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A

HANDBOOK

ON

DEPARTMENTAL CURRICULUM

FOR

THE AWARD

OF

B. TECH. SCIENCE LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY

AND

HINTS ON HAZARDS &SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY

THE VISITORS

The Executive Governor of Oyo StateSenator Isiaka Abiola Ajimobi

The Executive Governor of Osun StateMr. Rauf Aregbesola

PRINCIPAL OFFICERS OF THE UNIVERSITY

CHANCELORAsiwaju Bola Ahmed Tinubu

PRO-CHANCELOR AND CHAIRMAN OF COUNCIL

Ag. VICE CHANCELORProf. Adeniyi Sulaiman Gbadegesin

Ag. UNIVERSITY REGISTRARMr. J.A. Agboola

Ag. UNIVERSITY BURSARMr. A.A. Okediji

Ag. UNIVERSITY LIBRARIANMr. M.O. Ajala

FACULTY OFFICE

DEANProf. E.T. Ayodele

DEPUTY DEANDr. A.T.J. Ogunkunle

FACULTY OFFICERMrs. A.G. Ajala

HEADS OF DEPARTMENT

Name YearProf. E.T. Ayodele 2002 – 2004

Dr. I.O. Adeoye 2004 – 2006

Prof. (Mrs) F. Adelowo 2006 – 2008

Dr. A. Adeyeye 2008 – 2010

Dr. S.O. Adewoye 2010 – 2012

Dr. A. Lateef 2012 – Till date

LEVEL ADVISORS

100 level Mr. O.O.Oladapo200 level Mr. G. Adeyinka300 level Mr. G.J. Ibikunle400 level Mrs. H.O. Adedosu500 level Physics/Electronics Mr. O. OlabisiChemistry/Biochemistry Mrs. A.O. AkintolaBiology/Microbiology Miss I.C. Oladipo

LIST OF ACADEMIC STAFF

S/N STAFF DISCIPLINE QUALIFICATION RANK1 Dr. A. Lateef Biology Ph.D HOD/Reader2. +Dr. P.G. Oyeyiola Microbiology Ph.D Reader3 Dr. A. Adeyeye Chemistry Ph.D Senior Lecturer4 +Dr. M. T. Yakubu Biochemistry/Toxicology Ph.D Reader5 +Dr. L.A. Usman Organic Chemistry Ph.D Senior Lecturer6 +Dr. C.O. Olaiya Biochemistry Ph.D Senior Lecturer7 Mrs. O.A. Akintola Biochemistry M.Sc. Lecturer I8 Miss I.C. Oladipo Microbiology M.Sc.. Lecturer I9 Mrs. H.O. Adedosu Chemistry M.Sc. Lecturer I10 +Dr. S. Olatunji Geophysics Ph.D Lecturer I11 +Dr. T.T. Ibrahim Nuclear/Engineering

PhysicsPh.D Lecturer I

12 Mrs. A.G.Adewoyin Microbiology M.Tech. Lecturer II13 Mr. P.B. Ayoola Chemistry M.Sc. Lecturer II14 Mr. G.J. Ibikunle Chemistry M.Tech Lecturer II15 Mr. O. Olabisi Physics M.Tech Lecturer II16 Mr. O.O. Oladapo Physics M.Sc. Lecturer II17 Mr. G. Adeyinka Chemistry B.Sc. Graduate Assistant

+ Associate Lecturer

LABORATORY STAFF

S/N NAME OF STAFF QUALIFICATION RANK

1. Mr. A.A. Akinola ANIST, HND, MNIP, PGD Asst. Chief

Technologist

2. Mr. E.A. Adekeye ANIST, HND, PGD, M.Tech Technologist I

3. Mr. M.A. Odeniyi ANIST, HND Technologist I

4. Miss. M.O. Adesiyan ANIST, HND, PGD,M.Tech. Technologist I

5. Mrs. B.A. Fatukasi ANIST, HND,PGD Technologist I

6. Mr. S.B. Ogunsona WASSC Lab. Assistant

7. Miss. O.B. Awoniyi WASSC Lab. Assistant

8. Mrs. O.O.Olanrewaju WASSC Lab. Assistant

ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF

S/N NAME RANK1. Mrs. E.O Adeyemi Chief Confidential Secretary

2. Mrs. R. T. Akande Chief Typist I

3. Mrs G.R. Bolaji Senior Office Assistant

DEPARTMENTAL COMMITTES

(A) FINANCE COMMITTEE 1. H.O.D.2. Mrs. H.O. Adedosu3. Mrs. E. O. Adeyemi

(B) EXAMINATION OFFICER1. Miss I.C. Oladipo

(C) EXAMINATION COMMITTEE1. Miss I.C. Oladipo2. Mr. O.O. Oladapo3. Mr. G.J. Ibikunle

(D) ADMISSION COMMITTEE1. H.O.D.2. Mrs. O.A. Akintola3. Mr.O.Olabisi

(E) TIME TABLE COMMITTEE1. Mr.O.Olabisi2. Mrs. O.A. Akintola 3. Mr. G. Adeyinka

(F) INDUSTRIAL TRAINING COMMITTEE1. Mr. O.O. Oladapo2. Mr. G. J. Ibikunle3. Mr. A.A. Akinola

(G) NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SCIENCE LABORATORY STUDENTS ADVISORY COMMITTEE

1. Mr. O. Olabisi2. Mr. G.J. Ibikunle

(H) SEMINAR/PROJECT COMMITTEE1. Mrs. H.O. Adedosu2. Miss I.C. Oladipo3. Mr. G. Adeyinka4. Mr. O.O. Oladapo

(I) PUBLICATION COMMITTEE1. Dr. A. Lateef3. Mr. P.B. Ayoola

4. Miss M.O. Adesiyan 5. Mr. G. Adeyinka

6. Mr. O.O. Oladapo

(J) LABORATORY COMMITTEE1. Mr. A.A. Akinola2. Mr. P.B. Ayoola3 Mrs. A.G. Adewoyin

4. Mr. O. Olabisi5. Mr. M.A. Odeniyi

(K) BOARD EXAMINATION1. Dr. A. Lateef2. Dr. A. Adeyeye3. Miss I.C. Oladipo4. Mr.O.O. Oladapo

LEVEL ADVISORS

100 level Mr. O.O.Oladapo200 level Mr. G. Adeyinka300 level Mr. G.J. Ibikunle400 level 500 level Physics/Electronics Mr. O. OlabisiChemistry/Biochemistry Mrs. A.O. AkintolaBiology/Microbiology Miss I. C. Oladipo

LIST OF ACADEMIC STAFF

S/N STAFF DISCIPLINE QUALIFICATION RANK1 Dr. A. Lateef Microbiology Ph.D Ag. HOD/Reader2. +Dr. P.G. Oyeyiola Microbiology Ph.D Reader3 +Dr. M. T. Yakubu Biochemistry/Toxicology Ph.D Reader4 Dr. A. Adeyeye Chemistry Ph.D Senior Lecturer5 +Dr. L.A. Usman Organic Chemistry Ph.D Senior Lecturer6 +Dr. C.O. Olaiya Biochemistry Ph.D Senior Lecturer7 +Dr. S. Olatunji Geophysics Ph.D. Lecturer I8 +Dr. T.T. Ibrahim Nuclear Physics Ph.D Lecturer I9 Mrs. H.O. Adedosu Chemistry M.Sc. Lecturer I10 Mrs. A.O. Akintola Biochemistry M.Sc. Lecturer I11 Miss I.C. Oladipo Microbiology M.Sc. Lecturer I12 Mrs.A.G.Adewoyin Microbiology M.Tech. Lecturer II13 Mr. P.B. Ayoola Chemistry M.Sc. Lecturer II14 Mr. G.J. Ibikunle Chemistry M.Tech Lecturer II15 Mr. O. Olabisi Physics M.Tech Lecturer II16 Mr. O.O. Oladapo Physics M.Sc. Lecturer II17 Mr. G. Adeyinka Chemistry B.Sc. Graduate

Assistant

LABORATORY STAFF

S/N NAME OF STAFF QUALIFICATION RANK

1. Mr. A.A. Akinola ANIST, HND, MNIP, PGD Asst. Chief

Technologist

2. Mr. E.A. Adekeye ANIST, HND, PGD, M.Tech Technologist I

3. Mr. M.A. Odeniyi ANIST, HND Technologist I

4. Miss. M.O. Adesiyan ANIST, HND, PGD,M.Tech. Technologist I

5. Mrs. B.A. Fatukasi ANIST, HND,PGD Technologist I

6. Mr. S.B. Ogunsona WASSC Lab. Assistant

7. Miss. O.B. Awoniyi WASSC Lab. Assistant

8. Mrs. O.O.Olanrewaju WASSC Lab. Assistant

ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF

S/N NAME RANK4. Mrs. E.O Adeyemi Chief Confidential Secretary

5. Mrs. R. T. Akande Chief Typist

6. Mrs G.R. Bolaji Senior Office Assistant

INTRODUCTION

The Department of Science Laboratory Technology is an offshoot of Science

Laboratory Technology Training Scheme (SLTTS) which was initially offered by the

university in the Faculty of pure and Applied Sciences.

The Department took off fully in 2004/2005 academic session with sixty five (65)

students, five (5) academic staff, three (3) technologists and two (2) administrative staff.

The department of science Laboratory Technology is to provide its students with a

broad based knowledge of theoretical, technological and practical training in the multi-

disciplinary fields of sciences with options of specialization in Chemistry/Biochemistry,

Biology/Microbiology and Physics/Electronics.

The objectives of the programmes are:

- To offer specialized courses and training for laboratory managers with sound (broad

based) scientific knowledge for laboratory for those who may opt for academic career.

- To produce graduates who will be able to set up their own laboratories

- To produce high-level manpower that will be able to fit into Research institutes and

universities as scientific officers and laboratory trainer/instructors who would have

understood the fundamental principles in the field of science and acquired enough

practical experience.

- To produce academic and professional Laboratory scientists that emphasizes

technical planning, adaptation and maintenance, as well as developmental and

productive skills in laboratory and scientific disciplines.

- To produce and promote sound scientists trained in the field of laboratory,

management, maintenance and control as a foundation for the growth and

development of laboratory scientists needed for the necessary industrial growth of the

country.

- To produce modern management scientists in the area of laboratory management and

control in relation to the development of man power for a sound development of the

industrial based of the country.

The undergraduate students will find this hand book useful from time to time. For guidance,

students are advised to read this book and relate well with their level advisors course

coordinators, supervisors and head of department for clarification on any aspect of this book

that may not be clear to them.

Finally, I welcome you most sincerely to the Department and appeal for your co-

operation with the entire staff and fellow students in making your stay in the Department an

enjoyable and memorable one

Dr. A. LateefAg. HOD, SLT.

ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS

Five ‘O’ Level credit passes at WASSC/NECO which, must include English Language,

Mathematics, Chemistry, Physics and Biology. The Department has no waiver.

The department admits students through these routes:

(i) University Matriculation Examination (UME)

(ii) Pre-degree Science Programme runs by the Faculty of Pure and Applied

Sciences

(iii) National Diploma with Upper credit and Higher National Diploma from

recognized Colleges and Polytechnics into 200 level as direct student.

(iv) Programme/Sub-Discipline Structure to include period of formal studies in

the Universities Industrial Training, planned visit and projects:

The periods of formal studies in the university are as follows:

(i) 1 year common year (100 Level)

(ii) 4 years- B. Tech. Science Laboratory Tech. (SLT) (200-500 Level)

Tota l 5 years

Industrial Training is now observed at a stretch for 6 months. The whole of the Rain

(2nd) semester 400-level is set aside for this. See the attached curriculum.

v) Course content spec

discipline/Discipline

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A DEGREE

To be eligible for the award of a degree, a candidate must satisfy the following

conditions:

(i) Pass all University/Faculty compulsory courses

(ii) Pass all Departmental compulsory courses

(iii) Spend the minimum number of semesters prescribed by the University

COURSE CODE

Science Laboratory Technology course codes normally comprise of three digits:

(i) The first digit represents the level of the course,

e.g. 1 – 100 level

2 – 200 level (ii) The second digit represents the type of course

e.g. L Lecture

P Practicals

(iii) The third digit denotes the semester in which the course is to be taught,

e.g. Odd number – Harmattan semester

Even number – Rain semester

CURRICULUM

(i) University Requirements – 47 units

First Year Degree Course

(ii) General Studies

Other than those in (i) above – 8 units

(iii) Computer Studies – 2 units

(iv) Faculty/Department Requirements – 99 units

(v) Industrial Training – 4 units

EVALUATION OF STUDENTS’ PERFORMANCE

EXAMINATIONS

Examinations are conducted in accordance with regulations approved from time to

time by the University Senate. To sit for any end of course examination, candidates must be

duly registered for the course, and attain 75% attendance at the course lectures/laboratory

practical/tutorials. Students who are absent from lectures/laboratories/tutorials must

communicate their reasons to their course lecturers. Every course shall be examined during

the academic semester for which it is taken. End of course examination will consist of one or

more of the following:

(a) Written examination 70%

(b) Practical and/or continuous assessments 30%

Note that continuous assessment is for all courses taught.

MATRICULATION

All students entering the University for the first time will be required to matriculate at

a formal ceremony to be presided over by the Vice-Chancellor which normally takes place

after registration and having been certified that such candidates are qualified for the

courses offered them on admission. The Dean of each Faculty presents students from his/her

Faculty for matriculation while the registrar administers the Matriculation Oath. Students are

made to solemnly undertake and swear to observe and respect the provisions of the Ladoke

Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, laws and status ordinances and regulations

which are now in force or which may be brought into force in addition to not belonging to

secret cult.

DURATION OF B. TECH DEGREE PROGRAMME

Normally, the B. Tech Programmes are five year programmes

A student admitted through UME or Pre-Degree is expected normally to spend a minimum of

five (5) years and a maximum of seven and half (7½) years

A student admitted through direct is expected normally to spend a minimum of four (4) years

and a maximum of six (6) years.

A student admitted though transfer is expected normally to spend a minimum of the number

of years left for him/her to graduate and a maximum of one and half (1½) of the number of

years left. For example, a student transferred to 300 Level has three years left to graduate.

Therefore he/she normally has a minimum of three (3) years and a maximum of four and half

(4½) years to graduate.

REGISTRATION FOR COURSES

Any student of the department must register at the beginning of each semester for courses

approved by the university authority. Normally a students is allowed to register for a

minimum of twelve (12) units and a maximum of twenty-four (24) units per semester, unless

otherwise stated in a situation where a final year student needs to exceed the maximum of

twenty-four (24) units for him/her to be able to graduate, a formal application to that effect

must be made in writing to the senate through the HOD and through the Dean for approval. A

student is free to "borrow" courses from other departments if he/she wishes to do so.

UNIT LOAD

A unit is fifteen one-hour lecturers or tutorials or a series of fifteen three-hour practical

classes, or the combination of these types of instruction.

REGISTRATION PROCEDURE

New Students

The procedure for the registration of new students is as follows.

i. Obtaining the students pre-registration forms. Filling it and returning it to the

Admissions Officer with the require credentials.

ii. Collecting the registration kit (green file) from the Admission Officer

iii. Presenting the originals of the required credential to the Admission Officer who will

sign the pre-registration forms and academic clearance after the credentials have been

checked and verified and entry qualifications confirmed.

iv. Proceeding to the Faculty Officer who will issue course registration forms and direct

students to the appropriate Heads of Departments for guidance in selecting courses.

v. After selection of courses, filling course registration forms separately and completely

with biro and obtaining the signature of Course and Level Adviser.

vi. Submitting course registration forms to the Faculty Officer for the signature of the

Dean; and

vii. Finally, asking the Faculty Officer for copy of the course registration form.

ATTENTION: Note that registration is not complete until all payments are made and

registration forms are submitted to appropriate places.

Returning Students

i. After due payments have been made, proceeding to the Faculty Officer and obtaining

course registration forms.

ii. Consulting with the appropriate Head of Department for guidance in selecting

courses.

iii. After the selection of courses obtaining signature of Course and Level Adviser.

iv. Submitting course registration forms to the Faculty Officer for the

signature of the Dean and

iv. Finally, asking the Faculty Officer for copy of the course registration form.

SEMESTER AND SESSION

The University runs a semester system

A semester is normally a period of sixteen (16) five-day weeks of instruction. The period of

instruction is followed by a period of examinations.

A session consists of two consecutive semesters as determined by the University senate.

EXAMINATION OF COURSES

A course is normally taught in a semester, unless otherwise designed. A course is normally

assessed at the end of the period of instruction. Assessment in a course consists of two

components, the continuous assessment and the final examination. The continuous

assessment component earns 30%. It is made up of classroom tests, written assignments,

written reports and the likes. The final 'examination component earns 70%.

REGULATIONS IN RESPECT OF CONDUCT OF EXAMINATION

REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE CONDUCT OF UNIVERSITY

EXAMINATIONS

DEFINITION OF TERMS

(i) University Examinations

- University Examinations include semester.

- Professional and other Examinations involving the participations of both the

department or Faculty and the examination office.

- Continuous Assessment means course tests, tutorial and other graded assignments

done within the Department Faculty where the course is being taught.

(ii) Semester

A semester is one-half of an academic year as determined by senate

(iii) Session

A session consists of two semesters otherwise referred to as an Academic year as

determined by senate.

(iv) Course Unit/Credit

- One credit/unit represents fifteen of lecture/tutorial or 45 hours practical work per

semester.

- Two units/credits represent thirty hours of lecturer/tutorial or 90 hours of practical

work per semester.

- Three credits/units represent forty-five hours of lecture/tutorial or 135

hours of practical work per semester.

- There are courses that are purely theoretical or practical while some others are

combination of both.

EXAMINATION OFFENCES AND SANCTIONSThe sanctions for various examination offences committed by any student as approved by the

university Senates are as below:

S/N EXAMINATION OFFENCE Sanctions

1. Involvement in leakages of examination questions

and/or marking scheme:

(a) Student(s) involved

(b) Staff involvedExpulsion

Dismissal

2. Illegal possession of answer script(s) by student

Blank answer script(s)

Scripts(s) containing answers

Suspension for two (2)

Semesters

Expulsion

3. Possession of answer script(s) filled with more than

one handwriting:

(a) Student(s) involved

(b) Staff complicity in multiple handwriting

malpractices

Expulsion

Dismissal

4. Possession of unauthorized text(s) and illustration(s)

of any form that aid examinations malpractices

Suspension for four (4)

semesters

5. Impersonation (mercenary) in writing examination:

(a) Student involved

(b) Staff complicity in impersonation

malpractices in any form

Expulsion

Dismissal

6. Impersonation in any form Expulsion/dismissal of parties

involved

7. Student involvement in assault on personnel involved

in invigilation;

(a) Assault on personnel involved in invigilation

(b) Harassment and/or battery of personnel

involved in invigilation

Expulsion

8. Harassment of co-students for non-cooperation in

examinations malpractices

(a) Battery of co-student for non-cooperation in

examination malpractices

Suspensions for two (2)

9 Falsification of identify, such as names,

matriculation number, etc by a student

Suspensions for four (4)

10 Giraffing Suspension for two semesters

11. Exchanging of scripts or information during

examination failure to submit examination answer

script


semesters

12. Failure to submit examination answer script Suspension for two (2)

semesters

13. Transfer or receipt of information during examination Suspension for four (4)

semesters for all parties

involved

14. Failure to obey invigilator’s institutions during

examination

Suspension for two (4)

semesters in any form

15. Insubordination Suspension for four (4)

semesters

16. Failure to appear before the Examination

Malpractices Panel after invitation.


semesters after which the

student will then face the

panel on original offence

PROCEDURE FOR INVESTIGATING ALLEGED EXAMINATION MISCONDUCT

(a) At the discretion of the Chief invigilator, a candidate may be required to leave the

examination venue when his/her conduct is judged to be disturbing or likely to disturb

the examination. The Chief Invigilator shall report immediately any such action taken

to the Dean through the Faculty Examination Coordinator after the completion of the

examination by the candidates.

(b) Any candidates suspected of any examination irregularity shall be required to write

and submit to the Chief Invigilator a written statement in the Examination Hall

Failure to make a written statement shall be regarded as an admission of the charge

against such a candidate.

(c) The Dean shall, within 48 hours of receipt of a report, set up a panel of not less than

three academic staff to investigation shall be made available within two weeks

through the Dean Registrar (Academic) to the Registrar who shall on the basis of the

recommendations, determine whether or not the matter should receive the attention of

the Students Disciplinary Committee.

(d) The student Disciplinary Committee shall within weeks of receiving such a report,

investigate and recommend penalty in cases of proven misconduct to the Vice-

Chancellor in accordance with section 17 of the University Act.

PENALTIES

(a) Any candidate found cheating or aiding and abetting cheating in any

examination shall be rusticated for two sessions in addition, the result of such

an examination shall be nullified for any such candidate. A student so

rusticated shall be barred from examination(s) that fall during the period of

rustication.

(b) At the end of the period for which he has been rusticated, a candidate

penalized under (a) above thereafter resume his courses at the appropriate

point in the following Academic Year.

(c) A candidate penalized under 3 (a) above who is subsequently found guilty of

cheating a second time shall be dismissed from the University.

(d) A candidate who is found guilty of bringing pieces of paper on other

unauthorized materials into the examination venue contrary to the regulations

shall be deemed to have been involved in examination misconduct and shall

therefore be rusticated for two sessions.

(e) A candidate penalized under 3 (d) above who is subsequently found guilty of

committing an examination misconduct a second time shall be dismissed from

the University:

(f) In a situation where an individual, not registered for a particular course, writes

an examination on behalf of a candidate. He/she shall be handed over to the

Law Enforcement Agents, if he/she is from outside the University while the

candidate so helped shall be dismissed form the University.

THE COURSES GRADING SYSTEM

SCORE% LETTER GRADE POINT

0-39 F 0

40-44 E 1

45.49 D 2

50-59 C 3

60-69 B 4

70-100 A 5

GRADE POINT, GRADE POINT AVERAGE AND CUMULATIVE GRADE POINT

AVERAGE

GRADE POINT (GP)

If a student has a score of 61% in a course that has 3 units, then the student's letter grade is B

and the corresponding point is 4. Therefore the student's grade point (GP) for that course is 3

x 4 = 12.

GP = number of units X corresponding point.

GRADE POINT AVERAGE (GPA)

The grade point average (GPA) is the average of grade points for the semester.

If a student results for the Harmattan Semester are as follows

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Course Units Score % Letter Grade Point GP

MTH 201 3 60 B 4 12

MTH 203 2 54 C 3 6

MTH 207 3 64 B 4 12

MTH 211 3 80 A 5 15

STA 207 4 60 B 4 16

BCH 201 3 50 C 3 9

CSE 201 3 65 B 4 12

GNS 209 2 71 A 5 10

23 92

The entries under (6) are the products of corresponding entries under (2) and (5).

For example the 15 for MTH 211 is obtained from 3 x 5.

The sum of the units is 23

The sum of the GPs is 92

Therefore the average of the GPs is

GPA = 92= 4 . 23

Note that GPA is computed for per semester.

Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA)

The cumulative grade point average (CGPA) is the grade point average of all the courses

taken to date.

Example: Suppose our student in 15.2 who is a direct admission student has the following

cumulative records:

HARMATTAN RAIN SEMESTER

Course Units Grade GP Course Units Grade GP

MTH 201 3 B 12 MTH 202 3 C 9

MTH 203 2 C 6 MTH 206 2 B 8

MTH 207 3 B 12 MTH 208 3 C 9

MTH 211 3 A 15 MTH 212 4 B 16

STA 207 4 B 16 MTH 210 2 B 8

BCH 201 3 C 9 STA 208 4 B 16

CSE 201 3 B 12 CSE 202 2 B 8

GNS 2 A 10 CSE 204 2 B 8

23 92 GNS 202 2 C 6

GPA= 92 = 4 24 98

23 GPA = 88 = 3.667

CGPA=GPA=4 24

CGPA=92 + 88=180=3.89

23 24 47

GOOD STANDING PROBATION AND WITHDRAWAL

Good standing: At the end of the semester a student is said to be in good standing if his/her

cumulative grade point average (CGPA) is at least 1.0.

Probation: A student shall be on probation for the duration of the semester following a

semester at the end of which he/she is found not to be in good standing.

Withdrawal: A student shall be advised to withdraw from the programme if at the end of the

probational semester he/she still has a CGPA less than 1.0.

GRADUATION REQUIREMENTS

To qualify for the award of the degree of the programme admitted into, a student must be

found worthy in learning if he/she satisfies the following conditions.

-Passed all the University required courses

-Passed all the Department required courses

Satisfied residential requirements in terms of duration of studentship with respect to

mode entry.

CLASSIFICATION OF DEGREE

The degrees awarded by the University are classified according to CGPA as follows:

CGPARANGE CLASS OF DEGREE

4.50 – 5.00

3.50 – 4.49

2.40 – 3.49

1.50 – 2.39

1.00 – 1.49

First Class Honours

Second Class Upper Honours

Second Class Lower Honours

Third Class Honours

Pass

LEVEL ADVISERS

The level advisers are to assist/advise students on choice of courses. They should also

provide academic guidance and counseling to the students, particularly the week ones.

Students are encouraged to interact adequately with their level advisers, who also

double as their level academic record keepers.

PROGRAMMES OF INSTRUCTION

To be awarded a B. Tech Degree of the University a student must pass all of the

following courses or parts there of as specified on the programme.

UNIVERSITY REQUIREMENTS

The University requires each student of the Department to offer and pass the following

courses in order to qualify for an award of a degree of the University.

Departmental Requirement for B. Tech (Science Laboratory Technology). Restricted

electives in ***

PLAN OF OFFERING COURSES

HARMATTAN SEMESTER 100LEVEL

COUSE CODE TITLE UNIT

MTH 101

BIO 101

PHY 101

CHM 101

GNS 101

FAA 101

PHY 103

BIO 103

CHM 191

LIB 101

Elementary Mathematics 1

General Biology 1

General Physics 1

Introductory Chemistry 1

Use of English 1

Fundamental of Drawing

Experimental Physics 1

Experimental Biology 1

Experimental Chemistry 1

Intro to use of Library

5

3

4

4

2

2

1

1

1

0

TOTAL 23

RAIN SEMESTER 100 LEVEL

COURSE CODE TITLE UNIT

MTH 102

BIO 102

PHY 102

CHM 102

GNS 102

PHY 104

BIO 104

CHM 192

CSE 100

Elementary Mathematics 11

General Biology 11

General Physics 11

Introductory Chemistry 11

Use of English11

Experimental Physics 11

Experimental Biology 11

Experimental Chemistry 11

Introduction to Computing

5

3

4

4

2

1

1

1

1

TOTAL 24

HARMATTAN SEMESTER 200 LEVEL


BIO 201

BOT 201

MCB 201

CHM 211

CHM 231

SLT 203

GNS 207

SYSTEMATIC BIOLOGY

REVIEW OF PLANT KINGDOM

GENERAL MICROBIOLOGY

BASIC INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

BASIC PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY & PRACTICE

SCIENCE IN HISTORY

2

3

4

4

3

2

2

TOTAL 20



SLB 202

CHM 252

SLP 204

SLP 208

ZOO 202

GNS 202

CHM 222

BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY TECHNIQUES

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CHEMICAL PROCESSES

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

AND BASIC INSTRUMENTATION

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT & INSTRUMENTATION

REVIEW OF ANIMAL KINGDOM

LOGIC IN PHILOSOPHY

BASIC ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

2

2

3

3

3

2

4

TOTAL 19



SLC 301

STA 207

SLP 305

SLP 307

SLT 309

CSE 201

SLT 315

GNS 301

CHEMISTRY LABORATORY TECHNIQUES

STATISTICS FOR PHYSICAL SCIENCES

INSTRUMENT MAINTENANCE

PHYSICS LABORATORY TECHNIQUES AND

PRACTICE

QUALITY ASSURANCE TECHNOLOGY

BASIC COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY

PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION SKILLS

2

3

3

2

2

2

2

2

TOTAL 18



SLC 302

MTH 210

SLP 306

SLT 308

SLT 310

GNS 302

SLT 314

COLOUR CHEMISTRY & TECHNOLOGY

MATHEMATICS METHODS 1

APPLIED ELECTRICITY

PHOTOGRAPHY & ILLUSTRATIONS

GLASS BLOWING TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION TO ORAL COMMUNICATION

HAZARDS & SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY

3

4

4

2

2

2

3

TOTAL 20



SLT 401

SLT 403

SLT 405

SLC 407

SLC 409

SLC 411

SLT 413

LABORATORY ORGANIZATION & MANAGEMENT

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

GENERAL BIOCHEMISTRY

WATER & WASTE WATER TREATMENT

ANALYSIS OF RAW MATERIALS & DRUGS

DATA MANAGEMENT

2

3

2

3

2

3

3

TOTAL 18

RAIN SEMESTER 400 LEVELSLT 492 INDUSTRIAL TRAINING

ATTACHMENT (4 UNITS)



SLT 501

SLT 591

LABORATORY ORGANIZATION & ADMIN II

OPTION ELECTIVES

FREE ELECTIVES

SUPERVISED PROJECT

2

12

3

3

TOTAL 20



SLT 592

OPTION ELECTIVES

FREE ELECTIVES

SUPERVISED PROJECT

12

3

3

TOTAL 18

BIOLOGY/MICROBIOLOGY OPTION

500 LEVEL HARMATTAN SEMESTEROPTION ELECTIVES

COURSE CODE TITLE L T P U

SLB 543

SLB 545

SLB 403

SLB 555

FOOD PROCESSING & ANALYSIS

ADVANCED BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY

TECHNIQUES & PRACTICE

MICROBIAL PHYSIOLOGY

AND METABOLISM

GENERAL VIROLOGY

2 0 3 3

2 0 3 3

2 0 3 3

2 0 3 3

FREE ELECTIVES


SLB 549

SLB 551

SLB 503

SOIL MICROBIOLOGY

FOOD MICROBIOLOGY

ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY

1 0 3 2

1 0 3 2

1 0 3 1

BIOLOGY/MICROBIOLOGY OPTION500 LEVEL RAIN SEMESTER

OPTION ELECTIVES


SLB 542

SLB 556

SLB 546

SLB 548

INDUSTRIAL MICROBIOLOGY

HISTOLOGY & HISTOCHEMICAL

TECHNIQUES

ENVIROMENTAL POLLUTION &

MANAGEMENT

BIOLOGY OF STORED PRODUCTS

2 1 3 4

2 0 3 3

2 0 3 3

2 0 3 2

FREE ELECTIVES


SLB 552 PETROLEUM MICROBIOLOGY 1 0 3 3

SLB 554 ENZYME BIOTECHNOLOGY 1 0 3 3

CHEMISTRY OPTION500 LEVEL HARMATTAN SEMESTER

OPTION ELECTIVES


SLC 523

SLC 527

SLC 547

SLC 541

INSTRUMENTATION & ANALYTICAL

CHEMISTRY

INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY PROCESS

PETROCHEMISTRY

ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY

2 0 3 3

1 0 3 2

2 0 0 2

3 0 0 3

FREE ELECTIVES


SLC 511

SLC 535

SLC 537

SLC 539

SLC 531

RADIONUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

POLYMER CHEMISTRY

DYE & TEXTILE CHEMISTRY TECHNOLOGY

WOOD PULP & PAPER CHEMISTRY

CHEMISTRY OF LANTHANIDES & ACTINIDES

2 0 0 2

2 0 0 2

1 0 3 2

2 0 0 2

1 0 0 1

CHEMISTRY OPTION500 LEVEL RAIN SEMESTER

OPTION ELECTIVES


SLC 522 ADVANCED CHEMISTRY LABORATORY

TECHNIQUES & PRACTICE 2 0 3 3

SLC 524

SLC 526

SLC 528

SLC 530

SLC 532

NUTRITIONAL BIOCHEMISTRY

THEORY OF MOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY

CHEMISTRY OF NATURAL PRODUCTS

FOOD CHEMISTRY

COORDINATION CHEMISTRY

1 0 3 2

2 0 0 2

2 0 0 2

1 0 3 2

1 0 0 1

FREE ELECTIVES


SLC 534

SLC 536

SLC 538

HETEROCYTIC CHEMISTRY

NON-AQUEOUS SOLVENTS

QUANTUM CHEMISTRY

2 0 0 2

1 0 0 1

2 0 0 2

PHYSICS/ELECTRONICS500 LEVEL HARMATTAN SEMESTER

OPTION ELECTIVES


SLP 503

SLT 505

SLP 507

SLP 509

SLP 531

DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

ADVANCED LABORATORY PRACTICALS

COMPUTATIONAL PHYSICS

NUCLEAR & PARTICLE PHYSICS 1

NUCLEAR ENGINEERING PHYSICS 1

2 0 3 3

0 1 6 3

2 1 0 3

2 0 3 3

2 0 3 3

FREE ELECTIVES


SLP 511

SLP 513

SLP 536

SLP 517

VACUUM PHYSICS & FILM THIN TECHNOLOGY

FUNDAMENTALS OF ENERGY PROCESS

ELECTRONIC DEVICES: DESIGNS & FABRICATION

FIELD GEOLOGY & INTERPRETATION

3 0 0 3

3 0 0 3

2 0 3 3

2 0 3 3

SLP 519

SLP 503

PRINCIPLES OF GEOPHYSICS

LASER PHYSICS (APPLIED OPTICS)

2 0 3 3

2 0 3 3

PHYSICS/ELECTORNICS500 LEVEL RAIN SEMESTER

OPTION ELECTIVES


SLP 502

SLP 504

SLP 506

SLT 508

SLP 510

ACOUSTICS

MATERIAL SCIENCE

BASIC FLUID MECHANICS

VECTOR & TENSOR ANALYSIS

NUCLEAR & PARTICLE PHYSICS II

1 0 3 2

2 0 3 3

2 1 0 3

2 1 3 4

FREE ELECTIVES


SLP 511

SLP 514

SLP 516

SOLAR ENERGY

ATOMIC & MOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY

SEMICONDUCTOR TECHNOLOGY

1 0 3 2

1 0 3 2

2 0 0 2

COURSE CONTENT

SLT 202- BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY TECHNIQUES I

Use of simple and compound microscope, fixatives for plants and tissues processing,

microtomy, stains, staining techniques and histochemistry methods. Types of blood cells,

structure and characteristics.

SLP 204- ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS AND BASIC ELECTRONICS

Network analysis using kirchoff's voltage law (kvl), kirchoff's current law (kcl), superposition

and Thevenin's theorem. Response; periodic waveforms and their effective values, power and

energy in electric circuit, single time constant circuits. AC circuits vacuum thermionic

devices e.g. valves C.R.T Junction and zener diodes and their applications.

SLP 208- ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION

Transistors, Bipolar Junction transistor (BT J), Field-effect transistors (FET), unijunction

transistors (UJT), Transistors configurations, output and input characteristics Transistor

biasing and stability. H-parameters, Darlington pair Amplifiers. Multistage Amplifiers.

Feedback fundamentals. Multivibrator, Operational Amplifier (OA) and its applications.

SLC 301- CHEMISTRY LABORATORY TECHNIQUES & PRACTICE

Volumetric Analysis, Calibration of volumetric apparatus, Acidimetry and Alkalimetry;

installation and maintenance of balances; sensitivity weighing methods, Methods of

Expressing the Concentration of Solutions Equivalent Weights and conversions -Oxidation -

reduction and participation litrations, PH measurement & butter solutions.

SLT 302- COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

Colour and constitution. Chemistry, properties of dyes and pigments. Classification of dyes

and fibres. Dyeing mechanisms. Preparation and dyeing of natural and synthetic fibres.

Colour fastness properties. Quality control procedures and colouration industry.

SLP 305-INSTRUMENT MAINTENANCE

Electrical and Electronic components Electrical quantities, Ohm's law in circuitry, resistors,

capacitors, semi-conducts; transducers; photo emissive, photo-multipliers and photodiodes.

Measuring instruments, Analytical, Audio-visual, and diagnostics. Care and safety; practical

use of measuring instrument Study of components layout: Circuit training, referring to

manufacturer's data. Reading circuit diagrams; repair differential electronic devices,

Maintenance, services, and repair procedures of electric devices, electrical and electronic

circuits, diagrams and designs, types of maintenance. Factors affecting maintenance.

Corrective maintenance. Power supplies.

SLP 306-APPLIED ELECTRICITY

A.C. circuits using complex Analysis, Low noise Amplifiers design, oscillators, Rectification

and smoothing circuits, Filters, Regulators, power supply design. Integrated circuits and their

applications introduction to logic gates and their applications.

SLP 307- PHYSICS LABORATORY TECHNIQUES AND PRACTICE

General Laboratory Techniques in mechanics; construction graduation of meter rules,

production and construction of standard weight and helical springs pulleys and force diagram

boards, lever system, spring balance, thermometers. Construction of resonant tubes and

sonometers boxes, simple plane mirror. Use and maintenance of optical equipment

cathetometer, microscopes interferometers and lasers. Construction of reflectors, p-n junction

transistors and solar cells.

SLT 308- PHOTOGRAPHY AND ILLUSTRATION

Fundamentals of light and vision, the geometry of image formation, optical aberrations and

lens performance, camera and camera lenses, optical filters. Introduction to the chemistry of

photography, photographic process, colour photography, manufacture of films, plates and

papers: special applications of photography.

SLC 309- QUALITY ASSURANCE TECHNOLOGY

Chemical, biological and aesthetic methods of, quality of food and beverages including

parameters such as taste, flavour, appearance, moisture and fatty acid contents, minerals,

contaminants etc. Statistical methods of quality assurance, sampling plan, process control etc

and marketability of stored products.

SLT 314- HAZARDS AND SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY

Common laboratory accidents/injuries and their control measure

First aid treatment of more common injuries encountered in laboratories

Description, construction, location and contents of first box

Avoidance of waste improvision techniques, Installation of common laboratory equipment.

Car and maintenance of laboratory equipment Standard laboratory fittings and services:

correct use and care.

SLT 315- PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT

Production system, Factory Location, Capacity., Process Planning: Facility Planning, Product

Design, Inventory Management, Production, Planning and control, Workshop, Value

Analysis.

SLT 310- GLASS-BLOWING TECHNOLOGY

The origin, types and nature of glass, sample analysis of glass composition.

Properties of different glasses commonly used in the laboratories.

Design of glassblowing workshop, identification of various tools and equipment used in the

glassblowing workshops

Hazard of glassblowing, safety measures and regulation. Glass tubing storage

Construction of simple glass apparatus, use of bends, T-junctions, ring deals.

SLT 401- LABORATORY ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT I

Planning and designs' of teaching, industrial and research laboratories, Stores policy; stores

design and management Laboratory Administration maintenance-inspection of laboratory

premises and equipment Handling of Service Departments and Special Purpose Rooms,

Glassware, washing .and sterilizing facilities; radioisotope laboratories; photographic units;

cold-rooms: hot-rooms; animal houses; reprographic units; laboratory workshops; audio-

visual aids, visual aids; glassblowing shops.

SLT 403- RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Project proposal-Aims and objectives, scope and methodology. Design and execution of

scientific experiments and projects. Different types of scientific experiments. Scientific

measurements and data collections. Literature search and retrieval. Factors affecting accuracy

of experimental measurements. Research work-review of previous works and justification for

the project. Main investigations- theoretical consideration, experimental works, field works

and data collections, and designs. Analysis of data / results-collation of findings, assessment

of accuracy, further investigations, result consideration and objective. Documentation- format

of write up, major headings and sub headings, citing of references, tables, and figures, listing

of references, appendices and phraseology.

SLT 405- SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Sample collection grab, composite sampling. Sampling equipments; metals and non-metals,

Sampling preservation, sampling labeling checks on sampling techniques, sampling custody.

Sampling of micro-organisms, selection of test organisms for assay.

SLC 407 - GENERAL BIOCHEMISTRY

Chemistry of amino acids, proteins and their derivatives; methods of isolation and

identification, acidity and alkalinity, pH and PK values and their effects on cellular activities;

Buffers. Chemistry/Structure of Carbohydrate, lipids and nucleic, acids, primary, Secondary,

Tertiary and Quaternary structures. Nomenclature of nucleotides; Effect of acid and alkali on

hydrolysis of nucleic acids. Structures and functions of major cell components; prokaryotic

versus eukaryotic organisms.

SLT 409- WATER AND WASTE WATER TREATMENT

Background, sample water analysis, sources of water pollutants, flow, dispension,

degradation amounts and composition of wastes, biological aspects, particles, transport in soil

and ground water sinks for water sinks for water treatment, conventional processes in

handling sewage, water treatment, plant wastes, advanced waste treatment. Effects of water

pollution.

SLT 411-ANALYSIS OF SELECTED MATERIALS INCLUDING DRUGS

Various techniques in use for the analysis of crude materials. Analysis of environmental

samples, e.g. pesticide residue, hydrocarbons and air. Analysis of heavy metal contaminants.

Organic functional groups and drug analysis. Sol-geochemical analysis.

SLT 413-INFORMATION AND DATA MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Information Systems components. Data, information and knowledge. Information flow.

Information as a resource. Organizations and management. Information system as a

sociotechnical systems. Planning and development of strategic information systems.

Applications of information Technology for competitive advantages and business innovation

Systems. Systems and Management Concepts. Managerial decision making, cultural

dimension of information system development. Operational needs of information systems,

information system planning, control and maintenance. Operational of professionalism: Code

conduct, business ethics and the professional. Professionalism in relation to quality miracle.

SLT 415-SEMINAR

This course provides a forum in which students, discuss current topics and careers in the

fields of science laboratory technology. Students also have an opportunity to synthesize their

cooperative work experience with practical experiences.

SLT 501- LABORATORY ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT II

Management Techniques and functions: The concept and relevance of management to

laboratory practice. Selection and Management of Staff Organization of laboratory Practice

Elements of law. Common and statutory laws and relevance to laboratory practice such as

health and safety, The basic approach.The health and safety at work etc Act of 1974

SLP 503- DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

The transistor as a switch, power dissipation base over drive storage drive and switching

speed, logic gates: NAND OR with close logic, the TTl AND gate, Truth table, noise

margins, Television pole, open collector and triastate, TTl, CMOS, NMOS, ECl

Combinational systems, Bolean algebra, identities, De-Morgan's law, Karmaugh maps. Quin

McChusky minimization by computer aided techniques. The half and full adder. Hi-flop: R-

S, J-K and D types edge and level trigger, master slave types, the shift register, circuit

techniques, Oscillation sine wave amplitude control. sequencing frequency stability,

waveform discrimination. Practical ramp generators. Conversion techniques, frequency to

voltage staircase generators analogue to digital D to A, Termination of pulsed lines, Beargon

diagram, low noise amplifier design, use to discrete components for minimum noise.

SLP 504- MATERIAL SCIENCE

Metals, Polymers, Ceramics and their properties. Atomic structure and Bonding Crystal

structure. Imperfection in crystals and their effect on crystal properties. Radiation Damage.

Strengthening mechanism phase transformation. The electron microscope and its application

in material science. Polymetric materials. Molecular structure of ceramics.

SLP 505-ADVANCED LABORATORY PRACTICALS

Instrumentation, Design and construction of circuit training, soldering, circuit Analysis,

Reading circuit diagram. Electronic Maintenance.

SLP 506- BASIC FLUID MECHANICS

Fluid statics; Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids, forces on submerged surfaces. Equations

of fluid motion. Flow measurements, forces exerted by flowing fluids, laminar and turbulent

flow. Reynolds number flow in pipes and channels, dimensional analysis, one two or three

dimensional steady flows of a comprehensible fluid, critical flow, small amplitude waves,

shock waves fluid machinery.

SLP 507 - COMPUTATIONAL PHYSICS

Use of numerical methods in physics; various methods of numerical integration,

differentiation, numerical solutions of some differential equations in physics, Statistical

analysis of experimental data.

SLP 508- VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS

Vector algebra. Vector, dot and cross products. Equation of curves and surfaces. Vector

differentiation and applications. Gradient, divergence and curl. Vector intergrate, line surface

and volume integral. Green 2 stroke's and divergence theorems. Tensor products of vector

spaces. Tensor algebra. Symmetry. Cartesian Tensor.

SLP 509- NUCLEAR AND PARTICLE PHYSICS I

Nuclear structure, Nuclear properties nuclear size, nuclear masses, nuclear forces, nuclear-

nucleon scatterinq, nuclear models. Radio-active Decay: Alpha, beta, gamma decays. Nuclear

reactions.

SLP 510- NUCLEAR AND PARTICLE PHYS·ICS II

Nuclear instrumentations and radiation detection techniques, detectors, nuclear

spectroscopy. Neutron physics: Production, detection of neutrons. Fission and

fussion. Nuclear reactor and nuclear energy. Elementary particles: Conservation laws, partial

classification. Strong electromagnetic and weak interactions.

SLP 511- VACUUM PHYSICS AND THIN FILM TECHNOLOGY

Design and characteristics of vacuum systems; different types of vacuum pumps and their

uses, measurement of low pressure, different types of pressure gauges, use of valves and

other vacuum materials. Industrial uses of vacuum systems, vacuum heating, furnaces,

induction heating, electron bombardment heating. Vacuum evaporation by various means,

evaporation sources and techniques, substrate and surfaces preparation for thin film

deposition in vacuum. Epitaial grow processes. Heat treatment for thin film, compatibility of

film and substrates, sputtering techniques, deposition of thin insulating films by n. f.

sputtering, preparation and use of masks for thin film deposition. Characterization and

application of thin films.

SLP 513- FUNDAMENTALS OF ENERGY PROCESSES

Theory of modern energy conversion, transmission and storage methods; windmills, Heat

engines, Classical engines, Ocean thermal energy converters, thermoelectric, therrninonic,

fuel cells, production of hydrogen,electrolytic, chemical thermolytic, photolytic, hydrogen

storage. Photoelectron converters. photo thermo voltaic converts, Biomass, photosynthesis,

production of methanol and ethanol from vegetable matter.

SLP 514-ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY

The hydrogen atom. Relativistic effects and spin Identical particles and symmetry. Many

electron atoms. Coupling schemes and vectors model Zeeman effects, Hyperfien structure.

The diatomic molecule, the Frank-Condon principle. X-ray diffraction. Microwave methods

Resonance phenomena; ES, MMR and optical pumping and Mossbauer scattering.

SLP 517 - FIELD GEOLOGY & INTERPRETATION

A field course involving the fundamentals of structural geology; descriptions of

deformational structures; field mapping techniques and the detailed interpretation of

topographic and geologic maps. Determination of geometric forms of contours; interpretation

of surface data, Three-point problem.

SLP 519- PRINCIPLES OF GEOPHYSICS

Gravity and magnetic methods and data interpretation, spontaneous potential and electrical

resistivity methods, concepts or electrical potential, current density and conductivity of rocks,

potential distribution in a homogenous earth and apparent resistivity: ER field equipment, its

use and data interpretation.

SLC 521-APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY

A survey of spectroscopic and optical methods with emphasis on their application in

elucidation of structures of organic, inorganic and organometalic compounds. Principles and

applications of UV, IR, NMR and Mass spectroscopy.

SLC 523-INSTRUMENTAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS

Spectrophotometry, Colourmetry and Flamephotometry Quantitative analysis. X-ray

methods, flourescence methods, electorgravimetry, coulmetry, potetiometry conductometric

titrations, voltametry and amperometry and refractometry.

SLC 522-ADVANCED CHEMISTRY LABORATORY TECHNIQUES & PRACTICE

Chemical Recovery of Substances Purification of Organic Compounds. Solvent Extraction,

Gravimetric and Centrifugation techniques refractometry and chromatographic methods

(various types).

SLC 525- RADIOCHEMISTRY AND NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

Natural radioactions fusion, fission decay processes, nature of radiation. Nuclear models.

energetics of nuclear reaction. Principles and measurement of radioactivity. Applications of

radioactivity.

SLC 527 -INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY PROCESS

Hydrogen and carbon monoxide synthesis, gas, exoprocess, water gas, source of hydrogen

and its application. Industrial organic materials, Raw materials. Technical and economic

principles of processes and product routes. Flow diagrams. Selected oils and fats, soaps and

detergents, sugar, varnishes, plastics, wood-pulp and paper. Environmental pollution.

SLC 529- PETROCHEMISTRY

Petroleum in the contemporary energy scene. Nature, classification and composition of crude

petroleum and natural gases. Distribution of petroleum and natural gas resources (the global

and Nigerian situations). Petroleum technology survey of refinery products and processes.

Petrochemicals in industrial raw materials. Prospects for the petrochemicals industry in

Nigeria.

SLC 531- CHEMISTRY OF LANTHANIDES AND ACTINIDES

Second and third row transition elements. Lanthanide and Actinides (f block) chemistry is

discussed in terms of electronic configuration, characteristic oxidation states, spectroscopy,

magnetic properties, complex formation and separation processes.

The elements and the position of the two series in the periodic table. Comparison of the two

series.

SLC 533- FOOD MICROBIOLOGY

The occurrence and interactions of microorganism with food. Intrinsic extrinsic parameters of

foods that affect microbial growth. Methods of detecting the presence of microbes in foods.

Milk, meat and water microbiology. Effects of microbial growth of foods-fermentation,

spoilage and food-borne disease; food sanitation and microbiological food quality control.

SLC 535- POLYMER CHEMISTRY

Large scale industrial polymerization processes. Polymer Tech. polymer processing,

injection, extrusion, compression and transfer moulding of thermoplastics. Polymer additives.

Polymer surface coating and adhesive.

SLC 537- DYE AND TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

Principle of yarn manufacture both natural and man-made. Basic machine processes

involved. Textile processing, bleaching, dyeing theory and printing. Surface activity. Colour

fastness and factors affecting it. Colouring matters. Management problems in textile

industries.

SLC 539- WOOD, PULP AND PAPER CHEMISTRY

Forest conservation, exploitation and aforestation. Species, anatomy, physical properties and

classification of wood. Preparation of wood from pulping. Physical and chemical methods of

pulping. Bleaching reagents and pulp bleaching. Pulp- properties and uses.

SLC 524- NUTRITIONAL BIOCHEMISTRY

Food nutrients; Energy values of foods and energy expenditure by mammalians. Nutritive

values of foods carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, mineral elements and water

Nutritional disorders prevention and therapy. Nutritional status and nutrient requirements.

Recommended dietary allowances. Assessment of nutritional status. Nutrient requirements in

relation to physical activity and ageing, diet and disease obesity and under nutrition.

SLC 526- THEORY OF MOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY

Quantum theory of rotation and vibration. Theory of microwave, Raman, UV, Visible and

NMR spectroscopy. General introduction to electron spin resonance. Massbauer effect,

nuclear quadrupole resonance and other modern techniques.

SLC 528- NATURAL PRODUCTS CHEMISTRY

Chemistry of terpenoids, steroids, and alkaloids, antibiotics, lavanoids. Prostaglandins and

chlorophylls. Other natural products of pharmaceutical importance. General methods of

isolation, separation, purification and structural determination of the natural products.

Classifications, Discussion of chemistry of important members; Biogenesis.

SLC 530- FOOD CHEMISTRY

Occurrence, structure and functions of carbohydrates, protein, fats and oil, physical and

chemical properties. Starch behavior during baking and staling of bread. Glucose syrup-

chemistry of enzymatic and non-enzymatic productions. Ripening and maturing of fruits

pectic substances and their uses. The chemistry of fermentation process in the food industry.

Effect of enzymes in foods Enzymatic and non-enzymatic browning. Oil rancidity.

SLC 532-ADVANCED COORDINATION CHEMISTRY

Definition, Recognition and Applications of Co-ordination, Nomenclature, Co- ordination

formular and Isomerism in complexes. Stereochemistry of complex molecules. Theories of

structure and bonding. Physical methods of structural investigation. Magnetic properties.

Absorption and vibrational spectra. The spectrochemical series. The Nephelauxetic series and

the John-Teller distortions. Stabilization of unusual oxidation states by complex formation.

Thermodynamic stability of complex compounds, the stability constant, the chelote effect.

Preparation and reactions of complexes.

SLC 534- HETEROCYCLIC CHEMISTRY

The synthetic and mechanistic aspects of fused heterocyclic system particularly Quinolines,

Isoqinolines, Bezofurans, Benzothiophenes, Indoles, Bezqpyrylium salts, Coumarin

Chromonnes. Application of heterocyclic systems in drug synthesis.

SLC 536- NON-AQUEOUS SOLVENTS

Classification and general characteristics, solute-solvent interaction. Otonic solvents.

Oxyhalide solvents. Liquid halides. Dinitrogen tetroxide, sulphur dioxide.

SLC 538- QUANTUM CHEMISTRY

Prostulates of Quantum mechanics; operators; angular momentum; solution of the hydrogen

atom problem. Theory of atomic spectra. Self-consistent Field theory. Computational aspects.

Peturbation and variation methods.

SLB 542-INDUSTRIAL MICROBIOLOGY

Nature of industrial microbiology, microorganism of industrial importance; aspects of the

biology of moulds, yeasts, bacteria, actinomycetes and viruses of importance in various

fermentation. Culture techniques and maintenance of selected cultures. Mutation, strain

selection and development, hybridization; media formulation and economic; optimization of

fermentation media at laboratory scale, perimeter design operation; Antifoams; aspects of

biochemical engineering; patents and patent law.

SLB 543- FOOD PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS

Principles and practice of food processing. Techniques of processing and preservation of

Nigerian foods with regards to their physical-chemical properties. Canning containers, outline

of canning operation, principal spoilage organisms in canned foods. Use of radiations in food

preservation. Insect contaminants as spoilage organisms. Laboratory Examination of canned

foods. Methods of detecting contaminants in foods.

SLB 545- ADVANCED BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY TECHNIQUES &

PRACTICE

Preparation of physiological salt solutions and buffer solutions for use in physiology and

pharmacology. Dilution methods of drugs. Aerating systems and temperature control.

Surgical instruments; use and care of catherters, cannule, respiratory, pumps, mercury

manometers. The recorders (polygraphs.) Care and use of transducers. Recording and

measurement of physiological changes. Study of electronic and photoelectric equipment

commonly used in laboratories and their applications. Preparation and measurement of buffer

solutions. Buffering of perfusion fluids and other biological fluids. Microbiological

Techniques.

SLB 548- BIOLOGY OF STORED PRODUCTS

Invertebrate pests of stored fish, wild life products, meat, tuber root crops, vegetables, fruits,

cereals, legumes, leather, and timber, the detailed life cycles, identification of various stages,

behavioural pattern and structural adaptations enabling them to act as efficient pests. The

effect of environmental conditions on the abundance of invertebrate pests Vertebrate pests of

stored products and the damage they cause. Microorganisms as pest factors which influence

or inhibit their continued spread. The effect of storage structure on the biology pests.

SLB 549- SOIL MICROBIOLOGY

Characteristics of Soil environment; microbial and fauna of soil; microbial activities in soil,

nitrogen cycle, carbon cycle; mineral transformation by microorganisms; Ecological

relationship among the soil pathogens; effect of peptides on soil microorganisms;

biodegradation and biofuels generation.

SLB 550- MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY

Pathogenic bacteria, fungi and viruses of both human and veterinary importance. Concept of

pathogenecity and virulence with respect to development of diseases. Clinical samples: pus,

urine, CSF, blood aspirates, faeces-handling and laboratory processing methods.

SLB 551- ANALYTICAL MICROBIOLOGY AND QUALITY CONTROL

Microorganism as reagents in quantitative analysis, selection of test organism for assay

(antibiotics, amino acids, vitamins, etc) responses of microorganisms use in assays; obtaining

and measuring response of microorganism. Preparation, of assay samples; methods of assay;

interpretations of results; aspects of quality control; plant and equipment sanitation;

microbiological standards and specifications.

SLB 552- PETROLEUM MICROBIOLOGY

Origin and chemical evolution of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere, biological

oceanography. Morphology and biostratography of major group of microfossil. Biological

origin and accumulation of petroleum and sedimentary basis. Hydrobiology, petroleum

pollution and its source and biological control. Oil spillage. Petroleum degrading

microorganism, hydrocarbonoblastic bacteria. Metallomonass bacteria that cause rusting of

oil pipes.

SLB 554- ENZYME BIOTECHNOLOGY

Principles of industrial large-scale production of enzymes (techniques in fermentations)

Large-scale extraction and purification. Principles and Designs of immobilized-enzymes

reactors. Characteristics of free versus immobilized enzymes. Immobilized coenzymes and

white cells. Enzyme utilization in industrial processes.

SLB 555- GENERAL VIROLOGY

Historical background and development of Virology; Structure and composition of viruses;

cultivation, isolation and identification of viruses; Antiviral agents such as interferon,

bacteriophages; plant and animal viruses.

PROSPECTS OF SCIENCE

LABORATORY

TECHNOLOGY

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SCIENCE LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY

PROGRAMME

Consequent upon increase in the number of industries and establishments in the pre-seventy and early seventies which led to astronomical increase in industrial and technological activities in the country then, there was a re-orientation in the education policy of the country. Technical education was therefore accorded more prominence and this led to the emergence of several polytechnics and colleges of technology with one of the newly introduced courses being Science Technology which later transformed into Science Laboratory Technology.

Science Laboratory Technology was first introduced in 1948 (exactly sixty years ago), as an in-service training scheme for Laboratory Assistants and Attendants in the then University College, Ibadan. The scope and the content of the programme have now been widened to take care of industrial, research and teaching laboratories. Through the unrelented effort of the Nigerian Institute of Science Technology (now Nigerian Institute of Science Laboratory Technology), the course became a full professional course with its graduate now playing notable roles in all the sectors of the country's economy.

Goals and Objectives of the Programme

The following are some of the goals and objectives of the programme; 1. Carry out chemical analysis and quality control in industry (oil, food, brewing,

detergent, textiles e.t.c.) hospitals, schools, colleges, and research institutions. 2. Carry cut general, physical, biological and chemical analyses in industrial and

academic laboratories. 3. Carry out maintenance of instrumentation in physics and electronic laboratories. 4. Carry out biochemical analysis and experiments in hospitals, schools, colleges, and

institutes. 5. Prepare students for employment in related work such as sales, marketing,

administration and management in the industries and also for self employment.

Specialization

A student of Science Laboratory Technology has the option to specialize

in any of the following areas:

- Chemistry/Applied Chemistry

- Microbiology

- Biology/Microbiology

- Geology

- Biochemistry

- Chemistry/Biochemistry

- Instrumentation

- Physics with Electronics

Prospects

Since Science Laboratory Technology involves the application of pure science to solving the numerous problems of mankind and the profession is widely dedicated to human services and to the control of material world so as to ensure a smooth National Technological development, the service of a Science Laboratory Technologist in every sector of the economy is therefore indispensable while the range of her area of need is-broad and varied.

1. In the Food and Agricultural sector:

Among the basic and fundamental human needs is food, without which survival will be very difficult. The need can only be met and satisfied by the application of scientific fanning which involves the use of pesticides, fertilizers, and scientific storage systems. Science Laboratory Technologist comes to the aid of the farmers by making available "artificial manure".

Science Laboratory Technologists in the government and industry, aware of the need to control pests, weeds and other diseases without contaminating the environment, are devoting great efforts to toxicological studies on herbicide and pesticides. Insects have also been eradicated by radiation using a measure dose of gamma radiation. The production and application of all the enumerated pest control drugs and other methods are handiwork of the Science Laboratory Technologist.

2. In chemical Industries:

Industries had been in Nigeria since the olden days but crude methods, low skills and operation, the knowledge of the technology, source and quality of power had so much disturbed the growth and development of industry. However, by taking Science Laboratory Technology beyond the confinement of the laboratory, a lot had been achieved to meet the aspiration of a country undergoing industrialization. Virtually every manufacturing industry relies very much on chemical productsand in most cases on chemical processes as well. The contributions of SLT are noticeable in the following industries - chemical and allied products, brewing, power and steel, cosmetics and toiletries, starch and starch products, textile, footware and leather products, paper and paper products, electronic goods, photographic

materials, geology and mining, telecommunication, water resources development, radio and television broadcasting, petroleum industry and plastic' products industry. In the aforementioned industries, Science Laboratory Technologists are involved in product development, quality control, prediction, sales and management.

3. In Paints, Ceramics and Glass Industries:

The job of a Science Laboratory Technologist in the paint industry includes the development, production and quality control analysis of the paints. Moreover, Science Laboratory Technologist has through the knowledge of Chemistry and Physics, produced ceramics that can withstand the stress and heat imposed by supersonic speeds of aircraft and by nuclear reactors. The production of glass, which started from the Egyptians, involved the use of hand operations. Today, the industry has been fully and completely mechanized. The process involves mixing sand, soda, lime and other materials together and melted together in a furnace at a very high temperature to produce molten glass. While the glass is still molten, it is shaped as desired and made to cool to form a rigid piece. This is what we refer to as scientific glassblowing in SLT.

4. In the Health sector:

Science Laboratory Technologists are involved in carrying out chemical and biochemical analyses and experiments in hospitals. They are equally involved in the synthesis of drugs in pharmaceutical industries as well as in drug development and quality control.

5. In National Defence:

The contribution of Science Laboratory Technology to national defence is very multifarious ranging from the development of weapons, communication, to the application of scientific medicine. Science Laboratory Technologists play prominent roles in both the production and quality control sections of the defence industry.

6. In Crime Detection and Control:

Science Laboratory Technologists are employed in forensic laboratories where fingerprints are used as a unique means of personal identification, the basis of which is that each individual pattern is both unique and unchanging throughout one's lifetime. A thorough examination of the fingerprints will help the Science Laboratory Technologist, serving as a detective, to identify the criminal. No wonder then that Science Laboratory Technologists are usually given employment in the forces and other law enforcement agencies such as Army, Navy, Airforce, Police, NAFDAC, EFCC, and ICPC.

7. In Schools, Colleges, Hospitals and Research institutions:

As earlier on stated in the general objectives of the programme, graduates of the programme are employed in schools, colleges, hospitals and research institutions to carry out chemical, physical, biological and biochemical analyses. In some institutions especially polytechnics, they are usually involved in the teaching of technical courses and techniques.

8. Self Employment:

A Science Laboratory Technologist, by virtue of his/her training, needs not turn him/herself to a nuisance by moving from pillar to post to look for employment which is not readily available. He should endeavour to become an employer of labour rather than a job seeker. A Science Laboratory Technologist can get himself involved in manufacturing, provision of services and consultancy.

Manufacturing

1. Production of soap and detergents

2. Production of candle and chalk

3. Production of sachet/bottled water

4. Production of fruit juice and yoghurt

5. Production of jams and honey

6. Constitution of baby foods

7. Constitution of livestock feeds

8. Production of body and hair creams

9. Manufacturing of laboratory wares-glasswares (test-tubes, pipettes, burettes, round

bottom flasks and beakers) and wood wares (test-tube holders and racks).

10. Development and production of paints

11. Production of laboratory slides-biological specimens.

12. Repair of damaged laboratory glasswares

13. Production of dyes and colourants

Provision of Services

1. Supply of laboratory equipment

2. Supply of chemicals and other consumables

3. Provision of wholesale services to manufacturers

4. Provision of laboratory service - chemicals analysis, biological analysis such as

water, soil and effluents.

5. Collection and preservation of biological specimens for supply to schools,

hospitals and institutes.

Consultancy services

1. Serving as a consultant on design and construction of a laboratory. 2. Serving as a consultant on design and construction of a workshop - glassblowing and

photography.

3. Serving as a consultant on setting up of industries.4. Serving as a consultant to procure necessary registration papers by industries

especially NAFDAC registration number.

HINTS

ON

HAZARDS AND SAFETY

IN

THE LABORATORY

HAZARDS AND SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY.HAZARDS AND SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY.

The laboratory is a place [room or building] used for scientific experiments and research. A laboratory hazard refers to a danger or a risk in the laboratory.

LABORATORY ACCIDENTS.

An accident can be defined as an unplanned (not necessarily injurious or damaging) event which interrupts the completion of an activity.An accident can also be defined as the occurrence that interferes with the orderly progress of activity.

Laboratory accidents are very common and they occur as a result of unsafe acts and practices. Accidents may cause injury which sometimes results in death or permanent disabilities. Therefore, nowadays serious attention is paid to this matter because these accidents cause heavy losses, both to man and properties.

CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS IN THE LABORATORY.

If the causes of accidents are known, it becomes easier to minimize. The general causes are:

(i) Unsafe physical conditions. These include improper illumination, improper

ventilation, unsafe clothing, etc.

(ii) Moving objects. Sometimes moving objects or falling objects may cause

accident.

(iii) Personal factors. Some personal factors may cause accidents. Such factors

include:

(a). Lack of awareness (or ignorance). In some cases, the laboratory worker may

not be aware of certain hazards of their action in the laboratory, and may not see

the need for rules and regulations in the laboratory.

(b) Lack of knowledge. Sometimes the laboratory worker may want to make inquiry through experimentation without adequate knowledge of how to go about it. An unqualified laboratory assistant may cause this type of accident.

(c) Lack of the right attitude. Carelessness or insufficient care can lead to injury, and also cause damages to equipment, for instance using the mouth to pipette toxic and corrosive liquids. Over-carefulness on the other hand could waste time, money and reduce the student’s experience.

(iv) Unsafe acts. It is a violation of commonly accepted procedure not to use Safety devices; not to obey proper instructions or not to follow safety precautions in the laboratory.

(v) Exposure to harmful substances.Injuries due to accidents are also caused due toexposure to harmful substances like toxic gases, fumes, dust, vapors, mists and aerosols.

SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY

Safety refers to protection from danger, harm or risk in the laboratory. A sound spirit of cooperation and unselfishness on the part of all the laboratory staff is the best safeguard against accidents. The chief responsibility for the promotion of this kind of spirit rests with the head of the section. He is in the best position to give the necessary lead to his staff and should maintain close contact with every one under his control.

STEPS TO BE TAKEN TO ENSURE SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY

1. The most important steps to safety are cleanliness and tidiness, which in themselves

promote an accident-free environment. Clustered benches not only cause accidents but

clearly indicate muddled working on the part of the person responsible. Inadequate locker

and storage arrangement may contribute to this state of affairs.

2. Equipment should always be well maintained. Adequate notice boards should be provided

so that safety rules may be prominently displayed.

3. The fire, hospital and ambulance facilities available and their telephone numbers should

be displayed on the notice board.

4. Provision should be made for the training of all the staff by regular meeting and

discussion on the matters of safety. It is recognized that verbal instruction is far more

effective than a printed notice. The service of inspectors of factories may be obtained for

this purpose.

5. All establishments, particularly research and educational institutions, should nominate

their own safety officer. The duties of this officer include the dissemination of safety

literature, organization of first aid facilities both central and local and promotion of safety

lectures.

6. To supplement the work of the safety officer, all personnel should receive training in first

aid. In this connection the various Red Cross organizations are usually willing to assist

7. Encouragement should be given to staff to see potential hazards and to report on them. An

accident book should be maintained for only recording accidents which can assure

prevention

8. In order to ensure safety in the laboratory, certain preventive measures must be taken

these are listed below:

(a) The laboratory assistant should turn-off the gas, water and electricity after each

practical exercise

(b) In addition to having a suitable fire extinguisher, it is necessary to have a fume

cupboard for toxic gases, a sand bucket, a scoop with a long handle, a fire blanket to

curb all sorts of fire accidents in the laboratory.

(c) The design of the laboratory should permit free movement

(d) The laboratory should not be overcrowded

(e) The fittings on the laboratory walls and floor should not stick out into the pathway in

the laboratory

(f) It should be possible to open the laboratory windows without climbing the stools or

worktables. In the design, the main control for the gas, electricity and water should be

accessible to laboratory workers to operate in case of emergency

(g) To keep the laboratory clean and safe, there is need to design a daily routine of duties

for the laboratory assistants.

(h) First aid kits should be made available and accessible to laboratory workers.

9. The laboratory workers require a set of rules for proper regulation safety and protection in

the laboratory. Below is a set of rules that must be followed while working in the

laboratory:

COMMON RULES AND REGULATIONS IN THE LABORATORY

1. Never eat, drink or smoke in the laboratory.

2. Always put on protective devices such as laboratory coat, gloves, safety spectacles, safety

shoes, aprons etc. at every practical session.

3. Get familiar with the locations of fire alarm, first aid kit, fire extinguisher, telephone and

other safety equipments.

4. Get familiar with the position of main switches for water, gas and electricity supply to the

laboratory

5. Long hair or head ties should be well packed and avoid lose jewelry in the laboratory.

6. Be familiar with the emergency route and procedure

7. Avoid looking into the mouth of the test tube while heating or adding reagents

8. Ensure there are no obstruction with the doorways and emergency exists

9. Always wash your hands before leaving the laboratory

10. While diluting strong acids, pour the acid a little a time to water in a slanting position. Never

add water to acid.

11. Never try to slow down or stop a centrifuge with your hand

12. Always label containers accurately with the name and concentration of contents

13. Avoid tasting chemicals or eating seeds or plants meant for biology practicals

14. Do not sniff material that may be toxic

15. Always use the fume cupboard in carrying out experiments that produce harmful gases

16. Do not handle materials or operate equipment you are not familiar with

17. All apparatus not in immediate use should be kept in the cupboard

18. Make sure that the laboratory is kept clean after each practical exercise

19. Make sure all services e.g. gas, water, electricity are put off at the end of the days work.

20. Inform other staff of any breakage, faulty equipment and other defects

21. Check that all Bunsen burners are put off and there is no naked flame before using flammable

solvent

COMMON LABORATORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY MEASURES

An accident can be defined as an unplanned (not necessarily injurious or damaging) event

which interrupts the completion of an activity.

An accident can also be defined as the occurrence that interferes with the orderly progress of

activity.

Laboratory accidents are very common and they occur as a result of unsafe acts and practices.

Accidents may cause injury which sometimes results in death or permanent disabilities.

Therefore, nowadays serious attention is paid to this matter because these accidents cause

heavy losses, both to man and properties.

CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS IN THE LABORATORY.

If the causes of accidents are known, it becomes easier to minimize. The general causes are:

(i) Unsafe physical conditions. These include improper illumination, improper

ventilation, unsafe clothing, etc.

(ii) Moving objects. Sometimes moving objects or falling objects may cause

accident.

(iii) Personal factors. Some personal factors may cause accidents. Such factors

include:

(a). Lack of awareness (or ignorance). In some cases, the laboratory worker may not be

aware of certain hazards of their action in the laboratory, and may not see the need for

rules and regulations in the laboratory.

(b). Lack of knowledge. Sometimes the laboratory worker may want to make inquiry

through experimentation without adequate knowledge of how to go about it. An

unqualified laboratory assistant may cause this type of accident.

(c). Lack of the right attitude. Carelessness or insufficient care can lead to injury, and

also cause damages to equipment, for instance using the mouth to pipette toxic and

corrosive liquids. Over-carefulness on the other hand could waste time, money and reduce

the student’s experience.

(iv). Unsafe acts. It is a violation of commonly accepted procedure not to use

safety devices; not to obey proper instructions or not to follow safety

precautions in the laboratory.

(v). Exposure to harmful substances. Injuries due to accidents are also caused due

to

exposure to harmful substances like toxic gases, fumes, dust, vapors, mists and

aerosols.

1. ACCIDENTS FROM GLASS AND SAFETY MEASURE

For accidents glass is the laboratory worker’s worst enemy. Glass apparatus should be

erected methodically and deliberately and never in a hurry since this is the chief cause of

accident.

Cutting Glass Tube and Rod

To cut small diameters of glass tubing of rod into shorter lengths, first mark it with a

glass-knife of triangular file. Place the thumb on each side of the mark and close it. Then pull

the glass slightly towards its ends and at the same time break it away from the body in the one

motion. When breaking and size of tubing, the hands should be protected with a piece of

cloth. The ends of the cut tube and rod should always be flame-polished before being used in

apparatus

Heating Glass

Depending upon its composition and its thickness, glass is susceptible to stresses and

strains and can withstand only limited thermal and physical shock. Heat resistant glass wares

must always be used for heating liquids. It should also be used when heat is likely to result

through diluting or dissolving a substance and this operation should never be carried out in

non-resistant glass vessels.

Carrying Glass

To avoid accidents when glassware is transported, non slip floors are necessary in the

laboratory and sensible shoes should always be worn. The route should be free from

obstruction and spilled liquids should be immediately wiped off. Never be in a hurry; many

major accidents have occurred through person falling or being struck by door when carrying

glass apparatus or dangerous chemicals in glass containers.

Damaged Glasswares

Damage glassware should not be used nor should be issued to other people. If it is

badly damaged, it should be replaced. If repairable, it should be put in the repairable

glassware box to await attention.

Boring Corks to Take Glass Tubing

Corks or bungs should always be held by their sides between fore finger and thumb

and bored on a piece of scrap wood. Bore from the narrow end by rotating the borer in one

direction only. The size of the borer should be compatible with the size of the glass tubing to

be inserted so that no undue forcing in assembly will be necessary. For most purposes, it is

essential that the cork or bung grip the tube reasonably tightly and therefore when inserting

the tube, it should be held well down close to the point of entry. A little lubricating medium

such as glycerol assists the operation.

2. ACCIDENT FROM FURNITURE AND WORKING EQUIPMENT

Furniture

All laboratory furniture, whether of wood or of metal, must be of the highest quality

and should have a non absorbent finish. The benches must be the correct height in accordance

with the work to be done on them and should incorporate sufficient sinks to allow any person

working at the bench speedy access to one of them during an emergency. The shelves on or

above the benches should not be too high and should have a light beading affixed to the front

of them so that bottles are not easily knocked off. All service pipelines should be painted with

the appropriate service color which allows them to be more easily identified. Suitable types of

rubbish boxes in sufficient numbers should be provided. Broken glass or chemical refuse

which would be dangerous if deposited in the normal waste bins, requires separate bins.

Equipment

When checking equipment, particular attention should be paid to temperature

regulating devices and to gauges and valves or pressure equipment. Protective items such as

respirators, goggles and gloves, if openly displayed are far more likely to be regularly used

than if hidden away in cupboards. Glass-fronted cabinets may be used to ensure that the

appliances are seen and protected from dust. Respirators must be regularly disinfected and

rubber gloves kept in good condition by occasional powdering. Laboratory goggles should be

comfortable and lightweight. These are worn for any operation which constitutes a risk to the

eyes such as working involving acids, bromine, and ammonia, cutting of sodium and chipping

and grinding operations. Person should not be allowed to enter laboratory where eye dangers

exist unless they are wearing eye protection.

3. ACCIDENTS FROM CHEMICALS

Accidents are said to occur in the laboratory through chemicals. Human contact with

chemicals can take place through the following ways

(a) ingestion

(b) Direct contact from spills or by improper handling

(c) Inhalation of vapors, fumes or dust

(d) Indirectly through explosion.

4. ACCIDENTS FROM ACIDS

More accidents occur in the laboratory through mineral acids than from any other

liquids. Concentrated acids are the most dangerous.

When acids are diluted the acid is poured into water and never water to acid. During

the process of pouring acid and other corrosive liquids, rubber gloves and goggles

should be adopted.

Acids should be poured slowly, if the bottle is tilted too much, air locks will be

caused and the acid discharge in spurts.

The bottle should be held with the hand placed on the opposite side so as to avoid

contact with drips which may run down.

After pouring and replacing the cover, the bottle should be flushed on the outside

with water. When the skin is splashed with acids or other corrosives, it must be

flushed immediately with plenty of water and afterwards a solution of sodium

bicarbonate should be applied.

If acid is splashed on the bench, it must be wipe up at once. Any vessel which

contains acid should be rinsed out with water and not left to be washed with acid

drops remaining in it.

Whenever acid is discarded, plenty of water should be run into the sink and at the

same time the acid should be slowly poured away.

Concentrated acids in bottles or desiccators must be discarded before these are put out

for washing up.

Never put concentrated acid and alkalis adjacent to each other on shelves.

5. ACCIDENT FROM POISONS

Apart from the scheduled poison which should be kept under lock and key, many

other substances handled daily in the laboratory such as oxalic acid are also

poisonous. For complete safety, it is advisable that all chemicals be regarded as

poisons. Poisons are not necessarily taken into the system by the way of the mouth

but may also be inhaled or absorbed through the skin. Certain basic rules are therefore

to be observed in handling chemicals, and if these are adhere to the probability of

poisoning becomes remote.

Full use should be made of spatula when dispensing chemicals and if necessary,

robber gloves should be worn. Food should not be eaten in the laboratory nor should

the laboratory vessels be used for drinking purpose. On leaving the laboratory the

hands must be washed with soap and water before taking food.

For any substance which gives off toxic fumes, the fume cupboard must always be

used. All experiments giving off fumes even if the fumes are not dangerous should

also be performed in fume cupboard. These keep the laboratory atmosphere clean.

When working with cylinders of dangerous gases such as chlorine, carbon (II) oxide,

aspirator should be used.

Mouth pipettes should not be used for poisonous, corrosive or volatile liquids. A

rubber bulb pipettes, safety pipettes or burettes must be used. The use of rubber bulb

pipettes is more hygienic and is to be recommended for all liquids.

6. ACCIDENTS FROM EXPLOSION

The building in which laboratory tests involving the handling of explosives are

carried out is ideally a single story of fire proof construction. The building should be

well ventilated and should have wooden floors and benches. Special spark proof

electrical fittings and the other safety precautions necessary for areas involving fire

hazards should be adopted. The facilities in the laboratory should include fume

cupboards, the provision of appliances for personal protection including protective

clothes, and good arrangement for personal hygiene. The normal service must be

provided and these should include steam. Dermatitis has to be carefully guarded

against in explosive laboratories because of the handling of nitro compounds. Bulk

inflammable solvents and explosive samples must be kept in special stores situated

away from the main building.

The first rule in the safe handling of explosive is that they must not be subjected to

friction or shock. For this reason, smooth bottles of good quality, closed with soft

rubber stoppers are necessary. Rooms in which dangerous dusts are produced should

be constructed in a way which allows the dust to be easily and regularly removed.

Volatile inflammable vapors.

If the concentration of the vapor reaches certain limits and is mixed in the right

proportion with air, ignition causes combustion which proceeds at high speed and

with great violence. The sudden expansion which accompanies the combustion

constitutes an explosion. Explosion generally occurs when the vapor concentration is

low. It is for this reason that empty inflammable solvent containers owing to an

accumulation of air and vapor mixed within them can be more dangerous that when

full.

Many gases are also explosives when mixed with oxygen or air and a piece of

apparatus which has been used for containing or transporting such gases should be

made safe after use by filling with water or blowing air through them.

7. ACCIDENTS FROM GAS CYLINDERS

The storage room for gas cylinders should be unheated but protected from extreme

heat or cold and direct sunlight. The room also requires good top and bottom

ventilation. Smoking or the use of naked light should be prohibited inside the store.

The light fittings should be the vapor-proof types and the light switch should be

positioned outside the room. The best position for the store is close to an outside exit.

Separate storage for empty and full cylinders is advisable. Outside storage is

necessary for cylinders containing poisonous gases but these must be adequately

protected from ice and snow and the direct rays of the sun.

Cylinder should be stored in an upright position and secured to the walls with their

protective metals caps in place. Acetylene cylinders must always be stored upright

and kept apart from oxygen cylinder. If a cylinder suffers damage of any kind, it

should be returned to the suppliers accompanied by a statement giving the exact

nature of the damage.

8. ACCIDENTS FROM THE DISPOSAL OF CHEMICALS

A quantity of unwanted chemicals usually accumulates in chemical laboratory and

stores owing to the destruction of labels through contamination or as residue. Such

chemicals may be of known or unknown character and in either case their disposal

may involve a considerable element of danger. All disposables should be carried out

by a responsible person and if any dought exists in his mind concerning the handling

of the particular chemical, someone else with special knowledge of the chemical

should be consulted.

In order to accurately assess the degree of danger involved in the disposal of a

chemical, a sound knowledge of its properties is necessary. If the nature of the

chemical is unknown, extra care is required and very small quantity of the substance

should be tested before the disposal is attempted. If the substance is a solid, its

appearance, odor or inflammability may suggest the best method of disposal and

similarly in the case of a liquid, miscibility, volatility and inflammability may prove

to be important indication.

During disposal, all the necessary safety precautions should be taken. Rubber gloves

and goggles should always be worn. If substances are to be put down the drain, it

should first be ensured that this method of disposal is in accordance with the

regulations of the local authority. It is safe to dispose off chemicals one at a time and

they should never be mixed.

9. ACCIDENTS FROM FIRE.

I. Handling of inflammable solvents

The daily handling of inflammable solvents with low boiling points, such as

ether, is the most dangerous and the degree of danger increases as the boiling point of

the solvent becomes lower. At the flash point of the solvent, vapours are given off

which form inflammable and sometimes explosive mixture with air. These vapours

are capable of traveling considerable distances and when ignited flash back with great

rapidity to their source. The handling of inflammable solvents should be carried out

in fire-proof rooms designed for the .purpose and provided with alternative exits.

Naked lights, smoking and the carrying of matches should be strictly restricted in all

areas where the nature .of the work is such that inflammable vapours, gases or dust

might be produced. Proper containers bearing the word “no naked light” should be

used for inflammable solvent and the container should be distinctively colored or

otherwise marked so as to be easily identified. Experiments involving inflammable

solvents, hazardous work should be carried out in a fume cupboard so that if a fire

occurs it can be confined and more easily extinguished.

II. Heating.

The best method of heating low boiling point solvents is by steam. Heating

mantles can be used because its large heating surface is an advantage over naked

flame since the actual temperature of the mantle may be maintained at a lower level

than the ignition temperature of the liquid. Fore medium boiling point liquids, water

baths are permissible if electrically heated or used in conjunction with a safety

burner.

i. Distillation and Extraction.

For operation involving distillation or extraction the apparatus is best erected on a

metal tray containing a layer of sand. Glass joints are preferable to cork or rubber

bungs which may deteriorate and leak hot vapour. Distillation vessels should never be

filled to more than one half of their capacity and should be filled only when cool.

Where laboratory fires are concerned prevention, is certainly better than the cure.

Check that the bunsen burner is put off after the days work. The prevention of fire too

depends on good laboratory keeping. This involves tidiness in all laboratories and

storerooms, the constant checking and maintenance of laboratory service and the

efficiency of fire fighting equipment. The hand-size and larger sizes of fire

extinguishers should be available in all laboratories. In addition large extinguishers

should be available in corridors.

All laboratory staff should receive instructions as to their function in the event of fire

and a good warning system should be installed. Accumulators of rubbish, such as

paper, rags and wooden materials should be avoided as they constitute a major fire

hazard in the laboratory.

Spilled solvents must be wiped up immediately and the use of electrical apparatus,

such as hair dryers to increase the rate of evaporation of inflammable solvents should

be avoided.

The mere provision of fire appliances is not enough but regular familiarization with

them ensures complete safety. Regular fire drills should be held with full use of the

various appliances during the practice. The equipment should be regularly checked

and extinguished ones refilled. Safety shower which can be used in an emergency

should be installed above the exits or in other carefully selected places in chemical

laboratories to give a cascade of water and can be used by the person with their

clothing on fire on those who may have been splashed with acid or other corrosive

substances. Although showers are preferred to fire blankets, the provision of both is

desirable. Fire blankets may be strategically placed around the laboratory for quick

location.

10. ACCIDENTS FROM STORAGE

A well designed store minimizes the hazards associated with the storage of chemicals,

.liquid reagents and gas cylinders. It must be ventilated and spacious enough to allow

good clearance. The store should be situated if possible on a ground floor with a

fireproof door, opening to the outside. This allows direct access to the open air in an

emergency and the convenient and safe delivery of packages. The store should be

constructed in such a way that moderate and even temperature can be maintained.

Separate rooms are required for the safe storage of acids, ammonia and gas cylinders.

Safety measures such as adequate fire extinguishers, protective clothing and vapour-

proof light fittings are normally provided in location where hazardous materials are

involved. In addition, a good supply of sand, a shovel and all purpose respirator and

essential sprinkler system are recommended only if the materials stored are safe when

water is used.

11. ACCIDENTS FROM ELECTRICITY

The passage of small electric current as low as 25miliampare A.C. or 50miliampare D.C.

through the human body may be sufficient to cause death by failure of the heart or respiration.

It is not always high voltage which is responsible for fatality since the degree of danger to life

by shock depends on the particular condition prevailing at the time of contact. The resistance

of the body varies according to circumstance and the area of contact. Wet or damp conditions

are particularly dangerous.

The growth in recent years of the amount of electrical equipment used in the laboratory has

also increased the need for safety measures. In much of the apparatus, voltage above 500v is

used and special precautions are necessary. In those departments or laboratories where a great

deal of work with high voltage is undertaken, it is necessary to provide specially protected

high tension (h.t.) enclosure. The enclosure described, which is efficiently earthed is of

permanent metal construction and completely enclosed. Any apparatus which can become

‘live’ at a dangerous voltage when the door or any other aperture into the cage is opened to

the main supply are disconnected. The accidental closing of the gate is impossible since any

person inside enclosure can be easily seen by others having a reason to close it. Only

authorized experimental staff may enter the enclosure without special permission and when it

is necessary for other technical staff to enter, the officer responsible for the enclosure takes

custody of fuses. The position and number of the fuses are not replaced until the visiting

technician has vacated the enclosure.

If high tension work is carried out on the open benches in the laboratory a light wooden

screen at a convenient height should be erected around the edges of benches. This draws the

attention of passersby to the dangerous possibility of the work and also restricts apparatus and

electrical leads to confines of the bench.

The floor of the laboratory should be covered with good insulating materials.

The high tension bench should be made of wood and any metal pipes should be well hidden

and in such a position that they cannot be accidentally touched or contacted by wires.

Electrical switches, sockets and tapes should preferably be situated in recess in the front of

the bench in a position convenient to the operator. This avoids the necessity for reaching over

the bench to adjust control. It should be possible to make the whole apparatus dead by the

operation of a single switch which should be clearly marked high tension switches so that it

can be operated. It should not be permitted for any one person to work alone in a room or

laboratory when using high tension benches. High tension benches should not be left by the

responsible person, even for a few seconds when the apparatus is live. When the laboratory is

closed all apparatus must be made dead. The high tension terminals should be protected and

the use of naked wiring avoided.

All electric parts and wiring should be installed by a competent electrician and periodically

inspected by him.

Before any local extension of the existing wiring is carried out. It is a common fault in

laboratory that more and more electrical equipments is needed without regard for the

overloading of supply cables

All electrical apparatus and instruments should be inspected for faults by a competent

technician before being installed in the laboratory. Never handle electrical switch and

connections with wet hands or when standing in water.

12. ACCIDENT FROM RADIATION

In the course of their duties laboratory workers may be subjected to harmful ionizing

radiation from radio isotopes or from X-rays produced by certain types of equipment. To overcome

any possibility harmful effects, safe marking methods have been devised but since they are constantly

being improved, laboratory workers should keep themselves up-to-date with current safety measures

to ensure maximum safety in the laboratory.

The nature of symptoms associated with exposure to radiation depends on several factors including

the nature of the radiation and the amount absorbed.

Because harmful radiation destroys the body cells, workers may be required to undergo blood counts

before beginning experimental work and at regular intervals thereafter. Regular medical examination

may also be necessary. Radioactive materials may enter the body by inhalation, ingestion or

absorption through the skin. Protective devices such as reparatory gloves and coats should be worn by

workers.

Strict protective measures are adopted to ensure that working areas and the atmosphere and equipment

within them are not contaminated by unwanted radioactive materials. These measures include the

provision of adequate shielding, special methods of ventilation and cleaning and efficient method of

working. Sources coursing radiation which are firmly sealed in strong containers of sufficient strength

to exclude the possibility of contact with the source and to prevent the dispersal of the radioactive

materials are called sealed sources. Sources of ionizing radiation not confined in that way are known

as unsealed sources. The container for sealed source should be undamaged and uncorroded to avoid

the necessity for any position to expose him to radiation risks by physically examining the contents

the containers should be clearly marked with the nature of these contents. The standard isotope

containers which are usually made of stainless steel or aluminum may be transported in strong outer

containers.

FIRST AID TREATMENT OF COMMON INJURIES IN LABORATORIES.

First aid is the immediate treatment and care given to a victim of an accident or sudden illness until

the necessary professional medical assistance is available. The treatment in the first aid is only

temporal and it is given to achieve three objectives.

1. To sustain or preserve life

2. To prevent the victim’s condition from getting worse.

3. To promote the victim’s recovery.

First aid procedure in an emergency situation is as follows;

1. Quickly remove the victim from the hazard provided it is safe to do so

2. Ensure that the patients breathing are maintained. If the victim is not breathing, begin

artificial respiration immediately. If the heart beat is absent begin resuscitation. For these,

the services of a trained person is helpful

3. Control serious bleeding to prevent heavy loss

4. Treat for shock

5. Treat burns and deal with localized injuries (such as cut on foreign bodies in the eye)

6. Reassure the casualty and help lessen the anxiety

7. Do not allow people to crowd around as fresh air is essential. Get them to contact the

ambulance and doctor.

8. Where necessary, your last action is to hand over the victim to the doctor or take him to

the hospital.

FIRST AID ARRANGEMENTS IN THE LABORATORY

FIRST AID ROOM

Where the number of people working in the laboratory exceeds 250, a suitable ambulance room

should be maintained solely for the purpose of treatment. The room should be in charge of qualified

person who should be available during the hours when the laboratory is open and a record of accidents

and sickness cases treated should be kept.

FIRST AID ROOM EQUIPMENT

The following list of equipments should be kept in the first aid room.

1. Sink with hot and cold water

2. Examination couch with rubber sheet

3. Table for dressings

4. Table with smooth top

5. Desk

6. Chair

7. Blankets

8. Pail for dirty dressings

9. Instrument cabinet

10. Medicine cabinet

11. Sterilizer

12. Oxygen cylinder and administering apparatus

13. Self contained breathing apparatus

14. Accident report book

15. Smaller items of equipment including bowls, kidney dishes, towels, jugs, medicines

glasses and jars for lotion.

16. First aid box or cupboard

CONTENTS OF FIRST AID CUPBOARD OR BOX

The contents of the box should be comprehensive as listed below;

1. Adhesive plaster 25mm wide 1

2. Adhesive (strip) plaster dressing (65mm x 90cm) 2 boxes

3. Paracetamol tablets 100

4. Bandages 25mm 9

5. Bandages 50mm 9

6. Bandages 75mm 6

7. Boric acid powder 25g

8. Burn cream (or jelly) 1 tube

9. Camel hair brush 1

10. Castor oil

11. Cotton wool (sterile) 12.5g 6

12. Cotton wool (dispenser) 1

13. Dried milk 1 tin

14. Eye bath 1

15. First aid manual 1

16. Forceps, dressing 1

17. Funnel, plastic 1

18. Kidney dish 1

19. Measuring cylinder (50ml) 1

20. Notebook 1

21. Olive oil 50g

22. Oxygen unit with mask 1

23. Petroleum jelly 50g

24. Safety pins 12

25. Scissors blunt 125mm 1

26. Sodium bicarbonate powder 250g

27. Sodium bicarbonate solution 500ml

28. Splints (wooden rectangular) 8

29. Table spoon (stainless) 1

30. Teaspoon (stainless) 1

31. Thermometer, clinical 1

32. Tumbler (unbreakable) 1

33. Wound dressing, sterilized

34. Container (small, medium, large) 6

35. Sodium chloride crystals 250g

TYPES OF INJURY AND THEIR TREATMENTS

A. SHOCK

A condition of shock may be caused by most injuries and may arise almost at once or some

hours after the accident. If the injury is painful shock may be more severe. The degree of

shock depends to a large extent on the patient and conditions producing severe shock. Severe

shock can result in the collapse of the patient and can be fatal.

Symptoms of shock

1. Shallow respiration

2. Weak and rapid pulse

3. Cold sweat

4. Subnormal temperature

Types of shock and their treatment

(a) Mild shock

In case of mild shock any tight clothing is loosened. The patient is allowed to get plenty

of fresh air but should not be kept warm. After reassuring the patient the injury is then

treated. Calmness on the part of the person rendering first aid does much to reassure the

patient.

(b) Electric shock

The victim must be removed from contact with live apparatus or the supply shut off.

Electric shock is called ASPHYXIA and in this case, artificial respiration must be started

at once because statistics have shown that when treatment is begun within a minute of the

electrical shock, 90% of the victim recovery is ensured whereas after a delay of six

minutes only 10% recover

(c) Asphyxia (deficiency of oxygen in blood)

This may be caused in a number of ways such as drowning, poisoning, insufficient

oxygen in the air or by electrical shock. The effects of any of these are the same, namely;

a deficiency of oxygen in the blood. In the laboratory the more likely causes of asphyxia

are electrocution, suffocation and inhalation of poisonous gases.

The first aid treatment for asphyxia is to remove the cause, or remove the patient from the

cause and, except in case where the tissue has been damaged, to commence artificial

respiration immediately. Whenever possible pure oxygen should be administered while

artificial respiration is being applied. For the administration of pure oxygen, the

disposable type of oxygen cylinder is ideal. The oxygen is administered instantly by

simply pressing the valve outlet and a light plastic face masks is provided with the unit.

General treatment of shock

To treat a patient for shock, he or she must be laid down and completely wrapped in blankets

or by other warm material at hand. The head should be kept low by raising the foot of the bed.

If the patient is on the ground and there are no injuries to the legs, something should be placed

beneath them provided be is conscious and no symptom of internal injury are apparent, hot

drinks may be given as a stimulant. A doctor should be summoned as quickly as possible.

ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION

Many means of artificial respiration have been used, of these are; Schaefer, Riley,

Sivester, Holger Nielsen and insufflations method are still in use. The methods most

suitable for cases of asphyxia likely to be encountered in the laboratory are silvester ,

Holger Nielsen back- pressure arm-lift and the mouth to mouth or mouth to nose

insufflations method.

SILVESTER METHOD

1. First lay the casualty on his back

2. Place a folded laboratory coat or other clothing beneath his shoulder

3. Clear the victim’s mouth if necessary and turn the head to one side

4. Kneel just behind the casualty’s head.

5. Grasp the wrists and cross them over the lower part of the chest

6. Rocking the body forward, press down on the victim’s chest

7. Release the arms backwards and outwards as far as possible

8. Repeat the procedure twelve times a minute.

HOLGER NIELSON METHOD

This may be employed if the patient is suffering from facial injuries which may

make direct insufflations impracticable.

1. Place the patient face downward. Remove any obstruction to the airway and bring the

tongue forward

2. Bend the victim’s arm at the elbow and turn the head to one side so it rests on the

hands with the palm of the hands facing downwards

3. Kneel on the knee, which is position at the side of the victim’s head

4. Place the opposite foot close to the patient’s elbow

5. Stretch out the arms and place the hands with the fingers spread outwards and

downwards, one on each shoulder blade.

6. Press lightly on the lower half of the shoulder blades. For adult the recommended

pressure is 9-11kg

7. In order to exert the pressure rock the body forward, with the arms straight, until it is

almost vertical. Exert the pressure for about 2.5 seconds and then relax it by rocking

backwards. During this motion shade hands under the victim elbow and draw his

arms upward until the pulled forward. This movement also takes about 2.5 seconds

after the arms are lowered. Repeat the whole cycle of operations.

INSUFFLATION METHOD

The mouth –to-mouth or mouth-to-nose method is best because it is simple and

easy to apply and causes the operation no fatigue. The method is as follows

1. Tilt the head backwards until fully retracted and at the same time ensure that the

air way is unobstructed, hold the mandible forward.

2. Place yourself on the left hand side of the victim and use the thumb and

forefinger of the right hand to close the victim’s nose. The left hand supports the

lower jaw.

3. Breathe in deeply and placing your lips so as to form a complete seal over the

mouth of the victim, blow in air. More forceful blowing is required for adults that

for children.

4. When the chest of the victim is seen to rise, remove your mouth, whereupon the

chest wall of the victim relaxes. Repeat the inflation at the rate of 12-20 times per

minute. The insufflations method may also be applied by mouth-to-nose

technique. This should only be applied when it is not possible to open the

victim’s mouth sufficiently for the mouth-to-mouth operation to be effectively

used. In the mouth-to-nose method, retract the head fully as before and while the

mandible is pushed upwards and forwards, close the victim’s mouth by the first

two fingers of the right hand. Place your mouth over the nostrils of the victim.

B. WOUNDS

A wound is caused when the skin is broken owing to an injury. The degree of

seriousness of the wound depends usually on the depth of penetration and the amount

of damage suffered by the deeper tissues.

TYPES OF WOUNDS

1. Incised wound: these wounds are caused by sharp instruments and they have no ragged

edges and bruising does not occur. The wound bleeds freely and gapes open. In the

laboratory, the most common cause of incised wounds is broken glass. Incised wounds are the

easiest to treat, stab wounds may be caused by the sharp end of a piece of glass tubing and

may penetrate deeply and cause bleeding beneath the surface. With this type of wound the

risk of infection is far greater. Deep stab wounds may also penetrate internal organs if the

wound is large and the edge gapes, it may require stitching and medical aid is necessary to

stop bleeding..

2. Lacerated wounds: when the tissues are torn and the edges of the wound are irregular, the

injury is called a lacerated wound. Bleeding may not be as severe as with an incised wound

but bruising will be seen around its edges. Shock is usually more severe with lacerated

wounds. In the case of large laceration, the hemorrhage (bleeding) could be severe and must

be stopped before the wound is treated. These types of wounds may be enveloped in a large

dressing or a clean towel. Medical assistance should be obtained.

3. Contusions: in many cases, although the skin may be unbroken, considerable damage and

bruising of the tissue may have occurred. Underlying organs may also have been injured.

Such damages to the small blood vessels beneath the skin causes the blood to ooze into them

and the skin appears red and may later become dark purple. Swelling occurs. This type of

wound may be caused by a fall or heavy object falling onto the body. For this type of wound,

treat first for shock. Apply a bandage socked in cold water to the affected part. If possible

elevate the part and rest it.

Infection of wounds

Infection of the wound is to be avoided at all costs. Germs may be introduced into the wound

by dirt from object which caused the wound or from the skin or clothing of the wounded

person. Infection may also be caused by the introduction of germs when the wound is dressed.

Every care should be taken., therefore, to ensure the dressings used are sterile and that all

water used for cleaning is itself clean or has been boiled. The hands must be thoroughly

cleansed. The wound should not be touched during treatment nor should the sterile part of the

dressing be handled when it is being applied.

GENERAL TREATMENT OF WOUNDS

1. STOP THE BLEEDING

In order to stop bleeding it is necessary to have an understanding of how blood circulates

through the body. The blood is pumped from the heart through the arteries under pressure.

The wave of pressure is evident when the pulse is felt. If through an injury, an artery is

opened, the bright red oxygenated blood issues from it in spunts because of the pumping

action of the heart and arterial bleeding can be recognizes in this way. Because the blood

in the arteries is under pressure, arterial bleeding is the most diffult to stop. Pressure is

applied on the proximal side of the wound.

Venous bleedings can be recognized by the dark colour of the blood which flows steadily

and not in spurts as does arterial bleeding. Venous bleeding unless it is a large vein which

has been opened can be applied by tying a narrow bandage round the limb on the distal

side of the wound. The bandage is tied tightly enough to collapse the artery which has a

thicker wall.

Laboratories are not usually situated in places far removed from medical assistance but if

help is not forth coming within fifteen minutes from the time of application, tourniquets

should be loosened for a few seconds. If the bleeding continues, the tourniquet should be

applied in a different place but close to the original position, then treat the patient for

shock.

2. CLEAN THE WOUND

Clean the wound or in the case of serious wounds, the area around the wound. Bleeding

helps to clean a wound with a pricked finger or similar small wound may even be

encouraged by squeezing. Small foreign bodies should be wiped away from the area in a

direction away from the wound by a swab soaked in antiseptic lotion. Small glass

fragments may be removed by tweezers . The wound should be well cleaned with a weak

antiseptic lotion such as diluted Dettol. If the wound is large, only the skin around the

wound should be cleaned. Soap and water saline solution on clean water may also be used

for cleaning wounds. A sterilized dressing is then applied and a pad is usually necessary

to press this firmly on to the wound. Large pieces of glass or other deeply embedded

fragments are not removed from wound but are left for doctor’s attention. When bandages

are applied to the wound, the area around such fragment is built up with dressings to

avoid pressure on the fragment. A ring pad can also be employed for the purpose.

Wounds bleeding profusely should be tightly dressed.

3. REST THE WOUNDED PART.

Rest the wounded part if the wound is serious and get medical aid. The injured part mat

be supported by a sling or the limb may be tied to another or to some part of the body.

C. BURNS

TYPES OF BURNS.

(a) Slight burns: when there is no general disturbance apparent in the victim, the burns is

known as slight burn.

(b) First- degree burns: are those which cause the skin to redden and smell.

(c) Second degree burns: candle blisters to form.

(d) Third-degree burns: Involve the destruction of the superficial layer of skin.

(e) Severe burns: A severe burn is one which demands that the victim should receive

urgent general treatment for shock rather than the local treatment of his wound.

Causes of Burns in the Laboratory.

Burns received in the laboratory may be caused by

1. Flames, hot objects or electrical objects,

2. Acids, alkalis, corrosive chemicals.

General Treatment For Thermal Burns.

The person is first treated for shock. Before treating any burns, the first aid personnel

should wash their hands thoroughly and wear a mask or clean handkerchief covering

the mouth and nose. It was formerly recommended that the victims clothing be cut

away to disclose the area of burn. Modern treatment suggest however, that if the burn

is also extensive that it cannot be exposed without removal of clothes, the exposed

areas should be covered with a sterile bandage, cloth or towel and the patient removed

to hospital for treatment.

Treatment for slight Thermal Burns.

Slight burns can be more successfully dealt with by first aid methods. They should be

first washed with soap and water and then bathed with a saturated solution of sodium

bicarbonate. The area should then be covered with a piece of gauze on tint which has

been soaked in bicarbonate solution and lightly squeezed out. If the burns are on the

face a mask dressing consisting of two halves is made. In the upper half of the mask,

holes are left for the eyes and a cut away portion, a hole for the mouth is formed.

Treatment For Electrical Burns.

These are treated as for thermal burns.

Treatment of Severe Burns.

In cases of severe burns, the patient is treated for shock immediately. The patient

should not be moved and medical help or the ambulance should be summoned at once.

Blankets must not come in direct contact with the burns.

Treatment of Persons With Clothing On Fire.

If a person’s clothes catch fire, the victim should be laid on the floor with the

burning side uppermost. This prevents the flames spreading and protects the

neck and head or some other handy extinguishing materials. The patient is re

assured and treated for shock.

Treatment for Burns Caused By Corrosive Substances.

Acid Burns:

The treatment for acid burns is simple. Any person at the scene of the accident

can render invaluable assistance by applying plenty of water to the affected

parts as quickly as possible. The usual laboratory procedure is to get the victim

quickly to the nearest sink. When the area of contamination is large this is not

satisfactory because of the physical difficulties involved in applying water from

the tap. The victim’s clothes may have been contaminated in which case they

must be removed at once. This is best done while the victim stands under a

discharging shower. When the affected parts of the body have been well

flushed with water, they should be bathed with sodium bicarbonate solution and

wet dressings applied as for thermal burns.

Alkali Burns:

This should be irrigated immediately with plenty of water and then with a 5%

solution of sodium bicarbonate. Finally a paste of glycerin and powdered

magnesium oxide is applied

Phosphorus Burns:

These are highly dangerous and oily or greasy dressing should not be used. A

1% solution of copper (II) sulphate has been recommended. Another

recommended treatment is to immerse the burned part into water immediately.

It should then be soaked in a 2% solution of sodium bicarbonate and

afterwards swabbed with a 1% copper sulphate solution. This is followed by a

further washing with sodium bicarbonate solution.

D. EYE INJURIES

Eye injuries from chemicals

Strong acid or alkali in the eyes is extremely dangerous and the sight may be

permanently lost unless immediate treatment is given. Alkali is especially

dangerous and damages the eyes more extensively and intensively and more

rapidly than acids. The eyes must be irrigated at once with plenty of water. The

irrigation is best done by the victim himself under the nearest tap. When the

eyes are injured, however, it is a natural tendency to close them and in

rendering first aid, it may be necessary to forcibly hold open the eyelid and

thoroughly irrigate the eyes with water, a little liquid paraffin or drop of castor

oil in the eyes will help to relieve pain. The victim should then be sent to the

hospital.

Eye injury from foreign bodies

Foreign bodies, such as particles of solid substances which enter the eye should

be carefully removed by means of a piece of moist hair or by hair brush, the

part of which has been dipped in liquid paraffin. The movement of the brush

should be towards the inner corner of the eyes, which allows the particles to be

more easily removed. To locate the particle the lower eyelid is drawn gently

down and away from the eye. If the particle is under the top lid a match stick is

placed horizontally across the lid and the lid is turned back over the match. If

the particle is embedded continued efforts to remove it may result in further

serious eye injury. The drop of liquid paraffin or castor oil should be used to

give temporary relief and the eye should then be covered with a pad to check its

movement and the victim taken to a doctor.

If the eyes are damaged by thermal heat or by hot metal a few drops of castor

oil should be put in the eye. In the case of metal small particles may be

removed by careful irrigation

E. Poisoning and their treatment

In accordance with pharmacy and Poisons Act 1933, persons or institutions

concerned with scientific education or research are allowed to purchase poisons

for the purpose of their work. Since laboratory workers are offered the

privilege, it is important that the user take every possible care in the storage and

usage of such chemicals. It is impossible to keep locking up the many other

poisons which are in common use in chemical work. Because laboratory

workers are above average intelligence and are well trained, cases of poisoning

are rare. All laboratory personnel, however should have knowledge of the first

aid treatment necessary to combat poisoning which may occur by swallowing,

inhalation or absorption through the skin.

Classification of poisons

1. Corrosive poison:

Corrosive poisons are those which destroy the tissue with which they come into

contact. Examples are strong acids and alkali. If corrosive or caustic poison has

been swallowed, the victim retches and vomits. Suffocation may occur and there

will be considerable shock.

2. Irritant poison:

Irritant poison causes the stomach and the intestine to become irritated and

inflamed. Examples are arsenic compounds antimony compounds and phosphorus

compounds, if irritant poisons have been swallowed, the lips and mouth are not

stained. Any vomiting may be blood stained. Other symptoms are diarrhea, nausea

and shock.

3. Nerve poison:

Nerve poisons are absorbed into the blood and upset the nervous system. Examples

are morphine, opium and strychnine. The poisoned nerve may cause the patient to

have conclusion to become drowsy with the pupils of the eyes contracted and face

flushed.

4. Poisonous gases or fumes:

Poisonous gases or fumes may give warning of their presence by their irritating

effects or by their smell. Some are odorless even though they may be present in

dangerous concentration. The gas or fume may cause poisoning by inhalation or by

skin contact.

TERMS USED IN THE TREATMENT OF POISON

1. Emetic:

Emetics are substance given to induce vomiting and to rid the stomach of the

poison. They may have to be given forcibly. Examples are;

(a) Mustard: one tablespoonful (30g) is added to a glass of warm water. A

quarter of this amount is given and this is followed by a glass of warm

water. The procedure is repeated at one minute interval until all the

mustard has been used.

(b) Salt water: two tablespoonfuls (60g) of salt is dissolved in glass of warm

water and administered. This is repeated at one minute intervals until four

glass full have been given. Emetics are never administered when the

patient is;

i. Unconscious or in convulsion

ii. Unable to swallow

iii. Suffering from the swallowing of a corrosive poison.

2. Antidote:

An antidote is a substance administered to render the poison harmless or to

retard its absorption. Examples are magnesia (for strong acid poisoning)

vinegar or lemon juice (for strong alkali poisoning). Antidote may themselves

be poisoning and following administration may have to be removed from the

stomach. When the nature of the poison taken is unknown and cannot be easily

ascertained, it is better to give a general antidote to avoid any waste of time. In

all cases where the special antidote is not known, the universal antidote is

administered. The universal antidote consists of 2 parts activated charcoal, 1

part magnesium oxide, 1 part tannic acid mixed together. It is best kept dry

until required, 15 grams is given in a half-glass of warm water. After the

antidote is given, the stomach is washed out, except after corrosive poisoning

3. Demulcent:

Demulcent soothe the pain of inflamed membrane. Examples are milk barley

water, white of eggs, demulcents are usually administered after the poison has

been removed.

Treatment for gas or fume poison

The affected person should be carried into fresh air at once and must not be allowed to walk.

If breathing has stopped or is poor, artificial respiration is given immediately. The direct

insufflations method is best and in case of poisoning by chlorine or bromine, only the method

should be used. Oxygen should be administered and is given in spite of the fact that breathing

may be good, the patient is kept warm and quiet. Some poisonous gases may cause

convulsion which when subsided may be brought on again by noise or by excitement of the

patient.

INSTALLATION OF COMMON LABORATORY EQUIPMENTS.Each type of laboratory has its own problem in connection with the installation of equipment, and the best opportunity of overcoming such problems is to have the laboratory designed. In many cases several provision must be made for supporting either delicate or weighty item. The effect of local conditions such as temperature, sunlight, dust, draught, noise and vibration, must also be given an attention. Similarly, any hazard which may be involved, must not be overlooked. The placement of the equipment too must be related to the position of the laboratory service outlets.

VIBRATION. The mounting of most precision equipment is greatly influenced by the effects of vibration support have been advocated. It has been observed that the horizontal components of vibration are much more serious than the vertical. The shielding effect of the supports, which can be considered as an oscillating system loosely coupled to the walls, ceilings, or floor of a room, is determined by the resonance between the support and the wall. To eliminate the vibration it is necessary to interpose a system with a natural frequency lower than that of the vibration. To damp the natural oscillation of the support itself, piers which have a separate foundation from the building, are the best sunk into the ground, and on a ground floor. The extent at which anti-vibration measures need to be employed naturally depends upon the amount of vibration encountered in building and this is associated with its location. Vibration may be due to many causes such as machinery, passing traffic, underground trains, movement of persons in the neighbourhood and movement of the apparatus. It is necessary to

investigate and if possible remove or damp the source of vibration, before taking expensive step to remedy its effects.

BALANCES AND THE BALANCE ROOM.There must be a balance room. The balance room must be situated in the proximity of the people who will use it. The room should be situated on an outside wall, and the rays of sun should not enter it. It should be well away from possible sources of vibration such as moving machinery or places where there is a great deal of personal traffic. Balance room and other neighbouring doors should be fitted with springs to avoid vibrations when they are slammed.To avoid draught, it is preferable to have only one door opening into the room and to ventilate the room by means other than opening of the windows. Air conditioning is the best means of ventilating and maintaining the constant humidity and temperature which are necessary for very accurate balances. The recommended humidity for balance rooms is 50% and suitable temperature is 250c. The balance room should be made easy to clean and minimize dust, if it cannot be totally prevented. A foot mat must be placed at the entrance door for cleaning the legs before entry. The floor should not be swept but should be washed and mopped. All corners between the floor and the wall should be covered and other steps taken to prevent the accumulation of dust.

BALANCE SUPPORTS The major difficulty to overcome in balance room is that of vibration.Vibration makes it impossible to read a balance accurately, and shortens its life by excessive wear on the knife edge. The best way to prevent vibration is to interpose a number of dissimilar stable materials between the balance supports and the source of vibration. Individual concrete bench units faced with terrazzo may be used. Fixed slabs supported in the wall may also be made for the purpose. In the instances where in spite of solid mountings excessive vibrations still persist and eliminator should be place below the feet of the balance. In recent times, vibration isolated tables are produced to cope with vibration problems surrounding sensitive equipment.Table are available which are supported on a tabular steel column. The balance sit on a plate, which is itself isolated from the table top by means of rubber isolators. (this is for a more sensitive balance ).Recommended methods of supporting balances to reduce vibration have been suggested but one of them is the Haslam method which states that holes are made in the floor of the balance room which penetrate the foundations. The holes are filled with concrete but interposing paper-like material between the concrete and the floor of the building creates a 13-25mm space. When it has been set the material is removed and the space is filled with a bituminous preparation. Above the concrete foundations brick pillars are erected on the top of which is a further 13mm of concrete surmounted by a 38mm layer of cork. Finally a heavy slab of polished slate is laid on the cork. THE GLASS-BLOWING EQUIPMENT * To assist ventilation, and to allow the heat, water vapour, and gases given off by burners to escape, glass blowing room should have high ceilings with ventilators placed high up.

*The acoustic properties should be such that the noise from burners is reduced to minimum. It may therefore be necessary to use acoustic tiles on the walls and ceiling.

* Adequate day lighting should be provided but direct sunlight should be avoided.*The window should be so arranged that the glassblower does not face them directly, rather, the light should enter either from behind him or at right angles to him.

*Artificial lighting is required and fluorescent lighting is the best for this purpose.*The walls should be painted green or some other suitable colour, which enables the burner flame to be easily seen.

*A fume cupboard (designed to permit the use of hydrofluoric acid) and a wash-up sink are also essential.

*Metal rubbish boxes raised off the floor by short feet are necessary to allow hot pieces of glass to be safely discarded without the possibility of fire or damage to the floor.

*Adequate room should be allowed for horizontal storage of glass tubing’s and rod.

*Adequate electrical sockets should be provided, to cope both with the machinery such as drills, clutters, grinders and other equipment available in the workshop.

*There must be an ample supply of fuel gas, oxygen and compressed air.

*The gas cylinders are best situated outside the room and from them the supply is fed to the glass blowing bench and to the equipment/burners.

*Needle valves should be provided on each burner for precise control.

*The glass blowing top should be covered with hard black cement asbestos and should have a raised edge around its edge to prevent glass roll off.The universal type of lathe is the most suitable to cope with the diverse nature of glassblowing, since permanently horizontal lathes restrict the work to straight seals and similar horizontal operations.

*The lathe should be well protected from draughts and should not be near doors or windows. It should have all-round accessibility and plenty of space should be left at the ends so that long tubes may project through the ovens for glass annealing should be level and firm so that hot glass apparatus will not be distorted by gravity effects.

*The oven should be insulated to prevent heat losses. The base should be at normal bench height to allow large items of glassware to be easily placed in it. For the same reason the doors should open the full length and height.

*The oven should be thermostatically controlled. For convenience the oven should be positioned as near to the glassblowing bench as possible.

HEAVY EQUIPMENTS.Because of vibration, noise, and other annoying features, heavy moving equipment may need to be accommodated in rooms separate from laboratories. If possible it should be housed on a ground floor.

LABORATORIES STILLS (FOR DISTILLATION).

Still is an apparatus used for making liquors by distilling. In most laboratories one often hears still room. i.e. distilling room. Some items of equipment have to be fixed to the laboratory walls e.g. the manesty distillers.*The still should be mounted in a room where the damp atmosphere created will have no harm effects on other apparatus. It should be positioned so as to allow the distilled water container to be supported on a wooden stand directly beneath it, and with good ventilation the room is kept reasonably free from vapours.

*The effluent from the still itself should be discharged into a small copper funnel soldered into the top of a copper tube. The copper tube is to be led down the wall to discharge into the drain.

*The electrical supply socket should be set on the wall level with the body of the still, to make the electrical leads to the still elements as short as possible.

*Similarly, the water supply tap should be situated on a level with the fine control inlet valve so that the connecting hose to the still is kept short.

SPECTROGRAPHIC EQUIPMENT*Spectrographic equipment should be kept in a room, which can be completely or partially darkened.

*The quality of the furniture and various interior finishes in the spectrographic laboratory should be comparable with the expensive equipment housed there. This is mainly to provide the necessary conditions for the preservation of the equipment, and also to induce a careful attitude in persons working in the room.*The finishing of the ceilings, walls and floor should be such that they are easy to clean and there should be no edges or projections on which dust can accumulate.

*The room should be dry, free from fumes, and able to be ventilated. Substances likely to give rise to fumes should not be kept in the room.

*To serve the equipment, sufficient electrical outlets, both a.c. and d.c. may be required and in appropriate positions.

*The laboratory should be electrically safe. If water is to be used in the laboratory the outlets and feed pipes should be kept away from electrical sockets.

*Because spectrographs are heavy, the laboratory benches should be strongly constructed. Similarly, because it is undesirable, and in any case difficult, to move these instruments once they are in position, the bench layout should allow all-round accessibility to them.

*Other laboratory furniture should include a desk for calculations and other written work, a filling cabinet for recorded data etc, and some bookshelves.

*Moveable cupboard units and drawers and wall shelves for samples and reagents are very necessary in the laboratory.

*A photographic darkroom, adjacent to and directly accessible from the laboratory, is required for development of plates.

*For clearing electrodes a grinding wheel, a vice, and a number of files are also required.

*A small workbench for this purpose is best positioned just outside the laboratory.

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF LABORATORY EQUIPMENTS.The maintenance, cleanliness and periodic overhaul of the equipments in laboratories is the key to the efficiency of any department. Since it is not possible to give methods for the upkeep of all the items of equipment to be found in various laboratories, therefore, selected examples will give some indication of the need for care and maintenance which laboratories equipment requires.

BALANCESBalances are of different designs. The present day laboratory work which necessitates the use of balances ranging from student quality with a sensitivity of 2mg to those used for ultra-micro work with a sensitivity of 10-8g.Intermediate balances of analytical, semi-micro, and micro quality are also used and have sensitivities of the order of 0.1mg, 0.02mg and 1ug respectively

Note: Persons other than those specially skilled should not be allowed to repair balances of the higher order of sensitivity.

CLEANING OF BALANCES*Balances should be cleaned occasionally by a trained personnel. Assuming the balance to be cleaned is a free-swinging centre-pivot beam type, the following procedure, which must be carried out in a dust-free atmosphere, is adopted.*At each side of the balance a piece of glass or a sheet of white glazed paper is laid on the bench.

*White linen gloves or rubber finger stalls are worn by the operator to prevent grease from the fingers being transferred to the balance parts, with the balance in the rest position, and commencing with the pan supports, the parts are removed and placed on the glass or paper on the respective sides of the balance. Great care should be exercised when the beam is being removed and it should afterward be supported on the bench in such a way that the pointer is not likely to be damaged. The balance case should now be thoroughly cleaned.

*A damp chamois leather is used for cleaning the glass, which is afterwards polished with a well-washed cloth.

*The interior of the case is brushed out with a camel hair brush and may be finished by seeking out dust from cracks and crevices with a fine vacuum nozzle. It is finally polished with a piece of chamois.

*The pillar and other metal parts, plain and knife edges are also cleaned with chamois.The balance pans should not be cleaned with anything which removes the plating, but, if necessary may be wiped with a cloth moistened with alcohol and should be finally polished with chamois.

*The brass pans on cheap balances may, if badly tarnished, be cleaned with metal polish or duraglit.

*A plastics cover should be kept over the balance case at all times when the balance is not in use, as added precaution against dust.

MAINTENANCE OF THE LABORATORY STILLSLaboratory stills must be regularly examined and periodically overhauled and cleaned.The time allowed between each descaling depends on how long and how frequently the still is operated, and the hardness of the water used in it.

In electric stills the scale forms rapidly around the heating elements, and regular cleaning not only prevents damage to these and increases the output of distilled water but also saves electricity.

Stills in regular use should be descaled at least every three months in districts where the water is hard, and at the same time the fibre washers between the head of the element and the body of the still should also be renewed.

MAINTENANCE OF THE LABORATORY OVENSMaterials spilled in them should be removed, or they may corrode the floor of the oven and expose the element.

The action and accuracy of the controls should be checked, and if actuated by the making and breaking of points these should be carefully cleaned and at reasonable intervals reset.

MAINTENANCE OF ELECTRIC FURNACES*These require regular attention.

*The moving parts e.g. door gear and door switch platforms, require periodic lubrication.*Springs and pivot points should also be given a light smear of graphite grease.

*If the body of the furnace is made of metal the exterior may require a coat of heat-resisting aluminium paint.

*The chamber should be cleaned regularly with emery paper, and all scale removed.

*The protection of the chamber is important and it should be regularly bruised clean when the furnace is cold.

*When the furnace is given a more thorough overhaul the chamber should, if necessary, be reglazed and suitable glazing compounds may be applied with a brush.

*After glazing the heat of the furnace must be slowly raised to a temperature recommended by the manufacturer. It is then allowed to cool, but if the glazing is not smooth the process should be repeated.

*Thermocouples need occasional checking and for this purpose should be removed.

*The pyrometer itself may need checking.

*Indicator lamps should also be checked and occasionally be renewed.

*The operation of the energy regulator must be checked.

*If the furnace chamber shows signs of serious wear or damage it is recommended that the furnace be returned to the manufacturer for repairs.

MAINTENANCE OF MICROSCOPESTo maintain microscopes in perfect condition the following points should be observed:

*The instrument should be kept, when not in use in its protective box.

*If wanted for regular use it should be kept under a plastics cover.

*The eye pieces should be kept in the draw tube to prevent dust falling into the tube.

*The objectives should be stored in screw-top containers.

*The moving parts of the microscope require light greasing occasionally.

*The lens which is the important part requires careful and regular attention.

MAINTENANCE OF MICROSCOPE LENSESA microscope lens is cleaned inefficiently more damage will be caused than if the dust had been allowed to accumulate upon it.

The correct procedure for the cleaning is as follow;Firstly, we try to remove the dust by directing a stream of dry air on to the lens with hand bellows or other similar means and never by blowing directly on to it with the mouth.

Alternatively, the lens may be gently stroked with a camel hair brush which has been warmed against a hot surface such as an electric light bulb.In this case, the brush tends to pick up the dust by electrostatic attraction.The above method is referred to as dry method. If this method fails a wet method can be applied.

Wet MethodXylol is used for wet cleaning and a lens tissue paper should be moistened with a minimum quantity of this liquid.The damp tissue is gently wiped across the lens, which is immediately polished with dry tissue paper.In this case of oil-immersion objective lenses on which the oil has been allowed to dry, this method may have to be repeated several times, Nevertheless, heavier applications of xylol must be avoided or the solvent action of the liquid may loosen the lens in its mount.

Microscope condensers and mirrors may be cleaned the same way and if lens tissue paper is unobtainable a soft cloth which has been well washed may be used.

OTHER LENSESLenses should never be touched by the fingers. They should be kept in a dry cool, dust-free atmosphere and if possible in their own protective cases.

Rules for cleaning any lens

*Remove all dust particles using camel hair brushes joined to a rubber bulb which blows air over the lens surface purpose.

*All grease should be removed from lenses by the use of very small quantities of either a proprietary brand of lens cleaning fluid or pure organic solvent.

*Plastics lenses should be cleaned with an appropriate proprietary brand of lens cleaning fluid or with soapy water applied with a lens tissue.

*Coated lenses may be cleaned with acetone or xylol but ordinary tap water which may contain free chlorine, should not be used.

AVOIDANCE OF WASTE IN THE LABORATORYMost services are provided on benches in the laboratory, therefore, all benches required water supply and this entails the provision of sinks and a drainage system through which wastes are being removed or avoided.

Type of sink materialsSinks receive very harsh treatment in most laboratories by dumping corrosive material (chemicals) in the sink and cause its damage. Therefore a careful choice of material for sinks must be made.The materials are;

1. Glazed fireclay (Glazed porcelain)sink: This is a common and inexpensive material used for sinks. It covers the porous material and hence should be of good quality and adequate thickness. They can be broken by heavy physical shock and by heat but they are quiet resistance to moderate use, lasting and easily kept clean. This type of sink is the best for teaching where the sink is subjected to heavy wear.

2. Porcelain-on-metal sinks: The base metal for porcelain-on-metal sinks is iron steel. The disadvantage of this type is the tendency of the porcelain to chip-off. When this occurs, they are liable to be attacked by corrosive substances, because of this reason they are not suitable for heavy wear. They are easily scratched, and after a period of time may become stained.

3. Metal or Metal-lined sink: This can withstand physical damage and resist temperature changes. Most of them are easily cleaned and have pleasant appearance. Stainless steel is the most widely used metal. If it well kept flushed it is not subjected to attack to any great extent by chemicals, but is unsuitable for sinks in working benches in chemical laboratories.

4. Polythene sinks: These sinks were fabricated or consisted of a metal base line with polythene in the past. The moulded variety, which is kind to glassware, is suitable for laboratories in which quantities of solvents harmful to polythene are not used.

5. Drip Cups sink: These are used in positions where a sink is unnecessary or would take up valuable bench space but where a drainage outlet is essential. For this reason they are often used in fume cupboards and on benches where working wastes are required. These cups are available in polythene or glazed fireclay or glass. It may be bench or wall mounted.

DRAINAGE WASTE PIPESWaste pipes suffer heavy wear and for this reason must be well sloped. The nature and temperature of the effluent affects the choice of material.

The main materials used for the pipes are;

1. Chemical stoneware: It is strong, unattacked by corrosive liquids(except hydrofluoric acid),easily cleaned because of its smooth surface.

2. Polythene: It is resistant to acids, alkalis and most solvent, especially when they are diluted by the waste water which normally flows in the pipes. It is also unaffected by soft water and mercury. Chlorine attacks it at the surface and bromine and iodine are absorbed, which causes the material to become somehow brittle

3. Polyvinyl Chloride (P.V.C): It is resistant to chemical attack, rigid and compares favourably with low-density polythene.

4. Lead: Only chemical lead, which is of high purity, should be used for laboratory drainage purposes. Lead is attacked by mercury, nitric acid at high temperatures and gives trouble in the presence of acids when joined to brass wastes. Lead pipe is heavy and unless it is well supported along its length, it sags, it is expensive.

5. Cast-iron: It is a risky material in laboratories where acids are used and in any event should not be conceal in solid floors. It should not be used directly under benches or in the immediate vicinity of sinks, but suitable for main drainage runs

in which the effluent has been already considerably diluted. Example; Duriron or Tantiron

6. Glass: This is borosilicate glass which is virtually uncorrodible is a versatile material for laboratory waste lines and is now very popular. It has the advantage that blockages can be easily seen and it is more robust than its name suggest. The high cost of this material prevents its wider use.

LABORATORY APPARATUS

CLAMPSDue to corrosion, clamps should be periodically immersed in oil for an hour or two.To avoid the laborious and unsatisfactory cutting of cork sheet by hand for recorking clamps. Spare cork shapes may be purchased in bulk from manufacturers. These should be affixed by a glue which is not affected by heat. After applying the glue to the surfaces and fixing the corks in position, the jaws of the clamp should be tightened on to a bung so that pressure is applied until the glue hardens.

PESTLESLoose heads on pestles should be refixed and up-to-date adhesive suitable for this purpose and having exceptionally high resistance to impact is the epoxy resin.Araldite AW.106. If to be used must be mixed with a hardener:Araldite AW. 106 100parts by volumeHardener HV.953U 100parts by volumeUntil a uniform colour is obtained. The parts to be bonded should first be cleaned with a grease solvent and the mixture applied with a small brush to both surfaces. Leave to harden for 12hours at room temperature. Any resin which exudes from the joint should immediately be removed with a little acetone on a rag.

GENERAL GLASSWAREA box for damaged glassware should be provided in the laboratory stores where the damaged material should be kept until a quantity sufficient to make repairs worthwhile has accumulated. Glassware which cracked, or so badly chipped or scratched that cannot be repaired, should be thrown away. Burette is the glassware with highest casualty. Burette breakages are largely due to careless washing underwater taps, small pieces being broken from the tops of the burettes as they are withdrawn. To prevent this, a short piece of P.V.C. tubing should be attached to each of the swan neck outlets in the laboratory. Other damaged burette is usually restricted to the jets. If the top of the burette is to be repaired, a mark made right around the stem at a point just below the damaged portion is touched with a fine point of red-hot glass. The damaged portion then readily falls off.

FILTER FLASKS

MEASURING CYLINDERSAny small cracking to the above apparatus can be corrected by carefully heated and smoothed in the blow pipe flame.

THERMOMETERSThermometer repairs usually entail the joining up of broken mercury threads. This is not a difficult operation and the immersion of the thermometer in a freezing mixture usually suffices. Freezing mixtures, however, may not be readily available, and provided sufficient care is exercised the thermometer may be waved in a yellow Bunsen flame, which drives the mercury into the safety reservoir at the top of the capillary.

DESICCATORSMany samples are left in desiccators with the best of intentions, only to be forgotten. All samples should, be labelled. Old grease on the ground faces should be cleaned off regularly and fresh grease applied. If cleaning is neglected the lid sticks and when efforts are made to open it in the proper way by sliding it sideways it becomes difficult to move which on force got broken. The condition of the drying agent is most important and should be regularly renewed.

METALWAREMaintenance of metal wares have been discuss under laboratory benches and tables.

LABORATORY FURNITURE

BLACKBOARDSBlackboards are writing surfaces in the laboratories. To remove grease, the board should be first clean down with a rag soaked in methylated spirits. One of the several proprietary brands of blackboard paint may be used to resurface it, but such paint may be prepared as follows: Dissolve 50g shellac in a pint of alcohol and place a mixture of 25g good quality lampblack, 25g emery powder, and 25g ultramarine blue on a fine strainer. The shellac solution is poured on to the powders and stirred constantly until they gradually pass through the strainer.

BENCHES AND TABLESBenches and tables constitute the main items of laboratory furniture and it is the tops of these which require the most maintenance. In many laboratories the modern finishes such as formica, stainless steel, P.V.C and certain enamels are used. The maintenance is to wipe from them spilled liquids to prevent any harmful effect.

In most teaching laboratories bench tops are made of wood and these hardwoods contain natural oils, therefore can be treated with raw linseed oil and thereafter with wax furniture polish.

Alternatively, the bench may be left unpolished and given light applications of raw linseed oil at regular intervals.

In laboratories where chemicals are extensively used, bench tops require extra protection and the best method is to impregnate them with wax which should be work well into the grain. A treatment involving the hot application of wax dissolved in xylene is the method of acid-proofing bench tops. All laboratories workers must be encourage to use a piece of asbestos beneath heated apparatus, since the waxed surface suffers from heat reflected down on to the bench top.

In some laboratories metal wares are extended to bench top. apart from retort stands, tripods and other items. They deteriorate very rapidly in chemical laboratories and need repainting at regular intervals. It is essential that all rust be removed before painting. The metal bench should be well scrubbed with a wire brush and afterwards rubbed down with emery paper until a smooth surface is obtained. Aluminium paint is best for laboratory use and withstands the effects of and heat better than any other.

Advantages of Metal bench tops 1. They cannot be attacked by pests2. They are fire proof and free from shrinkage, warping and distortion3. They have greater mechanical strength and a greater storage capacity in terms of

material-space ratio4. They have good appearance5. They are easily cleaned

Disadvantages of Metal bench tops1. They are noisier2. They have no natural warmth3. If metals are chipped they may rust4. Metal bench tops cannot be easily reconditioned after years of service

Examples of materials used in metal works: Stainless steel, zinc, galvanised iron, aluminium, lead, nickel, monel metal and steel

Advantages of Wood bench tops (Teak)1. They are durable2. They resist attack by chemical and heat3. They have pleasant appearance especially when polished4. They are not expensive to construct5. They have natural warmth or constant temperature6. They cannot rust

Disadvantages of Wood bench tops (Teak)1. Some of the wood are costly e.g. Teak2. They are not readily available3. Some of the woods are unsuitable for heavy wear because of its lower impact

resistance e.g. Mahogany4. They could be burn by fire i.e not fire proof

Examples of wood used for bench tops: Teak, afrormosia, mahogany, iroko, European oak, European beech, makore and afzelia

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