2)

rip

b6 (

T)M

OR

6--

..,1-

1.o

crFr

om th

e St

atis

tics

Rep

ort o

f Ju

nior

Col

lege

s, H

ighe

r E

duca

tion

and

Scie

nce

Bur

eau,

Min

istr

y of

Edu

catio

n, 1

966.

CD

.,""

0 a

gi 0

r4 .

as 0

0*

DD

ay C

ours

e; E

Eve

ning

Cou

rse;

TT

otal

P to

uel

. zri

ari

aod

41-

ht..

CD

*0m

t!..

ri2

0 2.

p..

cla

**N

umbe

rs in

par

enth

eses

indi

cate

thos

e ju

nior

col

lege

s w

hich

no

long

er a

ccep

t app

lican

ts a

nd a

re to

be

abol

ishe

dw

ith th

e fi

nal g

radu

atio

n of

stu

dent

s no

w th

ere.

0**

* E

tc. i

nclu

des

tran

spor

tatio

n, e

ffic

ienc

y, p

ublic

rel

atio

ns, s

ight

seei

ng, p

sych

olog

ical

ski

ll, b

road

cast

ing,

hyg

iene

ria

M 0

gO

a II

CD

r tc

tr o

tech

niqu

es, e

nvir

onm

ent h

ygie

ne, a

nd s

ocia

l sci

ence

.

440.

157-

0*1

=4,

4416

W:M

971,

0';-

='e

f4tr

,,,,w

,,,,,,

q8

TA

BL

E I

IIC

OU

RSE

S A

ND

TH

EC

UR

RIC

UL

UM

S O

F T

OY

O E

IWA

JOG

AK

UIN

JU

NIO

R C

OL

LE

GE

*

I. N

ursi

ng c

ours

eA

. Gen

eral

edu

catio

nhum

aniti

es,

soci

al s

cien

ces,

nat

ural

sci

ence

sB

. Pro

fess

iona

l edu

catio

nmus

ic,

theo

ry o

f m

usic

, phy

sica

l edu

catio

n,in

trod

uctio

n to

soc

ial w

elfa

re, i

ntro

duct

ion

to c

hild

stu

dy, h

ygie

ne a

ndch

ild p

hysi

olog

yC

. Tea

chin

g pr

ofes

sion

educ

atio

nedu

catio

nal p

sych

olog

y, c

hild

psyc

holo

gy, h

isto

ry o

f ed

ucat

ion,

met

hods

,st

udy

of n

ursi

ng c

onte

ntD

. For

eign

lang

uage

edu

catio

nEng

lish

E. P

hysi

cal e

duca

tion

II. E

nglis

h lit

erat

ure

cour

seA

. Gen

eral

edu

catio

nhum

aniti

es,

Japa

nese

lite

ratu

re, s

ocia

l sci

ence

s,la

w, s

ocio

logy

B. P

rofe

ssio

nal e

duca

tionE

nglis

hlit

erat

ure,

k;s

ycho

logy

, nat

ural

sci

ence

s,E

nglis

h la

ngua

ge, E

nglis

h-A

mer

ican

hist

ory,

Jap

anes

e la

ngua

geex

pres

sion

s, f

orei

gn tr

ade,

type

wri

ting,

sten

ogra

phy

C. T

each

ing

prof

essi

oned

ucat

ione

duca

tiona

l psy

chol

ogy,

pri

ncip

les

of e

duca

tion,

teac

hing

pra

ctic

eD

. For

eign

lang

uage

educ

atio

nEng

lish,

Fre

nch

III.

Int

ensi

ve c

ours

e (o

neye

ar)

A. N

ursi

ng c

ours

elec

ture

san

d se

min

ars

B. E

nglis

h co

urse

lect

ures

and

sem

inar

s*

The

re a

re tw

enty

-thr

eefu

ll-tim

e fa

culty

mem

bers

at t

his

colle

ge a

nd 3

60 s

tude

nts.

7,7,

111.

117.

,zr.

IV

TA

BL

E I

VN

UM

BE

R O

F JU

NIO

R C

OL

LE

GE

S C

LA

SSIF

IED

IN

TO

CO

UR

SES

AC

CO

RD

ING

TO

FO

UN

DE

RS

Foun

der

Day

cou

rse

only

Men

Wom

enT

otal

Eve

ning

cou

rse

only

Men

Wom

enT

otal

Day

and

eve

ning

cou

rse

Men

Wom

enT

otal

Nat

iona

l2

222

22Pu

blic

.14

1529

41

55

5Pr

ivat

e56

223

279

1515

3818

56T

otal

.72

238

310

411

4243

1861

From

the

Syno

psis

of

Juni

or C

olle

ges,

Hig

her

Edu

catio

n an

d Sc

ienc

eB

urea

u, M

inis

try

of E

duca

tion,

196

6.

TA

BL

E V

FIX

ED

EN

RO

LL

ME

NT

S O

F JU

NIO

R C

OL

LE

GE

S A

CC

OR

DIN

G T

OE

STA

BL

ISH

ED

CO

UR

SE S

UB

JEC

TS

Subj

ects

Nat

iona

lD

.E

.T

.D

.Pu

blic

E.

T.

D.

Priv

ate

E.

T.

D.

Tot

alE

.T

.

Lite

ratu

reC

ultu

reSo

cial

wor

k w

elfa

reR

elig

ion_

Edu

catio

n nu

rsin

gL

aw, e

cono

my,

com

mer

ceIn

dust

ryA

gric

ultu

reH

ome

adm

inis

trat

ion.

Sick

nur

sing

, wel

fare

Phys

ical

sM

usic

, fin

e ar

tsT

otal

.

80 80

1,08

01,

730

2,81

0

80

1,08

01,

730

2,89

0

740

140

465

660

360

350

1,95

0 70 85

5,03

0

80 40 720

180

120

1,14

0

820

180

465

1,38

054

035

01,

950 70 85 120

6,17

0

10,6

101,

230

210

365

5,59

03,

200

2,95

067

022

,110 15

089

046

050

,806

1,53

5

110

440

2,97

01,

830

1,14

0

360

7,95

7

11,1

451,

230

210

475

6,03

06,

170

4,18

067

023

,250 15

089

082

058

,763

11,4

301,

230

350

365

6,05

53,

860

3,41

01,

020

24,0

60 220

975

460

55,9

16

1,61

5

4Q 110

440

4,77

03,

140

1,14

0

480

11,9

25

13,0

451,

230

390

475

6,49

58,

630

6,55

01,

020

25,2

00 220

975

940

67,8

41

From

the

Stat

istic

s R

epor

t of

Juni

or C

olle

ges,

Hig

her

Edu

catio

n

N U'

and

Scie

nce

Bur

eau,

Min

istr

y of

Edu

catio

n, 1

966.

The Japanese educators in junior colleges aremost concerned with strengthening their transferprograms and wish them to have the stature of theterminal programs. It is felt that continued educa-tion in the four-year institution is desirable forstudents' full self-realization but also for increasingthe pool of educated manpower in the community.Now that Japanese junior colleges have been grantedfull recognition as institutions of higher learningthey will concentrate even more on shaking theimage of terminal institutions, exclusively.

It must be admitted, however, that most of thecurriculum offerings in the Japanese junior collegesare directed at women students. Now that our indus-trial world is making such accelerated developments,stimulated by the increased power of modern scienceand technology, it is earnestly hoped that moremen's industrial colleges will be established. Despitethe increasing number of national technical colleges,there are a large number of high school graduateslonging for technical college education in industrialJapan.

Future Prospect

Though not rosy, the future prospects for juniorcolleges in Japan can be foretold as brighter thanever when one looks at such favorable factors asfull-fledged status for the junior colleges, and thefairly high level of employment. The continuallyincreasing population desiring and requiring highereducation will also contribute to the growth of thecolleges, as will the higher living standard broughton by the developing industrialization and urbaniza-tion of this country. No hazards seem to loom in thefuture of junior colleges in Japan. All the juniorcollege people here are looking forward to theirpromising future.

26

By Hiroshi Naito

ABOUT THEJAPANESE JUNIORCOLLEGES

EDITOR'S NOTE : The following is a presentation given byHiroshi Naito, president of Tokyo Agricultural JuniorCollege, at the AAJC Board of Directors' meeting inHonolulu in January. Dr. Naito was present to discussplanning for the international assembly, scheduled to beheld immediately preceding the 1970 AAJC convention.

* * *

Until the close of World War II, the higher edu-cational system of Japan was composed of highschools, colleges and universities, and the highernormal schools. Their purpose and character weredetermined by the "old-system" philosophy of edu-cation. After the war, the influence of democraticideas resulted in a reformation of the educationalstructure.

Following the report of the United States Edu-cational Commission to Japan, the Educational Re-form Committee was established in the JapaneseCabinet. Through this committee developed the con- 27

cept of "new-system" education. In 1947, the edu-cational basic law and school educational law wereenacted, and compulsive education was extended tothe lower secondary school. The new-system highschools became operational in 1948 and new-systemuniversities in 1949. Thus, the new educational sys-tem of 6-3-3-4 was effected.

In the reformation of the educational system,however, one problem did emerge: How to deal withthe old-system colleges which could not reach thelevel of new-system universities.

Before the war, higher educational institutionshad been concentrated in the big cities; these wereburned and, in some cases, completely destroyedduring the hostilities. Great amounts of funds andresources were needed for restoration, but highinflation stiffened the financial condition of privateschools. In addition, the economic and social nateof Japan after the war demanded a special highereducation institution which would shorten the pe-riod of university education and cultivate profes-sional and practical laborers.

At this point, the junior college system in theU.S.A. seemed to offer a solution to the problem.Thus, the two- or three-year, temporary educationalsystem was begun in Japan. The aim was to pro-vide (1) more generalized higher education, (2)college education for practical and professional vo-cations, (3) adult education, and (4) connectionswith four-year colleges.

One hundred and forty-nine junior colleges(seventeen public and one hundred thirty-two pri-vate) were established in the first year. They de-veloped successfully and became permanently in-corporated into the educational system. By 1964,the total had reached 290almost double the initialnumber. The most recent figures indicate the num-ber of junior colleges in Japan to be 468 (23 na-tional, 43 public, and 403 private).

More than half of the junior colleges in Japan28 are women's schools. One reason for this is that

when the colleges were established, ms.-,i, were ele-vated from old-system women's colleges. Anotherreason is that the concepts of coeducation andequality of educational opportunity for women wererecognized. Before the war, boys and girls wereseparated in schools, except at the primary level, anduniversities were closed to women. Old-system col-leges were the highest education institutions womencould attend. As a result of the abolition of theserestrictions and, more importantly, the establish-ment of junior colleges, the number of female appli-cants to higher education institutions has greatlyincreased. The percentage of female students inold-system colleges was 13 per cent ; in 1967, thepercentage of female students in four-year collegeswas approximately 18 per cent, while in junior col-lege the percentage was approximately 81 per cent.

The curriculum pursued most in women's juniorcolleges is home economics, followed by literatureand child care. In men's junior colleges, the mostpopular curriculums are engineering technology,law, commerce, and economics.

Private junior colleges train most of the kinder-garten teachers in the country. ;/-1 1967, there wereabout 10,000 kindergartens in Japan ; every yearthis number increases by 500. Thus, the junior col-lege is playing a most important role in the develop-ment of Japanese kindergarten education.

Junior colleges are small in enrollments comparedto four-year colleges. In 1968, the average numberof students in the four-year college was 3,145, whilethe average number in the junior college was 520.The number of students per teacher in the juniorcollege is 17.5.

Generalized higher education today is supportingthe developing Japanese economy. Main industriesare concentrated in the big cities, as are the uni-versities ; consequently, the numbers of students atthese universities become great. Before the war,there was no university which had more than 10,000students. In 1967, there were four national uni- 29

versities and eighteen private universities whichhad more than 10,000 students in each ; among these,four universities each had more than 30,000 stu-dents.

Contrary to the situation in the universities, jun-ior colleges are located in small or middle-size citiesthroughout Japan and are on a smaller scale;therefore in a junior college, each student can geta more personal education while at the same timeattaining an equal educational level as the univer-sity student.

There are very few radical students in the juniorcolleges who participate in Zengakuren (All Japa-nese Student Movement Association).

One-third of all junior colleges offer nightcourses ; several offer courses combining day andnight studies for the student whose work schedulerequires an irregular school schedule. Both coursesextend three years. The fact that junior colleges arescattered all over Japan and offer night coursesillustrates the contribution of junior college educa-tion to the cultural elevation of the communities.

The majority of Japanese junior colleges are pri-vately owned. In 1968, 402 out of 468 colleges wereprivate schools; 90 per cent of all junior colleges at-tend private institutions. (The same tendencyexists in four-year colleges ; 70 per cent of all four-year college students attend private schools.) Pri-vate schools constitute a majority through theirown efforts and not by governmental aid ; however,private junior colleges gradually are beginning toface financial difficulties. Every year, consumergoods prices rise 6 per cent; this inflation affectsthe costs of maintaining college staffs, as well. Col-lege authorities cannot raise tuitions for fear ofstudent rebellion. The junior college associationin Japan is making the acquisition of governmentalaid one of its most important tasks.

30

Future Plans

The junior college is making a major contributionto the generalization of higher education in Japan.The percentage of high school applicants for highereducation is presently almost 20 per cent. Half ofthese applications are children of salaried-classfamilies. In the near future, the percentage is ex-pected to reach 40 per cent, the same percentage asin the U.S.A. Japanese junior colleges must make aneffort to accept the increasing number of appli-cants.

Junior colleges have provided an extension of vo-cational fields for their graduates. During the firstten years of the junior college, graduates found itdifficult to obtain employment; however, as thecountry's economy was restored to prosperity, therewas a greater demand for intellectual workers.Junior colleges are providing these workers.

Female graduates are accepted equally as profes-sionals. The activities of female graduates inJapanese industry are remarkable; thus, businesseducation is attaining an important position inwomen's junior colleges.

Among the traditional junior colleges whichoffered general education, the availability of voca-tional education curriculums is increasing. Recently,programs in electrical engineering, medical tech-nology, circumstance hygiene, and radiation havebeen established.

Japanese junior colleges are developing; Japanesesociety expects them to continue their development.

31

By Cheryl-Lynn Walker

JUNIOR COLLEGESSTRENGTHENINGJAPAN'S ECONOMY

The four principle islands of Honshu, Shikoku,Kyushu, and Hokkaido, and 3,100 smaller islandscomprise the country of Japan. The total land massof Japan is less extensive than California; however,Japan is six times as populated. Since Japan alsohas six times as many junior colleges as California,the ratio of the Japanese population to the numberof its junior colleges is identical to that of Califor-nia. This impressive feat was accomplished in onlynineteen years.

Japan has a gross national product per capita in-come of $860 in contrast to $3,520 in the UnitedStates. Bear in mind that two-thirds of the world'snations still have 'a per capita income of less than$300.1 According to the Japan Ministry of Educa-tion Whitepaper, 1965, the Japanese people sus-tain the belief that the future of their economy is

32 dependent upon the amplification of industrializa-

tion coupled with the expansion of internationaltradethe import of raw materials and the exportof finished goods.2

There are discrepancies between the type of edu-cational product and the type needed for futureeconomic growth. In order to meet manpowerneeds, the Japanese nation requires more peopletrained at the semiprofessional level in business,medical, and physical and social science areas. Thenation has an abundance of graduates in the fieldsof literature, history, philosophy, fine arts, andhomemaking. Inopportunely, more than half of thejunior college students are enrolled in fields of over-supply.

Role of the Junior College

Educators in Japan perceive the role that thejunior college could and is performing in making upthe manpower deficit. Article 69 of the 1964 SchoolLaw reads :The aims of the junior colleges are to instruct and en-courage intensive study in the arts and sciences on thesemiprofessional level, equipping graduates with theabilities for the vocational and practical way of life.8

Why cannot nations direct young people moreeffectively into needed fields? In part, because con-trol lies with the purse-string. Americans experi-ence difficulty building up vocational programs intheir junior colleges because the preponderance ofparental support and resultant leverage (taxes)are for the transfer program. American studentsoften reflect the belief that the transfer programleads to jobs of more social consequence than theterminal program.

Very few Japanese junior colleges receive publicfunds for capital or operating expenditures. Thevast majority depend heavily upon tuition receiptsand examination, library, and museum fees to fi-nance their programs. Japan experiences somewhatthe same sociological problem which America faces.Traditionally, the desire to study humanities re-flected culture, but the new semiprofessional-techni- 33

34

cal fieldswhich have no traditionlack socialstatus in the eyes of many Japanese parents whoare financing the education of their children.

Japanese junior colleges have the "horse in frontof the cart" by establishing their terminal programsfirst. If the Japanr.3e were to rush into the transferprograms before the terminal courses have acquiredeconomic status, they might also inherit our "pres-tige transfer problem" and defeat some of the ex-cellent vocational programs now in progress.

What are some of the vocational programs inprogress and what types of curriculums do Japa-nese junior colleges offer ? The Japan Overseas Ad-vertiser reveals the following array of majorfields :4 agriculture ; agronomy ; aircraft engineer-ing; American language; applied chemistry ; archi-tecture ; automobile engineering; botanical agricul-ture; brewage ; broadcasting; Buddhism; businessadministration ; canning production; child educa-tion; child welfare ; Chinese ; Christianity; civil en-gineering; clothing; commerce; construction ; dairyfarming; dental hygienics; design arts; dyeing,spinning and weaving; economics ; education ; elec-tricity; electro-communication; electronic engineer-ing; English; French; general studies; German ;home economics ; hygienic engineering; industrialchemistry ; industrial design; Japanese literature ;law; living arts ; living design ; living science ;metallurgy; music; nursery education; nutrition ;photography ; physical education; printing; psy-chology ; psychological technology ; Russian ; sculp-ture; selling efficiency; shipbuilding; social welfare;sociology ; theology; traffic administration ; veteri-nary medicine; welding; wireless communications ;wood industrial arts.

The Ministry of Education reports Japanesejunior college certificate requirements to be fourunits of humanities, four units of natural science,four units of social science, two units of physicaleducition, twenty-four units of professional educa-tion (choice of major as above), and twenty-four

elective unitssixty-two in total. Each college mayrequire additional units.

It is not at all uncommon for the individual tankidaigaku (short-term college) to offer only one ma-jor, such as canning production or Buddhism. Thesetwo-year institutions for the most part are not com-prehensive colleges offering the gamut from A to Zlike some of their American counterparts ; however,this should in no way detract from their status. Thecurriculums which are offered appear to be rigorous ;for examples, consider the following .

Besides completing the foregoing requirements,first-year food technology students must practiceone month in a commercial canning plant in theprocessing of agricultural products (no units) , andsecond-year students practice one month in theprocessing of fish. Students pay the small sum of8,100 yen ($22.60 at exchange rate of one yen =.002798 dollar) tuition per year. The food-process-ing companies in Japan need certificated students.

Students at Kiryu Junior College of Engineeringpay 9,600 yen tuition per year and have the optionof electing one of four possible majors : mechanicalengineering, electrical engineering, industrial chem-istry, and dyeing and textile engineering. Tech-nicians are needed in the physical sciences, andgraduates readily find semiprofessional positionsupon completion of their certificates.

Sixty-one per cent of the Japanese nation is for-est, 3.7 per cent pasture, 21.6 per cent urban andwasteland, and only 13.7 per cent cultivated land.Hiroshima Public Agricultural Junior College servesthe Japanese nation by training students to obtainthe greatest yield possible from the cultivated land.One-third of its graduates return to the farm, andthe remaining portion become agricultural extensionworkers. The tuition is 15,000 yen per year.

Sangyo Nohritsu Tanki Daigaku is a privatelymanaged three-year junior college. Its stated pur-pose is to perform teaching and research activitiesconcerning theories and practical tec'iniques of 35

755

36

CURRICULUM OF TOYO TANKI DAIGAKUFOOD TECHNOLOGY

General education Professional education

Subject Units Subject Units

Humanities (4) Required :Philosophy 2 General canning tech-Ethics 2 nology 2Literature 2 Marine product pro-

cessingNatural science (4) Lecture 3

Mathematics 2 Lab 2Physics 2 Fruit and vegetableChemistry 2 processingBiology 2 Lecture 3

Lab 2Social science (4) Meat processing

Law 2 Lecture 1Economics 2 Lab 1Statistics 2 Food microbiology

Lecture 2Other requ?rements Lab 1

Physical education 2 Food chemistry 2English 4 Food hygienics 2

Dietetical chemistry 2Industrial chemistry 2Mechanics 2Drafting of machine 2

ElectivesColloid chemistry 2Biological chemistry 2Quality control 1Sensory test 1Analytical chemistry

Lecture 2Lab 1

Food refrigerationtechnology 2

Designing of foodplants 2

Business administra-tion 2

Electronics 2Boiler engineering

Lecture 2Lab 1

CURRICULUM OF KIRYU TANKI DAIGAKUOF ENGINEERING


Subject Units Subject

Humanities (4)Philosophy 2Literature 2History 2

Natural science (4)Mathematics 2Physics 2Chemistry 2

Social science (4)Sociology 2Law 2Economics 2

Other requirementsPhysical educationEnglish or German

Inorganic chemistryAnalytical chemistryPhysical chemistryChemical thermodynamicsOrganic chemistryOrganic chemical labDyeing chemistryDyeing chemical labInorganic industrial chem-

istryOrganic industrial chemis-

tryHigh polymer chemistryIndustrial high polymer

chemistryMaterials of fiberCellulose chemistryDyeing, finishing techniqueWeaving and spinningApplied surface chemistryMechanical engineeringElectrical 'engineeringChemical engineeringQuality controlSeminar

Analytical chemical ex-periment

Graduation project or ex-periment

37

,Ivinst.obwac_o...* car

CURRICULUM OF HIROSHIMAAGRICULTURAL COLLEGE



Humanities (4)Literature 2History 2Education 2

Natural science (4)Biology 2Mathematics 2Chemistry 2

Social science (4)Sociology 2Economics 2Statistics 2

Other requirementsPhysical education

Farm managementAgricultural lawAgricultural civil engi-

neeringAgricultural pharmacologyMeteorologyAgricultural engineeringForestryEntomologySoil scienceCompost sciencePlant pathologyAnimal husbandryVegetable horticultureFruit horticultureFlower horticultureGeneticsAgricultural product mar-

ketingWood processingFeed science

business administration and industrial manage-ment. Forty per cent of the students are sent to thecollege by their employers. The tuition is from 50,-000 to 200,000 yen per year depending on the coursepursued. Possible majors are: production manage-ment, general management, and marketing manage-ment.

Students at Aichi Prefectural Tanki Daigakustudy the above curriculum to prepare to be kinder-garten teachers. Aichi also offers majors in Japa-nese literature, English literature, and child wel-fare. Annual tuition is 60,000 yen.

Despite sociological and economic hurdles, Japa-nese junior colleges are innovating outstanding pro-

38 grams to meet the country's manpower needs. By

I

CURRICULUM OF SANGYO NOHRITSUTANKI DAIGAKU*

Professional educationcommon to all majors

Professional educationproduction management

Theories of efficiencyScientific managementModern economicsBusiness administrationBusiness consulting (pro-

duction)Business consulting (man-

agement and sales)Management mathematicsIntroduction to industrial

managementBusiness administration

workshopOrganization theoriesTaxation lawIntroduction to financial

managementAnalysis of financial state-

mentsCost managementCost accountingBudget controlFinancial analysisFunding managementBookkeepingIntroduction to personnel

managementIndustrial trainingSalary and wage adminis-

trationBehavioral scienceLabor lawJob ana!ysisOperational supervisionPersonnel management

workshops

Introduction to productionmanagement

Production engineeringPlant management work-

studyManufacturing process en-

gineeringQuality controlProduction management

labMaterial handling and

transportation engineer-ing

Contract managementMaterials managementPlant clerical work man-

agement

*General education meets state requirements.

39

CURRICULUM OF AICHI PREFECTURALJUNIOR COLLEGECHILD PSYCHOLOGY



Humanities (4)Philosophy 2Ethics 2Psychology 2Japanese or Oriental

history 2Western history 2Aesthetics of history

of art 2Literature

Natural sciences (4)Physics 2Mathematics 2Chemistry 2Biology 2Physiology 2

Social sciences (4)Japanese constitution 2Jurisprudence 2Economics 2Sociology 2Descriptive geology 2Domestic science 2Statistics 2

Othe- requirementsEnglish, French, or

GermanPhysical education

Introduction to child wel-fare

Family sociologyChild psychologyClinical psychologyMental testingMental hygieneScience of nurseryScience of home educationChildren's cultureMusLal theoryVocal musicInstrumental musicArtDrawing and handiworkTheory of physical educa-

tionPhysiologyChildren's scienceDieteticsScience of nursingSeminar of psychologySeminar of pedagogyEducational psychologyStudy of nursery qualityEducational sociologyHistory of educationMethod of educationManagement of schoolTeaching practiceGraduation thesis

providing needed human resources, junior collegesstrengthen the Japanese economy.

1 1968-per capita income figures.2 Japan Ministry of Education, Education in Japan:

A Graphic Presentation, 1964. Tokyo: Government Print-ing Bureau. p. 3.

2 Japan Ministry of Education. op. cit., p. 30.4 Japan Overseas Advertiser Co., Ltd. Japanese Uni-

r.rsities and Colleges, Tokyo: Japan Overseas AdvertiserCo., Ltd., 1966. pp. 243-258.

,Ar-ivatte,r, .WJA-4.1061.aer-at.elessIelatA,

By Lou S. Grant

CANADA'S EVOLVINGTWO-YEAR COLLEGES

The present plans for development of post-sec-ondary education in two-year institutions in Canadaimmediately display the handicaps based in the con-stitution of the country. The first of these is therigidity of provincial control of education and thereare ten provinces in Canada. The second handicapfollows from the first in the political and fiscal en-tanglements involved in attempting to pour federalfunds into post-secondary education. Control of alleducation in each province by the provincial author-ity has, until recently, created difficulties in estab-lishing uniformity of educational opportunitythroughout the nation. Voluntary cooperation amongvarious provincial education departments :s helpingti: solve many of these problems.

Prior to World War I, the principle of federalassistance to vocational and technical education wasestablished in Canada. This basic premise is never 41

challenged now, so large sums of federal aid havebeen available to the Canadian provinces for assist-ance in providing technical and vocational programsfor secondary schools. This same source has suppliedsimilar funds for post-secondary vocational andtechnological institutes and for technical programsin junior colleges. This limitation on assistance fortechnical education continues to operate to the dis-advantage of multipurpose community, district, orregional colleges.

The second phase of federal aid to education hasbeen developed into sizable grants in aid of educa-tion. In 1966, this grant was raised from $2 percapita to $5 based on the population of each province.One province, Quebec, has opted out of this plan,but is compensated by tax abatement by the federalgovernment.

The 1965-66 average grant per student was $241.The 1966-67 average will be considerably higher.Negotiations are now being conducted to arrange anew system for the distribution of these funds.

For some years, this money has been made avail-able to institutions of higher learning, in provincesother than Quebec, by a commission established bythe Association of Universities and Colleges ofCanada. The financial position of Canada's universi-ties, even the provincially operated ones, follows theusual pattern of stress. Consequently, there is a needwithin the universities themselves for most of thefederal funds available through per capita grants,and minimum amounts remain for the two-year post-secondary academic programs.

Wri1:1 these generalizations regarding federalfinancial aid for two-year colleges in Canada, thefollowing summary indicates the present and pros-pective development in the nation, province byprovince.District Colleges

British Columbia has become a leading provincein developing comprehensive two-year colleges offer-

42 ing technical, academic, and general education pro-

trt,"....14L",,,

grams. In 1958, legislation was passed permittingthe establishment of "diitrict colleges" by individualdistrict school boards and "regional colleges" to becreated by joint effort of several boards in one re-gion. This legislation remained relatively ineffectiveuntil the publication of a report in 1962 by Presi-dent J. B. MacDonald of the University of BritishColumbia stressed the need for expansion of facili-ties for higher education in the province. One ofthe main recommendations of the report was theearly establishment of two-year colleges to relievethe enrollment pressures building up at the univer-sities.

In 1962, the school board of the city of Vancouverestablished an adult education center in a buildingformerly operated as a high school. So successfulwas the program of continuing education in comple-tion of high school requirements and the operationof a grade 13 program that, in 1963, a former ele-mentary school building was added as an annex. In1965, this adult education center became a unit ofVancouver City College along with two other units,Vancouver Vocational Institute and VancouverSchool of Art.

As a college, the academic unit added courses ac-ceptable as second-year university equivalents andalso added several two-year technical programs. Thelatter include journalism, welfare-aide programs,library and museum-assistant programs, and severalofferings in the business and commercial fields. Theresponse to this new educational service facility hasbeen most encouraging : September 1966 enrollmentreached 3,300 students in day and evening classes.The present temporary accommodations have beentaxed to capacity. Ground will be broken for a new20-acre campus for this academic-technical divisionearly in 1967. Enlargement of the downtown campusfor expansion of the vocational and art school com-plex is also planned.

The second two-year college to be opened in Brit-ish Columbia is Selkirk College at Castlegar, a re-

Ilt*IVAIXIWIttAIC*IC VD1.7001.4.0.7.,......"1/.

gional college which opened its doors in temporaryquarters in September 1966 and has now moved intothe first unit of its $3.5 million complex. At present,its offerings are mainly academic but some technicalcourses have been introduced and more are beingplanned. Several more regional colleges are welladvanced in their planning in various parts of theprovince and will probably be in operation withinthree or four years. Two small private junior col-leges are also in operation in British Columbia, bothof which are church sponsored. The overall govern-ing policies for the public colleges are determined bythe government-appointed Academic Board of Brit-ish Columbia. Near Vancouver, the Provincial De-partment of Education also operates an institute oftechnology which provides a two-year training pro-gram for technicians and semiprofessional groups.

University-Linked Colleges

Alberta has also passed legislation for the estab-lishment of junior colleges, but they have strongbonds of affiliation with the provincial University ofAlberta. This link extends to a virtual universitycontrol of curriculums, staffing, admissions, and ex-aminations. Several such colleges have been estab-lished under the regulations by the schcol districtsof Lethbridge, Red Deer, Medicine Hat, and GrandePrairie. Only the first of these offers a two-yearprogram of transfer courses and technical programs.Up to this time, the others offered only one year ofuniversity equivalent work beyond the matriculationlevel. Alberta also has four private church-relatedjunior colleges, one in Calgary, two in Edmonton,and one in Camrose. The Provincial Department ofEducation operates two technological institutes, onein Calgary and one in Edmonton, the capital city.

Saskatchewan has also retained university affilia-tion as a requirement for its junior colleges. In1965, plans were completed for two church-relatedcolleges, Campion and Lutheran in Regina, to befederated with the University of Saskatchewan,

44 Regina campus. Two other church-sponsored insti-

FLMAIIVIOLOWY.061$7,,,IlLt:Z2:= v - 7, 7 -, - =

tutions, St. Joseph's in Yorkton and Aldengate inMoose Jaw, are now offering first-year transfercourses as affiliates of the University of Saskatche-wan. Technical and vocational education for post-secondary and other adult levels are provided inseveral provincially operated technical and voca-tional institutions.

Manitoba has established a pattern similar tothat of Saskatchewan. One private college in Winni-peg is offering some first-year university coursesin affiliation with the University of Manitoba.Brandon College in that city, also an affiliate of theuniversity, plans to expand its two-year programinto a four-year one with autonomous degree-granting privileges.

Post-secondary technical and vocational trainingis available in institutes operated by the province.To augment these, a new Institute of Applied Arts ispresently under construction. In September 1966,the Winnipeg School Board inaugurated an adulteducation center which is, at present, primarily afacility for completion of secondary education.

A commission is now actively investigating thewhole spectrum of post-secondary education withinthe province. No doubt, its report, when presented,will have far-reaching effects on future college plansin Manitoba.

The province of Ontario, with almost one-thirdof Canada's population and a major portion of thenation's industry, has felt a great need for expan-sion of its post-secondary educational facilities. Thepresent overall program calls for the establishmentof several new four-year universities, includingWaterloo, Brock, Guelph, York, and Trent. Provisionfor nonuniversity post-secondary education is madein "Colleges of Applied Arts and Technology." Inannouncing the plan in the Ontario legislature, theminister of education stated one of the major respon-sibilities of these colleges would be "to meet theneeds of graduates from any secondary school pro-gram, apart from those wishing to attend auniversity." 45

-

These colleges will not include a "transfer pro-gram" as such, but it is hoped that some of theirgraduates may be able to continue more advancedstudies at a university. To facilitate this, someuniversity faculty members may be assigned a courseor two at an applied arts college. These colleges areto be "occupation-oriented" and are to meet theneeds of the local community. They will replace andabsorb all existing post-secondary provincially oper-ated technical institutions.

Eighteen college areas are to be establishedthroughout the province, each with its own board ofgovernors. The first College of Applied Arts andTechnology, Lambton, opened in September 1966 atSarnia. Others are being opened in the near futureat London and Windsor.

The provincial government has voted approxi-mately $400 million for construction of new facilitiesfor the colleges and universities during the next tenyears. During this period, it is expected as manyas twenty-six of the new colleges may be built at anaverage cost of $10 million. Of course, the collegeregion or zone will assume its share of financial re-sponsibility for both capital and operating costs.Overall authority for planning, establishing and co-ordinating the new colleges is vested in a provinciallyappointed council of regents.

Activities in Quebec

The province of Quebec is in the midst of a num-ber of major educational changes at all levels, pri-mary, secondary, and post-secondary. Drastic re-visions of curriculums and organization are beingintroduced. Many of the former classical collegeswill become two-year post-secondary institutionsproviding transfer programs in preparation formore advanced studies at the universities. Some willalso offer a limited number of technical programs.Most of the technical studies will be available intechnical institutes, some of which will be expan-sions of the existing technical schools, while others

46 will be conversions from traditional institutions.

a.

The pre - university colleges will be known as "classi-cal educational institutions" while the technologicalcolleges will be entitled, "specialized schools." Pres-ent plans call eventually for all university candidatesto attend the two-year "classical institutions" beforeproceeding to a university.

The educational upgrading of Quebec has beeninspired by the Parent Commission, named for itschairman, Monsignor Parent, vice-rector of LavalUniversity. The depth and thoroughness of the com-mission's four-year study and the willingness of theprovincial government to take the necessary actionto implement the reforms are making Quebec an"educational showplace" in Canada. The realizationof the inadequacy of technical training for Quebec'scitizens to take a proper place in Canada's industriallife has stimulated great advances in this field in theprovince.

In the four Maritime provinces of Canada, NewBrunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, andNewfoundland, the post-secondary educational insti-tutions are all universities, technological institutes,or vocational schools. The only exceptions so far area junior college branch of the University of NewBrunswick established in St. John in 1964 and twochurch-supported colleges in Nova Scotia, Conventof the Sacred Heart in Halifax and Xavier Collegein Sydney established in 1951 by St. Francis XavierUniversity of Antigonish.

In December 1965, the Economic Council of Can-ada revealed that the lack of advanced education inboth academic and technical fields is a growinghandicap for industrial development in Canada. Thereport states

. . . the shortage of skilled and trained technical, pro-fessional, arid managerial manpower is even more criticalthan the problem of enlarging the physical facilities forincreasing output.

While admitting the urgency of upgrading muchof the labor force with completion of secondaryschool standing, the report stressed that the highest 47

48

priority be given to "rapid and substantial expan-sion of post-secondary education."

With such a stimulus, the federal government hassought ways to encourage such expansion. Twoschemes were originally involved, one providedmatching grants with those of provincial govern-ments, another provided a quota based on populationfrom which the province could draw 75 per cent ofthe funds required for technical P.nd vocational edu-cation. These plans are now being phased out and anew formula of assignment of federal taxes to theprovinces is being evolved. This was announced ata federal-provincial conference in October 1966 atwhich Honorable Jean Marchand, federal ministerof manpower and immigration, stated :

Our post-secondary proposals are based on two princi-ples. First, they should provide for escalation, because theneeds are increasing so much. Our formula does that.Secondly, post-secondary technical education should pro-vide a comprehensive formula within which each provincecan structure its own post-secondary education as itthinks best.

The junior college plans in Canada's ten provinceswill continue to vary considerably and may not al-ways be recognizable in the usual comprehensivetradition. No matter how they may be formed, how-ever, it is now certain that they will be established toprovide new forms of educational services and toaugment the overtaxed facilities already inoperation.

I Ontario Department of Education. Toronto, Ontario:the Department, October 1965.

2 Economic Council of Canada. Ottawa, Ontario:Queen's Printer, December 1965.

3 Stewart, Andrew. Edmonton, Alberta : Departmentof Education, December 1965.

4 Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada.Toronto, Ontaria : University of Toronto Press, 1965.

MacDonald, J. B. Vancouver, B.C.: University ofBritish Columbia, 1962.

" Report of the Parent Commission. Quebec, Quebec:Department of Education, 1964-66.

7 Academic Board for Higher Education in British Ca-liimbia. Victoria, B.C.: Department of Education, January1965.

8 Academic Board for Higher Education in British Co-lumbia. College Standards. Victoria, B.C.: Departmentof Education, November 1966.

49

By Gordon Campbell

THE COMMUNITYCOLLEGE IN CANADA

Canada is in the midst of a spectacular expansionin its post-high school institutions of higher educa-tion. This rapid evolution cannot fail to have a pro-found effect in the areas of personal fulfillment, cul-tural development, and economic growth. Whereasprograms for the formal training of young adultcitizens have long existed in other industrializedcountries, Canadian needs are being met with newplans consistent with this country's historical back-ground and sociological development. These plansare frequently executed with boldness and ingenuity;participation is found at all levels of governmentand in citizen organizations. The resultadc coopera-tion provides both the flexibility and scope necessaryto satisfy varying local requirements while holdingpromise for extensive coordination.

Perhaps the most significant concept to emerge isthat of a comprehensive community college which

50 offers technical and related forms of training, pro-

grams in continuing education for all ages of adultcitizens, and courses equivalent to initial universityeducation. The community college has its roots inmany educational practices. It finds expression invaried forms throughout the province3. Changesnow underway or planned are among the most far-reaching developments within the total educationalstructure of Canada.

Evolving Identity

The term community college is used in the genericsense and is applied to a group of institutions acrossthe country possessing certain features more or lessin common. None of these institutions grant de-grees; all are oriented toward communiity service.The nature of such service, of course, varies widelydepending on the urban or rural location of the col-lege, proximity to a university, degree of indus-trialization in the community, and so forth.

Colleges offer one, two, or three years of studybeyond the high school. Admission qualificationscharacteristically include junior or senior matricula-tion, depending on the course and province. Specialprovision frequently is made for the more maturestudent, nineteen or older, who lacks certain ad-mission requirements. Some colleges are compre-hensive in the sense that they offer both university-parallel and occupational programs ; others are re-stricted to programs in one category. Certain col-leges, offering solely technical-training programs,are restricted further to courses in only one occupa-tional category.

The functional emphasis of colleges is on teach-ing rather than on research. They may be public,stressing the "open-door policy" and financially sup-ported largely by governments, or private, withmore selective admission qualifications and sup-ported by private means. In some provinces, privatecolleges enjoy government support.

Community colleges, as defined here, do not in-clude seminaries or colleges whose paramount con- 51

cern is the theological preparation of ministers orpriests, colleges run privately for profit, and certaintypes of vocational or nursing schools. The latterare omitted from consideration simply because theyare so numerous and are rapidly being absorbed bycolleges and universities.

There is little uniformity in the nomenclature ofcolleges across the country. In ]British Columbia, thecategories of district and regional colleges are de-fined by law, but these categories are not reflectedin the names of the colleges. Legislation in 1958 inAlberta required the expression junior college to bepart of the name of every public college; legislationin 1969 removed the term junior. In Ontario, all in-stitutions falling within the provisions of legislationin 1965 are called colleges of applied arts and tech-nology (C.A.A.T.). In Quebec, colleges governed bylegislation in 1967 are called colleges.d'enseignementgeneral et professionnel (C.E.G.E.P.) colleges ofgeneral and vocational education. Agricultural andother specialized institutions are usually so desig-nated. No institution includes community in itsname ; only a very few use the term junior. Thechief executive officer of colleges in Alberta andOntario is called president; in Quebec, directeurgeneral; and in British 'Columbia, principal. Insome provinces, the title dean is used occasionally.

Alternately, the definition of a community collegemay be found in relation to the educational functionit performs. Canadian community colleges typicallyoffer to persons beyond high school age some or allof the following :

1. Vocational and technical programs, either long-or short-term, in the trades, industrial, agricultural,and semiprofessional fields preparing students foremployment upon graduation and providing the em-ployed with retraining opportunities

2. University-parallel courses in the liberal artsand sciences, usually providing first- or second-yearcredit toward a baccalaureate degree

3. Programs in continuing education available in52 the day or evening, designed to meet the recrea-

tional, avocational, or occupational concerns of adultpart-time students of all ages

4. A counseling service to assist all students re-gardless of age in choosing careers, remedying de-ficiencies, and preparing themselves as useful citi-zens

5. Programs serving groups interested in civic,cultural, or recreational improvement of the com-munity.

These aims of the community college appear insharp contrast to those of the university of whichthe primary tasks are to : preserve knowledge, teachwhat is known, and search for new knowledge.

Within the context of the foregoing character-istics, 110 Canadian community colleges were op-erational in summer 1969. Of these, 96 in operationduring 1968-69 had a total student population of85,933 or 3.75 per cent of the eighteen to twenty-four-year-old population. Ninety-six of the 110 collegesenrolled a total of 25,772 women, or approximately30 per cent of the total student enrollment. Ninety-nine of the 110 colleges employed a total of 8,097staff (including senior administrative officials).

In Quebec, 4.8 per cent of the eighteen to twenty-four-year-old population of that province attendedcommunity colleges; 4.4 per cent in Alberta; 3.7per cent in British Columbia; 3.4 per cent in NovaScotia; 3.3 per cent in Ontario ; 3.1 per cent inManitoba ; 2.1 per cent in Newfoundland ; 2.0 percent in Saskatchewan ; 2.0 per cent in New Bruns-wick; and 0 per cent in Prince Edward Island.

Of the 106 colleges now in operation, 22 describedthemselves as private colleges; 47, including theC.A.A.T. colleges in Ontario, described themselvesas technical institutes as contrasted to comprehen-sive colleges. A total of 38 colleges offered instruc-tion prior to 1960 ; 59 offered instruction prior to1965. Almost half of the 110 colleges came intobeing after 1964. Most of the colleges were respon-sible to a provincially appointed board of directors ;approximately 30 per cent reported directly to adepartment of the provincial government. 53

British Columbia

Provincial legislation in British Columbia in 1958permitted the formation of district colleges operatedby one school board and regional colleges operatedby a consortium of school boards under a governingcouncil. The legislation, included in the PublicSchools Act, required that a college could be estab-lished only after citizens in participating school dis-tricts had passed a plebiscite and a referendum (ap-proval in principle) agreeing to support the collegethrough local taxation. (The government recentlyincreased its share to 60 per cent of the operatingand capital costs, with 40 per cent to be raisedlocally. Fees are included in the local 40 per centcontribution.) In 1962, the Macdonald Report onHigher Education in British Columbia and a Planfor the Future recommended two-year colleges forspecific communities throughout the province. Fol-lowing this report, a number of attempts to estab-lish colleges by plebiscite were undertaken, some. ofthem successfully. A total of forty school districtsout of almost ninety are involved in the operationof four colleges and in the formation of three others.Two of these are due to open in 1969 and one in1970. At present, the province has one city collegeand six regional colleges in various stages of de-velopment. In addition, there are three denomi-national colleges and one institute of technology.

The Prairie Provinces

The Alberta Public Junior Colleges Act of 1958provided for the establishment of junior collegesaffiliated with a university and supported in partby local taxation. In 1969, the Colleges Act estab-lished a system of community colleges throughoutthe province. A central feature of the system is theAlberta Colleges Commissiona board consistingof nine members having wide regulatory powers inrelation to financial and other affairs of public col-leges. Local college boards, which previously had

54 been associated with school boards, became inde-

pendent. Local boards of governors now consist ofeight persons and include the college president, onefaculty member, and one student member. The 1969act removes support by local taxation and providesfunds from the provincial government. The fundsare distributed through the Alberta Colleges Com-mission.

The five public colleges in Alberta are designedto become comprehensive community institutionsoffering both occupational and university transferprograms. Provision has been made in the 1969legislation to include at a subsequent date the pro-vince's two institutes of technology and three agri-cultural colleges. There are in addition three, privatechurch-related colleges, one of which aims to be-come a French-language center of higher educationin the West.

In Saskatchewan, a university-government com-mittee has examined the development of higher edu-cation for that province. Recommendations havebeen made regarding the establishment of com-munity colleges, and some action has resulted. Twoinstitutes of technology and one church-governedcollege presently are operating.

While Manitoba has not yet adopted a collegesystem, there has been continuing growth in boththe 6.7.e and inclusiveness of its technical institutes.The institutes are operated by the department ofeducation in conjunction with a provincial advisoryboard of forty-two members and a host of subboardsand course committees ; thus, more than 200 citi-zens help relate the institutes to the community.The Manitoba Educational Research Council is pres-ently conducting an extensive study about post-highschool, nonuniversity education in that province.

Ontario

A system of colleges of applied arts and technol-ogy was established by provincial legislation in May1965. It included the creation of a fifteen-membercouncil of regents appointed by the minister of 55

education. The task of the council is to recommendappointments to the boards of governors of localcolleges and to coordinate the colleges' development.In March 1966, the establishment of eighteen (nowtwenty) areas for the planning of colleges through-out the province was announced ; the growth of col-leges since and the enthusiasm with which they havebeen received has been extraordinary.

The board of governors of each college is com-prised of twelve members chosen from the areaserved. This crown corporation, operating underthe Corporation Act, is responsible for the develop-ment and operation of each college. It exercisesall authority in this connection, excluding only thosedecisions made on behalf of the council of regents.

Each college consists of three divisions : tech-nology, business, and applied arts. Admission tothree-year programs requires a minimum Grade XIIstanding on completion of four years of the five-yearsecondary school program. Admission to other pro-grams requires, normally, a Grade XII diploma oncompletion of the four-year program. As elsewherein Canada, the colleges are developing extensive dayand evening programs for the part-time studentand the student requiring upgrading. It should benoted that the Ontario colleges are not compre-hensive community colleges in that they are notdesigned to include university-parallel programs.Only a small fraction of college graduates enrolledin universities, and they do so on an individual basis.

There are at present twenty colleges of appliedarts and technology in addition to Ryerson Poly-technical Institute, the Ontario College of Art, anda number of other public and private colleges.

In May 1969, the minister of education and theminister of university affairs announced the ap-pointment of a special commission to study "allpostsecondary educational institutions in the pro-vince and to outline patterns required . . . to meet

56 the needs of the province over the next two decades."

Quebec

Sweeping changes in the structure of postsec-ondary education in Quebec have been accomplishedwith astonishing speed. In 1964, a department ofeducation was established. Concurrent with thepublication of the second volume of the Parent Re-port in 1965, preparations were made to create anumber of institutes, later called C.E.G.E.P., in theGeneral and Vocational College Act of 1967. By1969, twenty-three, French-language colleges werein operation, and the first English-languageC.E.G.E.P. will open this same year. As a rule,the C.E.G.E.P. were not created afresh but werebuilt from existing institutions. More than halfof the hundred or so classical colleges now have be-come a part of a new C.E.G.E.P., the rtmainderhaving withdrawn from the college level in orderto function exclusively within the secondary system.

Quebec has gone beyond any other province byproviding teaching training in its C.E.G..E.P. inaddition to technical and preuniversity programs.

The college system provides a level between thesecondary school system on the one hand and theuniversity or employment on the other. Two-yearprograms leading to various university faculties areoffered. Programs leading directly to employmentare of two or three years length depending uponthe vocation chosen. Quebec is the only province inwhich all students eventually mua graduke froma college in order to enter a university. Initially,it was anticipated that 70 per cent of the studentswould elect to take occupational training, whereasin actual fact, 75 per cent followed the universitypreparation route.

The term community college as applied in thisprovince truly expresses a lively sense of communityinvolvement. Each college has a- board of directorsconsisting of nineteen members : Four members arenamed by the faculty, two are named by the stu-dents, and four are drawn from among parents ofstudents. In order to allow for maximum corn- 57

munity participation, provision is made for theappointment of five other members who are namedonly after consultation with other communitygroups. The board itself may name two membersin order to ensure a proper balance between com-munity and college representation. The principaland academic dean are also members.

Colleges have established an organization apartfrom government called Federation des C.E.G.E.P.,whose aim is to facilitate growth in areas outsidedirect governmental jurisdiction.

In Quebec, colleges are supported almost entirelyfrom provincial funds. Only in this province arestudents within the college system not required topay tuition fees.

The Atlantic Provinces

The Province of Prince Edward Island createdHolland College in 1969. It recently appointed itsfirst president and will begin operation in 1970.

In Newfoundland, the Royal Commission on Edu-cation and Youth recommended in 1967 the estab-lishment of community colleges. There are at pres-ent two technical institutes.

Although no community college system presentlyexists in New Brunswick or Nova Scotia, these pro-vinces have a long history of providing a great di-versity of educational opportunities for high schoolgraduates. In Nova Scotia alone there are eightcommunity colleges ranging from a private juniorcollege to a marine navigation school.

The promise of a community college is to providefurther educational opportunities to thousands ofstudents for whom the door to higher education ofspecialized training leading directly to a careerwould otherwise be closed. A splendid start hasbeen made in Canada to fulfill this goal uniformlyacross the land. The number of colleges will sharplyincrease until a college exists within commutingdistance of almost every Canadian citizen.

A second trend is the establishment of provincial58 systems of coordination and control wherein a num-

ber of newly created institutions or older institutionsgathered together under one board become a partof a provincially organized network. Alberta affordsthe most recent example of a provincial system. Atthe national level, a commendable effort is beingmade in the interests of countrywide development bythe Canadian Commission on Community Colleges,headquartered in Toronto, to explore the possibilityof establishing a national agency in cooperation withcommunity colleges.

A third trend is a movement toward comprehen-sive institutions with generalized curriculums andaway from specialized colleges. Programs availableto the part-time day or evening student seem boundto expand. (Unfortunately, the slowest to developin terms of community inclusiveness is that of pro-grams for persons beyond the conventional studentage.) Future developments will also include em-phasis on the transfer of students in occupationalprograms between colleges within a system.

A fourth trend is the increased effort to clarifythe bases of articulation between community col-leges, universities, and high schools. Much moreinformation is needed than presently exists re-garding the flow of students from secondary schoolsthrough colleges (and between colleges) and uni-versities.

A fifth trend is the removal of colleges from thejurisdiction of school boards and direct governmentcontrol. Increasingly, faculty are recruited fromother secondary schools. Correlated with these de-velopments is the growing involvement of facultyand students in policy-making.

Finally, the value of community colleges as cen-ters where students can reconcile aspirations withrealistic educational goals will become increasinglyappreciated. With improved counseling servicesand greater community awareness of the specialcharacter of colleges, students will better be able tosort out the kind of training they want. Some whohad elected to attend a university will change theirminds ; some will decide upon university training 59

sooner or later, a decision they might not have takenotherwise. As a result of this sorting-out process,dropouts will decline, industry will be more effec-tively served, and a more economical and efficienttotal educational system will emerge.

Benefits from these trends may not be realized,however, if some provinces continue to starve col-leges for funds and interfere politically in theirmanagement; if college faculty attempt to ape out-moded forms of universities organization and pro-cedures; if college administrators allow a jungle ofregulations to grow up in areas that should remainflexible and free for experimentation ; if educationfor students beyond the conventional age continuesto receive low priority; if counseling remains hap-hazard and often irrelevant; if student and facultyparticipation in the government of the institution isignored. In a word, more of the same is not goodenough. It requires courage not to institutionalizewhat is already not working well.

It may be too early to perceive the outcome ofthe current vigorous and rapid evolution in post-high school institutions of higher learniig in Ca-nada, but the overall trend is clear. The educationalneeds of that large group of young adults requiringpreparation for useful and rewarding places in so-ciety will be met. Probably this will be done mosteffectively and in most places by some form of com-munity college. The result will be an achievementas momentous as the commitment of Canadiansearlier this century to universal high school edu-cation.

60

By Robert M. Knoebel

COMMUNITYCOLLEGES FORTAIWAN: ARE THEYNEEDED?

There is always a very serious danger of beingtraditional and unrealistic when Americans en-deavor to identify educational needs of friendlyneighbors across the waters. Such reviews are fre-quently done in terms of education within our ownnation and without a full understanding of the cul-ture, and the social and economic conditions in theforeign land. To be objective, understanding, andunbiased is a most difficult task ; however, a sincereeffort will be made in this article to examine Tai-wanits history, geography, economy, culture, andeducation. Primary consideration will be given tothe matter of whether there is an apparent void intheir educational system which a community col-lege-type program might fillwith appropriateadaptations.

Taiwan was conquered by the Dutch in 1624. Itwas regained by China in 1662. The West frequent- 61

ly calls the island Formosa, which means beautifulin Portuguese. The East usually refers to it asTaiwan meaning terraced bay in Chinese. TheUnited Nations uses the phrase The Republic ofChina, and those on the islanu say The Land of FreeChina. Whatever wording may be used, it is trulya beautiful islandthe Hawaii of the Far East.

Taiwan has a wide-range topograph : A portionof the island is mountainousthe highest elevationbeing approximately 13,000 feet; there are someheavy forest areas as well as sloping plains leadingto the southern and western shorelines. The thir-teen million people are rather closely packed at therate of nearly 1,000 per square mile in a total areaof less than 14,000 square milesabout one-thirdthe size of Pennsylvania.

Taiwan is a showplace of China's illustrious past,her prosperous present, and her promising future.Developing Economy

The island has changed from a predominantlyrural, farm-related country to a highly industrial-ized nation. Rice; tropical fruits, peanuts, soybeans, and pork continue to be large export items,but with rapid activity, the economy is moving to-ward manufacturing. Extensive efforts have andare continuing to be directed toward the expansionof industry, particularly light manufacturing. Thetourist trade, with its wide range of employmentand capability of producing foreign exchange, isbeing promoted successfully.

One of the outstanding economic developmentprograms is the Kaohsiung Export Zone at thesouthern part where different types of industryfrom other lands, including the U.S.A., are engagedin light manufacture using almost exclusively im-ported materials. The products are exported. Theemployes are from Taiwan. The major benefit tothe island is the income provided to the employes,thus increasing the purchasing power for localproducts and improving the standard of living for

62 the citizens. This type of activity creates a demand

for individuals with an education beyond the highschool. The improved income of the populace hasincreased the demand for many services includingpostsecondary education.

Being under the influence of China and Japan formany years, Taiwan culture is old. Western influ-ence has brought many changes in recent years.The investment of foreign capital, development ofmodern transportation, and provision of adequatecommunication have brought many Westerners andother foreigners to the shores of the island. Modernmanufacture has caused changes in the family cus-toms. Young people have gone to the cities for em-ployment and for schooling. Even eating habits arebeing changed for economic reasons. Through aprocess of educating the public, wheatwhich isless costly than riceis imported and used as abasic food, thus releasing quantities of rice for ex-port and resulting in increased foreign exchange.English is a required subject in the schools. result-ing in further Westernization of the populace.

The Pattern of Education

The objectives established for the citizens of theRepublic of China are significant and revealing.There are six major goals : (a) national character-istics, (b) democratic spirits, (c) traditional Chinesemorality, (d) good physiques, (e) scientific knowl-edge, and (f) ability to work and contribute to thecommunity. One of the most recent advances intheir education program in a further effort toachieve the listed objectives was the provision forextending free, compulsory education throughgrades 7, 8, and 9. This program was inauguratedin fall 1968.

The present educational system is a 6-3-3-4 sys-temsix years of elementary school, three years ofjunior high or middle school, three years of seniorhigh, and four years of college work. Interspersedwith this system are five-year junior colleges whichrecruit junior high school graduates. Furthermore,there are three-year junior engineering colleges 63

which aim at the training of so-called engineeringaides or technicians. The latter institutions recruithigh school graduates. In addition, there are a va-riety of adult education, programs which do not fitinto any particular pattern. Recent statistics re-veal that approximately one out of every four per-sons in the Republic of China is in school. A furtherindication of the educational progress is the factthat 97.52 per cent of the children of school age werein school in 1967.

Elementary schooling is frequently preceded bynursery and kindergarten programs. In many in-stances, these pre-elementary schools are privateand of high quality. The secondary schools includeacademic high schools, vocational schools, and nor-mal schools. While the academic high school is thepredominant one, the vocational school is not un-common. Classified among the vocational schoolsare those specializing in agriculture, industry, com-merce, marine, nursing, midwifery, and homemak-ing. The normal schools prepare teachers for nurs-ery, kindergarten, and elementary schools. Thereare now six such schools on the island which enrollstudents in grades 10, 11, and 12really a special-ized high school program.

Higher education consists of national and pro-vincial universities, independent colleges, and juniorcolleges. Out of every one hundred children ofschool age six to twelve, twenty will go to college.The college students' choices of fields of study (1967-68) revealed that nearly 40 per cent were enrolledin the social sciences, almost 20 per cent in engi-neering, 10 per cent in humanities, 9 per cent inmedicine, and the remaining 21 per cent in educa-tion, fine arts, law, natural science, and agriculture.There are no institutions of a comprehensive na-ture comparable to the community colleges in theUnited States.

Public funds for education have been limited andcontinue to be so. The demand for quality educa-

64 tion has been tremendous. The result has been the

creation of private schools at all levels. Privatenurseries, kindergartens, elementary and highschools, and colleges are usually filled to capacityand constitute a good portion of the total educa-tional program in Taiwan. Many of the institutionsare of proprietary nature. In most instances, highstandards are maintained. Industry is engaged ineducational programs to provide a wide range ofopportunities to prepare for employment in variousoccupations. It was recently estimated by the Coun-cil for Economic Development that more than50,000 persons need to be educated each year tomeet the demand for trained personnel in the vari-ous occupations. Approximately 20 per cent of thatnumber would be educated in public schools. It wasexpected that the preparation of 80 per cent of thetotal manpower requirements would need to be donethrough private and industry-related school's.

It is true that a large percentage of the'highschool graduates-71 per cent in 1967continuewith higher education. On the surface, it may ap-pear that there is little or no need for considerationof a community college-type program of educationfor Taiwan. However, as one reviews the types ofhigher educatioa provided, it is evident that a realvoid exists in the education offered at the 13 to 14grade level. There are few technical institutes. Theones in existence are largely private and geared pri-marily toward a limited range of occupations. In-stitutions of a comprehensive nature at the 13 to 14grade level are few in number. With the growingtechnical aspects of agriculture, the rapidly expand-ing industrialization of the economy, and thegrowth of tourism, there are increasing demandsfor personnel of the technician type and level. In-cluded in the need are auxiliary personnel in lifesciences and social sciences as well as physical sci-ences, With the rapid expansion of industry andtourism, needs for qualified personnel will becomeincreasingly acute in all occupations related to pro-viding for thousands of visitors annually. Further-more, as youth observes the opportunities for im- 65

proving their standards of living through education,they will seek remedial study and means wherebythey can update and upgrade themselves.

There is within the youth of Taiwan a strong de-sire for collegiate education. They are degree con-scious. At the same time, leaders of the nation haveexpressed a strong belief that education and eco-nomic development go hand in hand. With technol-ogy a major element of modern agriculture ; of themany new industries such as Timex, Philco, andOmega ; and of the restructure of previously estab-lished companies; the demand for employes withpost-secondary education has increased and will con-tinue to increase at a rapid pace.

Areas of Potential Cooperative Effort

It appears as though there are excellent oppor-tunities for educational efforts between communitycollege leaders in our nation and educators in Tai-wan. While it is recognized that most Western edu-cational programs cannot and should not be adaptedin total by other nations, it may be extremely desir-able for Taiwan educators and economy plannersto examine the potential for community college-typeeducation in their land. Ministry of Education,Provincial Department of Education, and Councilof Economic Development officials could review thecommunity college program in our country with thepurpose of adapting those aspects which may behelpful to the Republic of China. Some of the areassuitable for study and investigation might include:purposes for community colleges ; institutional or-ganization patterns; people being served; use ofadvisory services; remedial and developmentalprograms; use of educational technology; facility ar-rangements; curriculum developmentparticularlycareer-type programs ; evaluation and accreditation;placement and follow-up; financing; cooperativeeducation ; articulation guidance and counselingservices ; certificates and degrees.

66 It is evident that cooperative efforts between com-

munity college leaders of the United States and ap-propriate personnel from the Republic of Chinacould result in the identification of assistance whichmight be made available to the Republic of Chinathrough various techniques, which might includeexchange of administrators, faculty members, andstudents; international conferences; observationand study tours ; consulting services ; and exchangeof materials.

If our friendly neighbor in the Far East desiresto explore this area of education, it is most appro-priate for the American Association of Junior Col-leges to endeavor to assist in providing services asdesired by the Taiwan government. Educators, so-ciologists, economists, legislators, and the public ingeneral in the Republic of China agree that educa-tion does contribute greatly to economic develop-ment and the social welfare of their nation. Theyrecognize the community college-type program as aform of education that has potential for their coun-try. We as an association should consider what wecan do to implement any services they may desirein an effort to provide more and improved educa-tion for the citizens of Taiwan. This undoubtedlywill enable the Republic of China to build an evenstronger and more prosperous country. Such actionwill tend to strengthen the ties between the peopleof the two nations.

Top-level personnel of the Ministry of Education,the Provincial Department of Education, and theCouncil for International Economic Cooperationand Development are fully aware of the significanceof adequate education programs, particularly fortechnical and midmanagement-type occupations. Itis evident they are highly desirous of adaption ofthe appropriate portions of community college edu-cation for the Republic of China. Taiwan is alreadya center for assistance to lands in Southeast Asiaand in South Africa. They can increase their serv-ice to other lands by further development andstrengthening of their educational program between 67

68

,

the high school and the senior institutions of highereducation. It is apparent that appropriate commu-nity college-type programs can be very helpful tothe Republic of China.

Bar John Gilliam

JUNIOR COLLEGESIN JORDAN

Perhaps more than any other nation in the world,the country of Jordan, in recent years, has experi-enced particularly difficult problems. While pursuinga course of economic development, complex llolitical,social, and educational problems have been com-pounded by crisis after crisis arising out of theexplosive Middle East situation. One institution thathas contributed much to the nation's growth andstability during these trying times is the juniorcollege.

Jordan's junior colleges have provided most ofthe teachers for the country's burgeoning. schoolsystem and a large number of technically trainedpeople for business, industry, and government.Although the junior college system has experiencedrapid change in Jordan, a network of six junior col-leges provides the foundation for the nation's highereducation system. Four of the junior colleges are 69

70

teacher-training institutions, two for men and two forwomen. One junior college specializes in agricultureand one in business administration. All are govern-ment schools under the control of the Ministry ofEducation. They are primarily boarding institu-tions, free of charge, with students living in on-campus dormitories. Each school has an enrollmentof about 200 students.

In addition to the junior college system, there isthe University of Jordan which was established in1964. The university has a considerable degree ofautonomy and does not operate under authority ofthe Ministry of Education; thus, there is no formalassociation between Jordan's junior colleges and itsuniversity. As a new institution, the University ofJordan is still in the process of basic development,and its impact on the nation is just beginning to befelt; consequently, the junior colleges have carriedthe burden of higher education.

For developing countries, education is always atop-priority consideration ; Jordan is no exception.As pointed out by Meier : "Investment in educationis a prerequisite for economic development."* Whilethis is a widely accepted view, the real problem isto determine the specific kinds of education that aremost important at the various stages of develop-ment. Although the general nature of manpowerrequirements and supplies vary from country tocountry, one important fact stands out. In virtuallyevery case, there is a critical shortage of qualifiedmanpower at the technician level. Trained technicalworkers are absolutely basic as support personnelin economic development activities, whether theseactivities be in agriculture, manufacturing, mining,tourism, or any other area. In a very large measure,Jordan's rapid economic development is a reflectionof the success of its junior college system and theability of these schools to produce needed manpowerfor the economy.

* Meier, Richard L. Developmental Planning. London:McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1965. p. 265.

The successful development of the junior collegesystem in Jordan is a tribute to the educational lead-ers of that country. While the Jordanian Ministryof Education has been faced with an extraordinarilycomplex set of responsibilities and problems, thenation's total educational system has experiencedrapid growth and development.

The continuing struggle between the Arab nationsand Israel has placed an especially heavy burden onJordan's educational system. Corresponding withthe periodic outbreak of hostilities between thesecountries, Jordan has been inundated with Arabrefugees from Israeli-occupied territories; on occa-sion, refugees have literally doubled school enroll-ments overnight. With a limited number of highlytrained professional educators, educational adminis-trators, and other educational resources, the severityof the problems facing the nation's educational sys-tem are self-evident.

As might be expected, the teacher-training juniorcolleges have been under particular stress, for it isthe junior colleges that have been called upon toproduce teachers for the enormous increases inschool enrollments.

The development of higher education in Jordanhas also been handicapped by the severely limitedfinancial resources of the country and the amountof funds available for educational purposes. In theshort run, there does not appear to be much hopefor improvement in the situation since it is neces-sary for governmental officials to budget increasingamounts for military use. In addition, a large partof Jordan's most productive land area was occupiedby Israel following the June war of 1967; this sub-stantially reduced the nation's economic base.

Nevertheless, far-sighted and capable educationalofficials, with the aid of various international orga-nizations, have worked hard to develop an educa-tional system that effectively provides for the coun-try's needs. 'rhe core of this system is the juniorcollege network which has made remarkable progress. 71

In addition to the problems already described,Jordan's junior colleges are faced with certain basiceducational problems. The most important of theseinclude staffing, curriculum development, teachingmethods, materials development, and equipment andfacilities.

Staffing

Perhaps the most important ingredient in anyeducational organization is the quality of its profes-sional staff. For the most part, professional staffmembers in Jordan's junior colleges are well-trainedand capable professionals. To be able to teach inthe nation's junior colleges, it is necessary to havea master's degree. Since it has not been possible toearn a master's degree in Jordan (the University ofJordan is currently developing a master's degree pro-gram), all professional staff and administrativepeople earn these degrees outside of the country.Certainly one of the major assets for the juniorcollege system is the fact that professional staffmembers have been trained in colleges and univer-sities all over the world. While many are trainedin Middle Eastern institutions, large numbers areeducated in the United States and in Europe.

In terms of staffing, the Jordanian Ministry ofEducation does have a very serious problem. Thisis the matter of turnover and retention of topnotchteachers and administrators. Salary is the funda-mental issue. Beginning master's degree holders arepaid approximately 40 Jordanian dinars a month(slightly over $100). The nation's restricted finan-cial resources make advancement a slow and limitedprocess. On the other hand, private businesses andcertain governmental agencies provide capable edu-cational people tempting offers which pay twice asmuch or more than the Ministry of Education canpay its junior college teachers and administrators ;consequently, there is a relatively high turnover ofpersonnel, especially the more capable people. As a

72 result, it is often necessary for the Ministry of Edu-

cation to make rapid and frequent changes of assign-ments, particularly among the relatively small coreof experienced personnel. This situation handicapseducational efficiency.

It is therefore necessary for the Ministry of Edu-cation to rely heavily upon short-term staff mem-bers. Commonly, these are students who have leftJordan using government assistance in the form ofscholarships or other financial aid, and who, uponreturning to their homeland, are obligated to servetheir nation for twice the duration of their out-of-country educational stay. Once these returnees havecompleted their obligated service to the government,they are free to take other jobs. In this connection,it should be noted that Jordan is a heavy exporterof educational talent. Many Arab countries, includ-ing Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Algiers, and others,depend to a large extent upon Jordanians to stafftheir school systems. So it is not at all unusual foryoung teachers, upon completing their obligated gov-ernment service in Jordan, to seek more lucrativeemployment in nearby countries.

In some respects, there are advantages for Jordanin the turnover of educational personnel. For onething, there is a constant stream of new ideas flow-ing into the system. However, about the time thatfledgling staff members begin to develop and becomereal assets to the educational system, they tend tomove on to more attractive positions. This is a veryreal problem for the Ministry of Education and oneabout which educational officials in Jordan are ex-tremely concerned. Ministry officials are now takingsteps to develop a more equitable salary schedule.

Curriculum Development

One of the primary concerns for the JordanianMinistry of Education is the development of relevantcurriculums in its junior colleges. Historically, for-eign influence has been quite evident in the curricu-lums of Jordanian schools at all levels. This situationis understandable for at least two reasons. Oneexplanation is that most of the professional staff 73

people are educated in other countries. A secondreason lies in the fact that, historically, certain othernations have played a very dominant role in MiddleEast affairs. For example, both the British and theFrench have played a vital part in the evolution ofthe Middle East nations ; as might be expected, theinfluence of these two nations is easily recognizedin Jordan's schools.

But as the country has developed and taken onits own distinct national character, there has been aneed to modify school curriculums to meet the uniqueneeds of that society; Ministry of Education officialshave made positive efforts to develop relevant curric-ulums for the nation's schools.

With the large number of students graduatingfrom Jordan's secondary schools and the limitedjunior college resources, admission to the country'sjunior colleges is quite selective. Admission require-ments include : (a) general secondary school certifi-cate; (b) health certificate; (c) age not exceedingtwenty-three years ; (d) good character ; (e) selec-tion by a committee based upon (1) student's gradeson general secondary examination ; (2) recommen-dations from the secondary school principal.

Depending upon the specific area of specialization,junior college students usually earn between seventyand ninety semester-hours of credit over a two-yearperiod. All students, regardless of their area of spe-cialization, are required to take the general educationcourses listed in Table I.

An analysis of these basic general requirementsreveals some interesting features. For one thing, itis evident Jordanians feel the ability to read andspeak English is very important for their juniorcollege students ; since much of the trade, com-merce, and economic affairs of the Middle East iscarried on through English communications, thisseems to be a valid requirement.

General education requirements also reveal some-thing of the cultural values of the Jordanians. It isapparent, for example, that art and Islamic culture

74 are important to the people.

TABLE IREQUIRED GENERAL EDUCATION COURSES

Course Semester-hours of credit

General science 4Mathematics 4Arabic language and literature 6English language 8Art 4Physical education 2Islamic culture 3Arab history 4

Total 35

The majority of junior college students prepareto become teachers, and it is necessary for theseprospective teachers to complete a twenty-one semes-ter-hour sequence in professional education in addi-tion to these basic general education requirements.The courses required in this sequence are shown inTable II.

TABLE IITEACHER-EDUCATION REQUIRED COURSES

Course Semester-hours of credit

Introduction to education 3Developmental and educational

psychology 4Curriculums and methods 5Community development 5Student teaching 4

Total 21

These professional education requirements are thetype that might be expected in a teacher-educationcurriculum. It is important to note, however, that 75

the Jordanians attach a great deal of importanceto developing in prospective teachers an awarenessand appreciation for community needs. In Jordan,there are many small communities with great devel-opment need and potential, and government officialslook to well-trained teachers to assist in the devel-opment of total community and social progress.Thus, a significant part of the professional educationof prospective teachers is devoted to understandingcommunity development.

All prospective teachers must complete an area ofsubject-matter specialization in addition to the re-quired general and professional education courses.Areas of specialization are given in Table III.

TABLE IIIAREAS OF SUBJECT-MATTER

SPECIALIZATION

Subject-matter area Semester-hours of credit

Arabic and Islamic religion 18English language and literature 18Social studies 18Physical sciences (physics, ten; biol-

ogy, eight; chemistry, eight; andmathematics, eight 34

Home economics 18Physical and health education 18Business administration 25Agriculture (three-year course) 48

For nonteaching majors, primarily in businessadministration and agriculture, it is necessary tocomplete additional work in a subject-matter areain lieu of the professional education sequence re-quired of teaching majors,

The Jordanian junior college curriculums havecertain built-in handicaps. For one thing, they are

76 very rigidthere is virtually no room for electives.

;

The curriculums are highly structured, and it isalmost impossible to tailor instructional programsto the individual needs and interests of students.This situation comes about, in part, as a result oflimited resources, but the major reason for rigidcurriculums is simply tradition. The idea of electivecourses has never been popularly accepted ; however,current indications are that educational officials arebeginning to favor a more flexible structure in Jor-dan's junior colleges.

The highly structured curriculums have anotherhandicap. Students are required to enroll in anestablished sequence, of courses during each schoolyear. If a student fails one course, he is requiredto retake the entire sequence of courses for thatyear. This, of course, is a very inefficient use ofeducational resources and of student time.

It is not unusual for junior college students inJordan to be in class twenty-four to thirty hours aweek. By American standards, this seems to be anunusually large amount of time spent in class ; tothe casual observer, this situation is misleading.The reasons that students spend this amount of timein class center around teaching methods and thenature of available instructional materials.

Teaching Methods

Lecturing is the traditional method of teachingin Jordan's junior colleges and indeed, in many ofthe colleges and universities of the Middle East.Virtually all instruction takes this form, and thestudents generally play a passive role in the teachingprocess. Fundamentally, there are two explanationsfor this state of teaching methodology. One is thatsociety traditionally expects teachers to be a fountain of knowledge capable of passing on to studentsall the desired knowledge and information ; it isconsidered somewhat of a disgrace for a teacher notto be able to lecture knowledgeably and forcefully.

A second and more logical explanation is foundin the nature of available teaching materials. Typi-cally, textbooks and teaching materials are just not 77

available to individual students. In fact, the teacheris usually the only person to have one or more text-books and/or other teaching materials. Under suchcircumstances, it is easy to understand why the lec-ture method is relied upon so heavily ; there is simplylittle alternative. In the absence of textbooks andrelated instructional materials, students are in aposition to do little else but listen when they cometo class. On the other hand, students who have anaccess to a wide range of books and reference mate-rials will come to class prepared and wanting toparticipate in a more active fashion as opposed tobeing a mere listener ; thus, improvement in teachingmethods is closelly associated with the securing anddevelopment of textbooks and instructional materials.

On the assumption that methods of teaching otherthan lecturing are desirable (i.e., the problem orcase approach and other techniques involving stu-dent participation), the Ministry of Education hasencouraged efforts to develop appropriate textbooksand teaching materials. The ministry also has madesubstantial progress in the development of librariesto further support instructional effectiveness. Secur-ing and developing books and library materials hasbeen a difficult process as numerous problems areinvolved. Limited financial resources for materialsdevelopment is one major problem. There is notenough money to undertake all the kinds of develop-mental activities that are desirable. The limitedfunds make it necessary to set priorities and spendmoney very carefully.

There are, however, modest sums of money avail-able for the purchase and development of teachingmaterials. Even so, opportunities for the purchaseof relevant materials are limited. This is especiallytrue in regard to materials relating specifically toJordan. Take the case of economics : Throughoutthe world, there are any number of textbooks andmaterials available for the teaching of economics,but beyond fundamental theory, there is virtuallynothing relating specifically to the economy of Jor-

78 dan. The same situation applies to many other

subject-matter areas as well, and this is a basicproblem. Since there are no materials relevant tospecific subjects, efforts are being directed towarddeveloping appropriate materials. At best, this is avery slow and difficult task.

An encouraging factor is that the Jordanian Min-istry of Education is vitally concerned with theoverall range of teaching materials and techniques.As progress is made in expanding teaching mate-rials available, teaching methods and instructionaleffectiveness are rapidly improving in Jordan'sjunior colleges.

Equipment and Facilities

Perhaps mention should be made of equipmentand facilities. By modern standards, Jordan's juniorcolleges have not been well housed and equipped.But in this respect, too, the Ministry of Educationhas made tremendous strides; for the most part, thejunior colleges are now housed in adequate facilitieswith modern laboratories and equipment.

While the overall state of physical facilities andequipment in junior colleges in Jordan is improvingrapidly, these factors have been secondary consider-ations in the country's rapid educational progress.Given the finest equipment and facilities, educationalaccomplishments will not be great unless well-trainedand capable people are present to operate programs.In this respect Jordan excells.

The nation is fortunate in having a nucleus offirst-rate educators with the ability, ambition, anddedication to develop relevant and effective pro-grams. Certainly among Arab nations in the MiddleEast, Jordan has one of the best, if not the best,educational programs.

This small country, beset with severe problems,is an educational lighthouse in one part of the world.It is in a period of growth and developmentandpolitical and economic turmoil. But dedicated edu-cators in Jordan are continuing their efforts toimprove the educational system, and the entireMiddle East is better off because of these efforts. 79

By Karim Fatemiand Franklin T. Borrough

HIGHEREDUCATIONALDEVELOPMENTS INIRAN

Iran need not nourish an illusion about the antiq-uity of its institutions of higher education. Longbefore Europe could boast of Salerno and Bolognain Italy, Montpellier and Paris in France, andOxford in England, Iran possessed Jondi ShapurUniversity located in the present province ofKhuzistan.

During the time of the Sassanids (226 A.D. to650 A.D.), this university was one of the largestand best equipped institutions of higher educationin the world.' It was renowned for its work in medi-cine, pharmacy, and philosophy. Its faculty has adefinite international flavorincluding professorsof Greek and Syriac as well as Persian origin?Jondi Shapur was a university of which any nationwould have been justifiably proud.

Jondi Shapur was spared destruction at the time80 of the Islamic invasion in the seventh century, but

within a few years it began to decline in importance.Many of the scholars who had engaged in significantresearch (migrated to other nations or to other partsof the Islamic world, and the quality of scientificwork achieved at the university decreased. Eve it-ually, Jondi Shapur ceased to function as a majorcenter of learning, but its influence as an institutionshould not be underestimated. Perhaps its most sig-nificant contributions to the nascent Islamic culturewere in the areas of science and philosophy. Itserved a3 one of the forces which activated acidchanneled the spirit of scientific inquiry so charac-teristic of early Islam.

Under Early Islam

Originally, Islam did not discourage scholarshipand investigation ; to the contrary, the early caliphsdisplayed an avid interest in learning. They. sur-rounded themselves with scholars ; they encouragedthe study of philosophy and science. As a result ,ofthe encouragement given by the caliphs, early Islamwitnessed a period of intense intellectual activityand scientific inquiry.

During this period of lively scholarship, a newtype of institution characteristically Islamic in struc-ture was developed. The institution was called inArabic, al-madrasah. Nizam al-Mulk, the famo usminister under the Seljuk Turks, established ma-drasahs of significance in Isfahan and Nishabur inthe mid-eleventh century.3

Despite their excellence, madrasahs contained ele-ments which contributed to the eventual stagnationof scholarship. The teaching methods allowed forlittle creativity. The professor spoke, a teachiagassistant repeated the words, and the students copiedthe words verbatim. The teaching assistant oftentook great pains in helping the students correct theirnotes. After the notes had been corrected, the stu-dents proceeded to memorize thema practice stillfollowed all too often. Even many of the professorsactive in the schools were inclined to imitate andperpetuate rather than initiate. As a result of these 81

dlwallbovi,.

82

qualities inherent in the madrasah system of edu-cation, curiosity was dulled; the spirit of inquirywas dampened; tradition became increasingly im-portant; intellectual vigor declined.

Following the Mongol invasion in the thirteenthcentury, Iran experienced a period of cultural de-cline ; institutions of higher learning either ceasedto exist or became empty shells. This period of cul-tural stagnation persisted for some two and a halfcenturies until Iran was reunified under the SafavidKings in 1500 A.D. Even after reunification, how-ever, progress in education was minimal.

Under the Safavid kings, religion was given fullsway. Great efforts were made to spread a particu-lar brand of Islam. These efforts influenced educa-tion in at least two ways :

1. Religious education was emphasized to the det-riment of the sciences.

2. Free speculation and inquiry were discouraged.The chief aim of education was to train religious

leaders and jurists.4 Tradition governed almostevery aspect of scholarship, and intellectual activi-ties were greatly limited in scope.

The Nineteenth Century

The Qajar Dynasty inherited a deplorable educa-tional and intellectual situation. By the time theyarrived on the scene in 1780 A.D., "all the vigor hadgone out of educational values and processes. Aftercenturies of cultural, social, political, and economicdecline, education had come to be the monopoly ofnarrow-minded and parasitical clergy." 5 The con-dition of higher learning in Iran at the beginning ofthe nineteenth century certainly left a great deal tobe desired.

Qajar rulers made few attempts to improve theintellectual climate of Iran ; it seems that they werenot particularly inclined toward scholarly pursuits.One of the few efforts they did make involved theestablishment of Dar-ul-Fonun, a polytechnic collegedesigned to provide training on the secondary leveland the rudiments of a higher education.

The Dar-ul-Fonun was inaugurated in 1851. Itsfaculty consisted of seven Austrian professors andseveral European-trained assistants and interpre-ters ; it catered to some 150 students, most of whomwere members of the Iranian aristocracy. The fieldsof study offered included : infantry, cavalry, artil-lery, engineering, medicine and surgery, pharmacy,and mining.6 The college was the first Western-typeschool founded by the Persian government, and itsestablishment represented a landmark in Iranianeducation.

During the second half of the nineteenth century,four additional colleges were established. Two ofthese were military in nature, while two were in-tended to supply ministries with qualified personnel.

The Early Twentieth Century

The first few years of the twentieth century wit-nessed only a slight increase in the number of insti-tutions of higher education in Iran. Political in-stability and internal strife prevented officials fromadequately attacking the problem of education andfrom taking positive steps toward solving the prob-lem. Conditions militated against the establishmentof schools on the tertiary level ; a few schools, how-ever, were foundedall of them located in Tehran.

By 1925, the list of institutions of higher educa-tion included : the school of music, the school ofmedicine, the school of law, the industrial or tech-nical school, the school of dentistry, the school ofagriculture, the school of commerce, the school ofpolitical science, the school of fine arts, and Cmmilitary schools.

Early in the 1920's, Reza Shah the Great consoli-dated his power and seized the reins of government.Upon his ascension to the throne, he was faced withmany problemsnot the least of which was the needto develop a viable system of education from theprimary school through the tertiary level. He setabout building the structure of a modern educationalsystem and thus provided the foundation for furtherdevelopments in education. 83

Prior to his ascension to the throne, Reza Shahserved as minister of war; during his term, hecreated a military academy. The academy was de-signed as a free institution with a course of studyof two years' duration.

Not liong after coming to power, Reza Shah trans-formed the Normal School at the secondary level,created in 1918, into an institution of higher educa-tion under the name of Teachers College. This three-year college consisted of a faculty of science and afaculty of letters, granting a license in one of fivedivisions : literature and philosophy; history andgeography; mathematics ; physics and chemistry;and biology.? Later, Teachers College was incor-porated into the University of Teliran.

Reza Shah's greatest contribution to Iranianhigher education undoubtedly was the establishmentof the University of Tehran in 1934. At the outset,the university had five faculties : arts, science, medi-cine, law, and engineering; gradually, however, fac-ulties were added and curriculums were broadened.Today, Tehran University is the only Iranian insti-tution of higher education offering ?, full range ofcourses.8 It is also the institution which boasts thegreatest enrollment and enjoys the greatest amountof prestige. "Its predominance over the other uni-versities is increased by the fact that most of theleading officials . . . are resident in Tehran andteach at the University of Tehran." 9

Reza Shah was prevented from making furthercontributions to higher education due to unrest ofinternational proportions. In 1941, Reza Shah ab-dicated in favor of his sonthe present ShahandBritain and the Soviet Union occupied Iran. It wasnot until the end of the occupation in 1946 that Iranagain could turn its attention seriously to education.

Developments since the Mid1940's

The major developments in Iranian higher educa-tion have taken place since the mid-1940's. Withinthat period, five provincial universities have been

84 established, and a number of other institutions have

been founded. The growth in higher educational en-rollments and facilities has been phenomenal.

The five provincial universities which have beenset up are : Tabriz, Jondi Shapur, Mashad, Isfahan,and Pahlavi.'° None of these institutions offersa full range of courses ; none of them serves any-thing like the number of students enrolled in TehranUniversity.

The first privately financed university in Iran wasfounded in 1961. It was inaugurated the NationalUniversity of Iran under a policy-making board oftrustees. At the outset, the university consisted ofthree schools : architecture ; banking, finance, andeconomics ; and medicine. Faculties of dentistry andsocial science have subsequently been added ; theprogram in economics has been expanded to thegraduate level, offering a master of arts degree.

The Vocational Teacher Training College at Nar-mark, a suburb of Tehran, was established in 1962.It is the first and only degree-granting college forvocational-industrial education in Iran, trainingteachers for Iran's vocational high schools. Thedegree of bachelor of vocational education is award-ed to those students who complete the four-year,tuition-free program."

Arya Mehr Technical University was establishedsome three years ago. Its aims are :

1. To prepare a selected group of Iranian studentsfor careers in all branches of engineering and en-gineering management

2. To enable the students to use their professionaltalents and scientific knowledge in furthering Iran'sprogram of modernization.

The university offers a four-year program of studyand awards a license at the end of the four years.The university has already contributed significantlyto Iran and its development; it promises to makeeven greater contributions in the future.

The institutions outlined above are only some ofthe colleges and universities that have been foundedwithin the past twenty years. Other institutions, 85

both governmental and private, are now in operationand are serving an increasing number of college-age students. They are offering training in fields asdiverse as engineering, literature, social work, secre-tarial science, home economics, and translation. Atleast three of the colleges offer programs similar tothose offered by junior colleges. These three are theSchool of Social Work, Iran Girls' College, andTehran Polytechnic.

The School of Social Work

The School of Social Work was created in thelatter part of 1958. The three major purposes forits creation are :

1. To prepare students for practicing social workin Iran

2. To establish new, professional social work serv-ices and to strengthen existing social welfare aidsand services

3. To broaden areas of knowledge related to socialwelfare.12

The course of study, as originally planned, was oftwo years' duration. Upon the completion of theprogram, the student was granted what might betermed the associate of arts degree. In the early1960's, two more years were added to the course ofstudy, making it a four-year. program. Presently,all students are required to complete the two-yearprogram before they are placed in one of the manyagencies requesting social workers. Before the stu-dent can be admitted to the four-year program, hemust prove himself to be a good practitioner of hisart.

Iran Girls' College

Iran Girls' College was established in 1964 as thefirst Iranian institution of higher education cateringexclusively to women and boasting of a program in-tended particularly for the training of women. Thecollege was founded for the following purposes :

1. To afford a selected group of Iranian women86 the opportunity to prepare themselves for careers in

vocational and professional fields related to the dis-ciplines of psychology, home economics, and secre-tarial science

2. To instill in Iranian women an appreciation oftheir capabilities, potentialities, and responsibilities,and to prepare them for their place in today's world

3. To arouse in the women an interest in usingtheir capabilities and potentialities, particularly inthe future development of Iranian society."

The college offers a wide variety of programs andactivities designed to serve the needs of many typesof students. It affords training to both recent sec-ondary school graduates and women already on thejob. It gives a student the opportunity to pursue atwo- or four-year course of study and grants the stu-dent either a two-year certificate or a license. Thestudent interested in securing the certificate mayenroll in one of three faculties : psychology, lan-guage, or home economics. The student who de-cides to work toward the license may choose a fieldof specialization such as : nutrition and dietetics,interior design and dressmaking, secretarial science,translation, accounting, or psychology.

Tehran Polytechnic

Tehran Polytechnic was founded during the 1960-61 academic year as a government technical insti-tution. Its purpose is to aid in furthering the over-all national program of technical education in Iranby training practical engineers for industry andgovernment service. Candidates for admission mustbe graduates of secondary schools with a major inmathematics, or they must possess certificates froma secondary vocational-type school and have "suitablequalifications in science and mathematics." 14

Study lasts four years and involves both theoreti-cal and practical courses. The student is affordedthe basic scientific background he needs during thefirst two years in a Department of General Studies,sometimes aclled the junior college. The third andfourth years of study include classes in engineeringeducation and training in one of the institutes of 87

the school. Upon completion of study, the studentreceives a diploma in engineering technology.

While Iran Girls' College, The School of SocialWork, and Tehran Polytechnic involve two-year pro-grams of study, those programs do not serve thesame purpose as that served by junior college pro-grams in the United States. The two -year programsfunctioning in these institutions are generallyviewed as the first step toward a license ; seldom, ifever, are they considered as terminal or transferprograms. Because of the emphasis placed upon thefour-year degree, an institution striving to servethe purpose of a junior college and to function inthat capacity is either forced to extend its programto four years or be threatened with extinction. TheSchool of Social Work is but one example.

Today, an increasing number of Persian studentsfeel they can afford and have the right to pursue afour-year course of study; many of them make greatsacrifices to do so. They feel they are being soldshort when encouraged to lower their sights evenslightly.

The insistence upon pursuing a four-year pro-gram and obtaining a license has roots deep in theIranian culture. The positions usually sought afterinclude the professions and the civil serviceall ofwhich require a relatively high level of educationfor maximum benefit and a decent rate of pay. Jobson the technician level are frowned upon becausethey involve manual labor. Programs which aredesigned to train men for such jobs are shunned.For these reasons, the concept of the junior collegeas understood in the United States has not been ableto take root in Iran. The concept will remain at thisstage until attitudes have been changeduntil theIranian public has been awakened to the benefitsand values of middle-level positions for both menand women.

Pertinent Educational Needs

The undue amount of prestige given to the license88 points out several educational needs in Iran. One is

1

the need to educate the public to the value whichresults from a middle-level position. A second needclosely related to the first is for the extension ofeducational opportunity for those whose expecta-tions are rising but whose pocketbooks do not permitthem to embark upon an extended study program.Within this group lies the manpower potentialneeded for many of the middle-level programs in-volved in industrialization. A third need is for thedevelopment of a middle ground where late bloomerscan be discovered and properly guided, and wherestudents uncertain of which courses they want tofollow can be given adequate information to permitthem to make a wise decision. A fourth need isconcerned with the in-service training of nonquali-fied personnel already on the job.

In the future as Iran progresses industrially, afifth need will be the retraining of personnel whosejobs have become outmoded. As the literacy levelrises, a sixth need may develop : providing furthereducation for a greater number of adults.

These needs could probably best be met by an in-stitution of the junior college type. Such an insti-tution will have little possibility for success, how-ever, until the public is convinced of its intrinsicworth and its importance to their personal advance-ment. Herein lie the possibilities for a fruitful ex-change of intercultural ideas and an internationaldialog among educators. Such an exchange of ideascould prove beneficial to all participants; such adialog could certainly aid Iran in reeducating itscitizens for life in an industrializing and rapidlychanging society.

Although the history of higher education in Iranextends over some eighteen-hundred years, the mainthrust forward has occurred within the last twentyyears. During that period, the framework of amodern system of higher education has been erected ;the system now awaits the finishing touches.

The form the system will finally take cannot bepredicted with any certainty. The only statementthat can be made with some assurance is that the 89

system must be diversified if Iran is to realize itsgoals and possibilities.

1 Najabadi, Mahmud. "The University of Jondi Sha-pur." Mehr IV: 398; Sharivan 1345.

2 Scholars of Greek origin had originally sought refugein Persia from the persecution being meted out in theGraeco-Roman world.

3 Dodge, Bayard. Muslim Education in Medieval Times.Washington, D.C.: The Middle East Institute, 1962.

4 Borhanmanesh, Mohamad. A Study of Iranian Stu-dents in Southern California. Ann Arbor: MichiganUniversity of Microfilms, Inc. pp. 28-29.

5 Banani, Amin. The Modernization of Iran, 1921-1941.Stanford, Cal.: Stanford University Press, 1961. p. 36.

0 Borhanmanesh, p. 23.7 Sadiq, Issa Khan. Modern Persia and Her Educational

System. Study Number 14. Studies of the InternationalInstitute of Teachers College, New York : Bureau of Pub-lications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1931.p. 72.

8 Division of Economic Affairs, Plan Organization Ed-ucation. Third Plan Frame. Tehran, Iran : The Division,August 1961. p. 74.

9 /0C. cit. The Division.10 Pahlavi University was established in 1949. Origin-

ally, it was known as Shiraz University. The name waschanged to Pahlavi in 1962 when the university affiliatedwith the University of Pennsylvania.

11 Agency for International Development. SummaryHighlights of A.I.D. Economic Assistance Activities inIran. Tehran, Iran: A.I.D. Mission to Iran, June 1966.p. 25.

12 Division of Economic Affairs, p. 99.13 Iran Girls' College. The College Catalogue, 1968-69.

Tehran, Iran: The College. p. 3.14 Tehran Polytechnic. Mechanical Engineering and

Production Engineering Institute Prospectus, 1965-66.Tehran, Iran: The Polytechnic. p. 1.

90

By I.M.R.A. Iriyagolla

CEYLON BEGINS AJUNIOR COLLEGESYSTEM

With the opening of six junior university collegeson January 30, 1969, Ceylon inaugurated a juniorcollege system and thereby added a functionally pur-poseful segment to the structure of higher educationin this country. This beginning also has meaning ina wider context. With the developMent of a juniorcollege system, Ceylon joins the world communityof junior colleges, characteristically significant inits rich heritage, in the phenomenal pace of its ex-pansion, and in its variety of structure and formadapted to meet the specific requirements of eachnation.

In late 1965, I saw junior colleges functioning inthe United States and in Japan. I was impressed bywhat I saw and carry vivid recollections of the manyservices these colleges rendered to economic growthand social well-being. I became alive to the greatpotentialities such a system would have in the con- 91

text to Ceylon's educational growth and economicdevelopment ; before long, a team of educators andadministrators was set up to develop a junior collegesystem in Ceylon.

Within three years a system was developed whichtook cognizance of the rich cultural heritage of thepast, the manpower requirements of the rapidly,growing economy, and the hopes and aspirations ofthe people. We watched the international communityof junior colleges at work ; we noted their strengthsand weaknesses ; and we charted a course to suit ourmeans and ends.

New Institutions

Junior university colleges are new institutionsdesigned to meet new needs, and as such, they arecharacterized by innovations. They have introducedmany new features to the educational system inCeylon.

One such feature is in the field of admissions.Gaining placement in institutions of higher learningin Ceylon is very competitive. Undergraduate stu-dent admissions to all universities in Ceylon are lessthan 2,000 each year, although nearly 40,000 taKe theGeneral Certificate of Education Examination (ad-vanced level) which serves as the entrance require-ment for undergraduate admissions. Since eachyear's undergraduate admissions are dependentupon one particular year's results of the advancedlevel examination and competition for the few uni-versity places is so heavy, education tends to be foralmost all university entrants an uninterruptedexperience from grade one through university.Twelve years of study effort through elementaryschool and high school necessarily must be continueduninterrupted through university. This tends to putCeylon students through a highly sheltered andstructured environment during their teenage years.Immaturity and a feeling of dependence may verywell result from such a situation.

One of the prime objectives of our junior college92 system is to meet the manpower requirements of

industry, commerce, agriculture, and service occu-pations. The world of work today, at midmanaga-ment level, requires men with maturity, qualities ofleadership, and team spirit. We like our studeni;sto spend a year or two "in the world" between highschool and college, so that on their return to theclassroom, they will then test formal concepts dis-cussed in lectures against their own actual experi-ence. To encourage this, an innovation has beenintroduced into the admissions procedure of thejunior university colleges. Each year's admission isnot tied down to the results of a particular year'sadvanced level examination. This policy is a depae-ture from the established undergraduate entrancepractices, and the deviation is bound to bring in avery salutary effect.

Admissions into the entire junior college syste nare centralized and vested in the National Councilof Higher Education. This centralized proceduf ebrings in many attendant advantages. Lack of infoi:-mation on the one hand and the prestige of somecolleges on the othor may lead to an inequitable di..-tribution of student population. This can be ad.justed expeditiously by the central authority. Ever:.student declares his first and second preference cyZcourse and college, and is placed on the basis of avail-ability of student places and courses of study. Inaddition, such a system is economical in operation.

In spite of a quarter century of free educationand nearly a decade cf state education in Ceylon,educational opportunity has not been equalized.Some schools have better facilities than others, andsome districts have greater educational opportunity.In order to check this unfair advantageeven insome small measureadmissions to the junior uni-versity colleges have been made, to some extent, ona zonal basis. Selection to each college has beenrestricted to a particular geographical region, sub-ject, of course, to accommodation and availabilityof particular courses. Besides counterbalancing theunfair advantages of incidental inequality in educa- 93

tional opportunity, this zonal requirement helps todevelop the community college aspect in this newtype of educational institution.

Features of the Junior College

Since there are only six such colleges in the wholecountry, it is not possible to bring in all the featuresof the community college system ; however, as afirst step in this direction, one-third of the placesin each college are reserved for students livingwithin a thirty-mile radius. As more and more col-leges are established in various parts of the country,I expect it will be possible to increase this presentone-third to one-whole and even considerably reducethe thirty-mile radius.

For the first time in Ceylon, community partici-pation in curriculum design has been achieved in awider and more organized form. Junior universitycollege curriculums have been determined in con-sultation with the Manpower Division of the Min-istry of National Planning, university professors,educators, and public and private sector personnel.Guidelines laid down by this Consultative Committeewere elaborated into learning sequences, and thesedraft schemes of studies were referred to a widercircle of professional organizations, corporatebodies, and men of outstanding success and respon-sibility in each respective discipline. Finally, theinstructional staff of the colleges sat again to recon-sider the original drafts in the light of the commentsreceived. This painstaking work resulted in theJunior University Colleges Bulletin, 1969.

Community participation is sought not only incurriculum design and in the development of thescheme of studies but also in teaching. In all majorareas of study, sufficient instructional staff for thefull teaching requirements was not recruited on apermanent basis. This situation necessitates engag-ing visiting lecturers and instructors for the balanceof the teaching loadthereby drawing in a wealth

94 of experience and knowledge available in the com-

munity and, consequently, enriching the instruc-tional program.

Community participation in instruction does notend there. To conclude each unit of studywheresuch a unit lends itself to work experiencestudentsare placed in actual work within the community andthus are given the necessary experience in real-lifesituations to meet the demands of each professionor occupation. In this activity, the supervision andguidance of the public and private sector employesis earnestly solicited. The guiding hand of the expe-rienced is an effective tool of instruction.

Principles and Techniques

In Ceylon's junior university college system,strong emphasis is placed upon learning principlesand techniques. Every unit of study has a statedcognitive objective and behavioral objective. Everylecturer discusses with his dean of instruction a fewweeks in advance of each unit the behavioral changes,the attitudinal changes, and the skills he plans tobring about as a result of his teaching ; more im-portantly, he examines what aids and techniques,what methods and procedures, he proposes to adoptto achieve these objectives. They also plan togetherthe evaluation techniques to assess the attainmentof these objectives.

These individual college efforts are supplementedby workshops in curriculum development, held threetimes a year at a central location. At these work-shops, attended by the instructional staff of all thecolleges, the lecturers review past work ; comparestudy progress and methods; and exchange viewson teaching aids, assignments, handouts, and texts.Finally, they plan the next term's work in detail.Curriculum development is conceived as an ongoing,continuous processmore so because of the changesin job requirements and the world of work, andthe psychological and pedagogical changes that aretaking place in the world at large. 95

Guidance and Counseling

Guidance and counseling is comparatively new ininstitutions of higher learning in Ceylon, End theappointment of full-time guidance counselors to thejunior university colleges is a new feature in theeducational setup. Education caters to the wholeman, and psychological services for adjustment,integration, and social well-being are essential forthe heterogeneous student population that if, takeninto each campus. A comprehensive student per-sonnel service program has been drawn up, and itsprogress is being watched with interest.

At the end of the two-year course of studyinthe case of those who offer terminal courses--secur-ing a suitable job is the greatest concern of everygraduating student. In a developing economy suchas ours, where job situations are not plentiful, itrequires a great deal of planning and preparationto place every graduating student in an appropriatejob situation. The junior university college diplomahas to earn recognition, and schemes of recruitmenthave to be amended to accommodate this new levelof job preparation. The counseling center of eachcollege offers a placement service as well, and sincesuch placement services are a new feature in voca-tional education in Ceylon, they therefore are viewedwith hopeful concern.

1969 is a landmark year in the history of educa-tion in Ceylon. In August we celebrated the cen-tenary of the State Supervision of Education inCeylon. The State Department of Education wasbegun in 1869, and in its career through one hun-dred years, education in Ceylon has undergone aphenomenal transformation.

Many were the systems that rose and fell in theselong yearsrose because of the necessity of thetimes and fell when they outlived their usefulness.It is hoped that the junior university college sys-teminaugurated in this centennial yearwill havenot only the vitality to withstand the vicissitudes ofthe times but also the variety to be of service to the

96 youth of the nation.

By Charles B. Greenand Eduardo Cavallo R.

NEW JUNIORCOLLEGE IN SANTADOMINGO

When a well-conceived idea is supported and im-plemented by an energetic and capable group ofcitizens, something important can happen. This isthe story of the new junior college in Santo Do-mingo, Dominican Republic. The idea was that thebusiness and industrial community needed techni-cally trained administrators, accountants, and execu-tive secretaries ; accordingly, there should be a col-lege-level institution to provide this training. Thegroup that recognized this need was the Accion Pro-Educacion y Cultura (Action Pro-Education andCulture, A.P.E.C.) , made up of professionals andbusinessmen who are anxious to improve their com-munity.

The need was first pointed to in a survey madein 1962 of the country's vocational education re-quirements, When A.P.E.C. decided to act, it soughta member of the 1962 survey team as an adviser 97

Hamden Forkner, Professor Emeritus of ColumbiaUniversity. He was a very suitable choice, for inaddition to being a recognized authority in businesseducation, he had been &leader in the junior collegemovement in California early in his career.

A.P.E.C. was able to interest both U.S.A.I.D. andthe Ford Foundation in the project, but before therewas much headway, the civil war of April-May 1965caused the project to be indefinitely postponed.A.P.E.C., however, never dropped the idea. Aspolitical conditions became more stable, they becameeven more enthusiastic about opening the college asa symbol of the dawn of a new and better time.

Preparatory Program

The action group had been able to secure theestate of Trujillo's mother from the governmentthe large rambling house being suitable for tempo-rary classrooms. Although the country was still suf-fering from the after-effects of the civil disturb-ances, A.P.E.C. resolved to go ahead with the col-lege project as quickly as possible. Since the staffwas not adequate for the regular business adminis-tration and business education classes that had beenproposed and there were no technical assistants forthe college, the sponsoring group decided to beginclasses to ready the students for the regular pro-grams as soon as these could be started. The pre-paratory program started September 27, 1965, with110 students.

The Ford Foundation and U.S.A.I.D. madearrangements with Bryant College in Providence,Rhode Island, to send technical advisers to help thecollege organize its administration, accounting, andsecretarial courses which were to start in February1966. The idea was to begin small, establish a firmbase, and build slowly ; however, the college foundthat the number of applicants made it impossible tolimit the program as originally planned. The execu-tive secretary of A.P.E.C., Ignacio Guerra, com-mented that the problem of the college from the

98 beginning was what he refers to as the avalanche.

ii'

The college was subjected to pressure because of thenumber of men and women who desired to enter.The day program opened in February with 141 stu-dents and because of demand, an evening programwas begun in March with 65 additional students.At the end, of the first semester, there were still somany applicants that a new group of students wasenrolled despite the original plans to start operationson a yearly basis. In about a six-month period, thecollege had grown from a plan on paper to a studentbody of approximately 400 students. The BryantCollege technicians found it necessary to teachclasses in addition to their regular tasks of trainingthe local staff.

Since the temporary classrooms were overcrowded,A.P.E.C., through its own funds and with contribu-tions from the Organization of American States,began to construct a classroom building. This wascarefully planned so that the original three-roomunit could be enlarged as more funds became avail-able. The first unit was completed by March 18,1968, and the entire building with ten classrooms,offices, and restrooms was inaugurated in January1969.

In addition, to the special advisers from BryantCollege, Dr. Forkner has continued to work withthe junior college. The curriculum is designed totailor the business education and business admin-istration programs of United States junior collegesto meet the special conditions of the Dominican busi-ness community. The college strictly limited itsprogram to the terminal business courses but haqplans to add to these after it has developed sufficientinstitutional strength. As an example of a curricu-lum, the college offers the following courses for itsbusiness administration majors :

First semester: Spanish, English, mathematics,accounting, introduction to business

Second semester: Spanish, English, mathematics,accounting, business machines, business law

Third semester: Commercial Spanish, English,managerial accounting, salesmanship and public 99

relations, personnel administration, labor relations.The college is now in its sixth semester and has

graduated two classes with a total of 170 graduates :13 accounting majors, 68 business administrationmajors, 27 Spanish executive secretaries, and 60bilingual executive secretaries. Most of the grad-uates have found ready employment. Some havedecided, however, to continue their studies, and theNational University recognizes the courses of thejunior college for those who wish to take advanceddegrees.

New Statutes

In November 1968, A.P.E.C. decided that its fledg-ling organization had proved itself, and new statuteswere implemented for the college so that it is a semi-autonomous organization with its own administra-tion and board of directors. The Dominican govern-ment has granted the college full legal recognitionwith the right to grant two-year college degrees.

The students pay sixty pesos (pesos on a par withdollars) a month tuition which provides the ma-jority of the operating costs of the college, but loanprograms provide assistance to all needy students.In addition to the director and assistant director,the faculty consists of fifteen full-time and twelvepart-time professors.

All appraisals of the junior college indicate thatit is making a significant contribution to the Domin-ican Republic.

100

By Shri K. L. Joshi

JUNIOR COLLEGESPROPOSED IN INDIA

The scene of educational development in India,particulary since 19.47 the year of independenceis both challenging and exciting for students ofeducational and economic growth. The latest com-prehensive study is contained in the Government ofIndia document Report of the Education Commis-sion-1964-661, which describes itself as "a reporton education and national development" envisagingdevelopment from 1961 to 1985.

Apart from the problems of increasing numbers ineducational institutions, provision of facilities forteachers and equipment, and linking up of educa-tional activities with the economic implications ofnational growth, the scene perhaps is characterizedby pious resolutions and the inability of the govern-ment or private sector levels to cope with a situationof inadequate economic development. Consequently,much tension has been created for state govern- 101

m?nts as well as for the central government in theexpansion or improvement of education as outlinedin three, five-year plans-1951-1966. The resultshave been : inadequate financial provisions in theinstitutions established for the rising enrollments ;unemployment of those highly educated through theuniversities, particularly in technology and science,resulting very often in a "brain drain" to foreigncountries; andthe foremost probleman inade-quacy of detailed studies and practical solutions tothe problems of insufficient finances and physicalfacilitiesequipment, boarding houses or hostelsfor students, libraries and reading facilities, andsome unqualified teachers.

The growth of enrollments can be seen in Table I,page 103, from the Report of the Education Com-mission.2

Compared to the growth of enrollments, the totaleducational expenditure in India, as a percentage ofnational income, has been rather discouraging. Theresources of the nation necessarily have been directedtoward building up the economic strongholds ofwell as irrigation, transport, communication, andother sectors of economic growth. Table II, page 104,gives an idea of total Indian educational expenditure.3

Under the constitution, education is a subject ofthe sixteen state governments with certain reserva-tions regarding subjects to be handled by the centralgovernment. The role of the central government isthat of coordination and advice with very littleexecutive or administrative authority. This role, initself, can be effective in relation to the leadershipand, perhaps, political power which can be said tocommand the state governments. A coordinatedpolicy of educational development may not be ac-cepted easily by the state governments if thestrength of political power at the center does notinfluence that in the states.

Before independencewhen enrollments in theeducational institutions were much smaller and

102 today's population figure of 500 million was not

P :tG 01 :

turAi".14, aNis is' tie;

vi"

wow.46.4r.1 rt V.1

-'I ai; cb

-'ro" c* oqagi eza ei 14,

cs

IA; 'ZCS"rt pi IR

N tr74 " :1)/

7, let Is eie 1,2 t N

"4 N

IRRol?Clt Crt

rt

Nr4

FEIO

lami ips 13001 N6

ESE

O

N11

000a

"cr

0

visualized as a major demographical and economicproblemeducational structure did not offer itselfas an important problem. There were reasons tosupport this view. A high school examination at theend of the tenth or eleventh class resulted in a uni-form academic standard in all states. The examina-tion was known as "the matriculation examination"when conducted by the universities in the earlierdecades of the nineteenth century and "the schoolleaving certificate examination" when conducted bya statutory board established by the state govern- 103

s 0 41

TA

BL

E I

IT

OT

AL

IN

DIA

N E

DU

CA

TIO

NA

L E

XPE

ND

ITU

RE

Item

of

expe

nditu

re19

50-5

119

55-5

619

60-6

119

65-6

6(e

stim

ated

)

Tot

al e

duca

tiona

l exp

endi

ture

fro

m a

ll so

urce

s(i

n m

illio

ns)

1,44

41,

897

3,44

46,

000

Inde

x of

gro

wth

100

166

301

524

Edu

catio

nal e

xpen

ditu

re p

er c

apita

3.2

4.8

7.8

12.1

Inde

x of

gro

wth

100

150

244

378

Tot

al n

atio

nal i

ncom

e at

cur

rent

pri

ces

(in

mill

ions

)95

,300

99,8

0014

1,00

021

0,00

0In

dex

of g

row

th10

010

514

822

0N

atio

nal i

ncom

e pe

r ca

pita

at c

urre

nt p

rice

s26

6.5

255.

032

5.7

424.

4In

dex

of g

row

th10

096

122

159

Tot

al e

duca

tiona

l exp

endi

ture

as

perc

enta

ge o

f na

tiona

lin

com

e1.

21.

92.

42.

9In

dex

of g

row

th10

015

820

024

2

Ave

rage

ann

ual r

ate

of g

row

th o

f to

tal e

duca

tiona

lPl

an I

Plan

II

Plan

III

Plan

s I-

III

expe

nditu

re (

perc

enta

ge)

10.6

12.7

11.8

11.7

ments qualifying a student for the universities, col-leges, or employment. The average age for completion of the school course was sixteen plus. In addi-tion, there was another examination known as "theintermediate examination," taken two years aftermatriculation, which established uniform statestandards. In nearly all cases, this examination wasconducted by the universities ; in one, the UnitedProvinces which has now become Uttar Pradesh, astatutory Board of Intermediate Examination, es-tablished by the state government, conducted thetesting. But the standard of attainment was verymuch like that of the intermediate examination con-ducted by the universities.

Changes in Structure

After 1955, many changes took place in this struc-ture which had at the apex of the educational struc-ture a uniformity in the form of the matriculationexamination at the high schcol stage and the inter-mediate examination for entry to engineering, medi-cal, and other professional studies as well as to thecourses in commerce, arts, and humanities of theuniversity. There was always a drop of enrollmentafter the matriculation examination, for quite alarge number of qualified students entered the dif-ferent sectors of employment. Another drop oc-curred after the intermediate examination whenstrict standards resulted in a pass percentage hardlyexceeding forty. Large numbers of students whoqualified entered professional colleges as well as thecolleges of arts, science, and commerce. Standardswere uniform, and the enrollments were manage-able in all the universities. But that was in 1947when there were twenty universities as comparedto seventy-odd in 1969. The number of pupils inthe universities and their affiliated colleges duringthis period rose from 200,000 to 2,000,000.

The sudden change to a higher secondary pattern,beginning in 1955 in some of the states, resulted ina number of adjustments in educational structure.In states where a higher secondary pattern of edu- 105

106

cation was introduced, the former four-year courseof undergraduate education of two years of inter-mediate education and two years of degree educa-tion was changed into a three-year degree course,the first year transferred to the higher secondaryschools of eleven years, changed from ten years.However, the total duration in school and collegeremained fourteen years. In other states where thehigher secondary education pattern was not practi-cable and a three-year degree course was introduced,the school system was retained to ten years or insome cases, eleven years (which was equivalent toten years from the point of view of courses ofstudies) followed by a preuniversity course in thecollege of one year and a three-year degree coursein arts, science, or commerce. Universities in theUttar Pradesh State, however, retained their oldpattern, and Bombay University also retained theold intermediate examination after two years ofschooling, followed by a two-year degree course.Further adjustments were necessaryfor example,introduction of a premedical examination for medi-cal students and pre-engineering examination forengineering students. Admission to professionalcourses such as engineering had been after the high-er secondary stage or preuniversity examination,and to medical courses, it had lbeen the intermediateexamination of the Uttar Pradesh board, the Bom-bay University, or a premedical examination equiva-lent to the first year of a three-year bachelor ofscience course in all other universities.

This created a great deal of confusion which wasrecognized by the Education Commission. The com-mission therefore suggested a new pattern of twelveyears of schooling, followed by a three-year degreecourse : one to four or one to five as lower primaryclasses ; five to eight or six to nine as upper primaryclasses; eight to ten or nine to ten as lower second-ary classes ; and eleven to twelve as higher secondaryclasses, followed by a three-year degree course.4 Itrecommended a fifteen -year duration of school andfirst-degree education as contrasted with the sixteen

years in the United States and Japan. However, theproposed pattern coincided more or less with that inthe United Kingdom although it did not coincidewith the pattern in the U.S.S.R. or other continentalco.mtries.

The Education Commission had recommended thehigher education stage of two years of general edu-cation or one to three years of vocational educationafter the tenth class of school education. But whenit came to implementation of this recommendation,the state governments, with the implicit approval ofthe Central Ministry of Education, changed the pat-tern, feeling that the eleventh and twelfth levelsshould be either in the colleges or in the selectsecondary schools according to the situation. For in-stance, the White Paper on Education of Maharash-tra State reads : "Higher secondary education will beprovided as classes attached to colleges and also astop classes in secondary schools."

Further modification to the recommendation ofthe Education Commission is also seen in the Reportof the Committee of Members of Parliament onEducation, 19675 which said : "As a transitionalmeasure the attachment of these classes (eleventhand twelfth) to colleges may be continued where-ever necessary." However, the Ministry of Edu-cation later seems to have come to a final conclusionin what is known as the National' Policy on Educa-tion (1968) :°

It will be advantageous to have broadly uniform edu-cational structure in all parts of the country. The ulti-mate objective should be to adopt the 10+2+3 pattern,the higher secondary stage of two years being located inschools, colleges, or both according to local conditions.

The government of India appointed a Committeeon Educational Integration? in 1961, and a reportwas issued in 1962. The committee had gone into thegeneral and major policies of the confusing diversityof educational structures in India. It recommendedthat there be a ten-year high school stage, followed 107

by a two-year preuniversity stage, followed by athree-year degree course. The report stated:The two-year unit may be attached to high schoolswhere it can be called the higher secondary classes or itmay be attached to the degree college as pre-universityclasses. It can also be an independent unit and may becalled junior college. Such junior colleges can be con-trolled and recognized by the State Education Departmentor university or both. Students who successfully completethe higher secondary, pre-university, and junior collegecourses may be awarded a diploma to qualify them fordifferent avenues of employment available to them.

The report further stated :Junior colleges will be specially useful in areas wherehigh schools do not have facilities for providing highersecondary classes. Pupils from the neighboring highschools who want a two-year preparation can join themand not have to go far away from their homes to jointhe pre-university class of a degree college. Junior col-leges can also serve the local community by providingevening continuation courses of different types and dura-tion for cultural enrichment and professional importance.

Junior College Concept

It is very interesting to note that the committeehad visualized the concept of the junior college forIndia almost in the same way as the community col-lege or junior college in the United States.

The committee reported that the junior collegesshould provide :

1. The necessary preuniversity preparation forstudents proceeding to degree courses

2. All-around terminal education with a semi-vocational or semiprofessional education

3. Termination education for a vocation.It further pointed out the variety of courses that

could be introduced in the proposed junior colleges:Among the numerous multipurpose courses that can beprovided in higher secondary classes and junior collegesare: teacher training for primary school teachers; certifi-cate courses for physical education teachers, art teachers,craft teachers, automobile mechanics, horticulturists,

108 electric technicians, junior accountants, laboratory tech-

nicians, building maintenance supervisors ; courses forcatering and dressmaking. The number and the types ofcourses may increase depending on needs. Students fromhigher secondary courses and junior colleges should becompetent to enter many of the public services now openonly to those with university degrees.

This valuable document of 1962 was not followedup closely, but it created a certain chain of thinkingand series of discussions. However, the suggestionsregarding the educational structure changes andjunior colleges perhaps were not taken seriouslyeither by the government or by the Education Com-mission of 1964-66 although the latter had madevarious recommendations about further education ofa semiprofessional nature after the high schoolstage, based more or less on the British pattern ofcourses; the recommendations included about 208courses. In addition, about 171 courses of a semi-professional nature in agricultural polytechnicswere suggested. All these can be easily accommo-dated in the type of junior colleges recommended bythe Committee on Educational Integration of 1962.Further, the present central minister of education,V. K. R. V. Rao, in his publication Education andHuman Resources Development, 19668 and also inhis address to the .state ministers of education onJune 7, 1965, mentioned the junior college and in-dicated that the "two-years of intermediate arts ora junior college may cover the two years after thetenth class." His recommendation more or lesstallies with the recommendation of the Committeeon Educational Integration.

The author had covered some of these points in anarticle° he contributed to the General EducationQuarterly, III: 1, October 1965, University of Bom-bay, on the "Need for Junior Colleges in India."The main argument advanced in this article was thatwhile it was difficult to have restrictive admissionsat the university or college level for social andpolitical reasons, particularly in the first two yearsof the four-year course or the first year of the three-year degree course, and because there was a need 109

for voluntary selection of courses by students them-selves, there should be something in the educationsystem like the sixth form in the United Kingdom.Therefore, it was desirable to introduce the juniorcollege in India within the educational pattern afterthe tenth class. It was argued that there were twoadvantages to such a system. In the first place, itparticularly would be an answer to the problem oflarge numbers coming from rural areas. Secondly,the students would be mature enough to decide whatadditional transfer courses they would take afterthe junior college. Thus, there would not be therush after the higher secondary school or high schoolto the universities and colleges as was occurring,without proper guidance. It was pointed out thatunder such a system the student is well prepared forfurther education or employment, and the numbersin the university courses are restricted naturally,without any social pressures or complaints. Further,it was pointed out that the increase in the presenttype of colleges was going on over ti'e years at therate of about 175 to 200 colleges a year for about200,000 to 300,000 additional students each year.This is evident from the 1963-64 pattern shown inTable III."

The article examined the pattern of training andeducation as well as employment of about 750,000students who qualified in 1964-65 and pointed outthat the situation resulting from the system ofeducation would present difficult problems unlessthe intermediate level of education and trainingwere to be emphasized. Table IV" brings out thepattern for the year 1964-65 .

The development of expenditures on educationduring the fifteen years of the first three plans isinteresting as shown in Table V, page 113.12

Position Today

In the present educational structure, there is ajunior college after the tenth class in only one state

1 10 Kerala. The system of education there is 10+2+3.

TA

BL

E I

IIC

OL

LE

GE

S 19

63-6

4

Cou

rse

of s

tudy

Uni

vers

ityco

llege

sA

ffili

ated

colle

ges

Tot

al19

62-6

3T

otal

1963

-6k

Add

ition

alin

196

3 -6

k

Art

s, s

cien

ce, a

nd c

omm

erce

681,

350

1,28

31,

418

135

Eng

inee

ring

tech

nolo

gy a

nd a

rchi

tect

ure

1479

9093

3M

edic

ine

579

7484

10Ph

arm

acy

03

23

1A

yurv

eda

09

89

1D

enta

l0

87

81

Nur

sing

05

45

1L

aw11

5054

617

Agr

icul

ture

840

4748

1V

eter

inar

y sc

ienc

e5

1418

191

Ori

enta

l lea

rnin

g3

160

168

163

5Ph

ysic

al e

duca

tion

05

55

0M

usic

and

fin

e ar

ts5

3332

386

Edu

catio

n9

148

146

157

11

Tot

al12

81,

983

1,93

82,

111

173

TA

BL

E I

VPA

TT

ER

N O

F T

RA

ININ

G A

ND

ED

UC

AT

ION

196

4-65

Fiel

dN

umbe

r of

stu

dent

s N

umbe

r of

inst

itutio

ns

Indu

stri

al tr

ade

inst

itutio

ns40

,000

313

Poly

tech

nics

40,0

0026

3

Priv

ate

unre

cogn

ized

inst

itutio

ns20

,000

Tea

cher

s' tr

aini

ng s

choo

ls40

,000

1,35

8

Priv

ate

univ

ersi

ty c

olle

ges

250,

000

1,00

0Fi

rst y

ear

of in

term

edia

te c

ours

e:95

0 X

30

equa

ls a

ppro

xim

atel

y28

,000

950

200

x 60

equ

als

appr

oxim

atel

y12

,000

60

Firs

t yea

r of

thre

e-ye

ar d

egre

e co

urse

:A

rts,

sci

ence

, and

com

mer

ce50

,000

Firs

t yea

r fi

ve-y

ear

engi

neer

ing

cour

ses

10,0

00E

mpl

oyed

100,

000

Une

mpl

oyed

or

seek

ing

jobs

160,

000

Tot

al75

0,00

0

I-%

e it

ti 0

c t-

r-n

0 0

fa. 1

-3_

___

_ _

-O

ttoE

P'li

Cla

t<li

StP-

IZli

00"

'T

AB

LE

VIl

Stt-

r-t-

r-0

C0.

..1C

D 0

m+

lla

A =

-0

-C

/2D

EV

EL

OPM

EN

TA

L E

XPE

ND

ITU

RE

ON

ED

UC

AT

ION

, BY

SE

CT

OR

, DU

RIN

G T

HE

FIR

ST,

CD

t-r-

AC

I)14

)0

t-r-

O 0

CD

....

0 P

CD

....

SEC

ON

D A

ND

TH

IRD

PL

AN

PE

RIO

DC

I)e-

p.C

D;I

D

0,-.

OrA

n ad

^m50

,5-

O 0

1.II

0c/

2

0-

,. ,..

,O

CD

SDt-

t-_I

_0

CD

t-r-

0 -

. -r

(1)

1111

SD 0

(1)

0..

PO5

Aoc

i-ls

01.

CO

s.q

.-. I

ts 0

... 0

,oc

2.-

.,er

,,-

I0

fa.

t-p-

,...

mta

Dit

-4sa

..(D

11=

. 'I.

fa'

0 5-

CD

8 0

.-'

liC

t- t-

CD

-..

1...0

CD

ilSI

D V

..°

A_C

DQ

,li

liC

l21.

11fl

,'-I

0..

CD

5at

.0

Aita

t-,-

1,-.

t''C

DC

Dt

CD

CD

5 O

"sl

,C

rel

(1)

e-15

,-pp ,I

. g. C

CA

Ia.

,)al

11II C

DH

z 0

04

CA

0C

DC

D(1

)'I

0t-

r-.d

...-

1-' 0

rt.

..c0

`..<

.0 -

O: 0

0..

m,..

t-p-

nC

D

CD

0C

/2fl

)D

3' -

3,._

30

._,

C/2

t-r- .

0C

D11

CC

/1=

t Z

' t''

)....

t''C

Dil

illig

5n

c C

Dpi

fa, -

ci2

u2-.

-t-

t-1-

' -.

0". C

ril (t)

E. (

1)et

)0

at.

CD

Oc/

27'

. PC

:$t-

-C

Dil

A2

1-lz

0' t

-t-

0 Pi

0C

/2it

1-..

0t-

r-C

/2ll

0 lt

;4;

lii-

iC

D _

A14

)C

D

SID

IN -

0 C

AC

AC

AC

D1-

.ti

t-t-

CA

SID

...ci

A,-

.=

CD

CA I-.

e....

.cz

m"

SID

cel

0P-

fa,-

- 1

0O

ct)

ci2

(t)

=l.

4O

li 0

CD

° 0

Clia

CA

0 C

A-.

-C

DC

Dli

CA

I'D

rj.

I.-%

CD

I-ts

c.p.

n C

A t-r-

C/1

,-...

0sl

, a 0

a,

0 ...

-..

.-%

t-t-

t-t- 0

cf.-

lt,,,

Wet

= 1

1ct

t<r/

2t'

n2C

2Fr

..e.

.4A

M"

1-s

e-r-

0et

,0

0 -6

-c

rip

CA

t-t-

18.

71 0

...)

,.."

(1)

00+

D.)

C/1

(1.4

CA

ig: '

01it.

=;7

4C

D"C

lti

ilC

/2il

..-

.s,

01.

145

0 c.

p.li

CA

(DClqcv

CD

Imf

1...

it

W

Cat

egor

y

Firs

tpl

anSe

cond

plan

'T

hird

plan

Firs

tpl

anSe

pcla

onnd

Thi

rdpl

an

1951

-56

1956

-61

1961

-66

Perc

enta

ge o

f to

tal

Scho

ols

and

voca

tiona

l edu

catio

n:E

lem

enta

ry e

duca

tion

Seco

ndar

y ed

ucat

ion

......

....

Oth

er p

rogr

ams

(inc

ludi

ng c

ultu

ral)

..E

ngin

eeri

ng a

nd te

chno

logy

(sc

hool

and

Agr

icul

ture

and

ani

mal

hus

band

ry (

cer-

tific

ate

and

dipl

oma)

Med

ical

edu

catio

n (c

ertif

icat

e).

Voc

atio

nal t

rain

ing

(DG

E a

nd T

)(t

rade

s)..

...

....

....

850

200

140

110 - 50 -

870

480

280

260 - 80 130

2090

880

390

660 30 140

490

42.1

9.9

7.0

5.4 - 2.5 -

24.3

13.5

7.9

7.3 - 2.2

3.4

27.3

11.5

5.1

8.1 .4 1.8

6.4

Tot

al (

scho

ol a

nd v

ocat

iona

l edu

catio

n)13

5021

0046

8066

.958

.661

2

Uni

vers

ity e

duca

tion:

Art

s, s

cien

ce, a

nd c

omm

erce

edu

catio

nE

ngin

eeri

ng a

nd te

chno

logy

....

.

Agr

icul

ture

and

vet

erin

ary

scie

nce

Med

ical

edu

catio

n...

..

140 90 50 170

450

220

110

280*

820

760

170

430

7.0

4 4

2.5

8.4

12.6 6.2

3.0

7 8

10.7

10.0 22 5.6

Tot

al (

univ

ersi

ty e

duca

tion)

450

1060

2180

22.3

29.6

285

Oth

er m

inis

trie

s:(C

D a

nd C

), r

ehab

ilita

tion,

and

hom

eaf

fair

s .

---

- --

--

--

220

420

790

10.8

11.8

10.3

Gra

nd to

tal f

or e

duca

tion

and

trai

ning

2020

3580

7650

100.

010

0.0

100.

0

* E

stim

ated

.

nography, commercial courses, etc., have been pro-vided, as well as apprenticeship courses in privatefirms and engineering and industrial workshops.But the regular institutional training courses afterthe tenth class, or even one or two years before that,have been provided in the following institutionswhich are equivalent in many ways to the juniorcollege :

1. Teacher-training institutions for primaryschool teachers

2. Polytechnics3. Industrial trade schools4. Agricultural schools and polytechnics.Primary school teacher-training institutions:

There are at present more than 1,400 institutionsfor training primary teachers with an annual ad.mission capacity of more than 130,000. The courseis generally for two years after the tenth class , insome states, it also is provided after the eighth class,but this is a passing phase. The entire programtoday could be brought under the junior collegepattern. The training schools for primary teacherseither are run by private institutions with theirgoverning boards or by the state governments. Theyare not under the wing of the universities. Thereis a view that the teacher-training institutions forsecondary teachers which award university degreesalso could have a division for the training of pri-mary teachers. All teacher-training programs. thuswould be brought under one canopy. While this ex-periment could be undertaken, it is desirable thatschool graduates who would like to take up the pro-fession of primary school teachingmostly popularamong womencould benefit considerably if theseprograms were offered in junior colleges along withother transfer and terminal courses.

Polytechnics: There are today 284 polytechnicsin India with an annual admission capacity of 48,600although during the current year, this number has

114 fallen to 31,000 owing to the discouraging prospects

of employment after taking the diploma. These arethree-year institutions after matriculation (schoolgraduation level). They deal in engineering subjectssuch as civil, mechanical, and electrical, and theyserve the intermediate level of technicians for gov-ernment works, industries, factories, and big stateprojects such as steel, fertilizers, electronics, irriga-tion, and power and communication. They servesome of the purposes of the junior colleges inAmerica and also could be brought under the wingof the junior colleges in India. Like the teacher-training institutions, they are under the control ofthe state departments of technical education. It ispossible to have an integrated organization of juniorcolleges with polytechnic wings, or the existingpolytechnics could take up other courses of variousduration in their vacant capacity resulting from theunpopularity of present courses and serve as juniorcolleges.

Industrial trade schools: The industrial tradeschools are meant for training craftsmen, requiredin industry as well as agriculture. These schoolshave more or less developed during the last ten years,particularly under the Third Plan from 1961. Theyprovide training both in engineering trades such asthose of blacksmith, carpenter, draftsmen, fitter,turner, welder, overseers, etc., and also in non-engineering trades such as bleaching, dying, print-ing, weaving, manufacture of household goods,utensil cutting, tailoring embroidery, preservationof foods, stenography, etc. Until 1956, there wereonly fiftynine institutions of this kind in India, withan admission capacity of about 10,000. By 1961, thenumber of the institutions rose to 163, with an ad-mission capacity of about 40,000. By 1966, the ad-mission capacity rose to 116,570. By 1968, the num-ber of industrial trade institutions rose to 306, withan admission capacity of 147,000. Admission tomost of these courses is after the tenth clOs. Insome of the engineering trades, students are ad-mitted after the age of fifteen or sixteen if they have 115

116

passed the eighth class of the school system. Inaddition, the training programs are supplementedby the apprenticeship training programs institutedabout 1962. Under the Apprenticeship Act of 1961,195 industries and 50 designated trades whereapprenticeships have to be encouraged are specified ;nearly 37,000 apprentices at present are undergoingtraining in about 3,000 establishments in both publicand private sectors.

The entire industrial training program is underthe central government's Ministry of Labor andEmployment which is associated with the stategovernments' labor departments. Sixty per cent ofthe financial development grant is given by the cen-tral government, and 40 per cent is provided by thestates. The central government also established aCentral Institute for Research and Training in Em-ployment Services in 1964 to conduct employmentresearch and train employment officers, and theIndian Institute of Labour Studies to train indus-trial relations officers of the central and state govern-ments. This function today is served to a large ex-tent in the United States by junior colleges, and itcould form a wing of the proposed junior colleges inIndia.

Agricultural schools and polytechnics: In somestates, separate agricultural schools at the schoollevel have been established. An experiment was per-formed by introducing agricultural courses in themultipurpose higher secondary schools under theSecond Plan ; however, the experiments have notproven successful. The agricultural polytechnics, asrecommended by the Education Commission, arestill at a conceptual stage. All .3uch courses couldbe brought under the junior colleges.

Gradual Introduction

Thus, it can be seen that the concept of juniorcolleges is being introduced gradually in India al-though there is lack of coordination and properstimulus and conviction. There are boards of tech-nical education which manage the polytechnics at

the government level. There are boards for indus-trial training schools under the labor departmentsof state governments and the central Ministry ofLabour and Employment which manage and financeindustrial trade schools. The primary teacher-training schools are organized mostly by the stategovernments and directors of public instruction inthe different states. A community institution servingthe national goals required for economic develop-ment is in an embryonic stage and needs to be con-sidered in light of the facts previously mentioned.If separate institutions offering training of one, two,or three years after the tenth class are established,they can control various sectors of terminal andtransfer courses. The advantages for the communitywill be many, particularly if these institutions aredistributed all over the country in rural areas andin small and larger towns and cities. Such institu-tions can offer short courses, forums, concerts, stud-ies, basic college work, vocational and technicalcourses, continuing education or further educationcoursesall related to community needs. They couldintroduce a one-year certificate course or a two- orthree-year diploma course in a variety of programs.

The question of organization and administrationof such an institution is an important one. In India,most institutions were developed first by governmentand later multiplied in the private sector by enter-prising individuals. Private institutions also havebeen established by government grantsoften veryinadequate.

There are three ways of dealing with the problem.All these institutions could be brought under thewing of the universities which number more thanseventy, dispersed in the different parts of the coun-try, awarding the intermediate level diploma orlower below the certificate of achievement. Theyalso could be affiliated to self-governing boardsestablished by the government in cooperation withthe universities. Thirdly, they could be run by thegovernment with the government machinery appro-priate for the purpose. 117

118

I have preference for the first alternative, but thematter needs to be debated and the best practicalcourse to be indicated to serve the purposes of thecommunity.

Guiding Philosophy

The guiding philosophy behind educational plan-ning in India is that development of education is ameans of providing society with a means of devel-opment and at the same time, forming an insepara-ble instrument for the social welfare of the popula-tion. For this purpose, large resources are required ;they must be an impressive share of national incomein relation to the planned economies required forthe development of the country. The educationalsystem should be such as to allow any willing mem-ber to receive higher education if he or she has theability and aptitude. No school course should be ablind alley for any student. A teacher of a primaryschool is forever a primary teacher today ; he needsto be able to advance if he has the will and aptitudefor furthering his academic background as well asprofessional training. Similarly in the present sys-tem, the technician can hardly become an engineer,and the craftsman can rarely become a technician.The whole system has to be flexible so as to allowthe capable person to further his academic achieve-ment as well as his professional skill. The trainingof scientists and high-level manpower is nearly asessential as the training of middle-level workers andthe raising of the general cultural level of society.With the industrial and agricultural development ofthe country, new ideas of education and training inrelation to the development of manpower require-ments necessarily emerge, along with the institu-tional provision for such a purpose.

There is also another major problem in Indiapopulation growth. While various remedies such asfamily planning and other methods of populationcontrol are being introduced, one of the major solu-tions to the problem would be the proper training

and education at different levels and assurance ofemployment in the different sectors of the develop-ing economy.

Establishing educational targets corresponding tothe requirements of a developing nation is by nomeans an easy task. But it is necessary to calculatefinancial implications of enrollment of higher andsecondary specialized level, i.e., in the universitiesand at the intermediate level of junior colleges, andface any dilemma of development created by lack ofresources and the need for training of adequate man-power. The junior college or the community collegenow tried so well in the United States and Japanis an institutional device for such national devel-opment.

1 Government of India. Report of the Education Com-mission 1964-66. Official Report. New Delhi : Ministry ofEducation, 1966.

_-2 Ibid. p. 589.3 Ibid. p. 564.4 Ibid. pp. 29, 30, 45.5 Government of India. Report of the Committee of

Members of Parliament on Education. Official Report.New Delhi : Ministry of Education, 1967.

4' Government of India. National Policy on Education.Official Report. New Delhi : Ministry of Education, 1968.

Government of India. Report of the Committee onEmotional Integration. Official Report. New Delhi : Min-istry of Education, 1962.

8 Rao, V. I. R. V. Education and Human Resource De-velopment. Bombay : Allied Publishers, 1966.

" Joshi, K. L. "The Need for Junior Colleges in India."General Education Quarterly, No. 1: 14-15; October 1965.

m Ibid. p. 9.11 Ibid. p. 10.12 Joshi, K. L. "Some Problems in Planning of Univer-

sity Education." Journal of University Education No.1: 51-52; September 1962.

119

120

By Joseph M. Jacobsen

THE JUNIOR COLLEGEIDEA IN SOUTHAMERICA

A great deal of effort on the part of farsightedSouth Americans has gone into attempts at utilizingvarying degrees of the comprehensive junior collegeconcept for South American countries, so far withfew tangible results. An attempt has been made byChile. Brazil and Peru are on the verge of inter-mediate technical training. But the "Great WhiteHope" for the comprehensive junior college isColombia.

The problems are many. A strong commitment toEuropean-type education for the elite, power strug-gles both in the political arena and the universitystructure, lack of funds and lack of foresight tomake the investment necessary for uncertain re-turns, a tradition of white-collar jobs for the edu-cated, lack of properly trained professors, a shortageof manpower studies, and possibly most of all, adesire to cling to the known and familiar educational

structure have taken their toll of the most sincereand enlightened attempts at adopting the ccnceptof the comprehensive junior college in South Amer-ica. The near future, however, should see more posi-tive action.

Harbison and Myers, in their book Education,Manpower and Economic Growth (1964) , classifyseventy-five countries of the world into four majorcategories : "Underdeveloped," "Partially Devel-oped," "Sem iadvanced," and "Advanced." Sincethey feel that countries vary in their degree of de-velopment in relation to the degree to which theirpeople are developed, they rank countries accordingto their human resource developmentnamely, edu-cation. Six South American countries fall into the"Partially Developed" category: Bolivia, Brazil,Colombia, Paraguay, Ecuador, and Peru. Venezuela,Chile, and Uruguay are classed as "Semiadvanced,"and one, Argentina, is placed near the bottom of the"Advanced" countries. The ratings run from 0.3 forNiger to a high of 261.3 for the United States, whichplaces in perspective South American countries,most of which fall in the twenties, with the topcountry, Argentina, having an index number of 82.

If we can give credence to Harbison and Myers'classificationand their work is well documentedthe South American countries have a hard strugglefacing them in developing their people educationally.It will be interesting to see whether those countrieswhich are the first to initiate comprehensive juniorcolleges--with majors geared to manpower needsand with comparable attention to other levels ofeducationare the first to make the jump to a higherclassification of development.

In his book, The Challenge of Development inLatin America (1965) , Victor L. Urguidi, in dis-cussing the implications of the need for economicdevelopment in Latin America, pointed out the placeof education by stating : "Education and economicdevelopment must be dealt with jointly : otherwise,there is only a tenuous and indirect link between 121

t

the two." It was recognized that hand-in-hand witheconomic development went a need for professionaland skilled workers and technicians. Education,then, would have to produce the personnel to fillthose needs as they developed.

Those findings are almost identical with specificstudies made in Chile, Peru, Brazil, and elsewhere.Each study found that there is a growing need forhigh-level technicians and that industry is usingprofessionals to do the work of the nonexistenttechnicians.

ChileRegional University Colleges

William J. Platt, in his paper on "Chile's Searchfor Educational-Economic Consistency" (1966),points to three means Chile was taking to attain atrained working force equal to the investment inindustry : (1) an accelerated industrial skills train-ing program, (2) the regional junior college system,and (3) a training program to provide manpowerfor more efficient agricultural production.

In Chile there exists a large number of highschool graduates who do not have opportunities toacquire professional preparation while, at the sametime, the economic and social development of Chiledemands a great variety of professionals at manylevels of specialization. The majority of high schoolgraduates in the provinces must cease their studiesin the twelfth year because of lack of room in theuniversity. A solution often proposed is decentrali-zation of educational facilities and programs.

Two professors at the University of Chile, IrmaSalas and Egidio Orellano, made a study of thisproblem and published their findings in 1957. Theyrecommended gradual changes to avoid resistancefrom the established university faculties and admin-istration, with an ultimate goal of providing oppor-tunities for higher education for the greatest num-ber possible, and introducing new curriculums calledfor by the complexity of Chile's social, cultural, and

122 economic life.

They recommended, for the initial step, the estab-lishment of higher education centers closely relatedand coordinated with the university. These centerswould result in decentralizing the university, thusproviding opportunities for higher education tomore students and at the same time providing apermanent university extension program in theprovinces.

In 195a the council of the University of Chileapproved the creation of university colleges underthe direction of a special department of the univer-sity. The university colleges would offer trainingfor intermediate-level careers, general education,and academic studies which could be continued inthe university professional schools. Counseling,tutoring, and a full-time teaching staff were integralparts of the plan. Five colleges were establishedin the period 1960 to 1965: Temuco, La Serena,Antofagasta, Talca, and Osorno Colleges, all in theprovinces.

Specifically, as stated in Irma Salas' "Master Plan1965-1970 for the University of Chile's UniversityColleges," the functions assigned to the five originalcolleges were the following:

1. "To provide opportunities for intermediate-level studies in accordance with national and re-gional needs

2. "To provide opportunities for transfer to pro-fessional university schools

3. "To give the students the basic training in thesciences for intermediate-level university courses

4. "To provide general education courses in orderto promote the development of the student as awhole

5. "To provide guidance to the students in theireducational and vocational pursuits in order to adaptthem better to personal and to school situations andto promote their school achievement and future pro-fessional efficiency

6. "To provide opportunities of formal educationfor adults ; and to carry out activities for the im-provement of professionals ; to promote and orga- 123

nize cultural activities to meet the interests andneeds of the different groups of the community

7. "To collaborate with the respective agenciesin the study and utilization of regional naturalresources."

The entrance requirement of a bachillera.to degreegranted upon satisfactory passing of a test uponcompletion of secondary school gave way to theeasier secondary school graduation certificate. Thischange, plus the location of the colleges in theprovinces, resulted in the desired increase in thenumber of students admitted from the lower socio-economic groups.

In the plans for technical training, courses gearedspecifically to the training of intermediate-level pro-fessions were to take up 50 per cent of the student'stime; preparation in the basic sciences, includingthose serving as the basis for the technical or pro-fessional studies, 25 per cent, and general courses,the other 25 per cent of a student's program.

However, these percentages have not been realized,partially, perhaps, because of indecision which ex-isted as to what majors to offer. This is in spite ofconsiderable effort and research into employmentneeds in the fishing, wood, mining, and buildingindustries, and in transportation, agriculture, publicadministration, education, public utility services,manufacturing, business, and communication.

Although initially it was planned that credits incertain majors would be transferable to the univer-sity proper, this did not come about. Upon comple-tion of the three-year curriculum in the universitycollege, students could transfer to the university,but they could not receive any unit credit for theirwork in the college.

Financing of faculty preparation for the univer-sity colleges was provided by the Ford Foundationwhile the Inter-American Bank supplied loans forbuildings and facilities. Leland L. Medsker of the

124 University of California at Berkeley coordinated the

teacher training, which began in 1961. The lastgroup of trainees is still in the United States.

In 1964 a tots! of 704 students-269 men and 435womenwere enrolled in Temuco Regional College ;329 students-133 men and 196 womenwere en-rolled in La Serena Regional College; and 168 stu-dents-86 men and 82 womenwere attendingAntofagasta Regional College. The total number ofstudents enrolled in the three regional colleges exist-ing at that time was 1,201, while the Chilean univer-sity had a total enrollment of 28,502.

:[n 1965 Rector Collegio Rojas changed the re-gional colleges to university centers, a change fromthree-year comprehensive community colleges tofive-year academic branches of the university. IrmaSalas, author and general director of the regionaluniversity colleges, resigned in 1966 because she sawno hope for the regional college. A total of ten uni-versity centers have been initiated since 1960.

An example of the majors offered by one of thecolleges is the following list of the curriculums ofthe Central University of La Serena :.

Professional university careers of intermediate level:Agricultural technicianHome economistIndustriai food processing technicianStatistical administrative technicianChemical laboratory technicianTechnical draftsmanSocial service assistantTechnical assistant

Transfer careers:NursingSocial welfareState professor specializing in : English, French,

biology, mathematics, and fine arts

The regional university colleges in Chile gainedconsiderable attention. In 1962 the UNESCO Con-ference on Education and Economic and Social De- 125

velopment in Latin America, held in Santiago andattended by representatives of most Latin Americancountries, adopted the following document :

That new higher education institutions be initi-ated, such as the regional university colleges, soas to extend the advantages of higher educationin the provinces and to utilize more fully the evergrowing human resources that graduate from thehigh schools, and to satisfy the need for interme-diate-level technicians demanded by economicdevelopment, without increasing the number ofuniversities.At the time of this writing, July 1968, all is in a

state of suspense. The University of Chile is closeddown and all projects are halted, including theregional university centers. The president of theUniversity of Chile in Santiago, upon which theuniversity centers depend, has resigned along witha number of his deans in response to lack of backingfrom some deans of the university to giving studentsmore of a voice in the administration of the univer-sity. It is to be seen what attitude the new presidenthas toward the comprehensive junior colleges andwhat interest he has in returning the new institu-tions to their original status.

Colombia Institutos Universitarios

Colombia is a good example of a country bent onimproving the economy, interested in making theeducational changes necessary to achieve that im-provement, and willing to make the sacrifices andinvestment necessary to attain those educationalchanges.

A country of 18 million people, Colombia is thethird most populous nation in South America, afterBrazil and Argentina. Over half the population isa mixture of white and Indian blood. Populationgrowth is rapid (about 3 per cent annually) andthere is a pronounced movement to the urban areas.More than twenty cities have populations over100,000.

126 Although Colombia is industrializing rapidly, it

still is predominantly agricultural, with coffee as itsprincipal export. Because it has an unfavorable bal-ance of trade, Colombia is making efforts to diversifyproduction and stimulate foreign investment andindustrialization. Although its gross national prod-uct is increasing at an average annual rate of 5 percent, its population growth does much to offset thisprogress.

Co lomb:ia now is on the verge of introducing juniorcolleges to help provide the trained manpower re-quired by a developing economy. The rapid progres-sion of recent events and studies leading to thepresent situation is enlightening, and in many waysof storybook quality.

In 1965 Professor Gioranni Gozzer, head of theUNESCO mission to Colombia, in dealing withaspects and problems of industrial technical educa-tion in Colombia, found an 80 per cent shortage oftechnicians. Education officials of Colombia esti-mated that in twenty years the annual output oftechnicians would have to be increased sixfold, notcounting replacement needs. In addition to the grow-ing need for training of technicians, a news story i nBogota, in November 1966, stated that 8,000 quali-fied students would be without university places in1967.

In 1967 Colombia, with the assistance of the WorldBank and the Peace Corps, began a five-year pro-gram to establish nineteen comprehensive highschools in eighteen cities, These high schools will becoeducational, will have from 3,500 to 4,000 pupilseach, and students with trade majors and profes.1-sional majors will be educated together: This is apronounced change from the small one-track highschools typical of South American countries.

In December 1964, B. Lamar Johnson and JamesF. King completed a brief but intensive study ofhigher education in Colombia in which they recom-mended a protracted study by the Asociacion Colomi-ana de Universidades and the related Fondo Uni-versitario Nacional with the aid of the public and 127

private entities in Colombia, and with the guidanceand assistance of the University of California.

In December 1966, Julio L. Bortolazzo, a memberof the University of California Colombian HigherEducation Mission, and his Colombian counterpart,Otto Perez, published their findings and recom-mendations concerning postsecondary intermediateeducation in Colombia. After documenting theirstand, they came out unequivocably for two pro-totype comprehensive junior colleges, or institutosuniversitarios, to open in 1968.

Funds were secured and a study group formed,known as the University of California ColombianHigher Education Project, which was charged withassisting the Colombian Association of Universitiesin the preparation of a national plan for higher edu-cation in Colombia. Completed in 1967, their reportincluded a proposal for expanding educational op-portunity in Colombia through the establishment ofinstitutos universitarios and laid down criteria andprocedures for their establishment. The followingquotation covering the function of the proposed insti-tutos universitarios described under "structure andfunctions" in the report will sound familiar to juniorcollege people.

Institutos universitarios shall be established asdependencies of accredited universities, or in theabsence of an accredited university within thesame department, they shall be responsible to theMinister of Education. They shall offer generaleducation and preprofessional education programsin the behavioral and social sciences, the naturalsciences and mathematics, and the humanities andthe arts. The institutos universitarios also shalloffer vocational, adult, and remedial programs.Programs will range in duration from one weekto two years. The general education and pre-professional studies shall constitute a two-yearprogram, satisfactory completion of which mayentitle the graduate to transfer with two full yearsof credit to a university. Graduates will receive

128 diplomas or certificates testifying to the level of

training and education which has been completed.The functions of the instituto universitario shallbe teaching and extension.In 1967 Gerardo Eusse, director general of Insti-

tuto Colombiano de Especializacion Tecnica en elExterior, commonly called ICETEX, began makingtentative arrangements for a practical training pro-gram for professors for institutos universitarios tobe conducted by the University of California atBerkeley and by a consortium of junior collegesin Northern California. Concurrently, ICETEXworked out plans for making the necessary changesto convert three Colombian educational institutionsinto comprehensive junior colleges.

The municipality of Bogota has decided to convertthe former Universidad Distrital into a junior col-lege and is taking all the necessary steps to carryout this idea. Secondly, the Instituto Politecnico deColombia in Medellin has the full support of theUniversidad de Antioquia, an official institution ofthe state government. This institute was created asa junior college and will continue as such. Thirdly,the state government of Santander del Sur has theInstitute Tecnologico de Santander, which will oper-ate on the same basis as the Instituto Politecnico deColombia ; that is, in close cooperation with the localgovernment. The junior college in Colombia enjoysthe same kind of autonomy that the university does.

Sixty faculty members and five administrators,who will form cadres for the three colleges, are to besent to the United States for training in the teachingand administration of technical majors. Englishinstruction will be given to those requiring it. Semi-nars on junior college philosophy and methodologywill be conducted by the University of California,Berkeley. The major part of the training programwill consist of having the Colombian professors andadministrators serve as interns with their Californiajunior college counterparts for an academic year.Evaluation and coordination workshops will be con-ducted periodically, and a final seminar will be heldfor final evaluation and planning. The three pilot 129

130

institutos universitarios, which will be staffed withthese trainees, then will serve as training centers forfaculties for additional colleges as well as perform-ing their function of training students in both tech-nical and professional majors.

The research and planning which have gone intothe Colombian program should result in a workableand possibly a model program for other count_ :.esto emulate.

Technical Schools: Peru and Brazil

Two of the leading countries in South America,Peru and Brazil, are on the verge of instituting tech-nical schools for high-level technicians, which easilycould be converted into comprehensive junior col-leges. A team of educators from Teachers College,Columbia University, New York, worked severalyears with the Ministry of Education in Lima todevelop plans for technical institutes in Peru. Thecompleted plans call for offering technical majorsbut no transfer courses.

The problem that Brazil is attempting to solve byestablishing technical schools is a specialized onea shortage of engineering technicians. While Brazil'seducational system fails to produce an adequate sup-ply of technically trained personnel at all levels,there is no provision whatsoever for training theurgently needed high-level engineering techniciansto support graduate engineers and scientists in in-dustry. Such technician positions are being filled bygraduate engineers or by technicians imported fromabroad, two equally unsatisfactory and expensivealternatives. For example, a survey conducted in1963-64 found 1,976 engineers and 3,168 "tech-nicians" in 472 industries in Brazil. Approximately40 per cent of these "technicians" had only a pri-mary school education. The rest were graduates ofthe equivalent of high school-evel technical schoolsor less.

In 1944-45 a commission of six professors fromBrazil spent four months in the United States study-ing problems of engineering education and returned

to recommend training of high-level technicians inBrazil. Nothing happened until 1964 when, as aresult of rapid industrialization in Brazil, the Min-istry of Education established a Planning Commis-sion on Engineering Education and then asked theFord Foundation to provide a consultant to helpdesign curriculums for high-level technical pro-grams. Subsequently, the consultant, ProfessorHenry P. Adams of Oklahoma State University,presented curriculums for ten technologies to thecommission.

The study, completed in 1965, calls for the estab-lishment of ten technical institutes over a period often years so as to produce a minimum of 1,500 engi-neering technicians, or "operating engineers," peryear. The institutes would offer three-year technicalmajors and the offerings would be almost entirelyterminal in nature. In fact, provision is made thatless than 5 per cent of all graduates should be ex-pected to continue their education immediately aftergraduation.

Because experience in the United States showsthat many technology programs offered on the samecampus with graduate engineering have failed be-cause the university gives more emphasis to the ad-vanced programs, and because there would be dangerof merely compressing traditional five-year curricu-lums into three years, specific provision wasmade that even though the technical institutes wouldhave university ties, the staffs would be responsibleonly to the directors of the technical institutes.

Provision is made for developing teacher-trainingcenters for this special program and for sending 106Brazilians to a recognized technical institute in theUnited States for a year's training.

These projected programs for training of high-level technicians in Peru and Brazil apparently arestill in the planning and money-raising stages. How-ever, the careful planning in response to a growingand strongly felt need for subprofessional tech-nicians makes them almost inevitable in the verynear future. Government and foundations in the 131

United States and other friendly countries will beextremely short-sighted if they do not assist the fourcountries referred to above, and other countries ofLatin America, in providing educational opportuni-ties demanded by their advancing economies andsocial changes.

Dangers Learned

Dangers which these four countries and othercountries have learned, and which any country woulddo well to avoid in instituting junior colleges in-clude :

1. Maintaining too close ties with other institu-tions : Faculties and administrators of junior col-leges or technical institutions can be overwhelmedby university academicians, religious, or other dedi-cated groups. The junior college and its objectivescannot live as a stepchild or an appendage.

2. Tendency to maintain one-track institutions :Using the same facilities for academic and technicalmajors makes it possible to use laboratories, shops,classrooms, and other facilities as well as facultyand administration for students with either aca-demic or technical majors, thus making for greaterefficiency and economy. It also provides opportunityfor transferring students from academic to technicalmajors, or vice versa, as dictated by good counseling.

3. Inadequate training of faculty and administra-tion : Foreign advisers or consultants alone, or pro-fessors trained abroad or at home in the traditionalacademic manner, or both, cannot develop the con-cept of a comprehensive institution. It is far betterto train cadres of personnel as interns in successfulcomprehensive junior colleges so they can absorbthe dynamics of this concept of education, and inlarge enough numbers so they can withstand thepressures of their associates at home. The indi-viduals in the cadres can be used in turn as masterteachers for interns in their own country. First the

132 enzyme has to be implanted.

4. Lack of attention to local needs : Technicalmajors should reflect employment opportunities inthe local community. Advisory committees made upof leaders in industry are desirable in each area ofemployment. These leaders can point out what mustbe covered in a curriculum ; the educators can decidehow to teach it.

5. The tendency to short-change public relations :The public cannot be taken for granted, particularlyin regard to technical majors and transfer of creditsto the state university. Any innovation and changeof emphasis toward technical majors must be "sold"to the public and to officials in higher education.

6. Overlooking the need for a national plan forhigher education : The junior college must be givenits own niche in the overall scheme for higher edu-cation, and it must have its own source of funds.

133

By Louis Eisenhauer

COMMUNITYCOLLEGES INBRITAIN

There are no multipurpose community colleges inBritain strictly comparable to those in the UnitedStates. What Britain does provide for students whodo not matriculate at a university or a teacher'scollege is an extraordinary variety of "colleges offurther education" which both parallel and extendbeyond the current range of American communityjunior colleges.

Conveniently called "technical colleges," thoughnot without strong objections, these institutionsmay be either local, area, regional, or national; and,within these groupings, can be found colleges of art,agriculture, and commerce as well as colleges spe-cifically geared to technical or craft programs.They offer full-time, part-time, and "sandwich"education for persons over the legal school-leavingage (now fifteen), excluding, of course, students

134 still in secondary schools. As Tyrell Burgess notes

ruefully in A Guide to English Schools (Penguin,1964), "Any account of further and higher educa-tion in England and Wales (Scotland is a worldlargely to itself) . . . is like the vegetation of SouthAmerica: it contains anything you can think of."

At the end of 1966 there were over 700 furthereducation institutions in England and Wales witha total enrollment of more than 1.5 million. By1969-70, according to the Labor Party's nationalplan, enrollment will top 2.1 million. AnthonyCrosland, until 1967 secretary of state for educa-tion and science, has said that "further educationis the fastest growing sector of the entire Britisheducational system."

A summary of the historical background of thesecolleges is given in Reports on Education (no. 2,revised, April 1966) issued by the Department ofEducation and Science:

The structure of technical education has been muchdeveloped and reorganized following the White Papersof 1956 and 1961. The first of these drew attention isthe challenge to our technical education represented bythat of other countries. A similar document appearedmore than a century ago in 1853, and in 1857 the newEducation Department was constituted to do somethingabout it. . , . Much of the pioneering work was done byunofficial bodies such as the City and Guilds of LondonInstitute. . . . In the last years of the century, poly-technics, technical institutions, and science schools weregoing up all over the place (mostly financed by "whiskymoney").

In a Bill in 1918 there is reference to compulsory daycontinuation schools for fourteensixteen-year-olds inemployment. More significant . . . was the 1921 scheme. . . for National Certificates. . . . The 1944 EducationAct, after providing for primary and secondary educa-tion, went on to make it a duty of local education authori-ties to provide "full-time and part-time education forpersons over compulsory school age."

Perhaps the philosophy of the British technicalcolleges is best put in the same publication: "Entryis open to all, and students may advance as far astime, talent, and application can carry them."

Two significant differences between further edu-cation colleges in Britain and American community 135

junior colleges should be emphasized: some of theBritish colleges offer work leading to a universitydegree or its equivalent ; and a large number andbewildering variety of diplomas and certificates areavailable to further education students.

Assuming they have the necessary entrance quali-fications, similar to those expected by the univer-sities, students at selected technical colleges maystudy for a B.A. or B.S. degree, and even continueto postgraduate work. The degrees are awardedby the Council for National Academic Awards(C.N.A.A.), established by royal charter in 1964especially to bestow degrees and other academicdistinctions to persons taking approved programsoutside the universities. External degrees may alsobe earned from London University by furthereducation students.

Students with academic credentials not quite sostrong, or who are not interested in a normal de-gree, may study for the higher national diploma(H.N.D.), which is recognized by industry, govern-ment, and the professions as a substantial achieve-ment. Other diplomas and certificates available(each with varying entrance requirements and cur-riculums) are the higher national c ert if icate(H.N.C.), the ordinary national diploma (0.N.D.),and the ordinary national certificate (0.N.C.).Additionally, there are numerous specialized cer-tificates granted by the city and guilds of Londonand certain grades and professions.

Subjects taken for these awards range frombuilding and business studies through engineering(of all types) and printing to retailing and textiles ;and the awards carry with them clearly understoodeconomic and social benefits. To the American and,not infrequently, to the native Briton, this profusionof degrees and diplomas and certificates is confus-ing. But such a system has the advantage of spell-ing out precisely what the student has studied andhow far he has ventured. Contrast this with thecatch-all ambiguity of the A.A. or A.S. degrees

136 usually granted by American community colleges.

General (Liberal) Studies

Like American educators, the British are con-cerned with the risks and limitations of a narrow,vocational training for technicians and technolo-gists (in Britain the latter are always degree-level)who will surely constitute the bulk of tomorrow'scitizenry in both countries. Most of the award-granting groups, backed strongly by the Departmentof Education and Science, insist that a modicum ofgeneral liberal studies (typically literature, history,art, music, social studies) infuse the otherwise spe-cialized curriculums. Oddly enough, little attentionis given to assuring that a similar smattering ofmath and science is also integrated into those pro-grams which do not as a matter of course featurethem.

In actual practice the amount and makeup ofrequired general studies varies markedly from onecollege to another since each responds to "local"industrial and professional pressures. The coursesoffered also vary, generally being adapted to theneeds of a specific curriculum, e.g., an Englishcourse in a business studies program would stressbusiness communications. The serious reservationsabout "multitrack" courses held by many facultymembers in American community colleges wouldnot be relevant in Britain, because the programsand awards are so clearly labeled and the vexingquestion of transferring credits to a senior institu-tion does not arise.

Recent Developments

The growth and character of British technicalcolleges are being greatly influenced by two impor-tant developments : the passage by Parliament in1964 of the Industrial Training Act, which requiresindustries, at their own expense, through repre-sentative boards, to insure that enough people aretrained to meet the future needs of the industries ;and the proposal in 1966 by Anthony Crosland, thensecretary for education in the British Cabinet, thata number of major educational centers, "polytech- 137

nits," be established within the further educationsystem to complement the universities and collegesof education.

An extended analysis of the Industrial TrainingAct would require a separate article ; suffice it tosay that for the technical colleges the impact of theact is to encourage hundreds of thousands of poten-tial students to take time from work, with pay, andreturn for varying periods of time to the colleges.The facilities and faculties of the colleges will betaxed to cope not only with the numbers but thenew and different programs they demand.

To understand the proposal for polytechnics it isnecessary to know that higher education in Englandoperates within what is called a "binary system."As Mr. Crosland put it in a controversial speechtwo years ago, "on the one hand we have . . . theautonomous sector, represented by the universities,in whose ranks . . . I now include the colleges ofadvanced technology. On the other hand we havethe public sector, represented by the leading tech-nical colleges and the colleges of education."

From the ranks of the technical colleges (the pub-lic sector) polytechnics would be developed as "com-prehensive academic communities" for full-time,sandwich, and part-time students at all levels ofhigher education. "As mixed communities of full-time and part-time teachers and students they will. . . have closer and more direct links with indus-try, business, and the professions."

Mr. Crosland and his supporters see the poly-technics as institutions which will meet the increas-ing demand for higher education without settingup more universities. His critics see them as meansto assert more direct social (that is, political) con-trol over higher education.

One undesirable effect of the new proposal,pointed out by the Association of Teachers in Tech-nical Institutes, may be to drain Scarce talent andresources from those colleges not selected as poly-technics and thus damage badly the whole further

138 education system. Mr. Crosland and his successor

are likely to prevail. The experiment should be ofinterest to American community college leaderswho may themselves one day have to decide whetherthey should extend their programs beyond the Cur-rent associate degree level.

Although it does not affect directly the technicAcolleges, another recent development in British edu-cation of interest to American community collegesis the "sixth form college." Since advanced studyfor those who have passed their ordinary level ex-aminations (roughly sixteen eighteen-year-olds)requires a variety of specialized courses, many sec-ondary schools do not have sufficient students toestablish variable sixth forms. The Department ofEducation and Science has recommended to the loc4,1education authorities that sixth form colleges whichwould pool, students from several secondary schoolsin an area may be a solution to this problem. Todate few of these institutions exist. Interestingly,if a sixth form college were merged with a less thandegree level technical college the result would cer-tainly resemble an American community college.

In Sum

What does the further education system in Britainoffer to American community colleges?

Three points come to mind : first, the extraordinaryrange of programs coupled with their appropriateawards ; second, the legally supported liaison be-tween British industry, business, government, andthe professions and the technical colleges ; and third,the range of the colleges, extending from secondaryschool "remedial" work to university degree level.

Above all, an examination of the colleges of fur-ther education in Britain emphasizes the singularcontribution of such colleges to a modern society,and confirms one's belief in the functions and goal;of American community junior colleges.1111

* Sandwich courses consist of alternating periods ofnot less than nineteen weeks of full-time study (it may 139

140

be more) in a technical college and of supervised expe-rience in industry, usually extending over a number ofyears. Students may also attend these colleges on "day-release" or "block-release" schedules, meaning they areencouraged by their employer to take off from their jobs(with pay) and attend classes for varying periods oftime.

By Kathryn Parke

CENTENNIAL OFNORWAY'S PEOPLE'SCOLLEGES

In November, 1864, Herman Anker and OlausArvesen opened the first folkehogskole in Norway,and named it Sagatunhome of Northern tradition.

This "folk high school" or "people's college" (theterm is difficult to translate adequately) was notdestined to survive. The house built with such highhopes in the small cathedral city of Hamar stillstands as a private residence, but not as a school.

Nevertheless, this August, educators from all overScandinavia, together with many Norwegians fromall walks of life, celebrated the centennial of thisevent ; for the seed of Sagatun proved more hardythan the parent plant.

The new school at Hamar was certainly a quixoticventure, aimed as it was at the needs of the farmerclass and other "small folk," instead of catering tothe wealthy and intellectual elite who had previouslyheld a natural monopoly on education beyond the 141

common school. There were already several people'scolleges in Denmark, based on the optimistic philos-ophy of a Danish churchman N.F.S. Grundtviga philosophy considered to be dangerously free andprobably heretical.

In principles and methods, these audacious littleinstitutions contradicted many cherished educa-tional assumptions, and often met with determinedopposition from the more influential teachers andclergymen of the neighborhood.

The subjects taught were neither the classicallanguages of the time-honored Latin school, norwere they the vocationally-oriented studies whichlater won their separate place in European schools.

The chief aim of the "Grundtvigian" schools wasto help young adults to know and respect themselves,and to understand and value their country, its lan-guage, history, literature, and traditions. For acrowning folly, in an age which still depended uponthe schoolmaster's rod and spoke commonly of "stu-dent factories," the teaching in these folk highschools had nothing to do with coercion and rotelearning, but was based on the roinantic notion thatstudy could and should be pleasant. There were nofinal examinations or threats of dismissal or failure,nor any degrees, credits, or grades.

Young people lived together with their teachersand studied an extremely flexible curriculum, largelydetermined by interest. In accordance withGrundtvig's principle of "the living word," lectureswere expected to be so lively and absorbing that theyoung people would remember the essential part ofthem without taking notes.

The final secret of the folk high school, todayas well as a hundred years ago, is teacher-strength, teacher-dedication, teacher-enthusiasm.These schools still operate almost entirely withoutthe artificial coercion and stimulus of examinationand grading, which other schools assume to beessential.

142 Many thought these ideas were preposterous. No

"realists" expected them to succeed. And, indeed,the trail of the developing folk high school is strewnwith individual failures. But before they failed, theyseeded themselves again. Sagatun failed, and Her-man Anker became Hamar's postmaster. But theyoung men who had studied there went out to foundother people's colleges under similarly desperateconditions.

Another school, Vonheim in Gudbrandsdal, failedand its director, Christopher Bruun, had to accept aroutine church appointment. Yet a series of speecheshe made in the mid-1870's set afire the enthusiasmof a number of members of the Oslo Student Asso-ciation. A whole generation of gifted and inspiredyoung teachers came to the folk high schools as aresult. The lectures appeared as a book, FolkeligeGrundtanker (Foundations of Popular Culture),which not only became the "Bible" of the Norwegianfolk high school movement (standing side by sidewith Grundtvig's writings) but also helped to lib-eralize the rigid public school system of the time.

The Norwegian people's college in its centennialyear is stronger than it has ever been. It enjoysincreasing support from the government ; yet it hasunabridged freedom of self-determination. It is not,and does not wish to be, an integrated part of theofficial school system ; yet it has earned respect anldeven admiration from many elements of Norwegiansociety which were scornful until just lately.

A Significant Influence

Of some five hundred people's colleges in Scan-dinavia, eighty are in Norway. The 6,000 studentsthey serve each year may seem small in numberwhen compared with American junior colleges. But,in terms of influence upon national life, the signifi-cance of these schools is receiving growing recogni-tion. Ten per cent of all Norwegian young peoplenow experience at least one winter in these voluntaryschools that offer neither degrees nor status. Andthese students thereafter provide more than theirproportionate share of responsible, able leadership. 143

These are the young people who return home to takea sturdy part in the activities of the town board ;the school board ; the youth associations ; the music,art, and sports organizations; and the societies forpublic welfare. Many assume much wider responsi-bilities. Stein Fossgard, the national supervisor ofthe folk high schools in Norway, pointed out in hiswelcoming address at the beginning of the Centen-nial Jubilee, that about half the members of thepresent Storting (national parliament) are formerfolk high school students.

Anyone who has celebrated a "decade-birthday"in Norway can testify that Norwegians enjoy cere-monious festivals. The national HOgskulelaerarlag(People's College Teachers Association : chairman isFaste Forfang, rector of Ringsaker folkehogskole)began about two years ago to prepare for a suitablecelebration this summer. The Jubilee Committee ledby Kristian Bakke, rector of Fana folkehogskole,near Bergen) chose Elverum as the site. Counter-part associations in Denmark, Finland, and Swedenwere invited to advance by one year the usual tri-ennial Scandinavian folk high school conference, sothat they might share in the celebration. Elverum,conveniently near the Swedish border, has both afolk high school and a 'teachers' college, and offersother advantages for a small assembly. But, theinterest generated by the projected festivities madehousing a problem. Total attendance had to be lim-ited to three hundred.

Folk high school people often use the triennialmeeting as an occasion for a traveling vacation. Thispleasant habit was turned to good account by theprograming of four pre-conference workshops indifferent parts of Norway. Ringebu folkehogskole inGudbrandsdal was host for those who wanted toexplore new ideas about the traditional arts andcrafts studies of the folk high schools. Dormitorylife as a vital teaching medium was discussed atHallingdal folkehOgskule in Gol. At Romerike

144 folkehogskule in Jessheim, the subject was world

economy and world politics. Modern Scandinavianliterature was surveyed at Vestoppland folkehog-skule, Brandbu.

On the evening of August 12, all delegates con-verged on Elverum folkeitOgskole, where rector Sig-mund Moren welcomed them. During the followingthree days, various speakers presented papers oninter-Scandinavian cooperation in the folk highschools; on opportunities and possible responsibili-ties toward new developing nations ; on the problemof preserving valuable traditions and Scandinaviancultural identity in the face of "growing pressuresfrom outside ;" and on the life and thought of Chris-topher Bruun and other founders of the Norwegianfolk high school movement.

Evening programs arranged by the host school andthe Jubilee Committee presented several notableNorwegian musicians and poets, as well as somedramatic work by folk high school students. Mostambitious was Romerike folkeitOgskule's originalmusical and stage mounting of Bjornstjerne Bjorn-son's historic song-cycle, Arnljot Gelline. When thisepic was written, nearly one hundred years ago, theauthor dedicated it "to the folk high schools of theNorth, with thanks and best wishes ;"thus it wasa particularly appropriate presentation for thisjubilee.

From Saturday noon through Sunday the 16th,the tone was entirely one of festivity. Buses carriedeveryone to nearby Hamar, where Helge Sivertsen,the Norwegian minister of education, was amongthose honoring the founders of Sagatun.

King Olav V attended the centennial worshipservice at the Elverum church Sunday, and was thechief guest at an invitational luncheon afterward.At the large public meeting in the Glomdal'Museum's outdoor theater that afternoon, he made abrief address of congratulation and thanks. Otherspeakers at this meeting included Tarjei Vesaas, oneof Norway's outstanding modern writers, and Sig-mund Skard, who as professor of American civiliza- 145

tion at the University of Oslo is well-known to manyAmerican educators.

Members of the Norwegian Hogskulelaerarlag re-mained for two more days, after the end of theScandinavian conference, to hold their annual busi-ness meeting. Subjects that have concerned thisgroup lately include teacher recruiting, studentselection policies, the role of the folk high school inrelation to the lengthening Norwegian basic schoolrequirement, and the possible extension of govern-ment support to cover part of the cost of newbuildings.

Broad, Democratic Education

Centennial observances will not end with the fes-tivities at Elverum. Local schools are encouraged toplan their own celebrations, many of which willprobably be held in November the anniversarymonth. Some publications may be expected. Alreadyavailable is a long-desired reissue of ChristopherBruun's venerated and much quoted classic, FolkeligeGrundtanker.

The Scandinavian folkehogskole should be betterknown than it is among American educators andespecially among junior college people. It servesyoung people of the same age-group and of similaracademic attitudes and aspirations. Its purpose ofbroad, democratic, general education recalls the ideaspromoted so ardently in early publications of thejunior college movement.

Unfortunately, little seems to be available in Eng-lish about these schools. Our linguistic provincialismoften hampers us. We may long remain unaware ofworthwhile educational ideas that appear in otherlanguages than English, French, German, occasion-ally Spanish, and nowadays, Russian. Most of whatwe can read about the folk high schools is old,though the principles often remain valid and onlydetails vary greatly. Recent articles are sometimesbased on scanty information, and often seem to

146 imply that the people's college is only a curiosity,

even a quaint anachronism, fast fading from thecurrent scene.

Nothing could be farther from the truth !Doubtless the folk high school will remain numeri-

cally small, representative of individual or experi-mental ideas, rather than of mainstream, standard,educational practices. The existence of the indi-vidual schools has always been precarious, too. In-deed, the present prosperous situation is viewed witha little alarm, by some experienced folk high schoolmen. But despite smallness and fluctuating fortunes,the people's college continues to be vibrantly aliveand strangely influential, at home and farther afield.

True, the school-form as an entity seems not totransplant easily. So far as I am aware, no people'scollege very like those now common in Scandinaviahas long survived outside these countries. Perhapsits proponents have been too imitative in theirattempts to create schools exactly like the admiredmodel. Such efforts are likely to fail, since a folkcollege by definition should grow from the needsand conditions of the culture in which it exists. Eachnational form of the folk high school, therefore, islikely to exhibit great differences from others.

Yet individual institutions in Germany, France,the Netherlands, and rural United States, have builtinteresting experiments on some of the basicGrundtvigian ideas. Some of these schools have beentransformed out of all recognition, or have failed.Others still function usefully. There is a cautious butgrowing opinion among folk high school men re-cently, to the effect that.this kind of education maybe just what the developing countries of Africa andAsia need, since it sends its awakened and enlivenedstudents back to a richer life in their home communi-ties, whereas more elite types of education tend toalienate them from home.

Quietly Triumphant Existence

Whether or not the folk high school ever gains areal foothold in other countries, it seems well- 147

launched on its second century in Norway and else-where in Scandinavia. Unlike most institutions, itseems not to stiffen with years, but continues tochallenge complacency, question the assumptions ofthe "Establishment," and demonstrate by its quietlytriumphant existence that freedom and study canexist together in an institution.

Americans have also subscribed to this educa-tional philosophy. But are we in danger of denyingit in practice? It seems that more and more of ourideal values give way to economic regimentation, tostandardized tests and "the normal curve," to theconcept that 30 per cent or greater student mortalityis a sign of healthy academic standards, and to thetyranny of the Almighty Grade. Is it perhaps timefor us to examine these folk high schools more seri-ously, not as an educational oddity, but as a form ofeducation that can maintain warm humanity in amachine age?

We may have something important to learn.

148

By William G. Shannon

THE STORY ISBEGINNING TOUNFOLD

Recently after much study and legislative debate,five junior university colleges were opened in Ceylon"with the ruffle of 100 drums" and dedicatoryspeeches by high parliamentary officials. This im-pressive ceremony was the culmination of effortsby Ceylon's astute Minister of Education, the Hon-orable I. M. R. A. Iriyagolla, who was aided by sev-eral Fullbright scholars knowledgeable about juniorcollege education.

The drive to open the Ceylon colleges followedthe minister's visit to America to study educationand was carried to completion after a vigorous politi-cal campaign to win support for this new form ofcollege. These institutions will provide radicallydesigned postsecondary curriculums with emphasison occupational education. If this experiment suc-ceeds, Ceylon may well become a model which otherAsian nations can emulate. 149

150

In country after country, one hears the expressionof concern over the inadequacies of the present uni-versity-degree emphasis and the severe limitations itplaces upon the development of able manpower.

Education is recognized as the key to buildingeconomic strength and increasing social mobility.The search for alternatives to the elitist universityis a desperate one. While most countries could nothave achieved their present degree of success andsophistication without benefit of university trainingfor their leaders, there is a deep need now to estab-lish other educational institutions which will betterserve the requirements of the newer technologiesand which will release the talents and energies ofthe entire populations for national welfare andvitality.

The junior college concept has attracted the atten-tion of many foreign educators as a thoughtfulapproach to solving their educational problems. TheAmerican experience has inspired a number ofnations to adapt the community college concept totheir own situations. Japan has more than 300 two-year private colleges and about 50 government-operated technical institutes. Canada has close to50 community colleges and is vigorously planningmore. Both Japan and Canada have establishednationwide organizations similar to the Association.

In South America, Chile and Colombia are alreadyinvolved in the development of two-year colleges.Venezuela and Brazil are engaging in the same work,although with somewhat different inspirations.

In Iran and in India, the ministers of educationhave described their country's need for extendingand changing the pattern of higher education asamong their most critical. However, to be ableto move mountains of tradition and inertia asso-ciated with a fixation on the university degree seemslike an impossible dream ; to suggest investing moneyin institutions other than the universities may bepolitical suicide. The university-degree syndromeis so strong that the common man himself aspires

to hold a graduate degree even though it hold:; littlepromise for employment in a sophisticated position.

Manpower studies in many countries depict theexisting shortage of technicians and skilled Ar)rkersand tin overabundance of graduate degree holders,many of them unemployed. Many are also unem-ployable because of the totally academic nature oftheir education, lacking in practical application orinspiration for direct engagement in on-the-line jobactivity. There is a story circulating in India thatin one large city, more than 5,000 unemployed engi-neering graduates have bonded together in thei r ownkind of union to petition the government more vigor-ously for jobsas clerks.

There are stories, too, about the students who willsettle for nothing less than a university degree. Oneaccount tells about the establishment of a two-yearcollege for desperately needed technicians whic h suc-cessfully produced its first class, only to have, themriot for two more years of college to help achievesocial and academic respectability.

Parents support and encourage students in thisapproachnot unlike many in the United States.What one Kenya leader calls "academic disease"afflicts many nations.

The shame of it is that developing nations c annotafford to continue investing their limited nationalwealth in nonproductive, educational enterpriseswhile neglecting the preparation of employableworkers. It is obvious that economic developmentdepends on trained workers, but it is also necessaryto open up jobs for workers who are to be producedby the educational institutions. Some balance be-tween supply of workers and demand for them hasto be achieved. Better instruments for meal uringjob potentials have to be constructed just as morejobs need to be created through improving andstrengthening business and industry. Sound eco-nomic planning requires direction for both humanresource development and technological change. 151

The Community College Idea

The community college ideawith built-in flexi-bility and adaptability to job demandholds specialinterest and promise. The element and capacity ofpurposely designing curricular programs to meetspecific societal needs is most attractive to educatorsand government officials who recognize the demandsof modern technology and business enterprise.

Yet obstacles to implementing changes or remod-eling education are formidable. In their search forsolutions to problems of educational improVement,educators in many countries are looking for guidanceand assistance from their counterparts in othernations. Knowing full well that patterns of educa-tion are not necessarily transplantable intact, theseindividuals are seeking help in shaping new policiesand programs. Many see tremendous promise in thecommunity-oriented junior college concept and wantto try it.

Illustrative of this frame of mind are some of therequests for assistance received by AAJC staff fromeducators around the world, either in conversationsin their own offices abroad or in Washington duringvisits to this country. Here are only a few areas ofinterest mentioned recently :

Greece: Programs to train personnel for the tour-ist business so vital to the economy, health education

Iran: Engineering technology, women's education,teacher training, communications, public health

Tunisa: Teacher education, business-related cur-riculums

Ceylon: Teacher training, relationships betweencollege and community, health education, businessprograms .

India: Establishing demonstration colleges, healtheducation, teacher training, counseling, cooperativeeducation

Indonesia: Personnel for tourist industry, healtheducation, mineral resource development, teachereducation, agricultural production, food distribution

1 52 Thailand: Nurse education, dental technician

preparation, teacher training, agriculture, fooddistribution

Australia: Library-aide programs, general educa-tion, teacher and administrator preparation pro-grams, adult education, community services.

Ideas and assistance can flow in all directions ;each country can learn from the others. The UnitedStates can be both benefactor and recipient of as-sistance.

In several states of Australia, there is much inter-est in studying the relevance of the junior college formanpower training. However, the state of Victoriahas decided to bypass the junior college idea in favorof strengthening four-year technological colleges.These institutions, now fourteen in number, areknown as the Victoria Institute of Colleges. Theirexperiences can be helpful to American educators,particularly for their teacher-training potential. Atpresent, only a few four-year technological collegesexist in the United States ; if more were to be estab-lished, technology students in two-year collegesmight be encouraged to continue their education, andmore technicians might be rescued from some of thedeadend jobs into which they are cornered. At thesame time these institutions could serve as teacher-training centers for technician instructors who willbe working in two-year colleges. The United Statesshould study these four-year colleges carefully andbegin an exchange of information with the Austra-lians.

Other ways of cooperating and sharing can beopened ; through sister-college arrangements, person-nel exchanges, library and curriculum materials loanprograms, and many other approaches, junior col-lege educatorspresent and potentialcan learnfrom one another.

International Education Involvement

While the story of junior college developmentabroad is just unfolding, so, too, is the colleges' 1 53

serious involvement in international educationonlyin its initial stage.

In the process of establishing international con-nections, the junior college can utilize its unexcelledpotential for preparing new generations of sensitiveand world-oriented citizens.

Junior colleges already have accumulated consider-able experience in educating foreign students, inteaching languages, and in disseminating informa-tion about the community of nations ; nevertheless,their real potential for international education re-mains virtually untapped.

The 1,000-plus two-year colleges in the UnitedStates can make a singular contribution to worldunderstanding by strengthening their internationaleducation dimensions and by building this emphasisinto their general education programs. As last re-sorts for formal education or as sources of continu-ing education for thousands of youths and adults,community colleges maintain a unique position tohelp Americans know more about their fellow earth-lings and their own places in the sun.

Fortunately, there are educators and political lead-ers eager to listen to the community college storyand ready to accept new ideas in their effort to buildstronger educational institutions. They, perhapseven more than their American counterparts, knowthe problems involved in trying to effect changes ineducational systems encrusted with inhibiting tra-ditions, power struggles and fights for status, andfrustrations growing out of past aborted efforts.

There is genuine interest in developing mutualeducation-aid agreements among various nations aswell as working directly with the United States.There is interest in sharing experiences to helpAmerican institutions build up their internationalcurriculums and activities. Above all, there is anew and insistent desire to help uplift whole peoplesto educational levels heretofore deemed inaccessible

154 or inappropriate.

Nations working in these directions or desirous ofdoing so seem to have reached a new level of interestin pooling experiences and ideas. The U.S.A.par-ticularly junior college administrators, faculty, andstudentsought to be active participants in this co-operative adventure.

155

By Charles C. Collins

EXPORTING THEJUNIOR COLLEGEIDEA

Some of the very best U.S. exports do not add onedollar, even a devalued one, to the credit side of thebalance of payments. When Leonard Bernstein liftshis baton to conduct in Moscow, or when an Ameri-can doctor demonstrates a life-saving operation onthe hospital ship S.S. Hope, or when a namelessPeace Corps volunteer teaches some Filipino illiter-ates how to read, a product of America is beingexported which will bring the richest possible re-turns. Exporting does not have to operate on theprinciple: "Beggar thy neighbor." In the realms ofart, science, ideas and knowledge, education export-ing can operate on the principle: "He who helpshis neighbor helps himself." It could be thus inexporting the junior college idea.

A whole course in human behavior could be de-1 56 veloped with the text being the lyrics by Berthold

Brecht for The Threepenny Opera. One of the mostprofound truths is belted out in the jazzy refrain :

Now those among you full of pious teachingWho teach us to renounce our major sinsShould know before you do your heavy preachingOur middle's empty, there it all begins . ..For even honest folk will act like sinnersUnless they've had their customary dinners.

The C.I.A., the F.B.I., the State Department, thePentagon, even the White House would do well tolisten to Brecht. There will be no occasion to counterthe insurgencies, either at home or abroad, of thewell -fed, the well-educated middle class. One of themost revolutionary doctrines ever preached has beenthat of a continuously elevated universal education.It is American in origin, catholic in its appeal, adefensive weapon of irresistible power, and anexport against which no country will raise a tariff.

Many countries have, either independently orfrom American example, arrived at what JamesRussell Lowell described as the determinant ofAmerican destiny : "It was in making education notonly common to all, but in some sense compulsoryon all that the destiny of the free republic ofAmerica was practically settled." Even the poorestunderdeveloped countries are trying to muster theresources for universal elementary education. Morethan a few of the developing countries have madestern sacrifices to allow them to raise the ante touniversal secondary education. Some are now readyto move from a narrow, elitist university to agreatly broadened system of higher education. Theseare the countries to which some variation of thejunior college concept can best be exported. How-ever, there are certain minimum conditions thatmust prevail. It would not make sense to exporttelevision sets to countries without electricity norwould it make sense to export the junior college tocountries without students prepared to enter them. 1 57

158

Some Required Preconditions

Typically, the developing countries in Asia,Africa, or South America have a national educationsystem. There is a ministry of education headed bya politician, a cabinet member of the politicalparty in power. The direction comes from above,and the traditional bureaucratic system discourages,if not disallows, any innovation being initiated frombelow. Certainly, a whole new level of education,such as the junior college stratum, could be addedonly if the minister of education gave it his whole-hearted support.

It would be the minister who would have to in-duce his political colleagues to pass the organiclegislation. This would not be easy, for with thechronically undernourished budget, it would prob-ably be necessary to rob some other program to fundthe new education project. A strong-willed, per-suasive, professional educator with an intimateknowledge of ministry politics might be the ideaman prodding the minister to action, provided theminister was convinced the innovation would en-hance his personal and party's political future.Further, the minister is not likely to be pushed intoaction from grass roots support: most of the elec-torate will never have heard of a junior college and,unfortunately, if they have heard of it as a U.S.institution, some will automatically be against it,even suspecting it as a cover for C. E. A. infiltration.The point being made is simply this : one of thenecessary preconditions for the creation of a juniorcollege system is the full and unwavering commit-ment of the minister of education to this idea. Sincebasic development of the junior college is going tocome from the top, the seeds of the idea must beplanted and allowed to sprout in the mind of theminister or in the minds of his top echelon profes-sional advisers.

A second condition necessary for the establish-ment of a mid-level stratum of higher education isto have a secondary school system turning out moregraduates than the universities can absorb. It should

be self-apparent, though in Kenya it took a team ofAmerican experts to convince the government ofthis fact, that junior colleges cannot float betweenan elementary school system and a university fedby students from a few private lycees and tutories.The educational structure of a society must takethe shape of a pyramid with each higher level rest-ing firmly on a wider base.

In Ceylon, the developing country with which theauthor is most familiar, universal elementary edu-cation has been available since 194t and has beenmade compulsory in recent years. By 1967, wellover 400,000 students were enrolled in grades ninethrough twelve. The first two layers of the pyramidare quite solid but on top of this structure is peakeda very thin spire of higher education. Taken to-gether, the universities, the technical colleges, theprofessional schools, and the institutes enroll fewerthan 25,000 students. The third and top layer of thepyramid is only 6 per cent of the second layer andless than 1 per cent of the bottom layer. Last year,only 6,000 of the 50,000 applicants who passed thestiff entrance exam were admitted to the university.Elimination of all but 12 per cent of such highlyendowed and well-prepared minds is a luxury whichCeylon cannot afford. The minister of education andcultural affairs of Ceylon is well aware of thesefacts and the conclusions to be drawn from them;hence, his initiation of and unstinting support towhat in Ceylon are called the "junior universitycolleges." Other ministers of education in othercountries can be expected to be just as discerningof the implication of such facts and will be justas eager to find ways of helping their people andtheir countries.

A third precondition for the junior college idea toflourish is an economy potentially, if not immedi-ately, ready to employ the trained products of thejunior college. An affluent society facing the unem-ployment problem of a cybernated economy ofabundance must think of junior college educationpartly as preparation for leisure, as a means of add- 159

ing significance to the lives of its citizens. A poorcountry cannot have such lofty aims. For instance,Ceylon, already spending 20 per cent of its nationalbudget on education, cannot add another rupeeunless it is an investment to increase the grossnational product and unless it will result in in-creased employment. It is true that educationcreates resources and that a society that investsheavily in education will eventually earn huge divi-dends. Even so, for a poor country, this advice islike telling a pauper that if he would only buy lotsof I.B.M. stock his financial troubles would be over.Impoverished countries are usually politically un-stable and their governments are quite wary abouteducating people for unemployment. Well-educatedunemployed make much more effective revolution-aries than uneducated unemployed.

Unless there is a minister of education willingto make a political fight for creation of a juniorcollege system ; unless there are plenty of secondaryschool graduates prepared and eager to enter thejunior colleges ; unless there are mid-level jobs in theeconomy to be filled by junior college graduatesunless these three preconditions obtain, junior col-leges will not and should not be established. Theseare hard rock problems that defy solution. There aresome other tough but not insuperable problems thatdeserve consideration.

A strange problem, not likely to be anticipatedby pragmatic Americans, develops from the ana-chronistic university system left as a legacy to ex-colonies by their former masters. The curricularpossibilities are few. The lack of secondary levelpreparation and the high costs militate againststrong and diverse science programs. Universitiesare considered above such mundane preparationas teacher training. There is a bias toward the moreesoteric humanities. The professions are consideredto be limited to medicine and law, with physicalscience now elbowing its way into respectability.The problem that this kind of university education

1 60 creates for the junior college is that it produces

the competition of an overabundance of unemployeduniversity graduates and an undersupply of top-levelprofessionals whose work would create the tech-nical and paraprofessional jobs to be filled byjunior college graduates. In Ceylon, the conditiondescribed is close to a national joke ; it is deplored byalmost all but the professors with vested interests ;and is bound to be overhauled in the near future.

A second problem is the lack of any manpowersurveys upon which to base curricular planning.Hard facts on current employment are usually notavailable, and the more important predictions of thefuture employment picture show as a void in thecrystal ball. In the face of this, natural conserva-tism prompts training for obsolescence in preferenceto chancing the unknown. The occupational curricu-lum to be offered in the first year of operation ofthe j unior university colleges of Ceylon will havenothing more daring than bookkeeping or agricul-ture or banking practices. In their favor, however,the developing countries do not have the capitalisticbias against national planning. Ceylon, for example,recently created a Ministry of Planning completewith a Manpower Division whose members will serveon the curricular advisory committees of the junioruniversity colleges.

A third problem in countries where "know-how"was the exclusive property of the colonial mastersor the class in power, is the scarcity of highlytrained specialists. They exist, even among the in-digenous population, but they are in such demandthat their services are hard to secure with therather paltry teacher salaries. Foreign specialistswould scoff at the prevailing salaries even if thegovernments of the poorer countries would be will-ing (which they are not) to encourage foreignnationals to come and take the top-level jobs. Thesolution to this problem probably lies in Mohammedgoing to the mountain : in sending partially trainedand very apt young people to the technologicallyadvanced countries for a year or so of intensivetraining. This practice already has governmental 161

sanction and the necessary financial support in thecase of Ceylon. No doubt, other developing countrieshave already, or soon will, follow this direction.

Staffing Problems

A related problem is that of finding qualifiedstaff officers to fill the posts of president, dean ofinstruction, dean of student personnel, counselors,and so on. In this regard, the starting point is zero,for few, if any, educational administrators in thedeveloping countries have ever seen a junior col-lege. Even if they have, their notion of its functionsand operation would be unclear. This could be solvedby educational stints abroad and/or by use offoreign consultants. Much more difficult to attackwould be the bureaucratic system that rewardslongevity by elevation to higher salaries. Everycountry has its administrative hacks. If the systemautomatically puts them in the saddle, the juniorcollege concept is not going to ride off to newheights of glory.

A fourth problem experienced by most countriesthat were former colonies is understandable iflooked at one way and absurd if viewed from a dif-ferent angle. These countries have ancient languagesthat were the media of highly developed and vener-able cultures. For recent centuries, however, thelanguage of the educated class was that of thecolonial master. With independence, there was anatural desire to throw out English or French orPortuguese along with the people who spoke it. Atthis point in history, the ruling generation speakand read the colonial language better than they dotheir indigenous language. The younger generationhave begun to lose competency in the colonial lan-guageonly the middle and upper classes ever haditat a much faster rate than the great books ofthe world can be translated into their native lan-guage. Such translation may be a losing propositionanyway, for converting works from one languageto another is expensive, time consuming, and often

162 inadequate. In Ceylon, such translation has to be

done for the minority Tamils as well as for themajority Sinhalese. Last year, the whole effort re-sulted in only 300-plus books being translated, andsome of these would be trash in any language.

When the language media of a country is babel,library development gets bogged down in a quag-mire. Import restrictions limit the number of booksto be imported from the United States or UnitedKingdom or France, and there is the furtherquestion of how many students can profitably readfrom these expensive books. Books in the indigenouslanguage are so few and so unrelated to the scienceand technology of the modern world that the in-structors feel obliged to use the class hours in dic-tating information they have gleaned from theforeign books which they can, but their studentscannot, read. Thus the language problem reducesteaching into dictation and thereby hinders learn-ing through the ears just as it hinders learningthrough the eyes. In reading the international news,Americans probably think to themselves there mustbe more deserving issues for students to riot aboutthan language. In India and in other multilingualareas of the world, language will be second only tostarvation as the cause for riots which approachcivil war proportions.

Still another problem for countries which in-herited the European model of education is the in-compatibility of the occupatior.a.1 package systemwith vocational and educational counseling, withgeneral education, with exploration and other es-sential functions of the junior college. An examplefor clarification : Dehiwala Junior University Col-lege in Ceylon will offer not a whole catalog ofcourses but rather the occunational packages : per-sonal management, librarianship, journalism, trans-port, and banking practices. Instructors will be hiredon the basis of competence to teach one of thesecurriculums. They will hold forth to their studentsin their speciality for five hours each day. Studentswill apply for and be admitted to one of these pack-age deals. Students will be certified by means of an 163

end-of-curriculum comprehensive examination, andtheir employment will depend on whether theypassed or failed this crucial test.

Unless countries experimenting with the juniorcollege concept are weaned away from this Europeantradition, then there really is no place for educa-tional exploration, for vocational and educationalcounseling, for general education, for followingspecial interest patterns, for evening courses foradults in the communityfor many if not most ofthe functions which make the junior college aunique institution. The more sophisticated educatorsin Ceylon; and presumably in other developing coun-tries, realize that the American system of buildinga pattern by unit blocks makes for greater flexibility,adaptability, and viability. However, secondaryeducation below and university education above arenot geared to mesh well with the junior college cogstamped : "Made in the U.S.A." These educators willneed some strong arguments and some powerfulallies to win in a battle to change the old colonialsystem.

The sixth and last problem to be discussed willnot be considered a problem at all by those whowould like to raise their personal prestige by makingthe junior college into a small replica of the univer-sity. When the facilities and staff for higher educa-tion are very limited, the idea of an open-door collegeis an inevitable casualty. As a case in point, the Min-istry of Education of Ceylon, which in 1967 wasobliged to turn away 44,000 of the 50,000 eligibleapplicants to the university system, could neversustain an open-door policy at the junior universitycolleges. The 1,000 students who will make up thepilot enrollment at the five campuses of Palaly,Kuliyapitiya, Kegalle, Galle and Dehiwala haveacademic achievement scores equal to those of theuniversity students. This situation may or may notobtain in other developing countries ; the logic of

164 circumstances would argue the affirmative.

A Fantasied Trade Agreement

Imagine for a moment that a U.S. administrationannounced the radical policy that henceforth theUnited States would aid and abet the revolution ofrising expectation that is aflame throughout theworld. In this fantasy, the President renouncesmilitary repression as the means of safeguardingU.S. interests and signals the return to the historicU.S. aim of assuring democracy and prosperity athome by fostering democracy and prosperity abroad.The President reminds the people that education isthe sine qua non of both democracy and prosperity,and calls for education to replace weapons as themajor U.S. export. A series of trade agreements areworked out in which America provides variousforms of educational expertise and even some facili-ties and equipment. In return, the recipient govern-ments promise to educate their people to a level ofprosperity that will give them a stake in the estab-lishment and therefore a strong desire to keepstable the economy and the political structure whichsupports it. No demand is made for most favorednation treatment, since the U.S. is confident thatprosperous nations will want to import Americangoods just as, for example, Canada and Japan do atpresent.

The junior college looms large in this trade agree-ment, for elementary and secondary education,though basic, are not sufficient to prepare workersfor the technology of modern industry. Even theuniversity system commands no more support thanthe junior college, for all realize that for each uni-versity technologist there must be five or more juniorcollege-trained technicians. This same ratio of mid-level to top-level, of paraprofessional to professional,applies to almost every occupational category. TheU.S. government and the interested supportingfoundations turn, therefore, to the American Associ-ation of Junior Colleges for direction, for plans, forpersonnel, for administration of an ambitious pro- 165

gram of exporting the junior college to the develop-ing countries of the world.

The Job ill the U.S.

To put first things first, AAJC should establishwithin its structure an office of international educa-tion. This office should provide initiative, creativeplanning, liaison, coordination and overall directionand thrust to the exportation of the junior collegeidea. Actually, this office of international educationshould be responsible for the proper performanceof each of the major tasks which will be brieflydescribed.

Federal government or foundation subsidy shouldbe secured to send copies of pertinent literature onthe junior college to the ministries of education inall the developing countries. This will serve both towhet interest and to keep those countries with juniorcolleges abreast of trends and innovations.

Working through the U.S.' State Department,small groups of ministers of education and theirtop-echelon advisers should be invited and givena red-carpet tour of representative U.S. junior col-leges to be followed by several days of intensiveseminars at AAJC. The effort should be all-out onthis enterprise, for unless these men are made intozealots the junior college movement will never find ahome in their countries.

A panel of experienced, prestigious, articulate, anddiplomatic junior college specialists should be as-sembled and given brief training in consultantship.They should be able and willing to take leave fromtheir jobs for short or longer-term assignmentsabroad as junior college consultants.

Universities that now operate the Kellogg pro-gram for training of junior college administratorsshould be asked to present short-term intensiveprograms to prepare foreign educators as admin-istrators in junior college education. The trainingmust be short term, for these will be men reaching

166 the peak of their careers and neither they nor their

governments will want a long absence from theirwork.

Numerous and generous fellowships should bearranged for the proper training of foreign instruc-tors and counselors in those schools of educationthat have teacher and counselor training programsat the junior college level. These should not bemaster's programs, but they should offer year-longtraining and demonstration in both academic sub-stance and in operational technique.

It is important that a junior college theorist withlegal talent be provided as a consultant to an in-terested ministry of education before the organiclaw creating the junior college system gets written.He should be enough of a junior college philosopherto out-think most contingencies involved in develop-ment of a workable master plan. He should also beenough of a parliamentary tactician at least not toget in the minister's way as he guides this legisla-tion through from ministry draft to final law. If thisjob is bungled, all other efforts will be largely wastedin trying to undo the initial damage.

The next most important consultative job is fora generalist in junior college education who wouldprovide in-service training to all staff members forseveral months before the junior colleges open theirdoors for business. Such a generalist might be a rov-ing consultant working out of the AAJC office ofinternational education who could within one yearprovide service to three or four countries.

It would be most desirable, though admittedlyexpensive, to provide short-term consultants insuch specialties as testing and evaluation, counsel-ing and guidance, admissions and records, library,adult education, community services, etc. These con-sultants might be sent out for a month or so duringtheir summer vacations, which would be an excellentexperience for them and would obviate any need tokeep such consultants constantly on tap.

Foundation grants, or perhaps U.S. college toforeign college CARE packages, could be arrangedto provide minimal equipment in crucial specialty 167

programs. Many of the poorer countries are so shorton U.S. dollars that to import equipment and bookswould take special dispensations at the cabinet level.Used books and used equipment, given in the rightspirit, would be received with thanks.

Far and away the most ambitious proposal, hencelast to be presented, is that of establishing a para-digm or demonstration junior college at a nationalor regional level. What is envisioned is exportingthe equivalent of an entire junior college staff whowould set up and operate a U.S.-stylLe communitycollege for one year. Each staff member would havean indigenous shadow colleague who would takeover the second year and who would, in turn, traina fellow national.

Such a system would parlay the training providedby the original U.S. staff along a geometric curve.The original impression would, of course, fade, butthis is as it should be : each junior college in theUnited States has borrowed and copied from itspredecessors yet has made its individual contribu-tion and has gradually molded itself into a uniqueinstitution congruent to its time, place, and circum-stances.

168

By Derek S. Singer

DEVELOPINGCOLLEGES FORDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES

I am convinced that the time has now come formany American junior community colleges to makeplans to increase their involvement in internationalprograms, particularly in the developing countriesof Asia, Africa, and Latin America. A greatercommitment of time, energy, and resources wouldpay big dividends both for the less-developed na-tions with which they can work as well as for manycolleges.

Before joining the Association one year ago, Tlived and worked abroad for thirteen years, pri-marily in the less-developed countries. My assign-ments gave me the privilege of serving in posts asdiverse as Bolivia, Colombia, and Costa Rica ; inFormosa (Taiwan), Japan, and Indonesia; and inTunisia and the Congo. In each case, I worked injobs relating to economic, cultural, and social de-velopment, usually in programs designed to acceler- 169

ate the educational and manpower developmentprocesses of the "host country."

Positions which I held while assisting in the ac-complishment of these goals included being a direc-tor of two CARE relief programs, a training officerfor four Agency for International Development(AID) missions, and a Peace Corps director in threecountries. In my judgment, all but one or two of thecountries to which I was assigned needed and couldsupport a modest national community junior collegesystem to supplement their predominantly European-oriented, "white-collar" universities. In fact, at leasttwo of them (Japan and Taiwan) already possessa national network of two-year, post-secondaryschools. Many other "developing countries" havealso expressed recent interest to the Association inexploring for themselves the great potential ofAmerica's two-year college experience and adaptingits application to their own urgent, practical needsto provide trained manpower in development pro-grams of national urgency.

Two such countries have already been mentioned.Some others which I know are seriously contemplat-ing or actually experimenting with the flexible,pragmatic opportunities offered by communityjunior colleges include India, Ceylon, Chile, Brazil,and Kenya. Several European countries also havepilot two-year colleges, particularly in specializedfields. Examples include hotel management (Ger-many), fashion technology (France) , and distribu-tive education (England). Such schools have oftenbeen developed with the cooperation of U.S. "sister"institutions. In addition, there are actually Ameri-can-style AAJC member colleges in Switzerland,the Canal Zone, and Puerto Rico. In all probability,more of these programs are underway or beingplanned in still other countries, with particularstress on the technical and vocational fields in whichtrained manpower is in most acute demand, tomatch the pace of accelerating national develop-

170 ment programs.

Today, volunteer assistance groups such as thePeace Corps, Papal Volunteers, and the FriendsService Committee, all provide paraprofessionalpersonnel overseas on an interim basis. Workingabroad with manpower supply groups such as thesehas indicated very clearly to me that the kind ofyoung workers which they send often hold jobswhich require the same kind of training and skillsas are generally acquired by the graduates of manyU.S. two-year colleges.

My own list of the "two-year college skills" mostneeded, and in shortest supply in the developingworld, include : automobile mechanics, diesel me-chanics, farm machinery management, machineryand equipment maintenance and repair, secretarialand business, data processing, engineering technol-ogy, medical laboratory technology, physics andchemistry laboratory technicians, X-ray technology,fire science, recreation and physical education, ele-mentary education, and community service.

Considering the relatively modest level of tech-nology and industrialization in most of the develop-ing countries, many of the most specialized pro-grams at U.S. two-year colleges are not suitable forAsia, Africa, and Latin America. However, thesituation is one which changes and rapidly evolves :New skills not required today may be urgently need-ed tomorrow. The establishment of a modest,flexible, but growth-oriented, comprehensive com-munity junior college system in many of the newercountries overseas could well complement and facili-tate the rapid modernization and growth which theyso earnestly seek. Such a solid training infrastruc-ture could prove invaluable to planners and pro-grammers in many developing areas.

"Comprehensive" Aspect

Beyond skills alone, introducing the "comprehen-sive" aspect of America's public community col-leges could lend still another important dimensionto the foreign two-year college movement. En- 171

lightened leaders in many developing countries havecome to realize that true "nation building" andcountry development programs must proceed hand-in-hand. The potential of community services, ofadult education, and of the recreational, social, anddevelopmental "outreach" programs of U.S. com-munity colleges can prOvide a unique and positiveextra to supplement the scholarly, research-orientedcolleges and universities so typically found in manynew nations. Even as they bravely strive to growand progress on many fronts at once, most of thesestates must also fight the ignorance, indifference,and inertia of a large proportion of their nationalpopulation. To combat poverty, disease, and hun-ger effectively, such countries are discovering thatthey must first overcome the dead hand of the past.They must rid themselves of many inherited in-fluences from a colonial history which gave themsome benefits but which most often discouraged in-itiative, cooperation, and our popular Americanspirit of working together as equals to tackle andsolve common problems.

Although the community college approach couldnever solve all these problems, I believe that, wher-ever adopted, it could represent an important cata-lyst for civic pride and cooperation in many de-veloping countries where such national "rallyingpoints" are in particularly short supply. Last year,Daly C. LaVergne, director of AID's Office of In-ternational Training, put the matter this way atAAJC's national convention in Boston :

The type of post-secondary educational institution mostgenerally needed in the developing countries probablymore nearly resembles the American junior and com-munity college than the four-year college. In addition tothe similarity of objectives (producing educated peoplewho can immediately be absorbed by the critical skilledmanpower needs of the wider community), the U.S.junior college and the developing country colleges facesimilar problems.

With all these advantages and benefits possible,1 72 why have there been so few opportunities for our

community junior colleges to foster the growth ofcounterpart colleges abroad? Why have so fewAAJC members been called upon to perform over-seas, in contrast to the hundreds of American four-year colleges and universities which have enjoyedgovernmental contracts and foundation support formany years with technical assistance projectsabroad?

Answers to these questions are neither rimplenor easy to come by. Some of the reasons are his-torical. In its present form, the comprehensivecommunity junior college has simply not beenaround as long as many of the better-developed,many-sided university programs whose experienceis now being tapped for the benefit of developingcountries. Also, as mentioned earlier, an outdated,colonial-type attitude toward higher education haslong been predominant in the majority of so-callednew states. Thus, national educational goals andattitudes favorable toward such practices as open-door admissions, extensive and continuing studentpersonnel services, and a commitment to communityoutreach programs in general have been the excep-tion, not the rule. It is only in very recent yearsthat such historical biases as these have begun tochange. Finally, perhaps, the U.S. two-year collegemovement and important sections of the developingworld are ready to meet together on equal terms.

Another, more serious, roadblock still remains.A number of AAJC member institutions have for-mally signified an interest and willingness to ex-pand their world studies programs, to welcome for-eign students on their campuses, and to work to-ward an overseas faculty exchange program. Somewould also send modest-sized education advisoryteams to the less-developed countries. A number ofthese junior and community colleges constitute themembership of the Association's Committee on In-ternational Education which currently representseight member colleges (and others interested inoverseas work). In addition to these schools, repre- 173

sentatives from at least a dozen other two-year col-leges have also indicated to AAJC an abiding in-terest in seeking help and advice to develop somekind of program with an overseas counterpartschool or college. And yet, with rare exceptions,the problem of "image" and "academic standing"has blocked most efforts to reach a "take-off" pointwith such programs. In government-sponsoredprojects particularly, invidious and unfavorablecomparisons with the supposedly-superior faculty,campus resources, and reputations of the "4 /U's "the four-year colleges and universitieshave effec-tively prevented serious consideration of the com-munity or junior colleges for AID or other govern-ment-sponsored education projects in the develop-ing world.

Some noticeable recent evidence of this negativeattitude can be found in an extensive AID reportentitled University Resources for International De-velopment. This study was prepared in 1968 forthe Agency for International Development by theprestigious Academy for Educational Developmentin New York and authored by Chester M. Alter,former chancellor of the University of Denver.

It should be noted first that Dr. Alter's purposewas to compare and evaluate for AID the overseasperformance record or "score" of several majorcategories of institutions of American higher educa-tion in carrying out AID contract programs abroad.There were nine classifications discussed, alllisted under the general rubric of "universities."Only six two-year colleges were selected for thesurvey sample, although three or four times thatnumber were sampled in most of the other cate-gories examined. Not one member of the academy'stwenty-man study team, nor of its ten-man advi-cory committee, was drawn from a junio- or com-munity college. The great majority were presi-dents, deans, directors, and senior faculty membersfrom four-year colleges and universities. A further

1 74 analysis of the study group and its committee re-

/

veals that at least six members were either then orformerly employed by colleges and universitieswhich currently or recently held AID-financed con-tracts abroad. Needless to say, the communityjunior colleges had no such connections on Dr. Al-ter's study group.

Turning to the study itself, its approach andmethods seem quite straightforward. Basically,University Resources for International Develop-ment tries to analyze several "criteria for excel-lence," as described in another report prepared byJohn W. Gardner in 1964 entitled AID and the Uni-versities. In this study, Mr. Gardner also used theword "universities" in the generic sense and listedeight separate areas in which he advised AID toestablish and monitor high performance standardsby its overseas contractors. These criteria includ-ed: institutional resources, caliber of faculty, inter-disciplinary programs, research resources, adminis-trative capability, overseas experience, quality ofpersonnel, and institutional commitment.

Considering both the historical limitations oncommunity junior college involvement overseas(above) and the backgrounds of most of the sur-vey members responsible for the study, its conclu-sions should probably surprise only the naive or theincorrigibly optimistic.

By and large, the impression gaired from Dr.Alter's conclusions neatly illustrate the old adageof damning with faint praise. Here and there hisreport to AID does say a few kind words about thecontributions which two-year colleges might maketo a few particular development projects abroad ;however, typically, and almost inevitably, a big"but" accompanies nearly eve' y such reference.Some modification, restriction, or proviso virtuallyemasculates whatever slight praise the author maygive to the two-year college. To illustrate, a fewquotations follow from University Resources, to- 1 75

gether with my brief commentary on each. Quota-tion 1:

. . . a high degree of interdisciplinary sophisticationprobably would not be found in the typical junior college.Naturally, there are individual exceptions . . . (but) forthe purpose of marshalling enough overall strength towarrant a total institutional contract, many junior col-leges would be found lacking.

Comment : To view the bias in this section of theAlter Report ("Caliber of Faculty"), one only needtake note of the large "strawman" which the au-thors jerry-rig here, only to topple over with thegreatest of ease. Logically, neither AID nor thedeveloping countries it serves should be interestedin generalizations about the "typical" junior col-lege nor whether "many" such colleges may or maynot be lacking in overall institutional strength.While such generalizations are dubious and unsup-ported in themselves, there is something even moreimportant. Assertions of this type are irrelevantand quite useless to foreign policy-makers who mustcarefully assess whether a specific community orjunior college is both competent and willing to helpAID implement significant portions of its educa-tional assistance programs in some of the less-de-veloped countries. Quotation 2:

. . . the usual exceptions of the typical junior collegewould lead to the conclusion that this criterion (per-sonnel quality) probably, or even usually, would not bemet adequately.

Comment: In general, the comments made aboutthe first example pertain. In addition, the super-ficial, unsupported generalizations of the report areparticularly evident here. Whose "usual expecta-tions of the typical junior college," one could askDr. Alter, and by which standards of "personnelquality" does the staff and faculty of the juniorcommunity college fail 4.,o measure up? Define your

176 terms, professor ! Quotation 3:

(In discussing foreign programs) A typical commentfrom junior college administrators is : "Yes, we are in-terested, . . . but frankly we are so new, are growing sofast, and we have so many things to do here that we justhave not had time to develop overseas work." Such ex-pressions are not at all exceptional and are without doubtlogical and legitimate.

Comment : Once more, can words such as "typi-cal" and "not exceptional" truthfully be applied,considering that the (supposed) attitudes of admin-istrators at only six two-year colleges are cited?Even more dubious and suspect is the condescensionimplicit in the concluding comments in this, the re-port's final section, entitled "Institutional Commit-ment." One reads in the report, "As of the fall of1966 there was only one junior college on AID'slist of university contractors." Forty universities,colleges, and consortia were surveyed in the Alterreport alone which held AID contracts at thattime for training, research, or technical assistanceabroad. It seems reasonable to conclude that such"institutional commitment" becomes much easier todiscern when a school has already enjoyed the gen-erous support of one or more government contracts !

Many more examples could be cited. All in all, Ibelieve that the conclusions drawn and the infer-ences left by this AID report are frequently dis-torted, sometimes biased, and often consist of suchunsupported allegations and meaningless generali-zations as those that are quoted.

It is necessary to combat such distorted imagesof America's two -yeas colleges wherever they maybe found. However, it is more important still tostress the positive, constructive potential of modernjunior and community colleges for making creativeand worthwhile contributions to the education andmanpower development of the newer countries over-seas. Everyone's time is wasted in contentiousvalue judgments about which kind of institution hasthe "best" faculty, which has a greater institutionalcommitment, or which has a "superior administra-tive capability" to work effectively abroad. 177

An Analogy

In any case, the criteria devised by John Gardnerfor AID to measure the effectiveness of its overseaseducation contractors seem more applicable to helpassess a different kind of performance. Quite pos-sibly, a different kind of standard should be appliedto the special contribution which the two-year col-leges might make to foreign education assistancework. Writing in the Junior College Journal ofMay 1958, Mr. Gardner made clear his convictionthat excellence indeed could mean one thing forone group of schools, quite another for a differentone. He wrote :As things now stand the word excellence is all too oftenreserved for the dozen or so institutions which stand atthe very zenith of our higher education in terms offaculty distinction, selectivity of students, and difficultyof curriculum. In these terms, it is simply impossible tospeak of a junior college as excellent. Yet sensible mencan easily conceive of excellence in a junior college.The traditionalists might say, "Of course! Let Princetoncreate a junior college and one would have an institutionof unquestionable excellence!" That is correct, but itleads us down precisely the wrong path. If PrincetonJunior College were excellent in the sense that PrincetonUniversity is excellent, it would not be excellent in themost important way that a junior college can and maybe excellent. It would simply be a truncated version ofPrinceton. A comparably meaningless result might beachieved if General Motors tried to add to its line oflow-priced carp by marketing the front end of a Cadillac!

Thinking back on my own years of service in thedeveloping countries, I am certain that John Gard-ner's analogy was a perceptive one. Whetherthrough government projects, by cooperation withfoundation programs, alone or in consortia withuniversities, through exchanges with the small, butgrowing, group of "counterpart colleges" abroad,or in other ways, I am convinced that the particularexcellence of our institutions can be focused withincreasing effectiveness and growing results onprograms of international studies, institutional

178 service, and faculty enrichment. After all, the style,

the motivation, and the goals of "democracy's col-leges"a uniquely American contribution to theworld's educational growth and progressdo seemto fit the needs and aspirations of so many of to-day's developing countries. For many such nations,the community junior college may truly be a goodidea whose time has come. One "old hand" at work-ing to introduce the movement to such countriesis William R. Kunsela, president of the State Uni-versity of New York Agricultural and TechnicalCollege at Delhi. A few months ago, in a report tothe AAJC Committee on International Education,Dr. Kunsela put the matter this way :The fact that only a few of our institutions have hadexperience in developing countries should not be a de-terrent, nor should it be interpreted as lacking interest.The community college will be given the opportunity toapply its expertise on the international scene only at suchtime as the developing nations are encouraged to becomefamiliar with an experiment with the community collegeas a solution to middle-level manpower needs, and to thismanner of expanding educational opportunity.

The Association intends to do its best to providesuch encouragement, to awaken international in-terest in the two-year college, and to stimulate thekind of frank and informed questions and dialoguewhich can lay the groundwork for expanding themovement wherever and whenever representativesfrom the new countries are ready to "talk shop."Perhaps Uncle Sam may also want to take anotherlook one day soon at the exciting resources whichAmerica's two-year colleges could contribute toAmerica's assistance programs abroad.

179

By Harold Epstein

WHERE DO JUNIORCOLLEGES FIT IN?

American education, particularly higher educa-tion, has made a major commitment in recent yearsto international education. Through curriculum re-vision, exchange of faculty and students, and de-velopment of language and area study programs,institutions are seeking to end the parochialismwhich has too often characterized American educa-tion. At the same time, with the support of govern-ment agencies, such as AID, and foundations, suchas Ford and Rockefeller, they are sharing their re-sources and experience with nations grappling withthe problems of educational development. Supple-menting this academic involvement, a host of privateagencies, civic organizations, and corporations, too,now are involved in one way or another with pro-grams in international education. As if to giveformal expression to the national concern for inter-

180 national education, Congress recently passed the

International Education Act, designed to strengthenAmerican higher education in this field.

Nominal Involvement

Where do the junior colleges fit into this picture?The answer is that they are not now playing a majorrole in one of the most important educational de-velopments of our time. None of the significantstudies and reports, issued in recent years dealingwith the responsibilities of higher education in inter-national education, even mentions the junior college.And, even more important, the junior colleges clearlyhave not demonstrated any great imagination orinitiative in defining and implementing their role.

Perhaps the most dramatic and certainly the mostvisible evidence of the growth of international edu-cation is to be found in the statistics on educationalexchange. Published annually by the Institute ofInternational Education in its report, Open Doors,and based on yearly surveys of foreign students andscholars in the United States and American studentsand faculty abroad, these statistics reveal that theforeign student population has grown from 36,000in 1955-56 to 93,000 in 1965-66, and has almostdoubled in the last five years. Even more strikingis the increase in the number of foreign scholarscoming to the United States for teaching or researchpurposes. In the last five years, their number hasrisen from some 3,600 to more than 9,000.

The statistics on American faculty abroad are noless impressive. The 1,275 American faculty abroada decade ago increased more than threefold by 1965-66 to almost 4,000. Data on American college stu-dents abroad, although less comprehensive becauseof the difficulty of securing information from foreigninstitutions, reveal, nevertheless, that the numberof American students enrolled in foreign institutionshas doubled in the last decade from some 9,000 to18,000, and this does not include the estimated 10,000students who, last year, participated in the growingnumber of undergraduate group programs abroad. 181

An analysis of the involvement of two-year insti-tutions in this exchange of students and scholarsmakes plain how marginal is their present role.While the number of foreign students enrolled injunior colleges has risen from 2,250 in 1961-62 to3,700 in 1965-66, proportionately an impressive in-crease, still two-year institutions enrolled only 4per cent of the total foreign student population inthe United States. Moreover, foreign students wereto be found at only 305 two-year institutions, lessthan one-half of the total, whereas foreign studentswere reported at approximately 75 per cent of allfour-year institutions last year.

In terms of faculty, the picture presented indicatesnominal involvement. In 1961-62, only fourteen two-year institutions reported a total of sixteen foreignscholars on their staffs. In 1965-66, there weresixty-six foreign scholars at thirty-eight juniorcolleges. Compare this with the more than 9,000foreign scholars at over 500 four-year institutions in1965-66. In 1961-62, thirty-two two-year institu-tions reported forty-four members of their facultiesabroad on tqaching or research assignment, con-trasted with the almost 4,000 American scholarsabroad representing more than 600 four-year in-stitutions. There are no specific data on the numberof junior college students who go abroad for educa-tional programs but that they represent, at best, amodest fraction of American students abroad canhardly be doubted.

What Is Needed

It is obviously misleading and, indeed, unfair tomake a bald statistical comparison between the in-volvement of two-year and four-year institutions instudent and faculty exchange. There are obviousreasons, most of them self-evident, to explain whyjunior colleges cannot be expected to match seniorinstitutions in attracting foreign students. Theseinclude the absence of housing facilities at many

182 two-year schools, the difficulty of providing scholar-

ships and other financial assistance which foreignstudents, in such great numbers, need, and thepreference of foreign students (and scholars) forfour-year colleges, based as much upon considera-tions of prestige, as on misunderstanding of the con-cept of the junior college. Still, with all allowances,it is cleP.r that the full potential of the junior collegeto play a constructive role in student exchange inparticular, and international education in general,is far from being realized.

What is required at the outset to remedy thesituation is an effort to explain th,=, unique functionof the junior college to foreign governments, educa-tors, business leaders, and, of course, to students.(A new brochure defining the junior college in thecontext of international education, jointly preparedby I.I.E. and AAJC, which will soon be availablefrom I.I.E., will be a useful tool.) To the extent thatthe unique role of the junior college in providingterminal technical and semiprofessional training isunderstood, it may attract students, especially fromdeveloping countries, where the need for men andwomen with such training is far more urgent thanthe need for persons with advanced academicdegrees.

It should be noted that many experts believe itpreferable to send faculty abroad rather than tobring students to the United States for this purpose.But until there are sufficient institutions in the de-veloping countries to meet their needs for trainedmiddle-level manpower, there will be ample reason toutilize the facilities of Amterican junior colleges.The Agency for InternationAl Development has al-ready demonstrated interest in using junior collegesin its training programs for foreign nationals andhas awarded a few contracts. It is obviously one ofthe agencies with which the junior colleges can es-tablish a particularly useful partnership.

In offering terminal education to students fromabroad, the two-year college should take pains toassure that the training it provides is pertinent to 183

the needs and opportunities for employment in thestudents' home countries. It is wasteful and worseto prepare a young man for a career which, in fact,he cannot follow when he returns home.

To the extent that the two-year college's role inserving as a bridge to the four-year institution isunderstood, it may attract students interested in tak-ing an undergraduate degree in the United States.A caveat is in order here : the junior colleges mustnot become the dumping ground for foreign studentswhose lack of academic qualifications or promisehave barred them from other institutions. Neitherthe junior college nor the student is well servedunless there is a concern for quality.

A Major Commitment

An effective foreign student program requiresa major commitment. It requires provision forinformation and counseling services abroad. It re-quires the development of special selection pro-cedures including, ideally, the screening of applicantsabroad. It requires a campus structure of orienta-tion, remedial language training and counselingservices. It may also require adaptation and innova-tion in curriculum and teaching methods. In brief,no institution should embark lightly on a majorforeign student program.

It should not be overlooked that in serving foreignstudents, the two-year institution also is servingAmerican students. The contribution the foreignstudents make to informing and stimulating theirAmerican fellow students is one of the most im-portant rewards of foreign student exchange.

Needless to say, this same objective is furtherrealized by the presence on campus of foreign facultymembers. It may not be easy for two-year institu-tions to attract qualified faculty from abroad fortemporary assignments, but they can do much morethan they now are doing, especially by developing

184 relations with sister institutions abroad which in-

volve exchange of faculty, and by sharing visitingforeign faculty among several institutions here.

To strengthen their own faculties' capacities andto add an international dimension to teaching, juniorcolleges should encourage staff to participate in Ful-bright and other exchange programs, provide sab-baticals and other opportunities for foreign studyand travel and, in making new appointments, recruitindividuals with foreign experience. Former mem-bers of the Peace Corps and the foreign service, forexample, offer a reservoir of talent and internationalexperience from which the junior colleges can draw.

Overseas Study and Language Programs

Although the majority of two-year college stu-dents may not be candidates for an overseas studyexperience, some, particularly those intendinc totransfer to four-year institutions have the langu tgeand other qualifications which would make such anexperience fruitful. These students should be en-couraged to participate in bona fide programs. Itwould be a mistake, however, for junior colleges tojoin the rush to establish semester and academic yearprograms abroad, which are proliferating at a ratealarming to many. But they might well join in co-operative efforts to establish summer programsabroad. These could provide a rich experience forstudent participants and for faculty selected toteach in them.

Perhaps most important in implementing theirconcern for strengthening of international dimen-sions of their educational programs is the need fortwo-year institutions to strengthen language pro-grams, develop area study programs, particularlyon nonwestern areas, and infuse an internationalcharacter wherever possible into curriculums. Nostudent, and particularly the student engaged in aterminal program whose formal education is notlikely to be resumed, should leave the junior collegewithout some appreciation and understanding of theworld of which we now are so interdependent a part. 1 85

Expanding the Junior College Idea

There are other avenues by which the junior col-leges can increase their contribution to internationaleducation. The concept of the junior college is takingroot in many countries. In Japan, 400 two-yearinstitutions have already been established. Chile,Jordan, and the Philippines also are experimentingwith this American educational invention andCeylon, Kenya, Wales, and India have demonstratedinterest in it.

By lending faculty and administrative staff tothese new institutions abroad and by providing,through AAJC, consultative and advisory services,the junior college community has an opportunity toshare its experience and expertise in the developmentof this new instrument for broadening educationalopportunities. Similarly, AAJ Cas the representa-tive of the junior collegescan play an influentialrole by inviting representatives of foreign juniorcolleges to special conferences on such topics as thedevelopment and philosophy of the American juniorcollege and its implications for developing nations,by providing opportunities for foreign educators toparticipate in programs such as the Junior CollegeLeadership Program, by inviting foreign educatorsinto a wide range of AAJC projects such as thoseon teacher preparation and occupational education,and by making available in translation pertinentstudies and reports.

Strengthening Relationships

To give focus to its concern and implement itsresponsibility for originating programs, developingguidelines, and carrying on its coordinating func-tions, AAJC should establish a committee on inter-national education. It should also strengthen its re-lationships with other agencies working in the field,such as A.A.C.R.O.A., N.A.F.S.A and I.I.E. And, ofcourse, AAJC, on behalf of its member institutions,should continue to present to Congress, government

186 agencies, the academic and business world here and

abroad, the inherent capabilities of the junior col-lege in the field of international education. It will,of course, be concerned with securing an appropriateshare of whatever funds are made available underthe International Education Act, for the purpose ofstrengthening the capacity of the junior college inthe field of international education.

In his now famous Smithsonian address, heraldingthe International Education Act, President Johnsonsaid, "We must move ahead on every front and everylevel of learning." That exhortation applies withparticular force to the junior colleges for whominternational education presents opportunities asyet largely unrealized.

187

By Jacob Canter

OUR COMMONCHALLENGE ININTERNATIONALEDUCATION

New initiatives in international education, look-ing to the future, and an anniversary of two decadesof worldwide exchanges have focused increasingacademic attention in recent months on our educa-tional relations with other nations. They have ampli-fied an already accelerating trend throughout ourentire education community.

Following President Johnson's message to Con-gress in February 1966, in which he said that educa-tion "must be at the heart of our internationalrelations," the Congress late last fall passed theInternational Education Act of 1966. This is an actwhich recognizes the need for Americans to knowmore about other countries and other peoples if weare to develop closer educational and other relation-ships with them. It is therefore pointed to helptoward strengthening the American educational

188 capacity for such relationships.

The year that has just closed also marked thetwentieth anniversary of the international educa-tional exchange program as a formal worldwide pro-gram of our governmentthe program conductedunder the authority of the Fulbright-Hays Act of1961. We observed this anniversary in some of theusual waysin re% iews of our past performance,in assessments of what we have accomplished. Butas in the case of all significant anniversaries, wehave also been presented with an opportunity toredefine our objectivesfor us, in international ex-change. This is a time to try to see what challengesin international exchange the next decade presentsto all of us in all categories of American educationuniversity professors, school teachers, graduate stu-dents, and many othersas compared to the chal-lenges of the two decades that began with the Ful-bright Act of 1946.

For we are now in a very different time from 1946,in the way that we must look upon educationalexchange.

I should like, therefore, to recall for readers as-sociated with our junior colleges the climate in whichformal educational exchange was born in 1946, andsome of the objectives we held as it took shape.World War II had just ended. Many of the nationsof the world lay in ruins. Lines of communicationbetween intellectuals and scholars had been severedand in many cases destroyed. The United States hademerged as a world power, a power of which verylittle was known, and even less was taught overseas.The chill wind of the cold war was already blowing,obscuring and hampering reasonable discourse andoften the truth about ourselves and other nations.New nations were coming into being, or old onescoming into view, of which our own knowledge wasabysmally small, and whose own needs for educa-tional development were very great.

The educational exchange program initiated atthat time was an effort to respond to some of theseproblems. 189

190

r

Accomplishments in Twenty Years

In these twenty years, weand by "we" I meanthe United States educational community with theirgovernmenthave successfully initiated this jointeffort.

Certainly we can say that we have helped reopenchannels of communications between scholars, andintroduced our colleagues overseas to the intellec-tual resources and community of this country, andto the American scene. While statistics alone give noprecise measure, they are nevertheless impressive.We have exchanged nearly 83,000 academic granteesalone since 1949 ; if we add grantees under otherthan academic programs the figure is nearly 100,000.Over 10,000 of these have been professors, another7,500 research scholars, and 48,000 of them havebeen students.

We have helped introduce abroad some criticaland meaningful discussion about the United Statesand its character and motivation, through the sup-port of American studies. In terms of chairs,courses, and seminars, the opportunities for suchstudies available at institutions in Europe havemultiplied many times the small beginnings in thelate 1940's. Elsewhere, particularly in the NearEast and in Eastern Asia and the South Pacific,American studies have become common curriculumofferings.

We can fairly say that exchange has brought abouta far larger degree of mutual understanding. Thetestimony to this effect is surprisingly strong, al-though admittedly exact measurement is impossible.

We can say that we have done a great deal througheducational exchange, but more particularly throughAID programs, to help develop and modernize theeducational systems of new nations and to train theirnationals.

We have set up, both in the United States andabroad, the mechanisms to facilitate exchanges. Ispeak here of the establishment of the binationalcommissions serving forty-eight countries overseas,of cultural affairs offices in embassy posts abroad ;

/

of the vast network in the United States of selectioncommittees, campus committees, faculty and foreignstudent advisors in which the educational communityplays so great a part.

We can say too that we have successfully initiatedthe process of internationalization of education inthis country. So in assessing some of the challengesof today and beyond, we do so on the basis of somevery real achievements, some very substantialbeginnings.

Changes Since 1946

We should look next, I think, at some of the funda-mental changes in climate and the human conditionthat have taken place since 1946.

The greatest changehistorically a most remark-able and significant changeis the fact that for theUnited States the world has become our neighbor-hood. However reluctantly, however imperfectly, aworld community now exists, and the United Statesfor the first time in its history has become a par-ticipating and committed part of this community.This is an irreversible and irrevocable development.We cannot conceivably now withdraw into isolationeven if we would. The United States is in and ofthis world community to stay.

This change is profound, and is bound to havealready has hadenormous repercussions in all oursocial and intellectual institutions, and upon ourattitudes toward other nations and peoples.

The second marked change from twenty years agois the internationalization of scholarship itself. Truescholarship has always been international, to a de-gree. Science, above all, has long known no boun-daries. Now many more disciplines are becoming"internationalized" in the true world sense, notmerely, as in the past, in relation to European coun-tries alone. The study of economic growth in theemerging countries has become essential to theeconomist, and to the development of economictheory ; the study of social change in Asia or LatinAmerica has become a necessary focus for sociology 191

and the sociologist. The study of history, even thehistory of western civilization, can no longer con-fine itself to the western world.

A third very marked change over twenty yearsago derives directly from the internationalizationof scholarship. This is the internationalization ofAmerican education.

The beginnings of the internationalization of theAmerican campus is an imposing fact of the U.S.academic scene today. I am tempted here to give afew statistics to indicate how this internationaliza-tion is developing :

1. Twenty-two universities have more than 100foreign faculty or scholars on their campuses.

2. Forty-seven have 400 or more foreign studentson campus.

3. Eighteen have forty or more of their ownfaculty abroad.

4. At least sixty universities have specialized areastudies.

5. Twelve teach, as an everyday matter, as manyas ten or more different modern foreign languages(U.C.L.A. teaches fifty languages, Indiana Univer-sity thirty-three) .

6. Seventy-two universities through A.I.D. aloneparticipate in projects overseas or in state-side train-ing programs related to overseas projects.

7. Some seventy-five universities have, with thesupport of the Bureau of Educational and CulturalAffairs, exchange relationships, modest though manyof them are, with universities in other lands.

There are other marked changes which have takenplace in the American scene in these past twentyyears.

One is the arrival of the affluent society. The com-parative wealth of a large proportion of Americanshas brought an international dimension into every-day lives, a taste for travel and foreign climates,films, foods, music, appareleven philosophiesthat was once the almost exclusive privilege of theelite. Affluence has also broug:ht with it a per-

192 ceptible impulse to reach out, to discover, to grasp

other values which were developed and have longsustained the human spirit in other cultures lessmaterially favored.

New Challenges Today

All these developments have meant that educa-tional exchange as conceived in 1946 faces funda-mentally new challenges today.

One important fact is that these developmentshave brought about an enormous international ex-change of persons, of ideas, of cultures, of tastes,quite independently of any government program.Nonimmigrant visitors to the United Statespeoplehere for government and private business and astourists, as well as for serious studyhave morethan doubled in the last ten years and now number1.25 million a year. Government-sponsored pro-grams account for only a small fraction of thismovement.

Thus, clearly in contrast to twenty years ago, thissituation poses a new challenge to educational ex-change whether conducted by the government orprivate agencies : this is to bring the quality of ourexchange efforts into closer correspondence with thequantity of exchanges now taking place. We will allneed to think of expanding numbers, if for no otherreason than because of the world's mounting popu-lations, and because of the rise of new nations withwhich exchanges can be conducted. But clearly thetime has now come to put a special focus on quality.

Focus on Quality

How would such an emphasis on quality affect therole of government and the educational communityin educational exchange?

First, as a general rule, we believe that the gov-ernment should play a role only, if at all, where it isnecessary to supplement or direct the natural flowof educational and cultural exchange or to fulfillcertain national needs.

One of these needs is to help develop still furtherand in greater depth, the quality of education at 193

194

home, especially education which can help illumineand improve our relationships with the rest of theworld. The International Education Act, whoserecent passage was perhaps the most fitting of allthe anniversary observances of twenty years ofeducational exchange, will do a great deal to helpcolleges and universities to develop the internationalstudies and research basic to any effort to prepareAmericans for life in a larger world. This act, whenit can be implemented with necessary funds, canreach broadly across the higher education com-munity and, through it, to secondary levels as well.For institutions of higher education are authorizedby the act to conduct institutes in international af-fairs for secondary school teachers.

The improved quality of education here at homeobviously will have a direct bearing on raising thequality of educational exchange, whether that ex-change is carried on through government or privateprograms.

Secondly, government has still, as it has had overthese past decades, a responsibility to help con-tribute to educational development abroad, with theactive cooperation of the United States educationalcommunity, and to improve the nature of thatcontribution.

Thirdly, the government has a broad responsi-bility to provide a meaningful context in which com-munication and exchange can take place. In otherwords, to broaden and deepen the context in whichexchanges take place.

Finally, the government has a role to play in en-couraging the growth of the life of the mind andsensibility. Improving the quality of the exchangeesthemselves and of the exchange experience is ob-viously a very important part of this process.

All of these things can be done effectively, ofcourse, only with the closest cooperation of the edu-cational community. In one sense, indeed, the chal-lenge to the government is the challenge to the edu-cational communitybecause it is on the intellectualand scholarly resources of the latter that the govern-

ment must depend for the successful execution of theexchange activities it conducts in the name of theAmerican people.

Certainly the problem of quality is a challenge tothe educational community irrespective of what thegovernment is doing.A Precious Instrument

Educational exchange conducted at a level of highquality has very real significance for us and ourfuture world. We have an opportunity in educationalexchange, to shape in some degreelet us hope ameaningful degreethe future of man on this planetnot just the future of Americans and not just thefuture of everybody else as non-Americans. Thispolarity of "we" and "they" is no longer adequate toa world of growing transnational interests. Educa-tional exchange broadly conceived is one of the mosthopeful instruments to make "we" and "they" be-come simply "we"that is, the larger groups ofmankind that increasingly come together and worktogether. Any such instrument is rare, and precious..The challenge to the educational communityno lessthan to your governmentis to use it, and to useit effectively. And it is a challenge to the educationalcommunity in all its several partsto the juniorcollege sector you represent as to others.

As I see it, we can do so only if we approach thetas:- with full engagement, with excitement, withimagination. The chance to help shape the futureof man, to create a new environment for civilizeddiscourse, can demand no less of all of us in thegovernment and in the educational community.

195

By Daly C. Lavergne

A ROLE ININTERNATIONALEDUCATION

Maybe there is some truth in the remark a recentcritic made, namely, "Americans have always had asuperstitious faith in the importance of education."Yet, as James Perkins, president of Cornell Uni-versity, said at the October 1967 International Con-ference on World Crisis in Education, "In the longreach of history, society has turned to its educationalsystems and institutions and said, 'you hold the keysto a better life.' "

President Johnson in his address to the same con-ference stated his belief that education and economicand social development are inseparable when he said :

"Development means that men and women can putto use in their own societies, in, their own lives, intheir own time, what modern science and technologycan provide to help them. But that requires educa-tion."

In stressing the relationship between education196 and economic and social development, I know I am

talking to believers. Yet if one goes back a few scantyearssay to Pearl Harboreducation was ac-cepted by the American people only in terms of itsnational development. The fact of American powerin the military, economic, political, and technologicalsphere, the growth of nationalism creating manynew countries, the passing of historic empires, theinstability of the world order, and instantaneouscommunication have created, as far as I am con-cerned, a very important phenomenon--America'sdirect educational stake in economic and social de-velopment of the world.

This phenomenon did not develop oveiimight. TheFulbright Program, the Marshall Plan, and the.Agency for International Development programswere major thrusts that not only moved public policyforward, but also moved the academic communityinto increasing worldwide intercultural commit-ments. Thus, today private, state, and federal com-mitments have moved not only the academic com-munity into widespread confrontation with the do-mestic life of the United States but into a largerconcern with the international community. Thatlarger concern with the international communitywas officially recognized as a fundamental foreignpolicy concept by the President on September 2,1.966, when he said in his special message to Con-gress :

"Last year the Congress by its action &dared theNation's number one task is to improve the educa-tion and health of our people. Today I call uponCongress to add a world's dimension to this task."

As you know Congress as a result of this messagepassed the International Education Act; of 1966.While it is true Congress has not yet financed thatact to any extent, it ultimately will do so.

To do otherwise would undercut our reason forspending billions on education and training man-power in the U.S. It likewise would igolate ourstudents from the chance to understand and inter-pret the massive fluid changes that are shaping forbetter or worse the world today. 197

Prepare the Students

As I understand it, in 1970, junior colleges willnumber about 1,200 and have an enrollment of 2.5million students. Some will transfer to four-yearcolleges, but for most graduation will terminatetheir formal education. Your graduates will partici-pate indirectly over the years in the making offoreign policy. By their votes, based on their knowl-edge or lack of knowledge and understanding of theinternational community and foreign affairs, yourgraduates' judgments at the polling places and in themainstream of American life are a bloc not to beeasily dismissed by those in the seats of governmentor those desiring to be. Thus, it seems to me thatthe greatest international education contributionjunior colleges can make is to prepare their studentsfor responsible American citizenship in the changingworld.

By responsible American citizenship, I mean grad-uates who are not only fundamentally geared intoour basic beliefs but who are adequately informed,interested, realistic, sensitive, and responsive toevents and conditions outside of the United States asthey relate to America's world interest and Amer-ica's self-interest. To me this task is greater by farthan securing contracts to help establish juniorcolleges in X or Y foreign land. I say this because nodomestic or foreign policy, involving internationalcommitments means anything, in the long run, un-less American citizens understand and support it.As you and I know from our own experience, special-ists and competent leaders in a democratic societydo illuminate issues and formulate proposals. How-ever, the ultimate decisions of the country are de-termined by the voters. Without their support noleader can exercise lasting influence over the coun-try's domestic and foreign policy. President Johnsonrecognized this fact of domestic life when he said itihis international education message to Congress in1966, "The conduct of our foreign policy will ad-vance no faster than the curriculum of our class-

198 rooms."

In essence what I am saying is that the juniorcollege is in a position to make its greatest contribu-tion to international education and understanding ofworld affairs right here in the United States.

Introduce International Concepts

This is not an exhortation for all and sundryjunior colleges to attempt, in haste, to internation-alize the curriculum of their classrooms. Considera-tion must be given to available resources and theheavy domestic tasks that your constituents placeupon you Neither am I suggesting that a juniorcollege compete with the four-year college or thegraduate school by establishing courses in foreignrelations, area studies, or exotic languages. Instead,I suggest that, whenever feasible and practicalwithin the broad range of programs offered, inter-national concepts and problems be introduced.

In the offerings in the biological sciences, nursingand medical technology, for example, the world'spopulation explosion and its international implica-tions would seem to merit attention. The humanitiesand the social sciences are areas which you all knoware natural areas for introducing the many andvaried complexities of international living today.Likewise, with modern technology, especially intransportation and communications, making every-body next door neighbors, it would seem that coursesin engineering technologies offer spacious educa-tional opportunities. Many courses provide theopportunity to stress the domestic andl internationaldimensions inherent in the gravest threat in today'sliving to law, order, and peacethe man with anempty stomach. Such a threat, with all its implica-tions to the United States internally and to theworld internationally, should be given as much at-tention in all classrooms as it is being given in allseats of government.

Yet, the infusion of foreign culture courses orworld problem courses into the curriculum is well-meaning but does not really strike at the major issue.Educating a citizenry for living in our world today 199

means internationalizing American education in ameaningful way. It is hard to believe that courseson foreign cultures or discussions of world problemswould excite the concern of many students whosevisions do not extend beyond our shores and who toooften are hardly sensitized to people living twoblocks away. It is even harder to believe that a stu-dent from the ghetto or a student from Appalachiawould care about the problems of India or the tribalstruggle in Nigeria when in their narrow U.S. worldthey personally face day by day the same basicstruggle for existence and education faced by mil-lions of citizens of the world.

Thus, it would seem that the problem of develop-ing a world view of internationalizing educationwould involve introducing into the curriculum ourown great national human resource developmentproblems. Preconditioning and sensitizing studentsto the culture of poverty a few miles away and re-lating that backyard immersion to the culture ofpoverty of the more disadvantaged nations of theworld should help break down a national attitudethat only geographically distant cultures have pock-ets of underdevelopment. Reasoning from the knowl-edge of our own subcultures as well as from ourdemocratic development achievements should helpstudents become less parochial and more inclined toa tolerant and less shadowy attitude to the problemsfacing other cultures. To the degree such an ap-proach can permeate the curriculum, to that degreewill the junior college fulfill its main internationaleducation role of educating a citizenry for living inan international world.

Faculty Needs Antennas of Empathy

But merely slanting the curriculum from Ameri-can human resource development problems and theirrelationship to the cataclysmic human and economicdevelopment problems faced by less developed na-tions cannot in full measure achieve for a juniorcollege a vital role in educating students for their

200 ultimate international responsibility. To give heart-

ening reality to the curriculum a faculty is needed"with antennas of empathy illuminating the culturalsimilarities and difference of the worldvaluing andsustaining both ; and improving the human capacityfor institution building and conflict resolution,"as Stephen Bailey puts it in The Modern University.

With teachers in short supply and with yourgrowth capacity not near an end, recruitment ofsuch teachers will likely be a problem that couldincreasingly handicap you in achieving your goal assoon as desired. Teacher exchange and Fulbrightscholars could assist. U.S. government agencies,especially those agencies whose basic interests lie inforeign affairs, should be considered as valuable re-cruitment sources for teachers and administrators.Some government officials with foreign service ex-periencehopefully synonymous with cultural em-pathyretire early enough to consider starting asecond career. Others, retiring with internationaleducation experience, may not want to undertake asecond career but might be willing, especially ifliving near a junior college, to consider becomingan adjunct lecturer, teacher, or professor. PeaceCorps personnel and teachers with experience inAmerican schools abroad are other sources fromwhich internationally oriented teachers and adminis-trators could be selected. Finally, it would seem thatit might also be profitable for your InternationalEducation Committee to consult with the CivilService Commission, the Department of State, theDepartment of Defense, and the Peace Corps with aview of determining to what extent they could assistthe Association in its international education pro-gram by supplying manpower supportvisitinglecturers, guest speakers, or faculty members.

Foreign Stu6ents

In the above remarks it has been stated that acurriculum, geared to citizenry in our country asour country relates to the world, and taught by areasonable number of internationally experiencedfaculty members is essential to the furtherance of 201

international education within junior colleges. Thereis, however, another element in the triangle withwhich the Association should be seriously concerned,namely foreign students. It would seem that withinthe student body there should be sufficient foreignstudents to give personal international dimensionto the text and the teaching. Furthermore, both theforeign student and the American student havemuch to gain from a personal confrontation of cul-tures, ideas, and ideals. Continuous exposure oneto the other results in an international education pos-sibility more lasting than textbook knowledge.

The mere desire, however, to have a suitable for-eign and American student mix in appropriate jun-ior colleges will not bring foreign students to thedoors of any campus. It, therefore, would seem thatone of the tasks of your International EducationCommittee is to stimulate junior college placementinterest in those who sponsor the coming of foreignstudents. Naturally, the U.S. government is onesource, but it's a relatively minor sponsoring source.Organizations, such as the Institute of InternationalEducation, the African American Institute and theMiddle East Foundation are sources familiar to all.Besides various religious groups, there is a keysource often untouched that plays a large placementrole. I refer, specifically, to the educational attachesat the various foreign embassies located in theUnited States. Most of these diplomatic people wereeducated within the European system and, as a re-sult, strive to place their government-sponsoredstudentsa goodly numberwithin the Americantraditional four-year college system. One might sug-gest that cultivation of them might not only generatestudents but serve as a means to create interest inthe junior college concept within the country theyrepresent.

In presenting the above thoughts the intention hasnot been to blueprint "internationalizing" for anyjunior college. The impetus for such must come fromwithin the college itself working within its broader

202 constituencies in the society. It may seem also that

in the previous remarks too much stress has beenplaced on education for U.S. citizenry. To quote thewords of Secretary Gardner, such is the basic goalof the International Education Act :

"The International Education Act is not an over-seas assistance program. Rather it seeks to strength-en and develop American educational institutionswhich must provide the resource base of talent andknowledge for our efforts abroad and for publicenlightenment at home." (Congressional Record,October 13, 1966, p. 25496.) All this does not limitthe junior colleges' international confrontation tothe U.S. educational scene. It does circumscribe theapproach to the role junior colleges can play inforeign lands. The usual way has been to ask Ameri-can educational institutions to upgrade a previouslyestablished host national institution or establish apilot project institution to meet a real felt need.Generally, these approaches have been financed un-der the foreign aid program. Usually this approachhas made an educational contribution to the hostcountry. The ultimate success will depend not onU.S. financing, however, but on the host countries'dedication to a given project and on the amount ofinternal resources a host country can commit. Withthe technical assistance funds for A.I.D. severely cutin the present year's appropriation it would seem thatfiscal support for establishment of new projects willbe rare. From most host countries' viewpoint, hun-ger and the demand for basic education for themasses will likely limit substantial support to newhigher educational projects. All this suggests thatthe junior colleges for the present, at least, need toconsider other methods which would assist hostcountries and would ultimately further the conceptof the junior college.

One method for consideration is technical coop-erationdefined as "communication of ideas, skills,a process of thinking or a mode of behavior." Atechnical cooperation premise could be stated thisway : The type of postsecondary educational institu-tion most generally needed in the developing coun- 203

tries probably more nearly resembles the Americanjunior and community college than the four-yearcollege. In addition to the similarity of objectives(producing educated people who can immediatelybe absorbed by the critical skilled manpower needsof the wider community) the U.S. junior college andthe developing country colleges face similar prob-lems. Both must gear their capabilities to producepeople for whom subsequent occupational categoriesare not well defined. In other words, both mustestablish new identities for themselves to meet newchallenges in the subprofessional fields.

If this general premise is accepted, it would seemthere is a need to share the common experience ofsearching for this new identity. Because the UnitedStates is more secure in its knowledge of four-yearschools and because these schools have been betterable to provide overseas teams for technical assist-ance, the junior college concept has not receivedsufficient attention in developing countries. Perhapsthe Association's goal should be, therefore, to devisesome mechanism to allow sustained interaction, aworking dialogue, between the U.S. junior collegecommunity and educators of the developing countriesso that both groups could become more effective inmeeting the needs of their respective societies.

Another approach to international education thatthe Association might consider taking is interna-tional collaboration among host national institutionsor associations. This approach either would avoid aunilateral approach or could supplement that typeof an approach. At this time, it might be more real-istic to work closely with countries which, today,have not only a conceptual interest, but also anactive interest in junior colleges rather than ploughvirgin fields. Junior College Journal relates thatJapan and Canada are now developing within theireducational systems institutions attempting to meetthe same end goals as U.S. institutions. (See Febru-ary 1967 Journal). One also notes from readingan article by Kenneth Holland in the fall issue of

204 the Exchange, published by the U.S. Advisory Com-

mission on International Education and CulturalAffairs, that Chile, intrigued by a discussion of theCalifornia two-year college plan, has already estab-lished, with the assistance of Ford Foundation,three of a series of eight two-year colleges. Is itunreasonable to assume that a junior college inter-national association created by those nations alreadycommitted to the concept could not create a worldimage that might entice interest and possible mem-bership? Then once within the fold of an inter-national association, mutual technical cooperationand professional collaboration should more normallyresult.

And for final considerationthe U.S. private sec-tor's great leap into overseas markets whether bydirect investment in plant or equipment or byacquisition of foreign companies. Time in a recentissue stresses that "in making the leap Americancompanies have begun to reshape themselves intoglobal organizations to which national boundariesand such narrow definitions as national or foreignmean little." Last year it is claimed that the totaloverseas ante of American companies was $64.8billionmore than the gross national product ofmany a nation. In view of these facts, one wondersif the Association has given thought to the interna-tional educational possibility inherent in workingwith American firms, especially in developing coun-tries, to help such firms train host nationals formiddle-level or semiprofessional tasks. If a workingrelationship could be established with even a fewU.S. companies in developing countries, the associa-tion would really be making a valuable contributionto international education as well as giving the hostcountry an inside look at ways and means mid-levelor semiprofessional manpower can be trained. Whothen knows where the international education roadmight lead?

Summary

In presenting my thoughts today, I trust that Ihave not spoken too much as Sir Oracle might have. 205

I have tried to present several areas of considera-tion to which this Association might devote atten-tion if it wished to further its role in internationaleducation ; namely its role within this country ; itsrole in technical cooperation and professional col-laboration with other countries and other foreignprofessional organizations ; and its possible man-power development role for American firms operat-ing overseas. If AAJC decides to edge deeper anddeeper in the field of international education, I trustthe Association will define its aims specifically andtake into serious consideration what ElizabethShiver of the American Council on Education hasencapsulated so well :

"We are learning that the organic approach isessential, that the distribution of emphasis is essen-tial, that organization of the university's resourcesis essential, and that policies to be developed mustinvolve deeply and radically the faculty across theboard; and that they must in turn be integrated withadministrative decision making so that whatever weultimately achieve carries the whole universityforward in its academic program as well as in re-search, teaching, and public service."

206

1

By William L. Irvine

TAKING INVENTORYOF OUR RESOURCESIN INTERNATIONALEDUCATION

From 1964 to 1966 I served as the first region-al education officer for Africa with the newly or-ganized Office of Overseas Schools in the U.S.Department of State.

During four six-week tours of the African con-tinent, I gained firsthand knowledge of the stag-gering needs of the newly independent Africannations. The infinite challenges which confront eachcountry call for some sort of professional adviceand assistance from more advanced countries. ManyAmerican colleges and universities have contractedwith the Agency for International Development toprovide the services of qualified faculty and staffmembers to resolve problems and implement neededprojects in Africa. Similar needs have been identi-fied and fulfilled on other continents.

To recruit qualified specialists has been a con-tinuing problem for our government, private con- 207

tractor, and foundations. It is currently estimatedthat there are some 80,000 faculty members who areemployed in the more than 800 two-year colleges inthis country. How many of these individuals areinterested in international education? How manyof this group are interested in overseas service?How many have had international experience ortraining to provide the needed services?

At least one small New England junior collegehas taken a moment to answer these questions foritself. One hundred-and-thirty-three-year-old Ver-mont College located in Montpelier, Vermont,queried its faculty and found that 42 per cent areinterested in possible overseas assignments. Thisand other similar information useful in the imple-mentation of the International Education Act hasbeen ascertained by an inventory designed and dis-tributed by the president.

The form, as noted below, seeks information ineight major categories ; personal ; prior overseasexperience ; future overseas assignments ; foreignlanguage competency; wife's, availability and back-ground ; ages of children ; health conditions ; andother comments.

Some form of international education inventoryshould be attempted on every two-year college cam-pus. Perhaps the American Association of JuniorColleges could record, compile, and coordinate suchdata for reference as needed by interested govern-ment or private agencies, other organizations, cor-porations, and foundations.

It is recognized that there are many other facetsof international education, including student ex-change programs and international education cur-riculums. Taking inventory seems to be a logicalbeginning step as junior college faculty and staffmembers decide the extent of their interests in inter-national education and formulate plans to activatethese interests.

In discussing this topic with representatives of208 the federal government, foundations, and private

interests, one soon discovers the information gainedfrom such a survey is urgently needed before aserious discussion of available services and humanresources can ensue.

The Vermont College inventory form was origi-nally conceived by the author when he was a CornellUniversity faculty member. The questions wereworded so answers could be recorded on data-proc-essing cards.

Time is now on the side of our two-year juniorcolleges with the lack of funding for the Inteima-tional Education Act and the limited availabilityof government funds for such activities. There istime for personnel in two-year colleges to tool upfor the day when the need and opportunity to t.;up-port international education will become a reality.

Permission is hereby granted to duplicate any orall of the following inventory.

As present chairman of the A.A.J.C. Committeeon International Education, this writer will welcomeinquiry from readers. Address question to: Dr.William L. Irvine, president, Vermont Collage,Schulmaier Hall, Montpelier, Vermont 05602.

VERMONT COLLEGEINTERNATIONAL EDUCATION INVENTORY

A. Personal:1. Name

(Last)

2. Education:School

(First) (Middle )

Degree Major field

3. Present college or university affiliation:

4. Indicate the content areas in which you feel youhave special competence. Then go back and check theareas in which you have a research interest and finallycheck the areas in which you have a service interest. 209

210

Subject Corn- Research Serviceareas petence interest interest

B. Prior overseas experience:1. Indicate number of months spent in each area for the

different circumstances.Personal

Educa- travelAreas Military tional and other

a. Central Americab. South Americac. North Africad. West Africae. East Africaf. South Asiag. Southeast Asiah. Sub-Sahara Africai. Other (please specify)

2. Militarya. Length and branch of serviceb. Countries in which you served and length of service

in each

3. Educationala. Fulbright:

(1) Country or countries visited

(2) Type of experiences

(3) Length of grantb. I.C.A. or A.I.D. contract work:

(1) Country or countries visited

(2) Type of experience

(3) Length and nature of experience

c. Other overseas experience (describe briefly)

4. Personal travela. Country or countries

visited:b. Length of visits in

months:

C. Future overseas assignments:1. Are you interested in overseas assignment work?

YesNo (if not, skip section C and go to section D)

2. Indicate with a check the degree of interest you havein working in each of the following areas.

VeryNo Somewhat much

Area interest interested interesteda. Central Americab. South Americac. North Africad. West Africae. East Africaf. Southeast Asiag. South Asiah. Sub-Sahara Africai. Other (please specify )

3. What is the longest length of time you'd be willing toserve overseas ?a. Less than one yearb. One yearc. Eighteen monthsd. Two years

(1) Staggered(2) Consecutive

4. What month and year will you be eligible for your nextsabbatic

5. What specific year or years would you be willing toserve

D. Foreign language competency:1. Check the languages in which you have some degree

of competency.a. French b. Spanish c. Other (please

specify)2. Foreign language training

a. In high school No. of yrs. b. In college -No. of yrs.language language

211

212

3. Foreign language teaching experienceLanguage taught No. of years Grade level

E. Describe briefly, if your wife is available and interestedin overseas service, her educational training, major fieldof study, and foreign language competency.

F. Ages of children

G. Indicate any special health conditions, problems or dis-eases which would limit your participation to certaingeographical areas, climates, or special types of services.

H. Other comments:.....

1

By W. Merle Hill

WE SHOULD DOMORE ININTERNATIONALEDUCATION

Little attention has been given to the involve-ment of the American junior college in any effectiveinternational education program : foreign languageteaching; native or near-native foreign languageteachers employed ; "civilization" courses offered ;foreign study programs ; teacher exchange pro-grams ; and student exchange programs.

The last two area: are of special interest to meand so, in order to gather information on theseimportant programs, I devised a relatively simplequestionnaire which was distributed to the presi-dents or chief administrators of all two-year col-leges.

The following information was requested :1. Was the college private or public?2. What was the full-time enrollment in 1966-67?3. What foreign languages were taught?4. How many foreign-born or second-generation

modern language teachers were employed? 213

5. Which "civilization" courses, other than thetraditional "western civilization" courses, wereoffered?

6. Were foreign study tours a part of curricularor .extracurricular offerings?

7. How many foreign students have been enrolledduring the past five years, and which countries wererepresented?

8. How many foreign exchange teachers havebeen employed during the past five years?

9. Would the college employ a foreign teacherfor a year on an exchange basis?

10. What salary arrangements could be made fora foreign teacher on an exchange?

11. With which organizations had the collegebeen in contact with regard to international educa-tion programs?

Sources of information: Over 875 questionnaireswere sent out, and nearly 70 per cent of the ques-tionnaires were returned. There were 424 responsesfrom public community colleges and 159 from priv-ate two-year colleges. In addition, thirty unansweredquestionnaires were returned by former two-yearinstitutions that had grown into four-year colleges,by newly formed colleges that will have no studentsuntil 1967, and by two-year branch campuses offour-year institutions that do not consider them-selves junior colleges.

Full-time enrollment: The j unior colleges repre-sented in this study reported September 1966 full-time equivalent enrollments as follows :

Enrollment Number of colleges1- 500 211

501-1,000 1511,001-2,000 1062,001-3,000 433,000- and up 56To open in the future 16

Foreign language courses taught: As might beexpected, the leading languages in regard to thenumber of courses taught were Spanish, French,

214 and German, with Russian a distant fourth.

Offerings in Spanish total 1,791 courses, rangingfrom Spanish I to Spanish XIV. The breakdown ofSpanish courses offered is as follows :

Course title Number of collegesSpanish I 461Spanish II 438Spanish III 330Spanish IV 262Spanish V 103Spanish VI 83Spanish VII 36Spanish VIII 24Spanish IX 17Spanish X 11Spanish XI 7Spanish XII 6Spanish XIII 2Spanish XIV 1

For the offerings in French, the results are asfollows :

Course title Number of collegesFrench I 458French II 427French III 307French IV 244French V 98French VI 73French VII 33French VIII 23French IX 10French X 7French XI 4French XII 3French XIII 1

German, with 1,027 total courses offered, rankedthird.

Course title Number of collegesGerman I 289German II 263German III 178German IV 159German V 59German VI 45German VII 13German VIII 7German IX 4 215

German X 3German XI 2German XII 2German XIII 2German XIV 1

A distant fourth was Russian, with a total of227 courses offered as follows :

Course title Number of collegesRussian I 79Russian II 62Russian III 37Russian IV 26Russian V B

Russian VI 7Russian VII 2Russian VIII 2Russian IX 1

Russian X 1Russian XI 1Russian. XII 1

Other total course offerings were the following:Latin, 153; Italian, 98 ; Greek, 86 ; Japanese, 30 ;Portuguese, 24 ; Chinese, 14 ; and Hebrew, 10.

Some "exotic languages" were also reported. Oneschool teaches five courses in Arabic; another offersthree courses in Ukrainian ; one offers an introduc-tory course in Norwegian ; three offer a beginningcourse in Vietnamese ; nine schools have a beginningcourse in Polish ; one course in Swahili ; one in Swed-ish ; and one in Hindi were mentioned ; a,nd anotherschool offers two courses in Finnish.

Schools offering languages: Of the ].59 privatejunior colleges reporting on languages, only fourteenoffer no language at all. Of the 418 public juniorcolleges reporting on languages, thirty -five offer nolanguage courses. The highest number of languagesoffered at a pri-"ate school was thirteen, and thehighest number of different languages taught at apublic junior college was twelve. The number oflanguages offered at the various institutions is as

216 follows :

Number of differentlanguages taught Public Private

Totalcolleges

0 35 14 491 59 25 842 116 52 1683 124 51 1754 52 8 605 19 6 257 2 0 28 1 0 1

12 1 0 113 0 1 1

Native-born or second-generation modern kin-guage teachers: As might be expected, the numberof native-born or second-generation modern lan-guage teachers employed by junior colleges is rela-tively small. Spanish heads the list with 241 native-born or second-generation teachers. How many ofthis number were refugees from Cuba could not bedetermined. The number of native-born or second-generation modern language teachers employed atthe junior colleges reporting was broken down intothe following languages : Spanish, 241; French, 151;German, 143 ; Russian-Ukrainian, 38; Italian, 30 ;Chinese, 7 ; Japanese, 6 ; Polish, 5 ; Arabic, 1; Portu-guese, 1; Greek, 1; Finnish, 1; Danish, 1.

Civilization courses other than Western Civiliza-tion: Although there has been an ever-increasingattempt on the part of four-year colleges to expandand extend their liberal arts offerings by offeringmore courses in "civilization" areas other than west-ern civilization, the junior colleges surveyed stilloffer relatively few courses that concern themselveswith civilizations other than western civilization.The subject-matter areas and the number of schoolsoffering at least one such course are listed below :

Colleges offering atArea least one courseFar East 69South-Central America 58North American 47Near East 22African 21Russian 12World 8 217

218

Foreign study tours: It is not surprising that thejunior colleges do not have extensive offerings inthe area of foreign study tours. Neither is it sur-prising that study tours to Europe and Mexico orSouth America are practically the only ones offered.European study tours are offered by sixty institu-tions, thirty-four for credit and twenty-six for nocredit. Tours to Mexico or South America are offeredby twenty-two institutions, nine for credit, andthirteen for no credit. Study tours to the Middleor Far East are offered by three institutions, twofor credit, and one for no credit. The only otherstudy tour reported is a no-credit tour to Scandi-navia by one institution.

Foreign students enrolled in junior colleges, 1962-67 : In his article in the February 1967 Junior Col-lege Journal entitled "Where Do Junior Colleges FitIn?" Harold Epstein indicates that the foreign stu-dent participation in the United States has grownfrom 36,000 in 1955-56 to 93,000 in 1965-66 and"has almost doubled in the last five years." Unfor-tunately, he goes on to say, "two-year institutionsenrolled only 4 per cent of the total foreign studentpopulation in the United States" in 1965..66. Of evengreater significance for junior colleges is the factthat only 305 two-year institutions hosted a foreignstudent in that year. The schools included in thisstudy reported over 22,000 foreign students en-rolled between the years 1962 and 1967. The coun-tries represented and the numbers were:

Foreign studentsCountry enrolled 1962-67Iran 2,118Canada 1,384Japan 834Greece 602Mexico 567China 517Cuba 474Colombia 413Thailand 373India 352

Many other countries were represented duringthis period, but the largest numbers of studentscame from the ten countries indicated above. Themajority of the Canadian students and Mexicanstudents were enrolled in those states near the bor-ders of their respective countries ; and the studentsfrom Cuba were to be found, for the most part, injunior colleges in Florida. One midwestern schoolmade no distinction between an out-of-state studentand a foreign student.

Number of exchange teachers, 1962 -67: It appearsthat relatively few junior colleges have been ableto make use of foreign exchange teachers. AlthoughEpstein reports sixty-six foreign scholars at thirty-eight junior colleges in 1965-66, the results of thisstudy are not as good. In the period between 1962-67 only fifty-four foreign exchange teachers werereported, and eleven of these were in English-speaking countries. The countries represented andthe number of exchange teachers teaching at thereporting American junior colleges between theyears 1962-67 are as follows ;

Country Number of teachersArgentina 3Australia 2Austria 2Brazil 1Chile 1England 9France 7Germany 7Holland 2India 4Ireland 1Japan 2Lebanon 2Mexico 1Norway 1Pakistan 1Philippines 3Spain 1Switzerland 1Turkey 1Uruguay 2 219

220

When asked whether they would employ a foreignteacher on an exchange basis, 343 institutions re-ported that they would ; but there were 150 institu-tions who reported that they would not employ aforeign exchange teacher. No reasons for this ap-parent lack of interest were given.

In regard to funds, eighty-six institutions re-ported they could pay a full salary for a foreignexchange teacher, and ninety-four indicated thatthey could supplement any funds received by theforeign exchange teacher from the Fulbright-Haysprogram. Only fifty-four institutions indicated thatthe Fulbright-Hays program would have to pay allof the salary for an exchange teacher. Twelve insti-tutions stated that they could provide some trans-portation for an exchange teacher, and eighty-threesaid they could provide or arrange for housing.

As for the American teaching abroad, 205 schoolsindicated that the Fulbright-Hays program wouldhave to bear the entire cost, while only eighty-sevenindicated that they could supplement the Americanteacher's Fulbright-Hays stipend. In addition,twenty-two institutions indicated the possibility ofproviding some transportation funds for the Amer-ican teacher.

Organizations contacted: Although the collegesreturning the questionnaire reported contact withthirty different organizations regarding interna-tional programs for the exchange of teachers andstudents, three organizations received the bulk ofthe inquiries. The results are the following:

Number of collegesOrganization making inquiryNational Association of

Foreign Student Affairs 51U.S. Office of Education 49Institute of International

Education 41

From the results of this survey, one could per-haps conclude that the American junior college isnot doing much in the area of international educa-tion or international understanding. The survey

points out the following: the problem areas of theworld are, for the most part, being neglected inregard to languages and area studies ; relatively fewforeign exchange teachers have taught at Americanjunior colleges in the past five years ; and fully30 per cent of the schools that replied indicated thatthey would not employ a foreign teacher on an ex-change basis.

Junior Colleges in Other Countries

Probably the greatest impact of the Americanjunior college in international education has beenthat of being a pattern for an alternative for theestablished system of education in Japan. On June17, 1964, the 46th Session of the Imperial Dietpassed the Revision Bill of the School EducationLaw. This law gave accreditation to the many juniorcolleges that had been started as early as 1950. Itwas Walter C. Eells, former higher education officeron General MacArthur's staff, who contributed tothis unique venture in Japanese education. Eellsearned the name of "Father of Japanese junior col-leges," and the 413 accredited Japanese juniorcolleges currently enroll 70,000 students who owe adebt of gratitude to Dr. Eells.

Some so-called underdeveloped countries in theEast and in other areas as well are experimentingwith this singular American contribution to highereducation. Chile, Jordan, and the Philippines arecurrently experimenting; and Ceylon, Kenya, andWales, among others, have demonstrated an interestin it.

Most countries in the world have adopted theireducational systems either from the English, Ger-man, or French systems of education. Since thesesystems were basically systems for education of theelite, relatively few non-European countries have awell-educated or well-trained blue-collar class. Theeducational emphasis in the underdeveloped coun-tries should be, say many experts, on the techno-logical skills so utterly lacking there today; and itis the burgeoning, comprehensive, technologically 221

oriented American junior college that could be atremendous boon to education and to society in thesecountries. Qualified foreign exchange doctoral can-didates should continue their studies at Americanuniversities, but there are thcusands of other youngpeople who need and can benefit from the instruc-tion offered in the occupational and technical pro-grams in our junior colleges.

The following recommendations grow from theapparent lack of involvement of American juniorcolleges in the areas of international education andunderstanding. A concerted effort by the individualjunior colleges, by the American Association ofJunior Colleges, and by the U.S. Office of Educationwill be necessary to improve American junior col-lege offerings in the areas of international educationand understanding.

1. Change the emphasis at the junior collegelevel in foreign language learning to those languagesthat are becoming increasingly important in today'scomplex and polycultured world : Russian, Chinese,Portuguese, Hindi, Swahili, and Arabic.

2. Under Title VI, set up area and languagecenters for junior college personnel to encourageconcentrated study of the areas of immediate andfuture concern to the welfare of the United Statesand of the world: Asia, Africa, and South America.

3. Bring hundreds more foreign exchange stu-dents from South America, Asia, and Africa tolearn semiprofessional and technological skills atAmerican junior colleges.

4. Send many more American junior collegeteachers abroad and bring foreign teachers to ourcommunity colleges. Whenever possible, encouragedirect teacher exchanges (names of qualified foreignteachers can be obtained from the Office of Educa-tion) and direct student exchanges.

5. Utilize the khow-how of American junior col-lege leaders to set up experimental junior colleges inforeign countries. Forget, for the time being, the

222 tremendous injections of aid to the traditional for-

eign university systems and utilize these funds totrain in experimental junior colleges semiprofes-sional groups in whose hands the futures of theircountries will lie.

6. Have an official from the Office of Educationact as liaison in the areas of international educa-tion and understanding with the AAJC Committeeon International Education.

At the February 1966 AAJC meeting on interna-tional education in the junior college, a questionposed by Walter Garcia, then president of ModestoJunior College and now president of Rio HondoJunior College in California, was answered in thenegative. The question was : "Is the junior collegemovement, at this eleventh hour, in a posture thatwill permit it to participate fully in this newthrust?" It is now eighteen months past that eleveno'clock hour, and the posture is not yet much im-proved. It is imperative for all concerned with in-ternational affairs to seek to improve our posture,and it is incumbent upon the Office of Education andthe American Association of Junior Colleges to seeto it that junior colleges do their part by playingthe role for which they are so uniquely qualified.

223

By Donald E. Deyo

EDUCATORS FROMABROAD: WELCOME!

Assume a foreign educator wished to visit thiscountry to learn about the community junior college.

How should he proceed ?What ought he to see ?With whom should he talk?First he should be briefed on the purpose of higher

education in the United States and the role of thejunior college as part of higher education.

Significant, too, would be the American concept ofthe role of education. We believe it to be inherentin a democracy that its effectiveness, indeed its sur-vival, depends upon an educated citizenry and thatevery citizen, therefore, has the right of access toeducation which will permit him to fulfill his poten-tial and his interests. Higher education is the cap-stone of this opportunity.

Among all the characteristics of higher education,224 two should be mentioned specifically : diversity and

quality. Our system is diverse, representing manykinds, types, levels, and systems of control. Ourcolleges and universities are large and small, publicand private, general and specialized. Each has itsplace and purpose in the total fabric of higher edu-cation. Each category respects the other for its con-tribution to the total of educational services. Andeach institution strives to maintain the higheststandards of quality in order to justify the confi-dence of the people and of other sectors of highereducation.Community College Concepts

One of these categories is the junior college. Itis a unique kind of higher education, not in its in-dividual characteristics, but in the totality of thesecharacteristics. It "democratizes" higher educationin that it brings a large variety of educational serv-ices close to the people in their own communitiesand at very low cost. Ordinarily it represents twoyears of post-secondary education although theremay be individual curriculums less or more than thislength. It is predominantly a public institution al-though there are many fine private ones. Everygeneralization about the community junior collegehas its exceptions and this fact alone makes it diffi-cult to understand.

Typically, as the descriptive name implies, thecommunity junior college is intended to serve thehigher educational needs of its community or regionand to be responsive to changes in those needs. Itspurpose is to serve the needs of the youth and adultsof the community on the one hand, and the needs ofbusiness, industry, and government on the other. Todo this it maintains an open door admissions policy,but the "openness" of the door may range from astatutory requirement to admit all who are highschool graduates or are over age eighteen to admit-ting only those who are "qualified," however thatmay be defined.

Such a generous admissions policy results in thecollege serving a broad segment of the total popula-tion as measured by talent, capacity, interests, apti- 225

tudes, and needs, and carries with it two unavoidableimplications. The first of these is that the collegemust have a strong program of student personnelservices to assist the student to a realistic self-ap-praisal and cnoice of educational objective. Thesecond is that the college must have a broad programto serve the diverse needs of its clientele. This meansthat almost by definition the community junior col-lege is a comprehensive, multipurpose institution.

A Multipurpose Institution

What are these multipurposes? Authorities nowgenerally limit them to five : occupational education,college (or university) transfer education, generaleducation, guidance and counseling, and communityservices.

The first of these purposes, broadly defined, isintended to provide two years of post-secondary edu-cation leading directly, without additional formaleducation, to full-time employment. The local col-lege's program of offerings will be designed pri-marily, but not exclusively, to meet the needs ofbusiness, industry, and government in the collegeservice area. Transfer curriculums, as the nameimplies, are the first two years of typical four-yearbaccalaureate curriculums and are designed for stu-dents who intend to transfer to senior institutions tocomplete bachelor's degrees.

The general education function of the communityjunior college is really a three-phase concept : all ormost of the courses in transfer curriculums are gen-eral education ; there are terminal two-year generaleducation curriculums for those students who wishadditional education beyond the high school but whodo not have an occupational objective ; and eachoccupational curriculum contains a significantamount of instruction aimed at enhancing the social,economic, civic, and personal-living competencies ofthose enrolled in these curriculums. This latter is apoint of particular significance in community collegephilosophy and one which frequently distinguishes

226 the community junior college from the technical in-

stitute, business schools, and other specialized post-secondary institutions.

The importance of the guidance and counselingfunction has already been alluded to. If the com-munity junior college is to be a comprehensive, mul-tipurpose institution with an unrestrictive admis-sions policy, it simply cannot fulfill its responsibili-ties without strong student personnel services tohelp the individual members of its diverse studentpopulation in charting their educational and occu-pational goals.

Community services is a broad function of thecommunity junior college. Generally it refers toadult and continuing education, but many other so-cial, cultural, and economic services come within thepurview of this function. As a community-orientedinstitution, the college will be alert to communityneeds and respond to them within the limits of itsresources.Itinerary and Time

An educator from abroad visiting American com-munity junior colleges should keep these functionsin mind, looking sharply to see how each college in-corporates each function into its total program.He will note that the programs of no two collegeswill be exactly alike. Programs will differ from col-lege to college, based on the different needs and re-sources of the communities and on the interpretationof these into educational programs, by the colleges'boards of control, administration, and faculties.

Also, he will note that the concept of the com-munity junior college will differ by states and byregions. For this reason his itinerary must be na-tionwide and it should be planned to include at leastNew York, Florida, and California as representativesamples of regional differences. If time permits itwould be well to add Illinois, Michigan, and Texas.

On the subject of time, it should be pointed outthat our visitor cannot hope to get even a cursoryoverview of community junior colleges on a nation-wide basis in less than two weeks; a month or twowould be much better. ', 227

Much can be learned from looking and seeing.More can be learned from talking. In every collegeour visitor should talk with the president and otheradministrators and, whenever possible, he shouldchat with representative members of the faculty.F-om these he will obtain individual concepts of theplace and responsibilities of the local college. Heshould plan when in the vicinity of state capitols tovisit with state directors of community junior col-leges. He should plan to interview professors ofcommunity junior college education. in some of ouruniversities. Finally and specifically he should sched-ule a stop in Washington, D.C., to talk with staffmembers of the American Association of Junior Col-leges, the professional organization which speaks forcommunity junior colleges in this country.

Places to Go, Things to See

An itinerary might be organized atround a limitednumber of metropolitan centers such as New YorkCity, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Miami, Cleveland,St. Louis, Detroit, Chicago, and Seattle. Each hasor is near to examples of large urban communityjunior colleges. Transportation be tw een cities iseasy and the cities can be used as bases from whichto schedule visits to suburban colleges, private col-leges, and institutions in rural or smaller urbansettings. Also there is convenient .access to statedirectors and university professors concerned withjunior college education.

Since virtually every community junior collegewill offer liberal arts and some preprofessional cur-riculums as its college parallel or transfer program,these can be observed in any colleges selected. It issuggested therefore, that in making up a list ofinstitutions to be visited emphasis be given to thosewhich concentrate on and have earned reputationsfor comprehensive offeringsthat is, strong occupa-tional education curriculums as well as transfer cur-riculums. Among the colleges with good occupa-tional programs there will be wide divergence of

228 kinds, levels, and objectives and care should be exer-

cised to schedule a representative variety of institu-tions. One thing to look for would be those collegeswhich have "co-operative" or work-study programs.

Naturally, the visitor from abroad will be curiousabout all aspects of colleges on his itinerary. But itmight be well to single out some items of particularimportance. First of these would be classroom teach-ing. Who are the faculty? What are their back-grounds? What are their teaching objectives? Howdo they teachwhat methods, techniques and in-structional devices do they use? How, and to whatextent, are they incorporating the college's libraryresources and modern classroom equipment intotheir teaching?

Another item to be observed is the organizationof administration and supervision. Why is the col-lege organized and administered as it is? Does theorganization seem to aid or hinder the achievementof the college's objectives? What is the college doingin institutional research? What does it know aboutitself as an institution and about its clientele?

An extremely important aspect of the college'stotal program is its student personnel services. Is ita collection of services or an integrated program?In addition to guidance and counseling, are suchservices as admissions, student health and welfare,student activities, and placement included? Whatseem to be the relationships between student person-nel services and the academic and administrativesides of the college?

What is the nature of the curriculum? What fieldsare offered? Are these compatible with the needs ofthe students and the community, with the size, re-sources and objectives of the college? How is cur-riculum developed and who does it; is the facultyinvolved?Each Visit a Special Case

Finally, there is the matter of physical plant.Good education can and does go on in less than idealphysical surroundings ; also excellence of physicalplant does not necessarily imply excellence of the 229

instructional program. But certainly there is a rela-tionship between them. The physical plant is partof the institution's interpretation of its mission. Tosimplify the matter perhaps the list of things to lookfor could be reduced to three items : the nature of theclassrooms, libraries, and shops and laboratories.Why are they constructed as they are? Do they pro-vide the space and equipment to help toward thefulfillment of the curriculums and college objectives?

These suggestions obviously should not be applieduniformly for every visit by an educator from an-other country. Each will have a different frame ofreference according to educational customs and or-ganization in his own country. Each will come witha different background of understanding of theAmerican community junior colleges, and each willhave different objectives for his visit. Perhaps, andhopefully, some of these ideas will be useful.

230

By John J. Connolly

INTERNATIONALSTUDENTS AND THEJUNIOR COLLEGE

The history of the foreign student movement inthe United States is long, confused, and indeliblymarked by poor educational philosophy and planning.

The current trend, and numbers, of foreign (oras they are now properly called "international" stu-dents) began with the Good Neighbor Policy in thelate 1930's and early 1940's. During this period thefederal government encouraged Latin-Americanstudents to come to this country to study. Then,when World War II raged and many European uni-versities were closed as a result, the influx of Euro-pean students began. Little thought was given tothe type of education best suited to the needs of thestudent and his country by either government.Miraculously, though, many students and the pro-gram itself prospered.

Ease of travel, liberal grants and scholarships,and the broad range of technical skills attainable 231

232

have led a multitude of. European, Asian, and LatinAmerican students to that great utopia of educa-tionthe United States. In fact, the enrollment ofinternational students in this country increased by300 per cent between 1930 and 1953, while duringthe same period American enrollment increased 100per cent !' These figures are, of course, relative. Ac-tually international students constitute only a smallpercentage of student enrollment; but the trend isclearthe opportunity is available and is beingutilized.

But opportunity for what ? The outcome of astudent's educational sojourn must be measured inlight of the objectives or goals of his visit. However,these are not easily qualified. The student may haveset certain goalswhich will vary from student tostudentbut the school, his home country, and theUnited States government may have formulated dif-ferent, and conflicting, goals.

Our government, for example, is understandablyinterested in developing an appreciation of theUnited States in all who study here ; and in havingthe students carry this appreciation back to thepeople of their own country.

The student's home country, by comparison, isinterested in his learning skills beneficial to the wel-fare of his nationand returning with them.

The college may hope to broaden the outlook ofits students, gain prestige, or aid the federalgovernment.

To many of the American public the goal may beuniversal understanding and the achieving of peace;and yet to others, it might be total assimilation.

For the student the goals may range from travel,curiosity, and adventure ; to the opportunity to learnnew skills, or possibly to marry an American. Toothers it may simply be lack of opportunity in theirown country.

In any case, no matter how sincere and intelligentthe student ; and no matter ,how prepared he andthe college may be, the problems encountered aremyriad. Adjustment to a new culture, and often

an unmaBtered language is difficult; housing may Dea problem, as may conflicting social mores. The fe.4-ing of alienation, the lack of social contact, and theprevalent conflict between reality and expectatio nsis many times of traumatic proportions. Often t heresult is complete disillusionment with the Unit edStates, the school, and oneself.2 The student it ayreturn to his country with ambivalent or even hostilefeelings about his visit. Or, perhaps even more ds-concerting, he may return "Americanized," unableor unwilling to adjust to his old environment.Consider a New Vehicle

This bleak picture, although many times not E. c-curate, is nonetheless a common enough occurrem3eto consider the addition of a new vehicle to tho3epresently bearing the burden for the education )finternational students. This vehicle, seldom utilizedand yet ingeniously suited to the task, is the juniorcollege. While having all of the advantages of :afour-year institution for the international studer t,it lacks many of the disadvantages.

For example, the problem of Americanizatio nfaced by many students is greatly decreased mere:ybecause of the time factor : four or five years havin4a greater assimilative effect than two. The lengthof the visit is also a prominant factor in the student'sattitude toward the United States when he returnshome. The following chart 3 illustrates that the fav-orableness of attitude toward the United States of astudent visiting for a two-year period is almost equalto that of a student who remains for four years; itis definitely superior to any period exceeding thefour-year limitwhich many international studentsmust exceed to attain the bachelor's degree.

Length of Stag High FavorablenessMonths Per Cent

0- 910 - 1920 - 2930 - 3940 - 4950 and over

624554535747 233

In the Changing Image of America George C.Coelho 4 formulates an interesting guideline forstudy abroad : "If you live in a country three months,you love it; if you live in it for a year you hate it; ifyou live in it two years, you are used to it."

An Appropriate Kind of Education

Another problem directly associated with the typeof education most international students are obtain-ing in this country is the utilization of this educationto its maximum potential. Most foreign countriessuffer no real dearth of scholars, but of technicians.And yet few of the foreign students returning fromthe United States possess technical skills of any type,except possibly the professional skills in science andmedicine. In fact, fewer than 10 per cent will everwork full time in the field in which they weretrained. It would therefore seem to be a naturalconclusion to offer these students the level of train-ing and variety of skills which would enable themnot only to contribute functionally to their society,but which would also avoid the frustrations createdby placing a trained person in a position whichdenies him the opportunity to develop his skills.

The many technical programs offered in juniorcolleges are ideally suited to this purpose. The broadrange of curriculums offered are, for the most part,designed to produce the middle management andtechnically trained personnel of which many under-developed countries are in desperate need.

Another offering of the two-year college, whichmay or may not be found in a larger four-year insti-tution is the close association with students, faculty,and community which inescapably evolves as the re-sult of a small, contiguous population. Franklin D.Scott,5 in his experience with Swedish students, hasfound that the more closely a student has lived withAmericans the more pleasant his trip is in retrospect.Dormitory facilities are not found in most two-yearschools; therefore, the possibility of an "interna-tional house" comprised entirely of foreign students,

234 and greatly limiting their interaction with Ameri-

cans is removed. The most prevalent type of housingavailable to students in community and junior col-leges is the rooming house, or residence with anAmerican family. To most college students the dor-mitory is the preferable alternative. However, tothe international student, who may have differenthousing needs, and who may have different goalsassociated with housing (including familiarity withthe people who inhabit the country in which he isspending a portion of his life) the last choice may bethe most attractive.

Another aspect of the international student is thevalue which he possesses for both the school and thecommunity. One objective for international educa-tion attributed to four-year institutions is its broad-ening effect on the student body of the institution.I would suggest that this broadening effect, if per-tinent to a large institution with a diversified stu-dent body, would be more important to an educa-tional unit with a student population which issmaller, less diversified, and often lacking contactwith other cultures. Many of our junior collegesmay draw from a certain "parish," but parochialismis a state of mind we should actively combat.

In extending our educational system to the inter-national student we should consider the followingbasic objectives :

1. To offer him an education suitable to the oppor-tunities available in his home country

2. To be certain that the opportunity exists toknow Americans on more than a casual basis

3. To allow adequate time for completion of hiseducational goals

4. Not to attempt proselytization, either pur-posely or by retaining him for an extended periodof time.

The role played thus far by the two-year institu-tion in the exchange of international students hasbeen a minor one. Part of the responsibility belongsto history, as we are a relatively new educationalforce; and part belongs to us, for not offering our- 235

236

selves to this area of education. By involving our-selves with the agencies concerned, and directingourselves to this task, we may soon add another tothe growing list of educational services offered byour institutions.1

1 Dubois, Cora. Foreign Students and Higher Educa-tion in the United States. Washington: The AmericanCouncil on Education, 1956.

Morris, Richard T. The Two Way Mirror. Minne-apolis: The Universityof Minnesota Press, 1960.

3 Unseem, John and Unseem, Ruth Hall. The WesternEducated Man in India: A Study of His Social Roles andInfluence. New York: The Dryden Press, 1955.

4 Coelho, George C. Changing Image of America. Glen-coe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1958.

Scott, Franklin D. American Experience of SwedishStudents. Minneapolis: The University of MinnesotaPress.

By F. George Elliott

THE DILEMMA OFFOREIGN STUDENTADMISSIONS

Among institutions of American higher education,the public junior colleges have reported a particu-larly sharp increase in foreign student enrollmentsover the last decade. Although junior college sta-tistics are incomplete, available data indicate thatincreases in two-year institutions have more thankept pace with four-year college and universityincreases. In California, for example, the juniorcollege system has accounted for approximately 15per cent of the exchange population in the state overthe past three years.

A number of factors have contributed to theincreasing enrollment of foreign students at thejunior college level : (a) The junior college mayoffer specialized training in a two-year programwhich is more suited to the particular needs of theforeign student. (b) The foreign student may notbe eligible immediately for admission to a four-year 237

institution. (c) Exchange students may be attractedsometimes by the lower fees in the two-year collegesor in some cases, by the tuition-free policy of the col-leges. (d) Some visiting students may choose thejunior college on the basis of geographic location,either because the college is located in one of thelarge metropolitan centers or because he has friendsor relatives in the area. (e) The less stringentadmission requirements of some junior colleges maybe more appealing to certain foreign students.

It even has been suggested that junior collegesmay be especially appealing to some foreign stu-dents whose American study is largely intended asa means of circumventing immigration quotas. Stu-dent visas are obtained with relative ease, and thisprovides the opportunity to establish permanentresidence through other means.

A number of foundations and profemional groupshave recognized the need to assist the communitycolleges in establishing effective foreign student pro-grams. Among the more active organizations arethe National Association for Foreign Student Affairs,the College Entrance Examination Board, and theInstitute of International Education. Within a widerange of activities, these groups have been instru-mental in organizing regional conferences and work-shops focusing on the foreign student in the com-munity college. The growing foreign student popu-lation in California junior colleges has also producedan important advisory body at the state leveltheCommittee on International Education of the Cali-fornia Junior College Association. In addition tosponsoring local conferences and compiling and dis-tributing resource materials, the committee spear-headed a recent study of foreign student programsin California public junior colleges.1 The recom-mendations of the study, concerning the role of thejunior college and the effective discharge of this rolein respect to handling foreign students, have beenendorsed by the Committee on International Edu-

238 cation.

The Study

The in-depth study of seven California junior col-leges included an examination of admission policiesand practices of the cooperating institutions. Theselection of applicants is one of the most difficultaspects of administering a visa program at thejunior college level. Processing foreign studentapplications, accompanied by credentials from themany different educational systems of the world,places a heavy strain on the admissions staff of mosttwo-year colleges. It is a highly skilled area of eval-uation and one in which most junior colleges havehad only limited experience. The participating col-leges, no doubt, reflect to a considerable extent theproblems faced by junior colleges throughout thenation in establishing guidelines.

Central to the problem is the development of gen-eral criteria for admitting foreign students. Estab-lished guidelines generally reflect, in part at least,the philosophy of the individual institution in sup-porting a foreign student program and the resourcesthe college is able to marshal in order to provide thespecial services required in an effective program.If an institution views foreign exchange as fallingwithin the widely accepted functions of the two-yearcollege, the administration may accept a broadercross-section of the less able foreign student appli-cants.2 On the other hand, if the acceptance offoreign students is held to be outside the regularfunctions of the junior college, an institution maywish to impose highly selective policies of admissionand limit enrollment of visa students to those witha high verbal and academic ability.

General requirements for admission: General re-quirements for admission varied somewhat in theseven junior colleges studied. The three most selec-tive institutions required a candidate to have com-pleted academic work equivalent to graduation froman accredited high school and an achievement recordwhich places the individual in the upper one-thirdof his class. Three other colleges accepted students 239

with the equivalence of high school graduation butmade no reference to class standing. A :;ingle j uniorcollege admitted foreign students under the regularcollege admission requirements, in which case ap-plicants may be high school graduates or adultseighteen years of age or over. General requirementsfor admission, to a large extent, reflected how aninstitution viewed the functions of the two-year col-lege and the philosophy of the individual institutionin supporting a foreign student program.

Transfers from other American colleges: Thestudy showed that the junior colleges either refusedto consider applicants wishing to transfer fromother American colleges or by conditions of admis-sion, made it almost impossible to gain entrance.While recognizing the need to control the admis-sion of transfers, the present policies often workedto the disadvantage of the colleges. Among transferstudents, there are obviously those who have proventhemselves on the American college scene and forthis reason, are desirable candidates. The admis-sion of transfer students may also assist the admini-strators of the program in maintaining an acceptablenational balance in the campus foreign studentpopulation. It is therefore recommended that juniorcolleges now denying admission to transfer appli-cants accept candidates in this category but controlthe numbers admitted by quota or a combination ofquota and academic requirements.

Foreign student quotas: Five of the seven col-leges in the study had established a maximumpercentage enrollment on foreign student admis-sions. Within this group, four institutions set theenrollment figure at 2 per cent of the full-timeenrollment; the fifth college stipulated 3 per centbut preferred to maintain an enrollment closerto the 2 per cent level. Since none of the schoolswith quotas had reached the proposed maximums,the quota system does not appear to have workedto the disadvantage of the exchange student.

240 Establishing national balances within college for-

eign student populations, however, has posed a prob-lem in three of the junior colleges. These institutionswere found to be exercising arbitrary quotas on theadmission of certain nationalities ; a fourth schoolhad such a protective regulation but had not foundit necessary to make use of it. It was generallyagreed by program directors in the surveyed collegesthat a foreign exchange program should not serveprimarily the educational needs of one or two na-tional groups to the exclusion of others. Whereasthe principle of maintaining a wide national repre-sentation among the foreign population is defensi-ble, some of the methods employed by the juniorcolleges in the study to achieve this balance were notThe recommendation of the study is that unless addi-tional funding for foreign exchange programs isforthcoming from the state or federal governments,junior colleges might well limit foreign studentenrollments to a maximum of 2 per cent of full-timeenrollment. Furthermore, colleges faced with theproblem of achieving national balances in the pro-gram should resort to establishing a maximumpercentage quota not to be exceeded by any onenationality.

Student visa versus visitor visa: Five collegesin the study legislated against admitting studentswho have entered the United States on visitor visas.Widespread acceptance of foreign students fromamong the foreign nationals already in the UnitedStates on visitor visas could encourage prospec-tive students to come to the United States beforegaining entrance to a college. Those candidateswho fail to gain entrance to a college and areforced to return home disappointed are not likely toenhance the image of the United States abroad.Therefore, it is recommended that all junior collegesadopt the policy of denying admission to foreignapplicants holding visitor visas and admit only thoseapplicants who enter the United States under theprescribed sections of the Immigration and Nation-ality Act for the purpose of pursuing a course ofstudy. 241

Advanced standing admissions: Admissions offi-cers interviewed generally favored the exclusion offoreign student applicants with advanced or gradu-ate standing from a foreign college or university. Agood case, however, can be made for the admis-sion of a visa student wishing to upgrade hisacademic standing, fulfill specific senior collegerequirements, or improve his English usage. Suchan opportunity is widely recognized as one ofthe functions of the junior college. It is recom-mended that junior colleges admit a visa studentwith advanced standing from a foreign university,provided the student can satisfy the admissionsoffice that his educational goal in the United Statesis enhanced by further preparation at the juniorcollege level.

Establishing financial responsibility: Methods ofestablishing financial support reflected varying de-grees of responsibility on the part of the collegeadministrations. Four of the colleges required onlythe completion of the declaration on the Certifi-cate of Eligibility issued by the admissions offices.Two schools additionally demanded a statementof support by the American sponsor of the visastudent. One institution insisted on further evidenceand required all foreign students to file with theadmissions office a statement of financial responsi-bility certified by a bank or financial agency. In gen-eral, institutions which viewed the establishment offinancial support as the prime responsibility of theDepartment of Immigration tended to be more lib-eral in their requirements. According to the Immi-gration and Naturalization Service, applicants mustsatisfy the American Consul that the necessaryfunds are available. At the port of entry, the respon-sibility for the student's financial independenceshifts to the immigration authorities. Since theschool has no direct responsibility in the matterfrom this point, it is recommended that junior col-leges simplify admission procedures by limitingproof of financial responsibility to the declaration

242 by the student on the Certificate of Eligibility.

Health certification: Six of the seven junior col-leges surveyed insisted on a health certificate as partof the general admission requirements of visa stu-dents. Three of the schools referred the applicants tothe district health office at the time of enrollment forverification of the overseas examination. Althoughhealth certification, like financial responsibility, re-mains the basic concern of the Immigration andNaturalization Service, the college follow-up exami-nation works no hardship on the exchange student.More important is the matter of health and accidentinsurance. Only two of the schools in the study re-quired entering foreign students to subscribe to suchinsurance. Medical costs in the United States aresuch that an illness or accident might well depletean exchange student's finances to the point that tocontinue his study in the United States might be im-possible. It is therefore recommended that collegesrequire foreign students to obtain health and ac-cident insurance and that it be a condition of con-tinuing enrollment.

Transcripts and testing: The evaluation of foreignstudent transcripts was found to be limited largelyto establishing whether the candidates meet the mini-mal requirements for admission. For the most part,evaluations were handled at the local campus level,with only an occasional use of outside agencies. Allthe schools reported using, on occasion, the servicesof the large universities, but this was more often foran evaluation of credits for advanced standing thanfor admission purposes.

Two junior colleges were making use of overseasagencies for preliminary evaluations. The juniorcollege with the largest foreign student populationwas found to be moving toward the use of aptitudetests in the selection of applicants and placing lessemphasis on transcripts of past achievement.

With the exception of the one junior college, pre-admission testing of foreign students was limitedto an English language-proficiency examination. Asingle college also required, when possible, the Col- 243

lege Entrance Examination Board aptitude test.Institutional practices in establishing language com-petency of applicants varied widely. Four schoolsrelied upon tha subjective evaluations and tests ad-ministered by the American Consulates ; two collegesspecified the use of the Test of English as a ForeignLanguage (T.O.E.F.L.) in countries where it wasavailable ; and one school required a satisfactoryscore on the Michigan Language Test. There areobvious advantages to requiring a particular test ofall applicants. The growing number of overseastest centers now make it possible to require any oneof several good language tests. It is the recom-mendation of the study that all junior colleges adopta specific diagnostic language test and that collegeadmissions officers give serious consideration to theselection of the T.O.E.F.L. test.

Wide Variance of Standards

The study revealed rather wide variance of stand-ards in the admission of foreign students in theseven junior colleges. The larger institutions weremaking serious efforts to develop more realistic andequitable standards o f. admission ; however, therehas been no organized effort by the junior collegesto establish comm3n admission policies or to ex-change admission information with other schoolsin the area, nor have the administrative officers in-terviewed expressed serious interest in cooperationof this nature. Intercollegiate cooperation has beenlimited to informal discussions of foreign studentproblems at occasional professional conferences.

The junior college is likely to play an increasinglyimportant role in foreign exchange programs ofAmerican higher education. The multipurpose func-tion of the two-year college should serve the needsof the foreign student studying in the United Statesmuch as it has provided for increasing numbers ofAmerican students over the past decade. The chal-

244 lenge remains to identify and direct those foreign

students who have a need for the specialized train-ing and services offered by the two-year institutions.

1 Elliott, F. George. "Foreign Student Programs inSelected Public California Junior Colleges" (unpublisheddoctoral dissertation). Los Angeles : University of Cali-fornia, 1967.

2 See purposes of the public junior college in The PublicJunior College, Fifty-Fifth Yearbook of the NationalSociety for the Study of Education. Chicago: Universityof Chicago Press, 1956. p. 69.

245

By Clive L. Grafton

FOREIGN STUDENTPATTERNS INAMERICANCOMMUNITYCOLLEGES

The scope of United States community college in-volvement in international education has beenlargely unknowna circumstance that exists in anage of expanding two-year college enrollment, in-creasing numbers of campuses, and an ever enlarg-ing role for this unique type of institution. A muchneeded look at the American community college andits foreign student patterns has been made possiblethrough a survey released through the NationalAssociation for Foreign Student Affairs. The sur-vey questionnaire was distributed in 1967 by Doug-las E. Matthewson, Jr. (Miami-Dade Junior Col-lege, Florida), at that time chairman of NAFSA'sJunior College Committee.

Eight Patterns

Nearly 70 per cent of the nation's community246 colleges, both public and private, responded to all

or parts of the questionnaire. Emerging from thestudy were eight distinct patterns for foreign stu-dent enrollment, programs, and practices.

1. Community colleges enroll few foreign stu-dents: American community colleges enrolled 4.2per cent of the little more than 100,000 foreign stu-dents enrolled in higher education in the UnitedStates. With only the undergraduate population,however, the two-year college doubles its percentageof international enrollment.

2. Three states lead the way: More than half(53.8 per cent) of the reported enrollment of for-eign students in American junior colleges wasfound to be in three states : California, Michigan,and Illinois. This nearly parallels the pattern offoreign student enrollment in senior colleges anduniversities.

3. Foreign students are full-time and transfer:Foreign students enrolled in community colleges werein transfer programs in eight out of ten instances.Nine out of every ten foreign students were attend-ing classes full time.

4. Few colleges have special procedures for for-eign students: By and large, procedures of admis-sion, orientation, and advisement were designatedthe same for foreign students as for regularly en-rolled students. Major problem areas were ex-pressed over financial status and English pro-ficiency. Practices vary widely among the nation'stwo-year institutions in working with these areas.

5. Most foreign students pay tuition: Public orprivate status of the particular two-year campusdid not seem to affect the fact that 94.1 per cent ofthe reporting institutions charge some form of tui-tion to foreign students. Financial aid to foreignstudents was indicated in a third of the institutions ;this was evaluated as minimal assistance and mostlyin the form of loans.

6. Few campuses have quota systems: Few com-munity colleges indicated that there were estab-lished quota systems governing admission of foreignstudents. The pattern of geographical origin of 247

foreign students in two-year institutions correlatesclosely with the undergraduate foreign student cen-sus in all institutions of higher learning. Campuseswithout foreign students currently enrolled indi-cated that they generally would not accept morethan a total of fifty, however.

7. Few special English programs exist for foreignstudents: Only a handful of American communitycolleges offer special English classes for foreign stu-dents. There was, however, a formal effort reportedby most institutions to bring foreign students intosome type of regular contact with other membersof the student body and community.

8. Community colleges like foreign students:Nearly all the community colleges reporting foreignstudent enrollment indicated that the experience isgratifying for both the campus and the visitor. Inspite of this feeling, only a handful of two-yearcolleges planned to alter current practicesandeven fewer considered expanding foreign studentenrollment. Support for foreign students on cam-puses was centered primarily with the administra-tion, faculty, and students. The least approving andencouraging were state authorities. Campuses re-ported that "cultural exchange" and "broadeningstudent thinking" were the primary advantages ofhaving foreign students in attendance.

Generalizations

Some generalizations can be drawn from thestudy. It appears that community college foreignstudent enrollments and practices are based, pri-marily, on what the. senior institutions are doing.Foreign students tend to be drawn to junior collegesnear senior colleges and universities to which theyintend to transfer. Hence, there is a clustering effectin certain key states where the senior institutionshave heavy foreign student enrollments. To accom-modate increased admissions of foreign students,community colleges will have to expand existing

248 practices in financial assistance, language training,

and advisement. Since the foreign student is essen-tially transfer oriented, the recruitment of studentsfor other goals of community college training wouldconstitute a major shift in emphasis from currenttrends.

249

By William Leader

F.I.T. SERVING THEWORLD COMMUNITY

The Fashion Institute of Technology (F.I.T.) isperhaps unique among community colleges of thenation in that the community which it serves is anindustry rather than a geographical area. ThoughF.I.T. is organized as a public two-year college underthe program of the State University of New Yorkand receives sponsorship from the City of New York,its service to the soft goods industry has no bound-aries. In the twenty-five years of its existence, thecollege has welcomed students from throughout theU.S. and from all parts of the world.

At present, the F.I.T. student body of approxi-mately 2,000 full-time, day-school students, includes3 to 4 per cent from countries outside of the U.S.These students come from Brazil, Canada, Finland,Germany, Greece, Holland, Hong Kong, India, Iran,Ireland, Israel, Jamaica (W.I.) , Japan, Panama,

250 Philippines, South Africa, Syria, Turkey, Venezuela,.

and West Pakistan. They follow one of the college'sprograms, majoring in fashion design, managementengineering, textile administration and sales, in-terior design, fashion illustration, textile design,photography, display, or fashion buying and mer-chandising.

Many of the students come with previous collegework; several have earned degrees from four-yearcolleges and universities. Their purpose in attend-ing F.I.T. is to receive the highly specialized type ofprogram offered at the college in order to find place-ment opportunities in the fashion industries. Thesestudents generally will have completed their, liberalarts courses before entering F.I.T. ; by then com-pleting a specially selected series of technicalcourses, they may fulfill the requirements for theassociate degree in one year. A large number of theforeign students fall into this category of "one-year students."

The education of foreign students is only oneaspect of F.I.T.'s role in the international com-munity. In addition, the school supports involve-ment by members of the social science faculty indialogs sponsored by the State University of NewYork Program of International Studies and WorldAffairs ; offerings of courses such as Introductionto World Affairs and The Far East in the ModernWorld ; sponsorship of a college "Cosmopolitan Club"where foreign students serve as hosts to studentsfrom other countries and cultures.; and other suchactivities.

F.I.T. also has been involved directly with officialgovernment agencies and business concerns through-out the worldunusual for a community college. Inthe following paragraphs, some of the specifics ofthis involvement will be enumerated.

During the summer of 1959, F.I.T. was invitedto participate in the American Industries FashionPresentation in Moscow. Several F.I.T. studentsand faculty spent the summer in this Russian citywhere each day they presented a showing of typicalAmerican fashions. A similar program was under- 251

252

taken at the International Clothing Exhibition inMoscow during the summer of 1967. In conjunctionwith the 1967 show, similar presentations weremade in Warsaw and in Prague. Both programsoffered an excellent opportunity for F.I.T. studentsto receive firsthand experiences in the Communistworld and for American fashion to be brought tothe people of the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, andPoland.

F.I.T. currently has undertaken a program in con-junction with the College of Distributive Trades inLondon, England. A group of F.I.T. students willbe enrolled in the London college during the fallsemester 1969 for a semester abroad. They will beregistered for a full-time academic program of one-semester credit and carry courses in fashion mer-chandising studies, communications and human re-lations, and/or administration and/or supervisoryskills, market research, and advertising design orcopywriting. The college plans to continue this pro-gram each semester and work toward an exchangewhere students and perhaps faculty from both col-leges will spend a semester on each others campus.Alfred V. Sloan of the F.I.T. business division isserving as coordinator of this program.

In a much more direct fashion, F.I.T. faculty haveparticipated in the development of educational pro-grams, served as consultants to industrial develop-ment projects, and provided extensive technicaladvice to various countries throughout the world.

Requests for Technical Assistance

Projects conducted in Mexico in 1961 and 1962,and visits from various Latin-American representa-tives to the institute have resulted in numerous re-quests for technical assistance from these countries.These requests specified that assistance was neededin the textile, apparel, and merchandising fields, andparticularly with regard to education for these fields.Urgency was indicated ; thus, under the sponsorshipof the Agency for International Development(A.I.D.), a team of experts from the F.I.T. faculty

was sent to Central and South America. Its rolewas to investigate the status of the textile andapparel industry and to suggest ways and means ofaccelerating the education of personnel needed foran industry vital to economic welfare. A report offindings was submitted to the agencies concerned,and subsequent implementation of the team's pro-posals has taken place. The visiting team includedNathan Axelrod, business division; Ulderico Sacco,industrial management department; William Bell,coordinator of research ; and Sidney Bernstein, anofficer of the Educational Foundation for the Fash-ion Industries.

Mexico: In 1963, A.I.D. sponsored a United StatesTextile-Apparel Commission to Mexico. The pur-pose of this commission was to visit and study thetextile and garment industries of Mexico and tooffer suggestions for improving the production anddistribution of such products in that country. Law-rence L. Bethel, then president of F.I.T., served aschairman of the commission. Arthur Price of theF.I.T. textile science department served as a tech-nical consultant, along with several experts fromthe soft goods industry. The commission met withmany men active in business and finance and officialsof the Mexican government. They visited mills,factories, retail stores, and markets. The commis-sion's report contains a general observation whichmay be applicable not only to Mexico but throughoutthe world. This statement is generally true in all ofF.I.T.'s ventures abroad and probably could serveas preface to the role of any group of Americanexperts in foreign lands. The statement reads :

The scientific principles of production management areassumed to have unusual validity and should, therefore,be applicable everywhere. Yet only within limits can weattempt to transplant United States business practicesand expect them to thrive as well in a very different soiland climate. Mexican business customs are an expressionof the Mexican spirit. We are aware, therefore, thatproposals made by foreign observers may have to beadapted to local needs rather than adopted in theirentirety. Similar cultural limitations apply to us, we 253

realize. As observers we have been conditioned by ourown way of doing things. But we are able to offer sug-gestions only as we can see and understand the Mexicanproblem. We can only attempt to bridge differences incultures by a sensible sympathy and leave it to ourMexican fridnds to use our suggestions as they can.

In the summer of 1961, Dr. Bethel and Prof.Sacco visited Mexico City in order to make a studyof the apparel industry and the educational pro-grams designed for the development of personnel.In addition, they conducted a short course in edu-cational administration and in manufacturingmethods.

The following summer, three F.I.T. facultyProf. Sacco, Sidney Buchman of the industrial man-agement department, and Ernestine Kopp of theapparel design departmentspent three weeks inthe presentation of courses, funded by A.I.D., inapparel design, cutting room practices, and sewingmachine-operation training. These courses weregiven to teachers who in turn would be responsiblefor the education of apparel personnel. This projectwas followed in 1963 with a seven-week program inwhich a variety of other apparel techniques werepresented. Staff was expanded to include severaladditional areas. As a result of these experiences,the faculty of the Escuela de Corte Y Confeccion,La Corregidora De Queretaro, extensively revampedtheir curricular offerings, developed a variety ofeducational materials, and created texts from thenotes which they had taken as students of F.I.T.faculty. As the industry became aware of the newprograms offered by the Escuela, they began to sendtheir employes to the school, sought out the school'sgraduates, and invited the faculty of the Escuela totheir plants in order to conduct training programs.

In 1967, the director of the Escuela requested thatseveral new courses be offered by F.I.T. faculty.This was completely funded by the Mexican group.

During the summer of 1968, Eve Hartel, F.I.T.assistant professor of fashion art and design, and

254 Lillian D'Angelo, a member of the apparel design

department at F.I.T., taught a four-wea session inMonterrey, Mexico. They were engaged under thejoint auspices of the National Chamber of Com-merce of Monterrey and the clothing industry to in-struct a specially screened group of establishedcourturiers and dressmaking teachers in a concen-trated course in apparel design. The presentationof this course was motivated by a desire of the afore-mentioned groups to establish Monterrey as the"fashion capitol of Mexico." Their long-term ob-jectives included the desire to raise the economy bydeveloping a fashion market for Mexicans as well astourists through area resources. The course wasconcerned with the development of techniques formaking quick fashion sketches, and the understand-ing of the forces which motivate fashion changesand of the basic processes involved in the develop-ment and eventual creation of a designed garment.Courses were handled in part through Mexican in-terpreters, although the F.I.T. instructors had somefacility with Spanish.

Bernard Zamkoff, an F.I.T. teacher of apparel de-sign, was asked by a leading clothing manufacturerof Guatemala to spend several weeks with his keyemployes in order to instruct them in currentmethods of patternmaking. Mr. Zamkoff went toGuatemala and served in this capacity over a periodof four weeks during the summer of 1968. Themanufacturing concern reported that a considerableimprovement in their operations resulted from Mr.Zamkoff's association.

Industrial Training and Development

The Orient: Through F.I.T.'s years as an educa-tional institution, students in fairly large numbershave come to the college from Japan, Taiwan, Thai-land, Korea, Hong Kong, India, and Australia.

For the most part, these students have completedthe full two-year course of study and then returnedto their home countries to apply their education tothe fashion industries. Former students frequentlywrite to the college and tell of the positions of 255

leadership which they have secured in their owncountries. Each year, F.I.T. conducts seminars forstudents and educators from the Orient who areconcerned with the fashion industries.

In the summer of 1965, Shirley Goodman, execu-tive vice-president of F.I.T., traveled throughoutJapan where she made an extensive study of theirfashion industry. Many of the visits which shemade resulted in the establishment of further con-tacts between the institute and manufacturers, aswell as educational institutions in the Orient. Re-cently, we had an extensive visit by the presidentand dean of the Bunka School of Fashion in Tokyo.This school includes some 10,000 students in Tokyo,as well as off-campus programs throughout Japan.Our visitors expressed great appreciation for theopportunity they had to make this comprehensivestudy of F.I.T. and assured us that many of theprinciples which were observed at the college wouldbe incorporated into the program of the BunkaSchool. In July of 1969, the author visited theTokyo school to conduct a study comparable to thatof our Tokyo colleagues. A member of the F.I.T.faculty, Masaaki Kawashima, was on the BunkaSchool faculty for the summer.

Europe and Puerto Rico: During the past dozenyears, Paul Berger of the industrial managementdepartment at F.I.T. has been involved in a varietyof college-related projects throughout Europe andthe Middle East. In these capacities and throughhis contacts with :industry, he has been quite success-ful in the recruitment of students from Holland,Belgium, Denmark, Norway, Finland, and Israel.In 1959, Prof. Berger was invited by the American-Scandinavian Foundation to make a survey of Den-mark's educational system in order to evaluate in-dustrial training and technical skill development inknitting, carpet manufacture, and men's shirt-manufacturing plants. Our most recent informationis that Prof. Berger's study and subsequent recom-mendations have borne fruit in the development of

256 an extensive educational program and an accom-

panying building plant to satisfy the technical edu-cation needs of Scandinavian youth.

Prof. Berger also was instrumental in the devel-opment of a specialized management-engineeringprogram. for Puerto Rican management traineeswho were heading toward professional-level posi-tions in the Puerto Rican apparel industry. Throughthe several years of this program's operation, morethan 100 F.I.T. graduates of this program have beenplaced and are now working as managers, techni-cians, and supervisors in, various apparel plants inPuerto Rico. Today there exists a special branch ofthe F.I.T. Alumni Association on the island.

Several additional F.I.T. faculty have served assenior faculty for a series of workshops conductedin Puerto Rico designed for the Puerto Rican softgoods industry.

On various trips abroad, members of the F.I.T.faculty have been specifically assigned to makestudies of various components of the apparel in-dustry and to make recommendations on educationaland industrial programs which would benefit thecountry concerned, as well as F.I.T. and the apparelindustry in America. Miss Goodman has done ex-tensive research utilizing the resources of the Cham-bre Syndicale of France; the leading French cou-turier houses (Ricci, Givenchy, Dior, Cardin, Bal-main) ; and a variety of educational institutions andmanufacturing houses throughout France, Italy,Great Britain, and Scandinavia in order to ascertainthe educational needs of these countries as theseneeds relate to the fashion industry, as well as toascertain which needs would improve our own in-structional programs. Various "exchange" pro-grams are now in the planning stage or are alreadyan actuality (e.g., F.I.T.'s program with the Collegeof Distributive Trades) as the result of this re-search.

A Threefold Objective

Israel: Dr. Bethel and Miss Goodman were askedby official Israel bodies to visit that country in order 257

to ascertain the educational needs of the Israel ap-parel industry. This was done in 1962 and 1963; asthe result of these visits, a more formal relationshipwas established between agencies in Israel and F.I.T.In 1965, Prof. Berger was appointed as director ofthe F.I.T. Israel Project. Over a period of two years,Prof. Berger (accompanied by his wife Irene, alsoan F.I.T. professor) worked in Israel in conjunctionwith various agencies, accomplishing a threefoldobjective : (1) establishment of an educational insti-tute in Israel working under the aegis of the Minis-try of Productivity (2) conducting managementseminars sponsored by the Techniconestension Divi-sion in Tel Aviv; (3) setting up pilot plants in orderto demonstrate systems of mass production andquality control.

Additional projects initiated as the result of Prof.Berger's association were in relation to the produc-tion-planning of army uniforms, the planning of atextile engineering curriculum at Beersheba Univer-sity, and various other programs designed to makethe Israel apparel industry more productive, de-crease production costs, and develop educationalprograms which would provide continuing sourcesof professional personnel for this industry.

In 1968 and again in the spring of 1969, JeannetteJarnow, chairman of the fashion 1)11:,,,ing and mer-chandising department of F.I.T., was sent at therequest of the Israel Ministry of Commerce and In-dustry as a marketing and merchandising expert tooffer her recommendations to Israel for the improve-ment of market: g procedures and the education ofmarketing personnel.

In 1968, Prof. Jarnow surveyed all segments ofIsrael's fashion industry (20 per cent of theireconomy) from textile producers to retaileisinorder to determine their general needs, priorities,facilities, and educational programs. Prof. Jarnowresearched and evaluated existing educational pro-grams in Israel which were serving their fashionindustry. She worked with representatives of the

258 Ministry of Commerce and Industry and the Minis-

try of Labor. As a result of her study, a plan wassubmitted by her to the aforementioned miaistriesfor a comprehensive and coordinated, college-leveleducational program in fashion design and market-ing technology to be developed in short- and long-term steps and stages according to priority needs,budgetary considerations, and the availability offaculty and facilities.

In March of 1969, Prof. Jarnow was invited toreturn to Israel to serve as a member of their In-ternational Fashion Committee. She has been ap-pointed as a standing member of this committeewhich acts in an advisory capacity to the IsraelMinistry of Commerce and Industry.

The aforementioned programs represent some ofF.I.T.'s experiences in the international community.Through these endeavors, the college believes that ithas made major contributions to the developingeconomies and living standards of the countries con-cerned and has brought to itself an internationalreputation for excellence.

259

By Margaret A. Kurtz

OM

COLBY'S EASTAFRICA PROJECT

Last summer, Colby Junior College, in coopera-tion with Crossroads Africa, Inc., sent a team toEast Africa for two months to investigate the sec-retarial situation, looking toward the possibility ofupgrading secretarial training for Africans.

The two-member team devoted six weeks of itstime to the investigation in Nairobi, Kenya, andtwo weeks exploring the situation in Dar es Salaam,Tanzania.

The project plan was carried out by a Colby grad-uate and an instructor from the Secretarial ScienceDepartment.Survey of Colleges

The team visited secretarial training schools andpersonnel managers in industry and government inNairobi. A list of basic questions was compiled inorder to discover specific information relative to

260 standards of training, attitude of students, and dif-

ficulties encountered by instructors, employers, andstudents.

Seven secretarial colleges were visitedfive oper-ated by Europeans, one by the government, and oneby an Asian. Kianda College (European) and theKenya Government Secretarial College are the onlyresidential secretarial schools in the city. The ma-jority of students at Queensway Secretarial College(European) and Kianda College are sponsored ; thatis, an industry pays tuition, board, and room, andallots spending money to each sponsored student.The student in turn is bonded, or expected to workfor the sponsoring firm, for two years upon com-pletion of her training. The Government SecretarialCollege trains students exclusively for work in thegovernment and bonds them for three years.Although the remaining schools take a limited num-ber of sponsored students, college principals foundstudents lacking in incentive to learn in\ comparisonto those paying for their own training.

Entrance requirements range from a CambridgeCertificate (equivalent to a U.S. high school diploma)to the K.P.E. Certificate (similar to completion ofthe eighth grade in the U.S.).

The length of the courses offered in each of theseven institutions varies. One sponsor has justrequested that its trainees spend eighteen monthsin school. Most principals encourage students toremain for twelve months to complete the course.However, financial difficulty often makes this impos-sible. The majority of the schools allow studentsto enroll at the beginning of any month and remainfor as long a time as they can afford, which isusually two to four months. For the most part, thesecretarial colleges are trying to teach in a fewmonths or up to one year what it takes us one totwo years to accomplish on the postsecondary level.

There are approximately 790 students enrolled inthe seven colleges visited, ranging from 165 stu-dents in one school down to twenty-four in another.Approximately 200 of the students are African ; themajority are Asian, and the minority, European. 261

Since most of the institutions are operated by:British-trained teachers, Pitman shorthand and typ-ing materials are generally used. Books seemed tobe lacking in the majority of them. Instructorssaid that they duplicated material from their owntexts as students could not afford the books. Othercourses reported as taught are office or secretarialpractice and English. Few textbooks are used forthe latter two courses. There was little evidencethat much time was spent on either. One instructortold me that students begrudged the time that couldnot be spent on raising their speeds in shorthandand typing, since speeds in the skills largely deter-mine the salary received. Most of our two-yearsecretarial programs include two years of Englishand one full year of secretarial or office practice.

All school principals were unanimous in the state-ment that the greatest difficulty in teaching Africansis their lack of background in English ; however,they appeared to concur with the wishes of thestudents by not teaching it to any degree.

With the exception of the Government SecretarialCollege, there are no African commercial teachersin the schools visited. Principals said that theywould be willing to hire a competent African if onebecame available.

The schools were well equipped with modern type-writersRemington, Olympia, Olivetti, Imperial,and Facit. Some IBM's were used in industry butnone in the schools. A limited amount of other officeequipment was reported--tapes, spirit duplicators,mimeographs, and machine dictating equipment, butlittle of it was visible.

Standards for skills are similar to those in theU.S.for a personal secretary, 100-120 words perminute in shorthand and 50-60 in typing; for astenographer, 100 in shorthand and 40 in typing;for a copy typist, 80 in shorthand and 30-40 intyping.

School principals said they would welcome assist-262 ance in the teaching of typing and office practice

(telephoning, receptionist duties, filing, letter writ-ing, etc.).

Survey of Industry

Fourteen personnel managers in industries werevisited and twelve were contacted by telephone.These included such companies as Barclay's Bank,Caltex Oil (Kenya), British American TobaccoCompany, East African Common Services, EssoStandard Kenya, and Kenya Shell Limited. Thereare fifty-five American companies in Kenya and sev-eral were contacted for our survey. Many of theAmerican companies maintain an office with onerepresentative and do not need a large staff.

In the twenty-six firms, there are approximatelyseventy-five personal secretaries employed ; thirty-two are African. Of the 358 stenographers em-ployed, 281 are African ; and of the 195 copy typists,147 are African.

For the most part, the requirements for personalsecretaries in industry are similar to oursofficeexperience, shorthand speed of 100-120, and typingspeed of 50-60 words per minute.

Standards for stenographers ranged from 80-100words per minute for shorthand and 40-50 fortyping. Copy typists are expected to have a mini-mum shorthand speed of 80 and to type at 30-40words per minute.

When asked what difficulties are encountered withAfrican secretaries, the personnel managers wereunanimous in two : lack of background in Englishand lack of experience. The first difficulty causesproblems in spelling and transcription.

Two other problems are the rapid turnover ofsecretaries and the necessity for granting maternityleave. After marriage, African women continue towork while raising a family. It is necessary forthem to take a three-month maternity leave eachtime they have a child. Since Africans tend to havelarge families, this can be a financial problem tofirms as well as a disruptive one to the office routine.

Other complaints about African secretaries are 263

264

their lack of interpersonal relationshipsthey havedifficulty handling routine problems, employees inthe office, as well as dealing with their employers.In addition, they don't make decisions easily, suchas which job should be done first, etc. Other diffi-culties mentioned by personnel managers included :

lack of initiative, loyalty to the company, personalresponsibility, ability to keep confidences, and abilityto follow through on a job.

Minor complaints made by personnel managersincluded : poor grooming, difficulty in distinguishingbetween British and American accents, insufficienttraining in skills and office procedures, interferenceof personal problems such as using the telephonefor personal calls, and money problems due toinability to budget personal income.

When personnel managers were asked whetherthe companies would be willing to release an Africanemployee for a half day or a whole day for twomonths and continue her salary while she attendsan improvement course, all expressed an interest.The majority prefer to release an employee for afull day.Survey of Government

In order to let the Kenya and U.S. governmentsknow what we were doing and to ask for sugges-tions on how it should be accomplished, Kenyagovernment officials and personnel in U.S. govern-ment positions were interviewed. The Kenya gov-ernment agreed with the need for such a course foremployees in private organizations. The govern-ment officials supported the proposed project as didthe U.S. government officials.

Recommendations

A similar procedure was used in Dar es Salaam,Tanzania. The difficulties with African office em-ployees reported did not differ greatly from thosereported in Nairobi. Again, they appeared to belacking background in English and training in sec-retarial procedures.

As a result of the investigation made in Nairobiand Dar es Salaam, Colby Junior College, in col-laboration with Crossroads Africa, is now planningan improvement course for African office employeeswhich will hopefully be held for two months duringthe summer of 1968 in Nairobi. Such a course wouldcombine additional work on improvement in skillswith emphasis on spelling, punctuation, and Englishmechanics. Training would also include : handlingtelephone calls, receptionist duties, filing, composingroutine letters, office machines, human relations inbusiness, and grooming.

This project will give Colby an opportunity tosend four secretarial graduates to assist an instruc-tor with the teaching of the course.

Longer range plans under consideration includethe setting up of programs to be held simultaneouslyin other cities in East Africa, training Africansecretaries at Colby and other American collegesteaching secretarial work, and the establishment inAfrica of a two-year junior college similar to Colby.

265

By W. Merle Hill

WHAT ONE SMALLCOLLEGE CAN DO

In less than one year, the American Associationof Junior Colleges, at its annual meeting in Hawaii,will be focusing attention on international educa-tion at the junior college level. Certainly, it is ap-propriate that our fiftieth statea true racial melt-ing potbe the host for such a significant themeas international education. The growth of the newjunior colleges symbolizes new educational aspira-tions for the multiracial students in Hawaii ; inter-national education can provide new aspiration forthousands of young people in the new and emergingnations of the world.

In the February 1967 issue of the Junior CollegeJournal, various international educational thrustswere described. Most of the emphasis on inter-national education, however, has been aimed atassisting developing and some already-developed

266 countries to initiate community college programs.

:But this emphasis has little effect on the youngpeople attending a community or junior college inVermont, Kansas, Texas, or Oregon. Likewise, add-ing a course or two on Asian or African historydoes little for the junior college student interestedin becoming acquainted with foreign students andgetting to know them well. Personal acquaintancewith a :foreign national and the opportunity forintimate dialogue is of much greater import for anAmerican student than courses concerning foreigncountries or the AAJC involvement with the edu-cational systems in other countries.

In an effort to involve students in a truly inter-national program at the personal level, ChristianCollege in Columbia, Missouri, decided to offer aprogram of foreign student scholarships for the1968-69 academic year. Since transportation andeducational expenses for the foreign student arealmost prohibitive, we decided to offer tuition androom scholarships worth $2,325. The only fee to becharged to the foreign students was $375 for theirboard bills.

Although a number of our staff members hadcontacts abroad, the decision was made to workthrough an already functioning agency in an at-tempt to publicize the foreign student scholarshipsand to attract quality applicants. The Experimentin International Living in Putney, Vermont, waskind enough to accept the challenge of recruitingqualified foreign applicants. It was indeed a chal-lenge because we did not communicate our wishes tothe Experiment office until June 15, and we wantedthe students on campus by August 28 for an orien-tation program. Since time was extremely short,we decided at the outset to accept any student re-ferred to us by the Experiment in InternationalLiving. The Experiment referrals are all cleared ;ntheir home countries, and many have had American"Experimenters" live in their homes abroad. Weknew in advance, therefore, that the referrals from 267

Putney would be well-qualified and highly motivatedstudents.

Although the Experiment officials had alreadymade all of their own assignments for 1968-69, theywent to work immediately, contacted their officesabroad, and within two weeks started sending thenames of applicants to Christian College. Thanksto the Experiment's outstanding work, we had re-ceived and accepted applications from twelve stu-dents in nine countries by August 20, 1968. Wealso offered similar resident scholarships to a stu-dent from Thailand who had been a day student atChristian College the previous semester and to astudent from Germany referred to us by a friend.In addition, a day student scholarship was offeredto a young woman from Iran whose husband wasenrolled at the University of Missouri. In all, therewere two students from Chile, three from Sweden,and one each from Argentina, Norway, Denmark,France, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Thai-land, Japan, and Iran.

Due to lack of airline space and late notificationof the awarded scholarships, five of the young wom-en were not able to arrive on August 28. However,all fifteen very excited students were here by Sep-tember 1 and participated in the regular studentorientation. The fastest traveler was from Japan.She learned that she had been awarded the scholar-ship on August 25 and arrived in Columbia, Mis-souri, on August 28!

To give maximum exposure to the foreign stu-dents, they were assigned to all residence halls.Thus, every native student had the opportunity tomeet and know several visitors from abroad. Theyoungest foreign student was not quite seventeen,and the oldest was nineteen. Five of the youngwomen had had some university experience athome, and the remainder were from the twelfth orthirteenth grades in their secondary schools.

The language barrier was more psychological268 for the foreign students than it was real. In a very

short time they became accustomed to the peculiari-ties of regional American speech patterns, althoughthe Southern "drawl" of students from Arkansasand Texas caused some concern. Like all second-language students, they thought native Americanspeech was extremely rapid, especially in classeswhere they were exposed to considerable lecturing.

All fifteen students were enrolled in English com-position, but the similarity of courses stopped thereas their individuality, interests, and career goalsled them to choose courses as varied as art andzoology, secretarial training and chemistry. By theend of the first semester, five of the students fromabroad were on the dean's list with a "B" or betteraverage, and the composite grade point averagefor all fifteen students was 2.63 on a 4.0 scale.

Significant Dimension

We believe that these young women have addeda significant dimension to our educational pro-grama dimension far greater than would be pos-sible by offering courses in European, Asian, orSouth American studies. International educationcannot be easily emphasized in chemistry, mathe-matics, secretarial training, or American history,but the international understanding of Americanstudents may be significantly enhanced by havingthem live,' study, and attend classes with foreignstudents.

Most private junior colleges have empty beds intheir residence halls and can easily afford to providethe same kind of scholarship assistance being pro-vided at Christian College. Most community-juniorcolleges could find homes for their foreign guestsand, in doing so, would be providing for true inter-national education both on and off campus. Provid-ing scholarships for literally hundreds of foreignstudents will do more for international understand-ing than any other aspect of college programs.

269

By Roger Yarrington

REPORT OF THE 1970AAJC INTERNATIONALASSEMBLY

Forty-five participants from eighteen countriesmet February 26 through March 5 in Honolulu forthe first International Assembly on Manpower De-velopment sponsored by the American Associationof Junior Colleges.

The first four days were spent in discussions atthe East-West Center on the University of Hawaiicampus. Beginning March 2, the Assembly joinedthe fiftieth anniversary convention of the Amer-ican Association of Junior Colleges at the HawaiianVillage Hotel. Several Assembly sessions were heldduring the convention, some involving participationby convention delegates.

Program schedules were flexible. The initial pres-entations were carefully planned, but later sessionswere left unstructured so that developments in theearly discussions could be followed up as needed.

270 All of the discussions were characterized by high

interest and participation. The talk heard in thesessions was the talk of knowledgeable educatorswho understood one another and who found theyhad a good many things in common. The questionsasked, the problems raised, were familiar and tough.

Middle-level manpower development was iden-tified as a challenge in each country, no matter towhat level its technology had developed. Andthroughout the discussions there was stressed a con-cern that the education of persons for careers inmodern technology not overlook the humanisticlearning that should accompany the learning ofspecific job skills. This philosophical approach toeducation was accompanied by hard practical con-cerns such as methods of forecasting manpowerneeds, ways of financing and governing the de-velopment of new educational institutions, andwhere good teachers can be found for comprehen-sive colleges.

The educators who participated in these sessionscame from Australia, Canada, Ceylon, Republic ofChina, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Iran, Japan,Korea, Lebanon, Pakistan, Philippines Samoa,Singapore, Thailand, U.S.A., and Vietnam. Therewere also some thirty official observers, includingmembers of the AAJC Committee on InternationalEducation.

Need for Communication

At the end of their discussions the participantsunanimously adopted two resolutions summing up apersistent theme in the Assembly : the need for con-tinued international communication. The resolu-tions were developed by a committee with membership representing each national delegation andchaired by Won Sul Lee of Korea.

One resolution expressed appreciation to the As-sociation and the other organizations which helpedsupport the Assembly and stated :

A measure of the success of the Assembly is the desireexpressed by all the participants for some form of con- 271

tinuing collaboration between the participants from theparticipating countries and the AAJC to facilitateexchange of information on matters related to thecommunity/junior college concept and education formanpower development.

The other resolution also spoke of the need ofcontinuing the lines of communication establishedby the Assembly and urged that AAJC establishan office :

1. To develop correspondence between and among par-ticipants of this International Assembly and additionalpersons and agencies in other countries interested in thisexchange of information and as it becomes desirable, toinvite additional participants from some of the countriesattending the Assembly and other countries

2. To circulate to participants and others papers ofinterest concerning junior colleges and other educationalmatters

3. To encourage various approaches to strengtheningcommunications including visits to the interested coun-tries, exchanges of curricular development materials, thefacilitation of joint planning of regional or internationalprojects, and the convening of future InternationalAssemblies, which may assist in the furtherance of theobjectives of this Assembly.

All Pioneers

Everett M. Woodman, serving as president of theAssociation, opened the Assembly by stating : "Weare all pioneering . . . we are all trying somethingnew." Dr. Woodman added that "like all pioneers,we cannot see the end of our journey. But we knowthere is only one direction we can go, and our pathsare together."

A welcome also was given by Minoru Shinoda,acting chancellor of the East-West Center, and byEdmund J. Gleazer, Jr., executive director of theAssociation. Dr. Gleazer said the Assembly was"the consummation of a dream." Never before hadthere been an opportunity for an international dis-cussion about junior colleges. He described brieflyAmerican community junior colleges and said thathis travels abroad indicated there were several prob-

272 lems shared by two-year colleges in the U.S. and

institutions offering similar educational programsin other countries : lack of prestige for vocational-technical programs, how to finance the institutions,and where to get qualified faculty members with aninterest in such institutions.

Small group seminars with opportunity for opendiscussion followed four additional presentationsbriefly setting forth facets of the U.S. communityjunior college.

Donald A. Eldridge, president of Bennett Collegeand chairman of the AAC Committee on Inter-national Education, described the role of the pri-vate junior college in America, and noted thatmany of them emphasize international studies andwould have a genuine interest in the advice ofAssembly participants on how such programs couldbe strengthened.

The relation of junior colleges to other institu-tions of higher education and the two-year college'stransfer function were discussed by Leland L. Meds-ker, director of the Center for Research and De-velopment in Higher Education, University of Cali-fornia at Berkeley. He stated that social pressuresin the U.S. urged the creation of more junior col-leges, and this fact was changing the mix on uni-versity campuses where there are more graduateand upper-division students and fewer lower-di-vision students. Transfer of junior college studentsto universities is generally based on the students'records in junior college, not high school, he said.The record of such students in universities is usuallyvery good. One of the continuing problems in thisarea, he added, is the danger that the transferfunction will overshadow other programs in thejunior college.

Norman C. Harris, professor of technical educa-tion at the University of Michigan, explained tech-nical, occupational, and preprofessional educationin junior colleges. He said the demand for middlemanpowersemiprofessional, technical, and highlyskilled workerswas increasing. Both cognitive andmanipulative skills are needed for such jobs. He out- 273

lined three levels of rigor in occupational programs :associate degree (semiprofessional), two full yearsor more, not open door ; certificate level (highlyskilled), two years or shorter, more manipulativeskills with less general education, tend to be opendoor ; and developmental (remedial) for studentsnot prepared for college-level work, basic communi-cation and math skills, and short-term job trainingoffered, the student may move to other programs ifsuccessful. In addition, junior colleges offer prepro-fessional (transfer) programs which parallel thefirst two years of university work. He said the valueof such comprehensive offerings in one iinstitutiondepends greatly on good counseling and guidanceservices which are an essential part of the com-munity junior college idea.

College services to the community were describedby Bill J. Priest, chancellor of Dallas County JuniorCollege District in Texas. He said the services of-fered by good two-year colleges to their communi-ties were diverse because of the many different com-munities and needs. And he pointed out that thisdiversity would be even greater in the various com-munities of the world. The clientele for communityservices is huge, he said. All persons in the com-munity are possible recipients of the college's serv-ices.

Understanding the Philosophy

The small group seminars pursued the topics dis-cussed above and quickly revealed the participantshad an understanding of the philosophy of the com-prehensive community college.* They wanted spe-cific information on how such institutions weremade to work. Always there were comparisons madeas participants shared how particular problems werehandled in their countries. It was understood thatwhile the American junior college might provide

*Reporters for these and other concurrent sessions wereWalter Garcia, William Irvine, Joseph Jacobsen, Seldon274 Menefee, Raymond Schultz, and Pamela Holland.

some ideas for manpower development in othercountries, ideas could also be found in the educa-tional systems of each of the countries representedat the Assembly.

For example, in the seminar that followed Pro-fessor Harris' discussion on technical education,there was a question on the use of advisory com-mittees made up of community representatives. Ageneral discussion of the use of advisory committeesin various places such as Hong Kong and Canadafollowed. The same kind of discussion developedaround questions regarding the level of pay forteachers in technical subjects as compared to teach-ers in traditional academic subjects and as com-pared to persons in industry, the use of part-timeinstructors, in-service improvement programs forfaculty, and possibilities for improving the statusof occupational education programs.

The question of follow-up on the discussions inthe Assembly arose early in the seminar on the roleof the private junior college when a participantfrom the Philippines asked how such future com-munication would be handled. He proposed consid-eration be given to an international organizationto serve as a clearinghol:.se.

Some Common Themes

Some themes ran through several of the seminars.The problem of financing higher education was oneof them. Several of the representatives from de-veloping countries, particularly Korea, sought sug-gestions on how countries faced with difficulties insupporting existing institutions could finance newkinds of institutions. The organization and govern-ance of higher education was also discussed in sev-eral of the small group sessions. For example, theseminar following Edmund Gleazer's presentationbecame involved in a lengthy discussion of the re-lation of political decisions to educational policy,particularly in countries where educational govern-ance is highly centralized. The seminar following 275

the presentation on community services also be-came involved in a discussion of relationships be-tween government and education, particularly in thedetermination of national manpower needs and edu-cational priorities. Junior college relationships withuniversities and the attitudes of university fac-ulty created a similar discussion in the seminarfollowing Leland Medsker's talk. Problems of trans-fer were described by various countries. A partici-pant from Thailand noted that even transfer betweenfour-year colleges was difficult in his country. Anda participant from Japan, where there are 475junior colleges and where the junior college has ex-isted for twenty years, stated the transfer problemstill exists, particularly in regard to the top univer-sities where there are only .:4, z:nall number of spacesand strict entrance requirements.

A response and reaction to the discussions of thefirst day was presented by Arthur Goodfriend,author, educator, and former foreign service officer.He was particularly impressed with the concern thathad been expressed for humanistic input in tech-nical education programs and the achievement ofstatus for occupational education. He said there maybe hope for some progress in the latter area throughthe current trend of many youth wishing to returnto a more simplea more primitivelife style.There may be a new willingness to work with one'shands, accompanied by less interest in money andmore concern for satisfaction in living, he said.Conventional education patterns will become obso-lete, he added, unless they can satisfy both manpowerneeds and man's needs for his own self-fulfillment.Mr. Goodfriend praised the attempt of the Assembly,in the spirit of the International Education Year,to see over each nation's own culture and to lookat the international aspects of manpower develop-ment. He used a series of African sayings to offersome cautions as well as encouragement :

"An orange tree does not produce a lime." Thejunior college is an American fruit. What is grown

276 in each country must be indigenous.

"A snake does not measure its shadow against therainbow." Developing nations must measure theirefforts in manpower development against their owntraditions.

"Be sure you have a lizard in the pot before youinvite your mother-in-law to eat lizard." Do nothold out expectations that cannot be fulfilled.

"An elephant does not grow in a day." It will takeawhile for some of the developments discussed tocome to pass in some of the countries represented.

"Two deer walk together in order to blow the dustfrom each others eyes." May the participants in theAssembly continue to blow some misconceptionsfrom each other's eyes.

Papers and Summaries

Papers prepared before the Assembly by eachnational group and summary remarks presentedduring the second day of the Assembly reempha-sized the concern of each nation for efficient educa-tional development. Ambassador Horace H. Smith,overseas program coordinator, Bennett College, NewYork, and Assembly coordinator, presided. The par-ticipant speaking for India suggested that educationmust be considered a national investment and thatit is indispensible. A nation, particularly a develop-ing country, he said, should not feel it has over-invested even if there is temporary unemployment.And there was a reemphasis of the need for generaleducation in all technical programs. "Be humanbefore being a professional man," was a saying re-ported by a participant from Japan. The same ideawas supported by a participant from Ceylon whopointed out that education in his country was aimednot only in providing skills but also changes in atti-tudeschanges in the person. Problems in the me-chanics of transfer and of status in relationship toother institutions were again underlined by partici-pants from Iran and Australia. Countries with jun-ior colleges in operation,. such as Canada, Japan,and India, described how their systems work.

New problems were raised such as a question 277

from a participant from Thailand : "How do you en-courage persons in the community to support thecommunity college? Everyone wants education fortheir children, but not everyone is willing to sup-port education financially. How do you get the coop-eration of the people in the community ?" And aparticipant from Korea made the observation that thevarious Asian delegations had many problems incommon and raised again the question : How canthese common interests continue to be shared?

Government and Education

A second set of concurrent seminars made it pos-sible for participants to discuss in small groupsprivately supported education, publicly supportededucation, and governmental functions. The lattergroup, made up of representatives from govern-ments, was chaired by Preston Valien, deputy asso-ciate commissioner for higher education, U.S. Officeof Education, substituting for U.S. Commissioner ofEducation James E. Allen, Jr., who was unable toattend. He explained the U.S. pattern which doesnot involve a national system of higher educationbut rather federal involvement on a program fund-ing basis. Discussion in the seminar indicated mostnational governments are involved in some way inproviding coordination, setting of priorities, sometechnical assistance, and even the establishment ofstandards, although patterns vary. India and Aus-tralia reported systems similar to the U.S., while theparticipant from Ceylon described a highly central-ized system, including a national system of junior col-lege development. It seemed to be generally agreedthat national governments tend to become moreinvolved in education, and consequently, more in con-trol, because there tend to be more funds availableat the national level.

Rhea M. Eckel, president of Cazenovia College,New York, presided at the seminar on private in-stitutions which discussed several questions, includ-ing one raised by a participant from Indonesia on the

278 advisability of trying to change existing educa-

tional institutions to meet new needs as opposed tostarting new institutions. In the same vein a partici-pant from Thailand asked about the need for institu-tions with iL single specialty as opposed to or supple-mented by comprehensive college:3.

Problems shared in the seminar for public insti-tutions, chaired by Charles E. Chapman, presidentof Cuyahoga Community College, Ohio, includedthose of Vietnam where there may be overspeciali-zation. Each agency of the government there hasits own training institutions. And a participant fromPakistan stated 00 per cent of the students in hiscountry pursue liberal arts majors, which is un-realistic in the light of manpower needs. However,comprehensive high schools are being establishedand offer additional opportunities in vocationalareas.

At a luncheon meeting several participants in theAssembly were asked to describe in some detailthe developments in their countries. Jacques Four-nier, project administrator, Canadian Commissionfor the Community College, Toronto, outlined thestudy currently underway in his country whichmay lead to the establishment of an association ofjunior colleges there, similar perhaps to the asso-ciations that exist; in the U.S. and Japan. The com-mission is conducting its exploration of the need forsuch an association under a grant from the W. K.Kellogg Foundation.

The participant speaking for the Korean groupsaid there were twenty junior colleges in that coun-try, all privately supported, as well as twenty-threejunior technical colleges which combine the uppersecondary years and lower-division college years. InCeylon, according to its participant's report, compre-hensive junior colleges are being developed by look-ing for occupational areas not already covered byother training programs and grouping these togetherin new institutions being established by that govern-ment.

In India, two states have junior colleges. Severalhundred have been established, mostly to relieve 279

pressures on the universities. Consequently, mosthave adopted the curriculums of the liberal arts col-leges. The main problems are staffing, financing, andlack of community interest in the curriculums. Thejunior college idea is well known in India, thespeaker stated. There is much interest in the U.S.model, but there is also a realization that the situa-tion is different in India, and the model must beadapted to the needs of each state in that country.The participant reporting for Iran stated the juniorcollege idea has taken hold there, too, but not be-cause of a demand from students or the universitiesbut rather through a developmental plan in responseto recognized manpower needs.

What Is a Community?

Another open-ended discussion at the close of thesecond afternoon provided opportunity for addi-tional comments and questions. The participant fromSamoa acknowledged that there are no junior col-leges in her country, but she raised a question onhow states decide whether to charge tuition feesin their junior college systems. That began a de-bate among American representatives on the advis-ability of fees. One side argued for free access asa service to the entire community, while the otherheld for small fees to reduce the number of personswho register but do not appear for classes. Thedelegate from Singapore described the bond systemin use there where students using the bond must beadmitted but repayment cannot be enforced.

A participant from Korea raised the provocativequestion of what constitutes the community in theterm "community college"? He pointed out that inthe U.S.A. it tends to mean geographic or economicareas, but in Asian countries kinship relationshipsare often more important.

One effect of the discussions was revealed by aparticipant from South Vietnam who reminded thosepresent that at the beginning of the Assembly he hadstated that there were no junior colleges in his

280 country but after listening to the discussions, he

realized there were institutions performing manyof the functions attributed to junior colleges. How-ever, he said, the need existed for programs thatutilized more of the ideas expressed in the As-sembly.

Specific Step Suggested

William G. Shannon, associate executive directorof AAJC, spoke at the Assembly banquet andsummed up the discussions to that point by statingthat the questions raised had revolved around howeducation should be organized, which programs atechnological society should establish to take care offuture manpower needs, and how limited resourcescan be used to the best advantage. There was, hesaid, an acceptance of the idea of democratizinghigher education and accepting the accompanyingresponsibility for providing meaningful educationfor all. He felt there was interest in looking at thealternative ways of opening the doors of education.And he sensed a willingness to keep the best of thepast but also to turn down new paths if necessary.

In an effort to provide a specific suggestion forthe future, Dr. Shannon proposed international ex-perimentation in the health-related occupationaleducation fields. There are needs for trained man-power in such fields as nursing, dental technicians,medical technicians, X-ray technicians in most coun-tries, he said. Perhaps a beginning step in sharingmethods of manpower development would be tofocus on this field and begin sharing information,ideas, and materials across national boundaries.Regional demonstration centers could be set up withpossible help from other agencies such as the WorldHealth Organization. He suggested that such an ideacould also be used in fields such as the travel-hos-pitality industry and agriculture.

This suggestion was seconded the following dayby Robert Kinsinger of the W. K. Kellogg Founda-tion when several observers were invited to sharetheir reactions to the discussions. And Ted D. Morse,AID representative in Indonesia, suggested a fur- 281

ther refinement might be a focus on population con-trol problems. He said countries in Asia realizedthe need of middle-level manpower ; the failure offive-year plans in a number of countries was due tothe lack of technical training at that level.

A participant from Iran suggested the spirit of theAssembly should be infused into the curriculum ofthe junior college itself. International educationshould become one of the basic parts of all juniorcollege education, he said.

Continuation of the Assembly dialog became adominant theme in the discussion as the meetingdrew to a close. C. Earle Hoshall, deputy assistantdirector of higher education, AID, Vietnam, sug-gested that a similar meeting be held next year inAsia. Delegates from Vietnam, Australia, Lebanon,Thailand, and Korea urged various ways of facili-tating a continuing exchange of information. A par-ticipant from Korea, Dr. Lee, proposed a committeebe appointed to present specific suggestions duringa session that would meet the last day of the AAJCconvention. He was appointed chairman and hiscommittee, made up of one person from each of thenational delegations, developed the resolutions re-ferred to at the beginning of this article.

AAJC Convention Sessions

Additional sessions of the Assembly were heldduring the AAJC convention which followed. Dur-ing the first of these, sponsored by the Association'sCommittee on International Education, several ideaswere proposed for broadening international educa-tion curriculums in junior colleges. A delegate fromthe Philippines suggested the need for revision oftextbooks to incorporate information on other coun-tries wherever the opportunity exists, such as insociology and economics texts. He also suggestedthe translation of more national documents for studyby junior college students.

Joseph M. Jacobsen of the AAJC InternationalEducation Committee and foreign student adviser at

282 City College of San Francisco, suggested better use

of students from abroad to bring the internationaldimension into the junior college classroom. Hiscollege sponsors an International Day and helps for-eign students appear on programs at feeder highschools. He suggested U.S. Information Agencyposts would welcome catalogs from American juniorcolleges. And he reported that his college belongs toa consortium in the Bay Area which works with theInstitute on International Education to bring stu-dents from abroad for technical education programsonly. Also, he said, foreign students can be utilizedas resource persons for information on junior col-leges after they return home.

Other suggestions included strengthening foreignlanguage instruction and exchanges of faculty. Aparticipant from Australia suggested community col-leges look for funds for such exchanges within theirown communities and conduct the programs on acontinuing institution-to-institution basis.

A luncheon meeting for Assembly delegates dur-ing the convention week was addressed by John M.Allison, former ambassador to several Asian coun-tries, who said he expects a newer, lower posture bythe U.S. government in Asia in the months ahead.There will probably be a renewal of emphasis on theinfluence of private agencies working in Asia andless on the government, he said. Education is onesuch private agency, Ambassador Allison added,and this new climate will present an opportunityfor the interest in junior college education evidencedat the Assembly to be a force in bringing peopletogether.

"International Prospects for Junior College Edu-cation" was the title of a forum on the conventionprogram which involved Assembly participants aswell as other persons attending the annual meeting ofthe Association. The discussion centered on methodsof exchanging information, primarily through ex-changes of correspondence and persons. The lim-itations of correspondence were recognized, but sev-eral participants expressed interest in correspond-ence between students, faculty, and administrators, 283

as well as officials in government agencies. Therewere general requests for materials on junior col-leges. Descriptive materials, particularly on curricu-lums and organizational structures, were requested.It was generally agreed that the Junior College Jour-nal should have a larger international circulation. Butmost important, according to a number of partici-pants, is the opportunity for personal contacts, pri-marily through exchanges of educators. Participantsfrom Ceylon spoke of the help they have received inrecent years from several junior college experts fromthe U.S. who assisted in the establishment of a juniorcollege system in that country. Others spoke of theneed for educators in their countries to have theopportunity to see and teach in junior collegeswhere they exist in other countries.

Informality and Flexibility

The final session involving Assembly participantswas the meeting at which the two resolutions re-ferred to above were presented and adopted. Variousparticipants took the opportunity to express appre-ciation for the Assembly, particularly for its infor-mality and flexibility.

William Shannon, speaking for the Association,assured participants that communication would con-tinue and that efforts would be made to followthrough with the recommendations made.

Participants to the Assembly had the opportunityduring the week to visit with more than 2,700 per-sons registered for the AAJC convention and to at-tend the convention sessions. There were also toursof community colleges in the Honolulu Area.

The Assembly was sponsored by the Associationas a response to the designation of 1970 as Interna-tional Education Year by the Unitai Nations. As-sistance was received from the Agency for Interna-tional Development; Alfred P. Sloan Foundation ;Crowell, Collier and Macmillan, Inc.; the East-WestCenter ; Ford Foundation ; IBM Corporation ; JDR3rd Fund ; Pan American Airways ; and the Shell

284 Companies Foundations, Inc.

ASSEMBLY PARTICIPANTS

AustraliaAlexander M. Fraser, director, Queensland Institute of

TechnologyPhillip G. Law, vice-president, Victoria Institute of

CollegesPercy H. Partridge, professor, social philosophy, and

director, Research School of Social Sciences, AustralianNational University

CanadaJacques Fournier, project administrator, Canadian Com-

mission for the Community CollegeR. W. B. Jackson, director, Ontario Institute for Studies

in EducationCeylonD. J. Nanayakkara, director of education, Junior Univer-

sity Colleges, Ministry of EducationGunadala Wickramaratne, president, Junior University

Ku liyapitiya

Republic of ChinaHsu Chang-Keng, instructor and chief, English Section,

Tatung Institute of TechnologyChih Tang, president, Provincial Kaohsiung Institute of

Technology

Hong KongJack Canning, director, Education DepartmentIndiaK. L. Joshi, vice-chancellor, University of IndoreT. Ramesh U. Pai, administrator, Academy of General

Education, Manipal, Mysore StateM. V. Rajigopal, Department of Education, Government

of Andhra Pradesh

IndonesiaSuhartono, Catholic University of ParahiyangadHari Suseno, Bogor Agricultural UniversityIranYahya Fiuzat, director, Literacy Corps Training Go llegeMohamad Moghadam, vice-minister, Ministry of Higher

EducationHossein Tavakoli, vice-minister, Ministry of EducationJapan.Hiroshi Naito, president, Junior College of TokyoMinoru Nakahara, secretary general, Japan Association

of Junior Colleges 285

Jiro Nakazawa, Tokyo University of AgricultureAkira Watanabe, president, Fukuyama Women's Junior

College

KoreaChan Kyo Lee, Bureau of Science Education, Ministry of

EducationWon Sul Lee, dean, Kyung Hee UniversityLebanonJoseph Abu-Khater, Minister of EducationLouis P. Cajoleas, assistant provost, American University

of BeirutSoleiman Farah, Embassy of Lebanon, TokyoPakistanM. B. Choudhuri, principal, Government CollegeM. M. R. Chowdhury, deputy educational advisor (tech-

nical), Ministry of EducationMohammad Monir, principal, Government Polytechnic

InstitutePhilippinesAmado C. Dizon, executive officer, Philippine Association

of Colleges and UniversitiesAugusto Tenmatay, University of the Philippines

SamoaMrs. Fa'au'uga S. L. Achica, Lyndon B. Johnson Tropical

Medical Center

SingaporeYeh Show Kun, head, Department of Industrial Electron-

ics, Ngee Ann Technical College

ThailandSaroj Buasri, deputy under-secretary, Ministry of Edu-

cationTanai Bunnag, chief, Esso Industrial and Employee Rela-

tions Division, and member, Private College CommitteeMrs. Nongyao Karnchanachari, National Education

Council

U.S.A.Donald A. Eldridge, president, Bennett CollegeBill J. Priest, chancellor, Dallas County Junior College

DistrictPreston Vali'n, deputy associate commissioner for higher

education, Office of Education

VietnamLe Thanh Minh Chau, rector, University of Hue

286 Tran Van Tan, vice-rector, University of Saigon

Nguyen Van Tho, dean, Faculty of Dentistry, Universityof Saigon

Hoang Quoc Truong, University of Dalat

OFFICIAL OBSERVERS

John M. Allison, director, Overseas Career Program,University of Hawaii

Robert A. Bunnell, program advisor, Ford FoundationFrederic S. Cushing, president, Glencoe PressPhilip Evans, director, West Coast Regional Office, Insti-

tute of International EducationArthur Goodfriend, author and consultantC. Earl Hoshall, U.S. Agency for International Develop-

ment, VietnamKrishan Kamra, director of instruction, Northern Alberta

Institute of TechnologyRobert E. Kinsinger, director, Division of Education and

Public Affairs, W. K. Kellogg FoundationHiroshi Kitamura, senior specialist, East-West CenterRobert Knoebel, director, Bureau of Community Colleges,

PennsylvaniaDavid Lynn, Department of Education, Government of

American SamoaHarold Masumoto, director, Community College System,

HawaiiAllan A. Michie, director of publications, Education and

World AffairsTed D. Morse, U.S. Agency for International Develop-

ment, IndonesiaJames 0. Connor, S.V.D., executive secretary, Divine

Word Education AssociationLeonard Tuthill, provost, Leeward Community College

AAJC COMMITTEE ON INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION

Donald A. Eldridge, president, Bennett College (chair-man)

Isaac K. Beckes, president, Vincennes UnversityWalter M. Garcia, president, Rio Hondo Junior CollegeW. Merle Hill, president, Columbia CollegeWilliam L. Irvine, president, Vermont CollegeJoseph M. Jacobsen, foreign student advisor, City College

of San FranciscoWilliam R. Kunsela, president, State University of New

York Agricultural and Technical College at DelhiDouglas E. Matthewson, Jr., director of admissions and

records, Miami-Dade Junior CollegeRaymond E. Schultz, professor, Department of Higher

Education, Florida State University 287

288

William G. Shannon, associate executive director, Ameri-can Association of Junior Colleges

Horace H. Smith, ambassador-in-residence, Bennett Col-lege

Daniel G. Walker, president, Cypress Junior College

ASSEMBLY STAFF

Everett M. Woodman, president, Colby Junior College;Assembly chairman

Edmund J. Gleazer, Jr., executive director, AmericanAssociation of Junior Colleges

William G. Shannon, associate executive director, Ameri-can Association of Junior Colleges

Horace H. Smith, ambassador-in-residence, Bennett Col-lege; Assembly coordinator

Isaac K. Beckes, president, Vincennes UniversityJ. N. Carsey, president, Charles County Community Col-

legePamela Holland, secretaryBetty Wood, secretary

DOCUMENT RESUME ED 045 079 AUTHOR TITLE INSTITUTION D.C… · 2013-10-24 · ED 045 079. AUTHOR...

Documents

Transcript of DOCUMENT RESUME ED 045 079 AUTHOR TITLE INSTITUTION D.C… · 2013-10-24 · ED 045 079. AUTHOR...