282

DICTIONARY OF ISLAM.

L

LAADRIYAH

A sect of heretics who say it is impossible for mortal man to be certain of any fact, even of man's own identity.

LABBAIKA

[TALBIYAH.]

LABID

The son of Rabi'ah ibn Ja'far al-'Amiri, a celebrated poet in the time of Muhammad who embraced Islam, and who is said to have died at al-Kufah at the advanced age of 157 years. The Prophet is related to have said, "The truest words ever uttered by a poet are those of Labid,- 'Know that everything is vanity but God'" (Mishkat, book xxxii. ch. x. pt. 1.) [POETRY.]

LAHD

The hollow made in a grave on the Qiblah side, in which the corpse is placed. It is made the same length as the grave, and is as high as would allow a person to sit up in it.

LAHUT

Lit. "Extinction" or "absorption." (1) The last stage of the mystic journey. (2) Divinity. (3) Life penetrating all things. [SUFIISM.]

LAHYAN

A brnach of the Huzail tribe, which inhabited, in the days of Muhammad, as they still do, the vicinity of Makkah. Muhammad formed an expedition against them, A.H. 6, on account of their treacherous attack on a small party of Muslims at Raji.

LAILATU 'L-BARA'AH

[SHAB-I-BARA'AH.]

LAILATU 'L-MUBARAKAH

Lit. "The Blessed Night." [LAILATU 'L-QADR.]

LAILATU 'L-QADR

"The night of power." A mysterious night, in the month of Ramazan, the precise date of which is said to have been known only to the Prophet and a few of the Companions. The following is the allusion to it in the Qur'an. Suratu 'l-Qadr (xcvii.):-

"Verily we have caused it (the Qur'an) to descend on the Lailatu 'l-Qadr.

Who shall teach thee what the Lailatu 'l-Qadr is?

The Lailatu 'l-Qadr excelleth a thousand months;

Therein descend the angels, and the spirit by permission

Of their Lord in every matter;

And all is peace until the breaking of the dawn."

This night must not be confused, as it often is, with the Ahab-i-Bara'ah, which is generally called Shab-i-Qadr, or the night of power, but which occurs on the 15th of Sha'ban. [SHAB-I-BARA'AH.]

The excellences of the Lailatu 'l-Qadr are said to be innumerable, and it is believed that during it solemn hours the whole animal 283

and vegetable creation bow down in humble adoration to the Almighty.

LAILATU 'R-RAGBA'IB

The "night of supererogatory devotions." A festival observed on the first Friday in the month Rajab, by certain mystic leaders who affirm that it was established by the Prophet; but it is generally rejected by orthodox Sunnia. (See Raddu 'l-Muhtar, vol. i. p. 717,)

LAIS An Arabic tribe descended from Kinanah. Al-Baizawi says they thought it unlawful for a man to eat alone, and were the cause of the verse in the Qur'an, Surah xxiv. 60; "There is no crime in you, whether ye eat together or separately."

LAMENTATION. [BUKA'.]

LA'NAH.

"Imprecation; curse; anathema." A word used thirteen times in the Qur'an, e.g. Surah ii. 83: "The curse of God is on the infidels."

LAND.

Arabic arz balad , mulk .

The following are some of the principal rules of Muslim law relating to land :—

(1) Tithes or Zakat on lands.—Upon every thing produced from the gronnd there is due a tenth, or 'ashir, 'ushr (Heb. ) whether the soil be watered by the annual overflow of great rivers, or by periodical rains; excepting upon articles of wood, baniboos, and grass, which are not subject to tithe. Land watered by means of buckets or machinery, such as Persian wheels, or by watering camels, are subject to only half tithes. (Hidiyah, vol. i. p. 44.)

(2) Conquered lands become the property of the state. Those of idolatore remain so. Those belonging to Jews, Christians, or Fire worshippers, are secured to the owners on payment of tribute. Those who afterwards embrace Islam recover their property, according to ash-Shafi'i, but not according to the Hanifah school. Upon the Muslizfa army evacuating an enemy's country, it becomes unlawful for the troops to feed their cattle on the land without due payment. (Hidayah, vol. ii. p. 170.) (3) Appropriation for religious uses.—Land may be so appropriated; but if a person appropriate land for such a purpose and it should. afterwards be discovered that an indefinite portion of it was the property of another person,,the appropriation is void with respect to the remainder also. The appropriation must also be of a perpetual and not of a temporary nature. (Hidayah, vol. ii. p. 340.)

(4) The sale of land is lawful. In such sates the trees upon the land are, included in the sate, whether specified Or not; but neither the grain growing on the ground, nor the fruit growing on the trees, are included, unless specified. But in the case of the fruit or corn being purchased with the land, it must be gathered or cleared away at once. In the sale of ground, the seed sown in the ground is not included. Land may be resold previous to seizing or possession, by the first purchaser, according to Abu Hanifah, but the Iman Muhammad says it is unlawful. Wells and watercourses are not included in the sale of lands unless specified. (Hidayah, vol. ii. pp. 372, 481, 503.)

(5) Claims against land must be made by the plaintiff, defining the four boundaries and specifying the names of each possessor, and the demand for the land must be made in explicit terms. And if the land has been resold, a decree must be given either for or against the last possessor, according to some doctors. (Hidayah, vol. iii. p. 65.)

(6) Land can be lent, and the borrower can build upon it, but when the lender receives back his land, he can compel the borrower to remove his houses and trees. Land lent

for tillage cannot be resumed by the lender until the crops sown have been reaped Abü Hanifah maintains that when land is lent to another, the contract should be in these words, "You have given ins to eat of this land." (Hidayah, vol. iii. p. 284, 288.)

(7) A gift of land which is uncultivated cannot be retracted after houses have been built on it or tree. planted. If the donee sell half of the granted land, the donor in that case may. if be wishes, resume the other half. If a person make a gift of land to his relative within the prohibited degrees it is not lawful for him to resume it. (Hidiyah, vol. iii. p. 302.)

(8) The Ijarah, or rental of land, is lawful, but the period must be specified, otherwise the rent may be demanded from day to day. But a lease of land is not lawful unless mention is made of the article to be raised upon it, and at the expiration of the lease the land must be restored in its original state. A hirer of land is not responsible for accidents; for example, if in burning off the stubble he happen to burn other property, he is not responsible for loss incurred. (Hidiyah, vol. iii. p. 314, &c.)

(9) The cultivation of waste and unclaimed lands is lawful, when it is done with the permission of the ruler of the country, and the act of cultivation invests the cultivator with a right of property in them. But if the land be not cultivated for three years after it has been allotted, it may again be claimed by the state. (Hidayah, vol. iv. p. 128.)

(10) If a person be slain on lands belonging to anyone, and situated near a village, and the proprietor of the laud be not an inhabitant of the village, be is responsible for the murder, as the regulation and protection of those lands rest upon him. (Hidayah, vol. iv. p. 447.)

LAPIDATION.

[STONING.]

LAPWING.

Arabic hudhud . The name in the Qur'an, Surah xxvii. 20, for the bird which carried the letter from King 284

Solomon to the Queen of Sheba. [SOLOMON] It the of the Old Testament, Lev. xi. 19, Deut. xiv. 18. Greek The modern Hoopoe.

The commentators al-Jalalan and al-Baizawi say that Solomon, having finished the temple of Jerusalem, went in pilgrimage to Makkah, whence, having stayed as long as he pleased, he proceeded towards al-Yemen; leaving Makkah in the morning, be arrived by noon at San'a', and being extremely delighted with the country, rested there. But wanting water to snake the ablution, he looked among the birds for the lap-wing, whose business it was to find it; for it is pretended she was sagacious or sharp-sighted to discover water underground, which the devils used to draw, after abs had

marked the place by digging with her bill. They add that this bird was then taking a tour in the air, whence, seeing one of her companions alighting, she descended also, and having had a description given her by the other of the city of Snba', whence she was just arrived, they. both went together to take a view of the place, and returned soon after Solomon had made the inquiry given in the Qur'an: "He reviewed the birds and said,' How is it I do not see al-Hudhud? Is he, then, amongst the absent?

LAQAB

A surname. Either a title of honour or a nickname; e.g. Al-Husain ibn Mas'ud al-Farra, "the tanner"; Abu Sa'id Taja '1-Muluk, "the crown of kings"; Ibn Muhammad at-Taghlabi," of the tribe of Taghlah." [NAMES.]

LAQIT

In its primitive sense, signifies anything lifted front the ground, but in the language of the law it signifies a child abandoned by those to whom it properly belongs. The person who finds the child is termed the multaqit, or the taker up. [FOUNDLING.]

LARCENY.

Arabic sariqah In the language of the law, sariqah signifies the taking away the property of another in a secret manner, at a time when such property is in custody. Custody is of two kinds; 1st, by place, for example, a house or a shop; and, 2nd, by personal guard, which is by means of a personal watch over the property. If an adult of sound understanding steal out of undoubted custody ten dirhams, or property to the value of ten dirhams, the Muhammadan law awards the amputation of a band, for it is said in the Qur'an, Surah v.42: "If a man or woman steal, cut off their hands."

With regard to the amount of the value which constitutes a theft, there is come difference of opinion. According to Abu Hanifah, it is tea dirhams; according to ash-Shafi's, it is the fourth of a dinar, or twelve dirhams; whilst Malik holds that the sum is three dirhams.

The freeman and the slave are on equal footing with respect to punishment for theft, and the hand of the slave is to be struck off in the same manner as the hand of a free Muslim.

The theft must be eatablished upon the testimony of two witnesses, but the magistrate must examine the witnesses as to the manner, time, and place of the theft. The thief must also be held in confinement, or suspicion, until the witnesses be fully examined.

If a party commit a theft, and each of the party receive ten dirhams, the hand of each is to be cut off; but if they receive less than ten dirhams each, they are not liable to amputation.

Amputation is not incurred by the theft of anything of a trifling nature, such as wood, bamboos, grass, fish, fowls, and garden stuff.

Amputation is not incurred by the theft of such things as quickly decay and spoil, such as milk or fruit, nor for stealing fruit whilst upon the tree, or grain which has not been reaped, these not being considered as in custody.

The hand of a thief is not struck off for stealing any fermented liquor, because he rosy explain his intention in taking it, by saying, "I took it with a view to spill it"; and also because some fermented liquors are not lawful property.

The hand is not to be cut off for stealing a guitar or tabor, these being of use merely as idle amusements.

Amputation is not incurred by stealing a Qur'an, although ash-Shafi maintains that it is.

There is no amputation for stealing the door of a mosque. Nor is the hand struck oft for stealing a crucifix or a chess board, as it is in the thief's power to excuse himself by saying, "I took them with a view to break and destroy them, as things prohibited." It is otherwise with a coin bearing the impression of an idol, by the theft of which amputation is incurred; because the money is not an object of worship.

The hand is not to be struck off for stealing a free-born infant, although there be ornaments upon it, because a free person is not property; but amputation is incurred by stealing an infant slave, although the stealing of an adult slave does not incur amputation, as such an 285

act dose not come under the description of theft, being an usurpation or a fraud.

Amputation is not incurred for stealing a book, because the object of the thief can only be its contents and not the property.

The hand is not cut oft for stealing a cur-dog, because such an animal is common property; nor for stealing utensils made of wood.

There is no amputation for stealing from the public treasury, because everything there is the common property of all Muslims, and in which the thief, as a member of the community has a share. And if a person steal from property of which he is in part owner, amputation is not indicted. Nor if a creditor steal from his debt is the hand cut off.

The right hand of the thief is to be out off at the joint of the wrist and the stump afterwards cauterised, and for the second theft the left foot, and for any theft beyond that he must suffer imprisonment.

AL-LAT

The name of an Idol worshipped by the ancient Arabians, probably the Alilat of Herodotus. The idol Lat is mentioned in the Qur'an in conjunction with the two other idols, al-' Uzza and Manat. See Surah liii. 19: "What think ye, then, of al-Lat and al-'Uzza, and Manat, the third idol besides?"

In connection with this verse there is an interesting discussion. (See Muir, new ed. p. 86.) Al-Wiqidi and at-Tabari both relate that, on a certain day, the chief men of Makkah assembled in a group beside the Ka'bah, discussed,, as was their wont, the affairs of the city, when the Prophet appeared, and seating himself by them in a friendly manner, began to recite the 53rd chapter of the Qur'an; and when be had reached the verse "What think ye then of al-Lat, and al-'Uzza, and Manat, the third idol besides?" the Devil suggested words of reconciliation and compromise with idolatry, namely, "These are exalted females, and verily their intercession is to be hoped for." These words, however, which were received by the idolaters with greet delight, were afterwards disavowed by the Prophet, for Gabriel revealed to him the true reading, namely, " What think ye then of al-Lat, and al-'Uzza, and Manat the third idol besides? Shall ye have male progeny and God female? This, then, were an unjust partition! Verily, these are mere names which ye and your tethers have given them."

The narrative thus related by al-Waqidi end at-Tabari is given as an explanation of Surah lxii. 51 "Nor have we sent any apostle or prophet before thee into whose readings Satan hath not injected some wrong desire."

AL-LATIF

"The Mysterious or the Subtle One." One of the ninety nine attributes of God. Surah vi. 103: "For He is the Subtle (al-Latif), the All-informed (al-Khabir).

AL-LATIFAH

A term used by Sufi mystics for any sign or influence in the soul, derived from God, which has such a mysterious effect on the heart that mortal man cannot express it in language, just as a delicious taste in the month cannot be exactly expressed by the tongue. (Kitibu 't-Ta'rifat, its locc.)

LAUGHING

Arabic zahk, zihk . Heb. (Gen. xviii, 13.) Immoderate laughing is generally condemned by- Muhammadan teachers, for 'Ayishah relates that Muhammad "never laughed a full laugh so that the inside of his mouth could be seen; he only smiled." (Mishkat, book xxii. ch. vii)

AL-LAUHU 'L-MAHFUZ

"The preserved tablet." In the Hadis and in theological works it is used to denote the tablet on which the decrees of God were recorded with reference to mankind. In the Qur'an it only scours once, when it refers to the Qur'an itself. Surah lxxxv. 21, 22: "It is a glorious Qur'an written on the preserved table." The plural alwah ocours in Surah vii 142, for the tables of the law given to Moses.

LAW, The

The words used by Muslims to express "the law," are ash-Shari'ah and ash-Shar' , the meaning of which is "the way." The compiler of the Ghiyazu 'l-Lughah defines it as "the way or road in the religion of Muhammad, which God has established for the guidance of His people, both for the worship of God and for the duties of life." The term ash-Shari'ah occurs once in the Qur'an, Surah xlv. 17: "We (God) put thee (Muhammad) in the right way concerning the affair?" The term ash-Shir'ah is almost obsolete in books on Muslim theology, but it occurs once in the Qur'an, Surah v. 52: "To every one have we given a right way."

In the Traditions and theological works, the word ash-Shar' is generally used to express the law of Muhammad. The Hebrew occurs in the Qur'an as Taurit, and is always used for the law of Moses. [TAURET.]

According to Muslim doctors, ash-Shar', or "the Law," may be divided into five sections: I'tiqadat, "belief"; Adab, "moralities"; 'Iladat, "devotions"; Mu'amalat, "transactions"; and 'Uqabat, "punishments."

(1) I'tiqadat, embraces all that is contained in the all articles of the Muslim faith, namely, Belief in (a) God; (b) His angels; (c) His Books; (d) His Prophets; (e) The Day of Judgment; (f) The Decrees of God. This section of Muslim law is termed 'Ilmu 'l-'Aqa'id or, "The Science of the Articles of Belief," and includes all branches of scholastic theology. The books chiefly consulted on this subject in the present work- are the Sharhu 'l-Muwaqif, by Saiyid Sharif-al-Jurjani, and the Sharhu 'l-'Aqa'id, by Mas'ud Sa'du 'd-din at.Tafazani.

(2) Adab embraces the consideration of all 286

those moral excellences which are enjoined in the Qur'an and Traditions, as Ikhlas, "sincerity" Tawwukul, "confidence in God"; Tawazu, "humility"; Tafwiz, "resignation"; Qasru 'l-Amal, "keeping down one's expectation"; Zuhd f'i dunya, "renunciation of the world"; Nasihah, "giving good counsel and advice"; Qana'ah, "contentment;" Sakhawah, "liberality;" Hubb, "love to God and man"; Sabr, "patience"; &c. (See Majma'u 'l-Bihar, vol. ii. p. 422.)

(3) 'Ibadat, includes all acts of devotion to God, such as are included in the five pillars of practice: (a) Recital of the Creed; (b) Prayer; (c) Zakat, or "legal alms"; (d) Saum, or "fasting"; (e) The pilgrimage to Makkah. It will also embrace such religious acts as Jihad, or warfare for the propagation of the religion of Islam.

(4) Mu'amalat. includes such duties as are required between man and man, and is divided into Mukhasamat, "altercations"; Munakahat "nuptials"; Amanat, "securities." Under these three heads are embraced all the 'various sections of civil jurisprudence such as barter, sale, agency, larceny, marriage, divorce, dower, partnership, claims, etc.

(5) 'Uqubat, denotes the punishments instituted in the Qur'an and Traditions, namely, (a) Qisas, "retaliation"; (b) Haddu 's-sariqa, punishment for theft by the loss of a hand; (c) Haddu 'z-zina, punishment for fornication and adultery, stoning for a married person and one hundred lashes for an unmarried person; (e) Haddu 'l-qazf, or punishment of eighty lashes for slander; Hadda 'r-riddah, or punishment by death for apostasy; Haddu 'sh-shurb, or punishment with eighty lashes for wine-drinking.

The two common divisions of Muhammadan law are Ilmu 'l-Kalam, or 'Aqai'id, embracing all matters of faith; and 'Ilmu 'l-Fiqh, which includes all matters of practice as distinguished from articles of faith.

Muslim law is also divided into two great distinct ions of Masr'ü', "lawful." and Ghairu 'l-mashr', unlawful," or, as it is expressed in Persian, Rawa and Narawa.

That which is lawful iv graded into five classes. (1) Farz, that which is proved beyond all doubt to have been enjoined either in the Qur'an or in a tradition of undoubted authority, and the denial or disobedience of which is positive infidelity. (2) Wajib, that which is obligatory, but of which there is some doubt whether or not it was enjoined in the Qur'an or in a tradition of undoubted authority. (3) Sunnah, that which was practised by Muhammad; (4) Mustahabb, that which Muhammad and his Companions sometimes did and sometimes omitted; (5) Mubah, that which is desirable, but which may be omitted without fear of sin.

Things which are unlawful are graded into three classes: (1) Mufsid, that which is most vicious and corrupting, a mortal sin; (2) Haram, that which is distinctly forbidden; (3) Makruh, that which is generally held to be unclean.

These distinctions of lawful and unlawful, with their various subdivisions, apply to all branches of Muslim law, whether it relate to ordinary duties of life, or of devotion to God. It will be seen how important a place the example, practices, and sayings of Muhammad occupy in the moral law of Islam.

This branch of Muslim law is called as-Sunnaah, or the custom of Muhammad, and is distinguished as—

(1) Sunnatu 'l-'fili, that which Muhammad himself did. (2) Sunnatu 'l-qauli, that which Muhammad said should be practised. (3) Sunnatu 'l-taqriri, that which was done in the presence of Muhammad, and which he appears to have sanctioned.

It is therefore a serious mistake to suppose that the Qur'an contains all that is esteemed necessary for faith and practice in Islam; the example of Muhammad is as binding upon the Muslim as any injunction contained in the Qur'an itself, for neither that which is, Far; nor that which is Ss,sna/s can be omitted without sin.

The true origin and fountain of all law is the Qur'an and the Traditions, and no Muslim school of theology has ever rejected the Traditions. They are binding upon Sunni, and Shi'ah, and Wahhabi; the only difference between the Sunni and Shi'ah being that they receive different collections of Traditions. The Wahhabis receive those of the Sunnis, and call themselves Muhaddisin, or traditionists.

In addition to the Qur'an and Hadis (or Traditions), both Sunni and Shi'ah Muslims acknowledge the concurrence of the learned, called Ijma'', the Shi'ahs believing that they still possess Mujtahids capable of giving an infallible interpretation of the law; the Sunni,, on the other hand, confessing that, since the days of the four great doctors (Abu Hanifa, Malik, ash-Shafi'i, and Ibn Hanbal), Ijma' has not been possible; whilst the Wahhabis accept only the Ijma' of those who conversed with the Prophet himself. The fourth foundation of orthodoxy in both Sunni and Shi'ah schools is the system of interpretation called Qiyas, or ratiocination.

I. The Sunnis all receive the same collections of traditions, especially those which are known as the "six correct books," the Sahihu 'l-Bukhari, the Sahihu Muslim, the Sahihu 'T-Tirmizi, Sunanu Abi Da'ud, Sunanu an-Nasaf'i, and Sunanu Ibn Majah. The compilation by the Imam Malik, which is first in order of date, is also a collection of traditions of very great authority. (TRADITIONS.)

These different sects of Sunnis do not differ in usul, or fundamentals of religions belief, but in minor rules of practice, and in certain legal interpretations; but being of different opinions and broaching in some respects separate doctrines, four schools of jurisprudence have been established, known as Hanafi, Shafi'i, Hanbali, and Maliki.

The differences amongst these four Sunni schools are based either upon different tradi- 287

tions or upon different interpretations of the same traditions, also upon the various ways In which the liberty of qiysis, or ratiocination, s has been exercised. Consequently the number of works which have appeared on the subjects of scholastic science said jurisprudence, has been very great indeed.

We are indebted to Mr. Shams Charun Sircar, the learned and able Tagore Professor of Law in Calcutta, for the following resume of the principal Sunni writings on ash-Shar'.

"The chief works that treat generally of the doctrines of the four principal sects of the Sunnis, are mentioned by Haji Khalifah to be the Jami-el-Mazahib (Jami'u 'I-Mazahib), the Majmaa-ul-Khilafiyat, the Yanabiya-ul-Ahkam (Yanabi'u 'l-Ahkam), the Uyum, and the Zubdat-ul-Ahkam. The Kanz-ud-Dakaik (Kanzu 'd-Daqa'iq), by An Nasafi, is a book of great reputation, principally derived from the Wafi; and containing questions and decisions according to the doctrines of Abu Hanifah, Abd-Yusuf, Imam Muhammad, Zufar, Shafi'i, Malik, and others. Many commentaries have been written on the last mentioned work; the most famous of them is the Bahr-ur-Raik (al-Bahru 'r-Ra'iq), which may, indeed, almost be said to have superseded its original, at least in India. The Bahr-ur-Ra'ik is by Zainu-ul-Aabidin Bin Nujaim-ul Misri (Ibn

Najim), A.H. 970. The Multaka-al-Abhar (Multaqa 'l-Abhar), by Shaikh Ibrahim Bin Muhammad al-Halabi, who died A.H. 956, is a universal cede of Muhammadan law. It gives the different opinions or doctrines of Abu Hanifah, Malik, Shafi'i, and Hanbal, the chief Mujtahid Imams and the founders of the four great sects of Sunnis, and illustrates them by those of the principal jurisconsults of the school of Abel Hanifah. it is more frequently referred to as an authority throughout Turkey, than any other treatise on jurisprudence.

"The digests inculcating exclusively the doctrines of each of the said four great sects are, indeed, numerous, though a very few of them which maintain the doctrines of the Maliki, or Sháfi'i, or Hanbali sects are used in India. Digests written by Malik or any of his followers are scarcely found in India "Of the digests maintaining the Maliki doctrines, two have lately appeared in France (by M. Vincent, 1842; M. Perron, 1843). The first work of Shafi'i, entitled the Usul or fundamentals, which contains the principles of the Muhammadan civil and canon law, may be classed as a digest. The Mukhtasar, the Mansur, the Rasa'il-ul-Mutabirah (ar-Rasa'ilu 'l-Mu'tabarah), and the Kitab-ul-Wasaik, are amongst the other works written by Abu Ibrahim Bin Yahiyi-al-Muzani, a distinguished disciple of Shafi'i, and a native of Egypt (Au. 264), and are according to the doctrines of Shafi'i. The works by Ibnu Hambal and his followers are few in number, and rare.

"The followers of the Hanifi sect, which obtains most commonly amongst the Muhammadans of India, have, like others, divided their law into two general branches or parts, respectively called the Fikah (law, religious ad secular), and Faraiz (the succession to, and division of, inheritance).

"The works which are on Fikah (Fiqh), and which are considered as the chief authorities if the Hanifi sect, are the following :—Abd Hanifah's own digest of law, entitled the Fikah-ul-Akbar(al-Fiqhu'l-Akbar). This is the first in rank, and has been commented upon by various writers, many of whom are mentioned by Haji Khalifah. The doctrines of that great lawyer, however, are sometimes qualified or dissented from by his two famous pupils, Abu Yusuf and Imam Muhammad. The work entitled Adab-ul-Kazi, which treats of the duties of a magistrate, is known to have been written by Abu Yusuf. Save and except this, no other work appears to have been composed by him. He, however, is said to have supplied his notes to his pupil Imam Muhammad, who made use of them in the composition of his own works. The works of Imam Muhammad are six in number, five of which are, in common, entitled the Zahir-ur-Rawayat (Zahiru 'r-Rawayat, conspicuous traditions or reports). They are: 1. The Jami-ul-Kabir (al-Jámi'u '-Kabir); 2. Jarni-us-Saghir (al-Jami'u 's-Saghir); 3. Mabsut fi Faru-ul-Hanifiyat; 4. Ziyadat fi Farnu-ul-Hamifiyat; and 5. Siyar al-Kabir wa Saghir. The Nawadir, the sixth and last of the known compositions of Imam Muhammad, though not so highly esteemed as the others, is still greatly respected as an authority.

"The next authorities among the Hanafis, after the founder of their sect and his two disciples, are the Imam Zufar Bin al-Hazi'l who was chief judge at Basrah, where he died (A.H. 158), and Hasan Bin Ziyad. These lawyers are said to have been contemporaries, friends, and scholars of Abu-Hanifah, and their works are quoted here as authorities for Abu Hanifah's doctrines, more especially when the two disciples are silent. The most celebrated of the several treatises known by the name of

Adab-ul Kazi was written by Abu Bakr Ahmad Bin 'Umar ul-Khassaf (A.H. 261). An abridgement of the Hanafi doctrines, called the Mukhtasur ut-Tahavi, was written by Abu Jaafar Ahmad Bin Muhammad at-Tahavi (A.H. 331), who wrote also a commentary on the Jami us-Saghir of Imam Muhammad.

"The Mukhtasar lil-Kuduri, by Abu ul-Husain Ahmad Bin Muhammad al-Kuduri (A.H. 228) is among the most esteemed of the works which follow the doctrines of Abu Hanifah. There is a well-known commentary on the Mukhtasar lil-Kuduri, entitled Al-Jauharat un-Nayyirah, which is sometimes called Al-Jauharat ul-Munirah. The digest, entitled the Mabsut (al-Mabsut), was composed by Shams-ul-Aimmah Abu Bakr Muhammad as-Sarakhsi whilst in prison at U'zjand. This is a work of great extent and authority. He was also the author of the most celebrated work entitled Al-Muhit (al-Muhit), which is derived in a great measure from the Mabsut, the Ziyadat, and 288

the Nawadir of Imam Muhammad. The work entitled the Muhit by Burhan-ud-din Mahmud Bin Ahmad, already spoken of. is not so greatly esteemed as the Muhit as-Sarakhsi (Muhtu 's-Sarokhsi). A compendium of Al-Kuduri's Mukhtasar, which he entitled the Tuhfat-ul-Fukaha (Tuhfatu 'l-Fuqaha), was composed by Shaikh Ala-ud-din Muhammad as-Samarkandi. The work of Alaud-dinl was commented upon by his pupil Abu Bakr Bin Masuud.

"There ace several Arabic works on philosophical and theological subjects whitch bear the name of Al-Hiddayah (the guide). The work. entitled Al-Hidayah f'i-al-Faru, or the guide in particular points, is a digest of law according to the doctrines of Abi Hanifah and his disciples Abu Yusuf and Imam Muhammad. The author of this work is Shaikh Burhan-ud-din Ali (A.H. 593), whose reputation as a 1awyer was beyond that of all his contemporaries. This Hidayah is a commentary on the Badaya-ul-Mubtada, an introduction to the study of law, written by the same author in a style exceedingly concise and close. In praise of the Hidayah, Haji Khalifah says, 'It has been declared, like the Kuran to have superseded all previous books on the law; that all persons should remember the rules prescribed in it, and that it should be followed as a guide through life.' The Hidayah has, besides the Kifayah, many other commentaries, as a work of so great celebrity and authority is expected to have. The principal ones are the Inayah ('Inayah), the Nihayah, and the Fath-ul-Kabir.

"The name Inayah, however, is given to two commentaries on the Hidayah. Of these, the one composed by Shaikh Kamal-ud-din Muhammad Bin Mahmud, who died A.H. 786, is highly esteemed and useful. Supplying by way of innuendoes what was omitted or left to implication, also expressing what was understood in the Hidayah and explaining the words and expounding the passages of the original by the insertion of explanatory phrases the author of the Inanyah has rendered the work such as to be considered of itself one if his own principal works, with citations of passages from the Hidayah."

"The Nihayah is composed by Husam-ud-din Husain Bin Ali, who is said to have been. a pupil of Burhan-ud-din Ali. This is said to he the first commentary composed on the Hidayah: and it is important for having added the law of inheritance to the Hidayah which reals only of the Fikah. The commentary, entitled the Kifayah is by

Imam-ud-din Amir Katib Bin Amir Umar, who had previously written another explanatory gloss of the same work, and entitled it the Ghayat-ul-Bayan. The Kifayah was finished A.H. 747, and, besides the author's own observations, it gives concisely the substance of other commentaries."

"The Fath-ul-Kubir lil-Aajiz ul-Fakir, by Kamal-ud-din Muhammad as-Siwasi, commonly called Ibnu Hammam, who died A.H 861. is the most comprehensive of all the comments on the Hiddyah. and includes a collection of decisions which render it extremely useful. The short commentary entitled the Fawdid, written by Hamld-ud-din Ali, Al-Bukhari, who died A.H. 667, is said to be the first of all the commentaries on the Hiddyah. The Wafi, by Abu-ul-Barakát Abd ullah Bin Ahmad, commonly called Hafiz-ud-din an Nasafi, and its commentary the Kafi, by the same author, are works of authority. An-Nasafi died A.H. 710."

"The Vikayah (al-Wiqayah), which was written in the seventh century of the Hijrah by Burhan ash-Shariyat Mahmud, is an elementary work to enable the student to study and understand the Hidayah. The Vikayah is printed, and invariably studied, with its celebrated commentary, the Sharh ul-Vikayah, written by Ubaidullah Bin Masuud. who died A.H. 745. The Sharh-ul-Vikayah contains the text of the Vikayah with a gloss most perspicuously explanatory and illustrative; so much so, that those chapters of it which treat of marriage, dower, and divorce, are studied in the Madrassahs of India in preference to the Hidayah itself. There are also other commentaries on the Vidayah, but not so useful as the above. On the Sharh-ul-Vikayah , again, there is an excellent commentary, entitled the Chalpi, written by Akhi Yusuf Bin Junid who was one of the then eight professors at Constantinople. This work was commenced to be written about AH. 891, and completed A.H. 901; and the whole of it was published in Calcutta A.H. 1245 and extracts therefrom have been printed."

"The Nikayah (an-Niqayah), another elementary Law book, is the work of the author of the Sharh-ul-Vikayah. It is sometimes called the Mukhtasar ul-Vihayah, being, in fact, an abridgment of that work. Three comments on the Nikayah are much esteemed: they were written respectively by Abu ul-Makarim Bin Abdullah (A.H. 907), Abu Ali Bin Muhammad al-Birjindi (A.H. 935), and Shams ud-din Muhammad al-Khurasani Al Kohistani (A.H. 941). The last commentary is entitled the Jami-ur-Rumuz (Jami'u 'r-Rumuz), which is the fullest and the clearest of the lot. sea well as one of the most useful law books."

"The Ashbah wa an-Naza'ir (al-Ashbah wa 'n-Naza'ir) is also an elementary work of great reputation. It was composed by Zain al-Aabidin, the author of the Bahr-ur-Raik already mentioned. Hájl Khallfah speaks of this work in high terms, and enumerates several appendices to it that have been composed at different times. The treatise on exegesis entitled the Nur-ul-Anwar-fi Sharah ul-Manar (Nuru 'l-Anwar fi Sharah ul-Manar). by Shaikh Jun Bin Abel Sayyid Al-Makki (Shaikh Jiwan ibn Abu Sa'id), was printed in Calcutta (A.D 1819), and is frequently referred to as a book of authority. A small tract on the sources of the Sharaa, entitled Usul-ush-Shashi, together with an explanatory commentary, was printed in lithography, at Delhi, in the year A.D. 1847."

"The Tanwir-ul-Absar (Tanwiru 'l-Absar), composed by Shaikh Shams-ud-din Muhama- 289

mad Bin Abd-ullah-al-Ghazi (A.H. 995), is one of the most celebrated and useful books according to the Hanafi doctrines. This work has many commentaries. One of them, entitled the Manh-ul- Ghaffar (Manhu ‘l-Ghaffar), which is written by the author himself is a work of considerable extent.

"The Durr-ul-Mukhtar, which is another commentary on the Tanvir-ul-Absar, is a work of great celebrity. This work was written (A.H. 1071) by Muhammad Ala-ud-Din Bin Shaikh Ali al-Hiskafi. Though a commentary, it is virtually a digest, which of itself has several commentaries, the most celebrated of them is the Tahtavi a work used in India. Another commentary on the Durr-ul-Mukhtar is the Radd-ul-Muhtar. This is a very copious work, comprising an immense number of cases and decisions illustrative of the principles contained in the principal works. The Durr-ul-Mukhtar treats not only of the Fikah but also of the Faraiz. It is used by the followers of the Hanifi doctrines where ever they are, but it is most highly esteemed in Arabia, where it is studied and referred to in preference to other books of law."

"Many works have been written according to the doctrines of Abu Hanifah in the Turkish Empire, and are received there as authorities. The most celebrated of those is the Multaka-ul-Abhar, by Shaikh Ibrahim Bin Muhammad al-Halabi, the Durr-ul-Hukkam, by Mullah Khusru, Kamin-namai-Jaza a tract on penal laws, &c."

"The treatises on the laws of inheritence according to the doctrines of Shafi, are the Faraiz--ul-Mutawalli, by Abu Sayid Abd-ur-Rahman Bin Mamun-ul-Mutawalli (who died A.H. 478), the Faraiz-ul-Mukuddasi by Abu-ul-Fazi Abd-al-Malik Bin Ibrahim al-Hamadani Al-Mukuddasi, at Abd Munsur Abd-ul-Kahir Al-Baghdadi who died respectively in A.H. 489 and 429);302

DICTIONARY OF ISLAM.

M.

MA'AQIL. . The fines for murder, manslaughter, &c. (Hidayah, vol. iv. p. 448.) [DIYAH.]

AL-MA'ARIJ. . Lit. "The Ascents." The title of the LXXth chapter of the Qur'an, in the second verse of which occurs the sentence: "God, the possessor of the Ascents (or Steps) by which the angels ascend unto Him, and the Spirit (i.e. Gabriel), in a day whose space is fifty thousand years."

Sale, translating from al-Baizawi and Zamakhsahri says: "This is supposed to be the space which would be required for their ascent from the lowest part of the creation to the throne of God, if it were to be measured, or the time which it would take a man to perform a journey; and this is not contradictory to what is said elsewhere (if it be to be interpreted to the ascent of the angels), that the length of the day whereon they ascend

is 1,000 years, because that is meant only of their ascent from earth to the lower Heaven, including also the time of their descent.

"But the commentators, generally taking the day spoken of in both these passages to be the Day of Judgment, have recourse to several expedients to reconcile them, and as both passages seem to contradict what Muhamman doctors teach, that God will judge all creatures in the space of half-a-day, they suppose those large numbers of years are designed to express the time of the previous attendance of those who are to be judged, or else to the space wherein God will judge the unbelieving nations, of which, they say, there will be fifty, the trial of each nation taking up 1,000 years, though that of the true believers will be over in the short space above mentioned."

MABNA 'T-TASAWWUF. . Lit. "The Foundation of Sufiism." A term used by the Sufis to embrace the three principle of their system. (1) The choice of the ascetic life; (2) The 303

intention to bestow freely upon others ; (3) The giving up of one's own will and desire, and desiring only the will of God. (See 'Abdu 'r-Razzaq's Dict. of Sufi Terms.)

AL-MADINAH. . Lit. "The city." The city celebrated as the burial place of Muhammad. It is called Yatrib (see Qur'an, Surah xxxiii. 13), but was distinguished as al-Medinah. "the city," and Madinatu 'n-Nabi," the city of the Prophet," after it had become famous by giving shelter to Muhammad it is esteemed only second to Makkah in point of sanctity. Muhammad is related to have said. "There are angels guarding the roads to al-Madinah, on account of which neither plague, or the Dajjal (Anti-Christ) can eater it." "I was ordered," he said, "to flee to a city which shall eat up (conquer) all other cities, and its name is now al-Madinah (the city); verily she puts away evil from man, like as the forge purifies iron." "God has made the name of al-Madinah both tabah and taiyiba." i.e. both good and odoriferous.

Al-Madinah is built on the elevated plain of Arabia, not far from the eastern base of the ridge of mountains which divide the table-land from the lower country, between it and the Red Sea. The town stands on the lowest part, on the plain whore the water courses unite, which produce in the rainy season numerous pools of stagnant water, and render the climate unhealthy. Gardens and date-plantations, interspersed with fields, inclose the town on three sides; on the side towards Makkah the rocky nature of the soil renders cultivation impossible. The city forms an oval about 2,800 paces in circuit, ending in a point. The castle is built at the point on a small rocky elevation. The whole is inclosed by a thick wall of stone, between 35 and 40 feet high, flanked by about 80 towers and surrounded by a ditch. Three well-built gates lead into the town. The houses are well built of atone, and generally we stories high. As this stone is of a dark colour, the streets have a gloomy aspect, and are for the most part very narrow, often only two or three paces across; a few of the principal streets are paved with stone. There are only two large streets which contain shops. The principal buildings within the city are the great mosque containing the tomb of Muhammad, two fine colleges, and the castle, standing at the western extremity of the city, which

is surrounded by strong walls and several high and solid towers, and contains a deep well of good water.

The town is well supplied with sweet water by a subterranean canal which runs from the village of Quba', about three-quarters of a mile distant in a southern direction. In several parts of the town steps are made down to the canal, where the inhabitants supply themselves with water which, how-ever, contains nitre, and produces indigestion in persons not accustomed to it. There are also many wells scattered over the town; every garden has one by which it is irrigated; and when the ground is bored to the depth of twenty-five or thirty feet, water is found in plenty. During the rainy season, many torrents descend from the higher grounds to lower depression in which al-Madinah is built, and part of the city is inundated. This plentiful supply of water made this site a considerable settlement of Arabs long before it became sacred among the Muhammadans, by the flight, residence, and death of the Prophet, to which it owes its name of Madinatu 'n-Nabi, or the City of the Prophet. (See Burckhardt's Travals in Arabia.)

An account of the Prophet's mosque is given under MASJIDU 'N-NABI, and of the burial chamber of Muhammad under HUJRAH.

MADRASAH. . A school. [EDUCATION.]

MADYAN. . Midian. The descendants of Midian, the son of Abraham and Keturah, and a city and district bearing his name, situated on the Red Sea, south-east of Mount Sinai.

Mentioned in the Qur'an, Surah vii. 83. "We sent to Madyan their brother Shu'aib." [SHUAIB.]

MAFQUD. . A legal term for a person who is lost, and of whom no information can be obtained. He is not considered legally dead until the period expires when he would be ninety years old.

MAGIANS.. [MAJUS.]

MAGIC.. Arabic sihr A belief in the magical art is entertained by almost all Muhammadans, and there is a large number of persons who study it.

Although magic (as-sihr) is condemned in the Qur'an (Surah ii. 96) and in the Traditions (Mishkat, book xxi. ch. iii ch. in. pt. 1), there are still many superstitious practices resembling this occult science, which are clearly permitted according to the sayings of Muhammad.

Anas says, "The Prophet permitted a spell, (ruqyah) being used to counteract the ill effects of the evil eye; and on those bitten by snakes or scorpions." (Sahihu Muslim p. 238.)

Umm Salmah relates "that the Prophet allowed a spell to be used for the removal of yellowness in the eye, which, be said, proceeded from the malignant eye." (Sahihu 'l-Bukhari, p. 854.)

'Auf ibn Malik says "the Prophet said there is nothing wrong in using spells, provided the use of them does not associate anything with God." (Mishkat, book xxi. ch. i.)

The terms used to express the magical arts are da'wah, lit. "an invitation of the spirits," exorcism; 'azimah, an incantation; kihanah, divination, or fortune-telling: ruqyah, a spell; and sihr, magic.

The term da'wah is held to imply a lawful incantation, in which only the assistance of God is invited by the use of either the Ismir 'l-A'zam, or great and unknown name of God. 304

or the recital of the ninety-nine names attributes of the Almighty. As-Sihr, or the magical use of evil spirits: and kihanah, fortune-telling, are hold to be strictly unlawful.

Incantation and exorcism as practiced by Muhammadans is treated of in the article on DA'WAH.

Mr. Lane in his annotated edition of the Arabian Nights, says:-

There are two descriptions of magic, one spiritual, regarded by all but freethinkers true; the other, natural, and denounced by the more religious and enlightened as deceptive.

1. Spiritual magic, which is termed Roohanee ' (ar-ruhani), chiefly depends upon the virtues of certain names of God, and passages from the Kuran, and the agency of angels, and jinn, or genii. It is of two kinds, Divine and Satanic (" Rahmanee," i.e. relating to "the Compassionate" [who God], and Sheytanee," relating to the Devil.)

1. Divine magic is regarded as a sublime science, and is studied only by good men, at practised only for good purposes. Perfection in this branch of magic consists in the knowledge of the most great name of God [ISMU 'L- AZAM]; but this knowledge is imparted to none but the peculiar favourites of heaven. By virtue of this name, which was engraved c his seal ring, Solomon subjected to his dominion the jinn and the birds and the winds. By pronouncing it, his minister Asaf (Asaf), also transported in an instant, to the presence his sovereign, in Jerusalem, the throne of the Queen of Sheba. But this was a small miracle to effect by such means, for, by uttering this name, a man may even raise the dead, Other names of the Deity, commonly known are believed to have particular efficacies when uttered or written; as also are the names the Prophet, and angels and good jinn are said to be rendered subservient to the purposes of divine magic by means of certain ii vocations. Of such names and invocation together with

words unintelligible to the uninitiated in this science, passages from the Kuran, mysterious combinations of number and peculiar diagrams and figures, are chief composed written charms employed for good purposes. Enchantment, when used for benevolent purposes is regarded by the vulgar as branch of lawful or divine magic; but not so by the learned, and the same remark applies to the science of divination.

2. Satanic magic, as its name implies, is science depending on the agency of the Devil and the inferior evil jinn, whose services are obtained by means similar to those which propitiate, or render subservient, the good jmn. It is condemned by the Prophet and all good Muslims, and only practised for his purposes. Es sehr (as-Sihr), or enchantment is almost universally acknowledged to be branch of Satanic magic, but some few persons assert (agreeably with several tales: the Arabian Nights), that it may be, and I some has been, studied with good intention and practised by the aid of good jinn; consequently, that there is such a science as good enchantment, which is to be regarded as a branch of divine or lawful magic. The metamorphoses are said to be generally effected by means of spells, or invocations to jinn, accompanied by the sprinkling of water or dust. &c., on the object to be transformed. Persons are said to be enchanted in various ways some paralyzed, or even deprived of life, others, affected with irresistible passion for certain objects, others, again, rendered demoniacs, and some, transformed into brutes, birds, &r. The evil eye is believed to enchant in a very powerful and distressing manner. This was acknowledged even by the Prophet. Diseases and death are often attributed to its influence. Amulets are worn by many Muslims with the view of counteracting or preserving from enchantment; and for the same purpose many ridiculous ceremonies are practised. Divination, which is termed El-Kihaneh (al-Kihanah), is pronounced on the highest authority to be a branch of Satanic magic; though not believed to be so by all Muslims. According to an assertion of the Prophet, what a fortuneteller says may sometimes be true; because one of the jinn steals away the truth, and carries it to the magician's ear; for the angels come down to the region next the earth (the lowest heaven), and mention the works that have been pre-ordained in heaven; and the devils (or evil jinn) listen to what the angels say, and hear the orders predestined in heaven, and carry them to the fortune-tellers. It is on such occasions that shooting stars are hurled at the devils. It is said that, "the diviner obtains the services of the Sheytan (Shaitan) by magic arts, and by names invoked, and by the burning of perfumes, and he informs him of secret things ; for the devils, before the mission of the Apostle of God, it is added, used to ascend to heaven, and hear words by stealth. That the evil jinn are believed still to ascend sufficiently near to the lowest heaven to hear the conversation of the angels, and so to assist magicians, appears from the former quotation, and is assorted by all Muslims. The discovery of hidden treasures is one of the objects for which divination is most studied. The mode of divination called "Darb-el-Mendel" (Zarbu 'l-Mandal), is by some supposed to be effected by the aid of evil jinn; but the more enlightened of the Muslims regard it as a branch of natural magic. Some curious performances of this kind, by means of a fluid mirror of ink, have been described in the Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, and in No. 117 of the Quarterly Review.

There are certain modes of divination which cannot properly be classed under the head of spiritual magic, but require a place between the account of this science and that of natural magic. The most important of these branches of Kihaneh is Astrology, which is called Lim en Nujoom ('Ilmu 'n-Nujum). This is studied by many Muslims in

the present day, and its professors are often employed by the Arabs to determine a fortunate period for laying the 305

foundation of a building, commencing a journey, &C: but more frequently by the Persians and Turks. The Prophet pronounced Astrology to be a branch of magic. Another branch of Kihaneh is Geomancy, railed "Darb er Raml" (Zarbu Raml); a mode of divination from certain marks made on sand (whence its appellation), or on paper; and said to be chiefly founded on astrology. The science called "ez Zijr," or "el; Eyafeh" (al-'Iyafah), is a third brunch of Kihanehr being divination or auguration, chiefly from the motions and positions and postures, of birds, or of gazelles and ether beasts of the chase. Thus what was termed a "Saneh " (Sanih) that is, such an animal standing or passing with its right side towards the spectator, was esteemed among the Arabs as of good omen; and a "Barch" (Barih), or an animal of this kind, with its left side towards the spectator, was field as inauspicious. "El Kiyafeh" (al-Qiyafah), under which term are included Chiromancy and its kindred sciences, is a fourth branch of Kihaneh. "El Tefaul (at-Tafawwa1), or the taking an omen. particularly a good one, from a name or words accidentally heard or seen, or chosen from a book belonging to the same science. The taking a "fal", or omen, from the Kuran, is generally held to be lawful. Various trifling events are considered as ominous. For instance, a Sultan quitting his palace with his troops, a standard happened to strike a "tsurayya" a cluster of lamps so called from resembling the Pleiades), and broke them: he drew from this an evil omen, and would have relinquished the expedition; hut me of his chief' officers said to him, "O our Lord, thy standard has reached the Pleiades," and being relieved by this remark, he proceeded, amid returned victorious.

(See The Thousand and One Nights, a new translation, with copious notes, by Edward W. Lane; new ed. By E. S. Poole, vol. i. p. 60.)

MAGISTRATES. . . [QAZI.]

MAGPIE. Arabic 'aq'aq . According to Ab'u Hanifnh, the flesh of the magpie is mubah, or indifferent; but the Imam Yusuf held it to be makruh, or reprobated, because it frequently feeds on dead bodies. (Hiddyah, vol. iv. p. 74.)

AL-MAHDI. . Lit. 'The Directed One," hence, "who is fit to direct others, Guide, Leader." A. ruler who shall in the last days appear upon the earth. According to the Shi'ahs, he has already appeared in the person of Muhammad Abu '1-Qasim, the twelfth Imam, who is believed to be concealed in some secret place until the day of his manifestation before the end of the world. But the Sunnis say he has not yet appeared. In the history of Muhammadanism, there are numerous instances of impostors having assumed the character of this mysterious personage, amongst others, Saiyad Ahmad, who fought against the Sikhs on the North-West frontier of the Punjab, AD. 1826, and still who has claimed to be al-Mahdi in Sudan in Egypt.

The sayings of the Prophet on the subject, according to al-Bukhari and other traditionists are as follows :—

"The world will not come to an end until a man of my tribe and of my name shall be master of Arabia."

"When you see black ensigns coming from the direction of Khorosan, then join them, for the Imam of God will be with the standards, whose name is al-Mahdi."

"The Mahdi will be descended from me, he will be a man with an open countenance and with a high nose. He will fill the earth with equity and justice, even as it has been filled with tyranny and oppression, and be will reign over the earth seven years."

Quarrelling and disputation shall exist amongst men, and than shall a man of the people of al-Madinah come forth, and shall go from al-Madinah to Makkah, and the people of Makkah shall make him Imam. Then shall the ruler of Syria send up army against the Mahdi, but the Syrian army shall perish by an earthquake near Bada', between al-Madinah and Makkah. And when the people shall see this, the Abdal [ABDAL] will come from Syria, and also a multitude from al-'Iraq. After this an enemy to the Mahdi sha1l arise from the Quraish tribe, whose uncles shall be of the tribe of Kalb, and this man shall send an array against the Mahdi. The Mahdi shall rule according to the examp1e of your Prophet, and shall give strength and stability to Islam. He shall reign for seven years, and than die."

"There shall be much rain in the days of the Mahdi and the inhabitants both of heaven and earth shall he pleased with him. Men's lives shall pass so pleasantly, that they will wish even time dead were alive again." (Mishkatu'l-Masanih, book xxiii. ch. 3.)

According to Shi'ah traditions, Muhammad is related to have said "O ye people! I am the Prophet and 'Ali is my heir, and from us will descend al-Mahdi, the seal (i.e. the last) of the Imams, who will conquer all religion; and take vengeance on the wicked. He will take fortresses and will destroy them and slay every tribe of idolaters and he will avenge the deaths of the martyrs of God. He will be the champion of the Faith, and a drawer of water at the fountain of divine knowledge. He will reward merit and requite every fool according to his fo1ly. He will he the approved and chosen of God, and the heir of all knowledge. He will be the valiant in doing right, and one to whom the Most High has entrusted Islam. . . O ye people, I have explained to you, and 'Ali also will make you understand it." (Hiyatu 'l-Qulub, Merrick's ed., p. 342.)

It is probable that it is from these traditions that the opinion became current amongst the Christians that the Muhammadans expected their Prophet would rise again.

MAHJUR. . A slave inhibited by the ruler from exercising any 306

MAHMAL. . A covered litter borne on a camel, both from Cairo and from Damascus, to Makknh, as an emblem of royalty at the time of the pilgrimage.

It is said that Sultan 'az-Zahir Beaybars, king of Egypt, was the first who sent a mahmal with the caravan of pilgrims to Makkah in A.D. 1272, but that it had its

origin a few years before his accession to the throne, under the following circumstances:-

Shaghru 'd-Durr, a beautiful Turkish

female slave, who became the favourite wife of Sultan as-Salih' Najmu 'd-din, and who on the death of his son (with whom terminated the dynasty of Aiyub) caused herself to be acknowledged Queen of Egypt, performed the hajj in a magnificent litter borne by a camel. And for successive years her empty litter was sent yearly to Makkah, as an emblem of state. After her death, a similar litter was sent each veer with the caravan of pilgrims 307

from Cairo and Damascus, and 5 is called muhmal or mahmil, a word signifying that by which anything is supported.

Mr. Lane, in his Modern Egyptains, vol. ii. p. 162; thus describes the mahmal:-

"It is a square skeleton frame of wood with a pyramidal top, and has a covering of black brocade richly worked with inscriptions and ornamental embroidery in gold, in some parts upon a ground of green or red silk, and bordered with a fringe of silk, with tassels, surmounted by silver balls. Its covering is not always made after time same pattern with regard to the decorations; but in every cover that I have seen, I have remarked or the upper part of the front view of the Temple of Makkah. worked in gold, and over it the Sultan's cipher. It contains nothing; but has two copies of the Kuran, one on a small scroll, and the other in the usual form of a book, also small, each inclosed in a case of

gilt silver, attached externally at the top, the five balls with crescents, which ornament the mahmal, are of gilt silver. Time mahmal is borne by a fine tall camel, which is generally indulged with exemption from every kind of labour during the remainder of its life."

Eastern travellers often confuse the mahmal with the kiswah, or covering for the Ka'bah, which is a totally distinct thing, although it is made in Cairo and sent at the Same time as the mahmal. [KISWAH.]

The Wahbabis prohibited the mahmal as an object of vain pomp, and on one occasion intercepted the caravan which escorted it. Captain Burton saw both the Egyptian and the Damascus mahmal. on the plain below Arafah at the time of the pilgrimage

MAHMUDIYAH... A Shi'ah sect founded by Mir Sharif, who in the reign of Akbar held a military appointment in Bengal. He was a disciple of Mahmud of Busakwan, the founder of the Nuqtawiyah sect. Mabmud lived in the reign of Timur, and professed to ho al-Mahdi. He also called himself the Shakhs-i-Wahid — the

Individual one. He used to quote the verse, 'It may be that thy Lord will raise thee up to a glorious (mahmud) station" (Surah xvii. 81). From this he argued that the body of man had been advancing in purity since the creation, and that on its reaching to a certain degree, one Mahmud (glorious) would arise, and that then the dispensation of Muhammad would come to an end. He claimed to be the Mahmud, He also taught the doctrine of transmigration, and that the beginning of everything was the earth atom (nuqtah). it is on this account that they are called in Persian the Nuqtawiyah sect. They are also known by the names Mahmudiyab and Wahidiyah. Shah 'Abbas, King of Persia, expelled them from his dominion., but Akbar received the fugitives kindly, and promoted some amongst thorn to high offices of State,

MAHR.. . (p.). Heb. The dower or settlement of money or property on the wife, without which a marriage ma not legal, for an explanation of which see the article on DOWER.

The Hebrew word occurs three times in the old Testament, viz. Gen. xxxiv. 12; Ex. xxii. 17: 1 Sam. xviii. 25. [DOWER and MARRIAGE.]

MAHRAM... Lit. "Unlawful." A near relative with whom it is unlawful to marry. Muhammad enjoined that every woman performing pilgrimage should have a mahram with her night and day, to prevent scandal. (Mishkat, book xi. ch. i.)

AL-MA'IDAH... Lit. "The table." The title of the vth Surah of the Qur'in, in the 114th verge of which the word occurs: "O Jesus, son of Mary I is thy Lord able hr send down to us a table?"

"This miracle is thus related by the commentators. Jesus having at the request of his followers asked it of God, a red table immediately descended, in their sight, between two clouds, and was set before them; whereupon he rose up, and, having made the ablution, prayed, and then took off the cloth which covered the table, saying. 'in the name of God, the best provider of food!' What the provisions were with which this table was furnished, is a matter wherein the expositor are not agreed. One will have them to be nine cakes of bread and nine fishes; another, bread and flesh; another, all sorts of food except flesh; another, all sorts of food except 308

bread and flesh; another, all except bread and fish another, one fish which had the taste of all manner of food; and another, fruits of paradise, but the most received tradition is that when the table was uncovered, there appeared a fish ready dressed, without scales or prickly fins, dropping with fat, having salt placed at its head and vinegar at its tail, and round it all sorts of herbs except leeks, and fine loaves if bread, on one of which there were olives, on the second honey, on the third butter, on the. fourth cheese, and on the fifth dried flesh. They add that Jesus, at the request of the Apostles, showed them another miracle, by restoring the fish to life, and causing its scales and fins to return to it, at which the standers-by being affrighted, he caused it to become as it was before; that one thousand three hundred men and women, all afflicted with bodily infirmities or poverty ate of these provisions, and were satisfied,

the fish remaining whole as it was at first; that then the table flew up to heaven in the sight of all: and every one who had partaken of this food were delivered from their infirmities and misfortunes; and that it continued to descend for forty days together, at dinner-time, and stood on the ground till the sun declined, and was then taken up into the clouds. Some of the Muhammadan writers are of opinion that this table did not really descend, but that it was only a parable; but most think the words of the Qur'an are plain to the contrary. A. further tradition is that several men were changed into swine for disbelieving this miracle, and attributing it to magic art; of, as others pretend, far stealing some of the victuals from off it. Several other fabulous circumstances are also told, which are scarce worth transcribing. Some say the table descended on a Sunday, which was the reason of the Christian observing that day as sacred. Others pretend that this day is still kept among them as very great festival, and it seems as if the story and its rise from an imperfect notion of Christ's last supper and the institution of the Eucharist." (Sale's Qur'an.)

MAIMUNAH... The last of Muhammad's wives. A sister to Ummu 'l-Fazl, the wife of al Abbas, and consequently related to the Prophet. She was a widow, 51 years of age, when Muhammad married her. She survived him and died at the age of 81, being buried on the very spot on which she had celebrated her marriage. (Muir's Life of Mahomet, new ed. p. 403)

MAINTENANCE.. Arabic nafaqah , which, in the language of the law, signifies all those timings which are necessary to the support of life, such as food, clothes, and lodging, although many confine it solely to food. Durru 'l-Mukhtar, p. 283.) There are three causes of maintenance established by law. (1) Marriage: (2) Relationship (3) Property (i.e. in case of a slave).

A husband is bound to give proper maintenance to his wife or wives, provided she or they have not become refractory or rebellious, but have surrendered herself or themselves to the custody of their husband.

Maintenance may be decreed out of the property of an absent husband, whether it be held in trust, or deposit, or murzazbah for him.

I the husband become poor to such a degree as to be unable to provide his wife her maintenance, still they are not to be separated on this account, but the Qazi shall direct the woman to procure necessaries for herself upon her husband's credit, the amount remaining a debt upon him.

A divorced wife is entitled to food, clothing, and lodging during the period of he 'iddah, and until her delivery, if she be pregnant. No maintenance is, however, due a woman, whether pregnant or not, for the 'iddah observed upon the death of her husband. No maintenance is due to a woman upon separation caused by her own fault.

A father is bound to support his infant children; and no one shares the obligation with him.

A mother who is a married wife, cannot be compelled to suckle her infant, except where a nurse cannot be procured, or the child refuses to take the milk of any other than of the mother, who in that case is bound to suckle it, unless incapacitated for want of health, or there sufficient cause.

If neither the father nor the child has any property, the mother may be compelled to suckle it.

The maintenance of an infant child is incumbent upon the father, although he be of a different religion; and, in the same manner, the maintenance of a wife is incumbent upon her husband, notwithstanding this circumstance.

Maintenance of children becomes, however, incumbent upon the father only where they possess to independent property.

When the father is poor and the child's paternal grandfather is rich, and the child's own property is unavailable, the grandfather may be directed to maintain him, and the amount will be a debt due to him from the father, for which the grandfather may have recourse against him; after which the father may reimburse himself by having recourse against the child's property, if there is any.

When the father is infirm and the child has no property of his own, the paternal grandfather may be ordered to maintain him, without right of recourse against anyone; and, in like manner, if the child's mother be rich, or the grandmother rich, while its father is poor, she may be ordered to maintain the child, and the maintenance will be a debt against the child if he be not infirm, but if he be so, he is not liable.

If the father is poor and the mother is rich, and the young child has also a rich grandfather, the mother should be ordered to maintain the child out of her own property, 309

with a right of recourse against the father and the grandfather is not to be called upon to do so. When the father is poor and has a rich brother, he may be ordered to maintain the child, with the right of recourse against the father.

When male children have strength enough to work for their livelihood, though not actually adult, the father may set them to work for their own maintenance, or hire them out, and maintain them out of their wages; but he has no power to hire females out for work or service.

A father must maintain his female children absolutely until they are married, when they have no property of their own. But he is not obliged to maintain his adult male children unless they are disabled by infirmity or disease.

It is also incumbent on a father to maintain his son's wife, when the son is young, poor, or infirm.

The maintenance to an adult daughter, or to an adult son who is disabled, rests upon the parents in three equal parts, two-thirds being furnished by the father, and one-third by the mother.

A child in east circumstances may be compelled to maintain his poor parents, whether they be Muslim or not, or whether by their own industry they be able to earn anything for subsistence or not.

Where there are male and female children, or children only of the male sex, or only of the female sex, the maintenance of both parents is alike incumbent upon them.

Where there is a mixture of male and female children, the maintenance of both parents is incumbent on them alike.

When a mother is poor, her son is bound to maintain her, though he be in straitened circumstances himself, and she not infirm. When a son is able to maintain only one of his parents, the mother has the better right; and if he have both parents and a minor son, and is able to maintain only one of them, the son has the preferable. When he has both parents, and cannot afford maintenance to either of them, he should take them to live with him, that they might participate in what food he has for himself. When the son, though poor, is earning something, and his father is infirm, the son should allow the father to share his food with him.

As of a father and mother, so the maintenance of grandfathers and grandmothers, if they be indigent, is incumbent upon their grandchildren, though the former be of different religion.

It is a man's duty to provide maintenance for all his infant male relations within prohibited degrees who are in poverty; and also to all female relations within the same degrees, whether infants or adults, where they are in necessity; and also to all adult male relations within the same degrees who are poor, disabled, or blind; but the obligation does not extend beyond those relations.

No adult male, if in health, is entitled to maintenance though he is poor, but a person is obliged to maintain an adult female relationship, through in health in body if they require it. The maintenance of a male relative is not incumbent on any poor person, contrary to the maintenance of a wife and child, for whom poor and rich are equally liable.

When a poor person has a father and a son's son, both in easy circumstances, the father is liable for his maintenance; and when there is a daughter and a son's son, the daughter only is liable, though they both divide the inheritance between them. So also, when there is a daughter's, daughter or daughter's son, and a full brother, the child of the daughter, whether male or female, is liable, though the brother is entitled to the inheritance. When a person has a parent and a child, both in easy circumstances, the latter is liable, though both are equally near to him. But if he have a grandfather and a son's son, they are liable for his maintenance in proportion to their shares in the inheritance, that is, the grandfather for a sixth, and the son's son for the remainder. If a poor person has a Christian son and a Muslim brother, both in easy circumstances, the son is liable for the maintenance, though the brother would take the inheritance. If he

has a mother and grandfather, they are both liable in proportion to their shares as heirs, that is, the mother in one-third, and the grandfather in two-thirds. So also, when with the mother there is a full brother, or the son of a full brother, or a full paternal uncle, or any other of the 'usabah or residuaries the maintenance from them by thirds according to the rules of inheritance. When there is a maternal uncle, and the son of a full paternal uncle, the liability for maintenance is on the former, though the latter would have the inheritance; because the condition of liability is wanting on the latter, who is not within the forbidden degrees.

If a man have a paternal uncle and aunt, and a maternal aunt, his maintenance is on the uncle; and if the uncle be in straitened circumstances, it is on both the others. The principle in this case is that when a person who takes the whole of the inheritance is in straitened circumstances, his inability is the same as death, and being as it were dead, the maintenance is cast on the remaining relatives in the same proportions as they would be entitled to in the inheritance of the person to be maintained, if the other were not in existence, and that when one who takes only a part of the inheritance is in straitened circumstances, he is to be treated as if here were dead, and the maintenance is cast on the others, according to the shares of the inheritance to which they would be entitled if they should succeed together with him. (See Durru 'l-Mukhtar, Babu 'n-Nafaqah.)

AL-MAISIR... A game of chance forbidden in the Qur'an, Surahs ii. 216; v. 92, 93. It signifies a game performed with arrows, and much in use with pagan Arabs. But the term al-maisar is 310

now understood to include all games of chance or hazard.

MAJBUB. . A complete eunuch, as distinguished from khasi, or one who is simply castrated. (Hidayah, vol. i, p. 356.)

AL-MAJID. . "The Glorious One." One of the ninety-nine names or attributes of God. It occurs in the Qur'an, Surah ii. 76: "Verily He is to be praised and glorified.

MAJORITY. [PUBERTY.]

MAJUJ.

AL-MAJUS. . pl. of Majusi. The Magians. Mentioned in the Qur'an only once, Surah xxii. 17: "As to those who believe, and the Jews, and the Sabeites, and the Christians, and the Magians, and those who join other gods with God, of a God shall decide between them on the Day of Resurrection: for God is witness of all things."

Most Muhammadan writers (especially amongst the Shi'ahs) believe them to have formerly possessed a revelation from God which they have since lost.427

DICTIONARY OF ISLAM.

N.

AN-NABA

"The information." The title of the LXXCIIIth Surah of the Qur'an, in the second verse of which the word occurs: "Of the mighty information whereon they do dispute."

NABALIGH

A Persian term used for a minor. [PUBERTY.]

NABBASH

A plunderer or stripper of the dead. According to the Imams Abu Yusuf and ash-Shafi'i, the hand of a plunderer of the dead should be struck off, but Abu Hanifah and the Imam Muhammad are of the contrary opinion (Hidayah, vol. ii. p. 94.)

NABI

Heb. . A Prophet. One who has received direct inspiration (wahy) by means of an angel, or by the inspiration of the heart (ilham); or has seen the thing of God in a dream. (Vide Kitabu ‘t-Ta'rifat). A rasul, or "messenger," is one who has received a book through the angel Gabriel. [PROPHETS.]

NABIZ

A kind of wine made from dates, which is lawful. (Hidayah, vol. iv. p. 155.)

NAD-I-‘ALI

Persian. An amulet on which is inscribed a prayer to ‘Ali. It is much used by the Shi'ahs, and runs thus:-

"Cry aloud to ‘Ali, who is the possessor of wonders!From him you will find help from trouble!He takes away very quickly all grief and anxiety!

By the mission of Muhammad and his own sanctity!"

NAFAQAH

[MAINTENANCE.]

AN-NAFI

"The Profiter." One of the ninety-nine names or attributes of God. It does not occur in the Qur'an.

NAFI

A slave belonging to Ibn ‘Umar. Many traditions have been handed down by him, and his authority is highly respected. Died, A.H. 177.

NAFKH

"Blowing." The blast on the Day of Judgement which will be sounded by Israfil.

NAFL

"A voluntary act." A term applied to such acts of devotion as are not enjoined by the teaching of Muhammad or by his example. A work of supererogation. [PRAYER.]

NAF

Blowing as a necromancer when making incantations.

(1) it occurs in this sense in the Qur'am, Surah cxiii. 4: "I seek refuge.... from the evil of the blowers upon knots." Referring to those witches who make knots in a string and blow upon them, uttering some incantation.

(2) It is also used for the inspirations which Muhammad professed to have received from Gabriel. (Majma'u ‘l-Bihar, p. 376.)

NAFS

Animal life; soul; substance; desire. A word which occurs in the Qur'an and the Traditions for the human conscience. [CONSCIENCE.]

NAFSA

A woman in the condition of nifas, or the period after child-birth.

NAHJU ‘L-BALAGHAH

"The Road of Eloquence." A celebrated book of Muhammadan traditions compiled by ash-Sharif Abu ‘l-Qasim al-Murtaza, A.H. 406, or his brother ash-Sharif ar-Razi al-Baghdadi. (See Kashfu ‘z-Zunun, vol. vi. p. 406.)

AN-NAHL

"The Bee." The title of the XVIth Surah of the Qur'an, in the 70th verse of which the word occurs: "And thy Lord inspired the bee."

NAHR

The lawful slaughtering of a camel, namely, by spearing it in the hollow of the throat, near the breastbone. (Hidayah, vol. iv. p. 72.)

NA'IB

A deputy, a lieutenant. A Khalifah is the na'ib, or lieutenant, of Muhammad. It is also used for the Viceroy of Egypt, who is the na'ib, or deputy, of the Sultan. (Lane's Arabian Nights, Intro. p. 8.)

NAJASAH

A legal term for an impurity of any kind.

NAJASAHI

Negus. The King of Abyssinia, often mentioned in the history of Muhammad. At-Tabari, in his history, p. 127, say: "Now a just king was there (Abyssinia) named an-Najashi. It was a land where the Quraish used to do merchandise, because they found abundance of food, protection, and good traffic." (Muir's Life of Mahomet, vol. ii. p 133.)

NAJD

"High." The highlands of Arabia. The name of the central province of Arabia. One of its cities, Riyaz, is celebrated as the seat of the Wahhabis. (See Central and Eastern Arabia, by W.G. Palgrave, London, 1865; Journey to the Wahabee Capitol, by Colonel Lewis Pelly, Bombay, 1860.)

428

AN-NAJIYAH

"The Saved." A term given to the orthodox sect of Muhammadans, and consequently each sect arrogates to itself the title of an-Naiiyah, or "the saved."

AN-NAJJARIYAH

A sect of Muhammadans founded by Muhammad ibn Husain an-Najjar, who agreed with the Mu'tazilah in rejecting all eternal attributes of God, to avoid distinction of persons as taught by the Christians, and in holding that the Word of God was created in subjecto (as the schoolmen term it, and to consist of letters and sound, and that God will not be seen in Paradise with the corporeal eye; but they did not receive the doctrines of that sect with regard to the decrees and predestination of God, but held the views of the orthodox party on the subject. According to the Sharhu ‘l-Muwaqif, they are divided into three sects, vix. : Burghusiyah, Za'faranivah, and Mustadrikah.

AN-NAJM

"The Star." The title of the LIIIrd Surah of the Qur'an, which begins with the words, "By the star when it falls."

AN-NAJRAN

A district between Yaman and Najd, inhabited by a Christian tribe, whose endurance and constancy in their Christian belief are the subject of the following verses in the Qur'an. Surah lxxxv. 4-11. (The verses are said to have been revealed at an early date, and indicated Muhammad's kind feeling towards the Christians): -

"Cursed be the diggers of the pit,Of the fuel-fed fire,When they sat around it.Witness of what they inflicted on the believers!Nor did they torment them but for their faith in God, the Mighty the Praiseworthy;His the kingdom of the Heavens and of the Earth; and God is the witness of everything.Verily, those who vexed the believers men and women, and repented not, doth the torment of Hell, and the torment of the burning, await.But for those who shall have believed and done the things that be right, are the Gardens beneath whose shades the rivers flow. This is the immense bliss!"

Sir William Muir gives the following account of the persecution:

"Dzu Nowas was a votary of Judaism, which he is said to have embraced on a visit to Medina. This creed he supported with an intolerant and proselytizing adherence,

which at last proved fatal to his kingdom. His bigotry was aroused by the prevalence and success of Christianity in the neighboring province of Najran; and he invaded it with a large army. The Christians offered a strenuous resistence, but yielded at length to the treacherous promise that no ill would be done to them. They were offered the choice of Judaism or death, and those who remained constant to the faith of Jesus were cruelly massacred. Deep trenches were dug and filled with combustible materials; the pile was lighted, and the Christian martyrs cast headlong into the flame. The number thus miserably burned, or slain by the sword, is stated at no less than twenty thousand."

"However much the account of this melancholy carnage may have been exaggerated, there can be no doubt of the cruel and bloody character of the tyrant's administration in Najran."

"News of the proceedings reached the Emperor Justin I, through his ambassador at Hira, to which court Dzu Nowas had exultingly communicated tidings of his triumph. One of the intended victims, Dous dzu Tholaban, also escaped to Constantinople, and holding up a half-burnt gospel, invoked, in the name of outraged Christendom, retribution upon the oppressor. The Emperor was moved, and indited a despatch to the Najashi, or Prince of the Abyssinians, desiring him to take vengeance upon the barbarous Nimyarite. Immediately an armament was set on foot, and in a short time seventy thousand warriors embarked in thirteen hundred merchant ships or transports, crossed the narrow gulph which separates Yemen from Adulis. Dzu Nowas was defeated. In despair, he urged his horse into the sea, and expiated in the waves the inhumanities of his career. The Abyssinian victory occurred in 525 A.D." (Life of Mahomet, 1st ed., Intro., p. clxii.)

NAJSH

"Exciting; stirring up." The practice of enhancing the price of goods, by making a tender for them without and intention of buying, but merely to incite others to offer a higher price. It is forbidden by Muhammadan law. (Hamilton's Hidayah, vol. ii. p. 46.)

NAKH

The Banu ‘n-Nakh, an Arabian tribe, the descendants of Qablan, subdued by ‘Ali during the lifetime of Muhammad, A.H. 10. Two hundred of this tribe came, to tender their allegiance to the Prophet, it being the last deputation received by him. ( Muir's Life of Mahome, new ed., p. 477.)

NAKHLAH

A valley about midway between Makkah and at-Ta'if, famous as the scene of the first expedition planned by Muhammad against Makkah in which blood was shed. (See Muir's Life of Mahomet, new ed. p. 216 et seq.)

NAKIH

A legal term for a married man; a married woman is termed mankuhah . The legal term for an unmarried person is 'azab .

NAKIRH

One of the angels who interrogate the dead. [MUNKAR AND NAKIR.]

NAMAZ

The Persian and Hindustani term for salat, the Muhammadan liturgical prayer. [PRAYER.] 429

NAMES, SURNAMES

Arabic Ism , Laqab , Kunyah . The teaching of Muhammad very greatly influenced the nomenclature of his followers, as is evident from the chapter devoted to the Traditions on the subject in the Mishkatu ‘l-Masabih, entitled "Babu ‘l-Asami, book xxii. ch. viii, from which are extracted the following traditional sayings of Muhammad:-

"The best names in the sight of God are 'Abdu ‘llah (the servant of God), 'Abdu ‘r-Rahnan (the servant of the Merciful One)."

"You must not name your slaves Yasar (abundance), Rabah (gain), Najih (prosperous), Aflah (felicitous), because if you ask after one of these your domestic servants, and he be not present, the negative reply will express that abundance, or gain, or prosperity, or felicity, are not in your dwelling."

"The vilest name you can give a human being is Maliku ‘l-Amlak, or ‘King of Kings,' because no one can be such but God Himself."

"You must not say to your slaves, ‘My slave,' or ‘My slave girl,' for all your slaves are God's, but say, ‘My boy,' or ‘My girl,' or ‘My youth,' or ‘My lass.'" And a slave must not say to his master, Ya Rabbi! (i.e. My Lord!), but he may say to him Ya Saiyidi! (My Chief!)."

"Call your children after your Prophet (i.e. Muhammad), but the names God likes best are 'Abdu ‘llah, (servant of God), 'Abdu ‘r-Rahman, and the next best names are Haris (husbandman), and Humam (high-minded). The worst names are Harb (enmity), or Murrah (bitterness)." [Heb. see Ruth i. 20.]

Shuraih ibn Hani' relates that his father came to the Prophet with his tribe, and the Prophet heard them calling him Abu ‘l-Hakam. When the Prophet said, "Why do you

call him so? Hakan ‘Ruler,' is an attribute of God." And the Prophet ordered him to call himself Abu Shuraih, i.e. the father of Shuraih, his eldest son.

Modifies, somewhat, by these injunctions of the Prophet, Muhammadan names have still continued to be ordered amongst learned Muslims according to the ancient custom of Arabia. Persons are often named -

(1) By a single name, as Muhammad, Musa (Moses), Da ud (David), Ibrahim (Abraham), Hasan, Ahmad.

(2) As the father or mother of certain persons e.g. Abu Da ud, the father of David; or Ummu Salimah, the mother of Salimah.

(3) As the son of a certain one e.g. Ibn ‘Umar, the son of Umar; Ibn ‘Abbas, the son of Abbas, &c.

(4) By a combination of words, e.g. Nuru ‘d-din, "Light of Religion"; Abdu ‘llah, "Servant of God."

(5) By a nickname of harmless signification, e.g. Abu Hurairah, "the kitten's father."

(6) by the trade or profession, e.g. al-Mansur al-Hallaj, Mansur the dresser of cotton.

(7) By the name of his birth place e.g. al Bukhari, the native of Bukharah.

These rule, guiding the nomenclature of the Arabians, give a strange sound to western ears in the names of celebrated authors. For instance, the celebrated compiler of the chief book of authentic traditions is known as Abu ‘Abdi ‘llah Muhammad ibn Isma'il ibn Ibrahim ibn Mughirahal al-Ju'fi al-Bukhari, which means that he is the father of a son named ‘Abdu ‘llah, and that his own father's name was Isma'il, the son of Ibrahim, the son of Mughirah of the tribe of Ju'fi, and that he himself was born in Bukhara.

Arabic names have undergone strange modifications when brought in contact with western languages, e.g. Averroes, the philosopher, is a corruption of Ibn Sina; Achmet, the Sultan, Ahmad; Amurath, of al-Murad; Saladin, the celebrated warrior of the twelfth century, or the Arabic Salahu ‘d-din, "the peace of religion."

AN-NAML

"The Ants." The title of the XXVIIth Surah of the Qur'an, in the 18th verse of which the word occurs: "They came upon the valley of the ants.

NAMUS

The angel, or being, which Waraqah is related to have said appeared to Moses. See Sahih ‘l-Bukhari, p. 3, where it is said, when Muhammad told Waraqah, the Jew, what

he had seen on Mount Hira, Waraqah exclaimed. It is the Namus who appeared from God to Moses."

‘Abdu ‘l-Haqq says Namus means one who can take knowledge of the secret thoughts of a man and is used in contradistinction to the word Jasus, "a spy," who seeks to know the evil deeds of another.

According to the Kitabu ‘t-Ta'rifat, it is the law of God.

Mr. Emanuel Deutsch says: "The namus is a hermaphrodite in words. It is Arabic and also Greek. It is Talmudic. It is, in the first instance, , ‘law,' that which by ‘custom and common consent' has become so. In Talmudic phraseology it stands for the Thorah or Revealed Law. In Arabic it further means one who communicates a secret message. And all these different signification were conveyed by Waraqah to Muhammad. (Literary Remains, p. 78.)

The word namus occurs in the ethical work known as the Aklaq-i-Jalali, in the following passage:-

"The maintenance of equity, then , is realized by three things: (1) The holy institute of God, (2) The equitable Prince, (3) Money, or, as the old philosophers laid it down, the foremost is the institute, the second (for religion and government are twins): and the third is money 430

in their language meaning discipline and correction). Thus the institute or greatest arbitrator is obeyed of all; to this oven the Prince or secondary arbitrator is bound to conform. While the third arbitrator, which is money, should be Invariably under the authority of the second, which is the Prince. An intimation of this principle we have in the Qur'an, Sura lvii. 26: ‘We have sent down the book, and the balance along with it, that man might stand by the right. and we have sent down steel (hadid), wherein is mighty power and advantages to man." The book in this passage alludes to the institute; the balance to that which tests the quantities of things, In fact any instrument for ascertaining the value of heterogeneous objects (money being such an one), and steel to the sword, which is grasped by the might of the wrath-exerting doom-pronouncing Prince." (Akhlaq-i-Jalali, Thompson's ed., p. 127.)

NAQL SAHIH

"Correct relation." A term used-for a Hadis, or tradition, related by a person of authority. [TRADITIONS.]

AN-NAQSHBANDIYAH.

An ascetic order of Faqirs, the followers of Khwajah Pir Muhammad Naqshband. They are a very numerous sect, and perform the Zikr-i-Khaf'i, or silent religious devotion described in the article on ZIKR.

NAQUS.

A thin oblong piece of wood, which is beaten with a flexible rod called wabil toabil , used by the Christians of Muhammad's time to summon the people to worship. At first "the Companions" suggested either a lighted fire or the niqus as the call to prayer, but Muhammad decided upon the azan. (Mishkat, book iv. ch. v. pt. i.) This method of calling Christian people to player still exists in some Greek monasteries, and was seen and illustrated by the Hon. R. Curzon in 1831 (Visits to the Monasteries of the Levant). It is called the simandro and is generally, beaten by one of the monks. [AZAN.]

THE NAQUS AS USED IN A MONASTERY

AN-NAR.

"The fire," occurs in the Qur'an very frequently for hell, e.g. Surah ii. 22 "Fear the fire whose fuel is men and stones."

All Sunni commentators understand the fire of hell in its literal sense. (See al- Baizawi on the above verse.) But Sufi writers understand it to he merely figurative.

NARAWA.

"Unlawful." A Persian word for those things which are expressely forbidden by the Qur'an and Hadis. It corresponds with the Arabic Haram. [LAW.]

AN-NAS.

"Mankind." The title of the last Surah of the Qur'an. The word occurs in this Surah, and is the last word in the Qur'an, "from genii and men."

NASA.

"To omit." A term used in the Qur'an for the system of intercalation of the year practised by the ancient Arabs, and which was abolished in the Qur'an. (Surah ix. 87.) [INTERCALATION OF THE YEAR.]

NASAB.

Family, race, lineage. The term, in its legal sense, is generally restricted to the descent of a child from his father, but it is sometimes applied to descent from the mother, and is generally employed in a larger sense to embrace other

431

relationships. (Baillie's Dig. Muh. Law. p. 889.)

AN-NASA'I.

"Sunanu ‘n-Nasa'i," or al-Mujtaba (the selected), a name given to the collection of traditions by Abu Abdi'r-Rahman Ahmad an-Nasa'i. Born A.H. 215,died A.H. 303. He first compiled a large collection of traditions called the Sunanu l-Kubra, but he afterwards revised the whole and admitted only those traditions which were of authority. This collection (Sunanu ‘s-Sittah, or is one of the Katuba ‘s-Sittah, or six (correct) books." [TRADITIONS.]

NASARA.

pl. of Nasran Nazarenes. The name given to professors of the Christian faith, both in the Qur'an and the Traditions, and also in the theological works of the Muhammadans. Christians are never called either ‘Isawi or Masihi, in Muhammadan books written before the existence of modern missions; these titles having been applied to Christians by our own missionaries. [CHRISTIANITY.]

NASIKH.

"One who cancels." A term used for a verse or sentence of the Qur'an or Hadis, which abrogates a previous one. The one abrogated being called mansukh. [QUR'AN.]

NASR.

One of the idols of ancient Arabia, mentioned in the Qur'an, Surah lxxi. 28. It was an idol which, as its name implies, was worshipped under the form of an eagle.

AN-NASR.

"Help." The title of the cxth Surah of the Qur'an, in the first verse of which the word occurs: "When there comes God's help and victory."

NASS.

"A demonstration." A legal term used for the express law of the Qur'an or Hadis.

NASS-I-KARIM.

"Gracious revelation." A title given to the Qur'an.

NASUH.

"Sincere in friendship or repentance. In the latter sense the word occurs once in the Qur'an, Surah lxvi. 8 "O Believers I turn to God with the turning of true repentance."

NASUT.

"Human nature." A term used by the Sufis to express the natural state of every man before he enters upon the mystic journey. They say the law has been specially revealed for the guidance of people in this condition, but that the law is not necessary for the higher states. [SUFI.]

NAUHAH.

"Lamentations for the dead." The employment of paid mourners is forbidden by the Sunni law, for Abu Sa'idu ‘l-Khudri says "The Prophet cursed both the paid mourner sad him that listened to thier lamentations." (Mishkat, book v. ch viii. pt. 2.)

NAU ROZ.

"New Year's Day." Chiefly observed amongst the Persians. In Persia it is a day of great festivity. It is observed the first day after the sun has crossed the vernal equinox, and the festivities last for a week or more.

NAWA'IB.

pl. of na'ibah. "Adversities." A legal term used for any special tax levied by the sovereign, of a country. The ruling of the Sunni law regarding it is as follows :—

"If it extend only to what is just (such as exactions for digging a canal, for the wages of safe guards, for the equipment of an army to fight against the infidels, for the release of Muslim captives, or for the digging of a ditch, the mending of a fort, or the construction of a bridge), the tax is lawful in the opinion of the whole of our doctors. But if it extend to exactions wrongfully imposed, that is, to such as tyrants extort from their subjects, in that case, concerning the validity of security for it, there is a difference of opinion amongst our modern doctors." (Hamilton's Hidayah, vol. ii. p. 594.)

NAZARENES.

[NASARA.]

AN-NAZI'AT.

"Those who tear out." The title of the LXIXth Surah f the Qur'an, which opens with the verse, "By those who tear out violently," referring to the Angel of Death and his assistants, who tear away the souls of the wicked violently, and gently release the souls of the good.

AN-NA'ZIR.

A Jewish tribe residing in the vicinity of al-Madinah, and known as the Bani ‘n-Nazir, or Nadhir. They are celebrated in Muhammadan history, as having accepted the Prophet's mission after the battle of Badr. but when he met with reverses at Uhud they forsook him, but they were afterwards defeated by the Prophet and exiled, some to Khaibar, and some to Hira. They were the occasion of the LIXth Surah of the Qur'an, known, as the Suratu ‘l-Hashr, or "Chapter of Emigration." (See al-Baziawi in loco.)

NAZR WA NIYAZ.

"Vows and oblations." Theme are given In the name of God, or in the name of the Prophet, or in the name of some Muslim saint. [vows.]

NEBUCHADNEZZAR.

[BUKHT NASSAR.]

NECKLACE.

Arabic qiladah The wearing of necklaces (among men) is forbidden in the Hadis (Mishkat, Arabic edition, vol. ii. 5), although it is a custom very common amongst the Musalmans of India.

NEGUS.

[NAJASHI.]

NEHEMIAH.

Not mentioned in the Qur'an or in Muslim commentaries. But the following legend given in the Qur'an 432

Surah ii 261; seems to have its origin in the circuit made by Nehemiah (Neh ii. 13):-

"Hast thou considered him who passed by a city which had been laid in ruins. How,' said he, ‘ shall God give life to this city, after she hath been dead?' And God caused him to die for an hundred years, and then raised him to life. And God said ‘How long hast thou ‘waited'? He said, ‘I have waited a day or part of a day.' He said, ‘Nay. thou

hast waited an hundred years. Look on thy food and thy drink ; they are not corrupted and look on thin ass; we would make thee a sign unto men: And look at the bones of thine ass, how we will raise them, then clothe them with flesh.' And when this was shown to him, he said, ‘I acknowledge that. God hath power to do all things.'"

The commentators, al-Kamalan, say it was either Jeremiah, or Khizr, or Ezekiel.

NEIGHBOURS.

Arabic jar , pl. jiran. The Sunnis hold that neighbours are those who worship in the same mosque, but Shi'ah doctors say that a neighbour is anyone whose house is within forty cubits. while others maintain that the term extends to all the occupants of forty houses on either side. (Baillie's Digest, Sunni Code, p. 579 Im. Code p. 216.)

A neighbour has the next right of preemption to a partner in the sale and purchase of houses and lands. (Hidayah, vol. iii. p. 562)

The rights of a neighbour in ease of the sale of property, are established by the Muhammadan law, for the Prophet has said that the neighbour of a house has a superior right, to the purchase of that house (i.e. next to immediate relatives), and the neighbour of lands has a prior claim to the purchase of those lands, and if he be absent, the seller must wait his return. (Hidayah, vol. iv. p. 562.)

Muslims are enjoined in the Qur'an (Surah iv, 40) to be kind to their neighbours. In the Traditions, it is said that Muhammad was so frequently advised by the angel Gabriel to order his people to be kind to their neighbours, that he almost imagined that he' (the angel) wished to make neighbours heirs to each other. It is also related that the Prophet said, "Hie is not a perfect Muslim who eats to his full and leaves his neighbour hungry."

Abu Hurairah says that a man once said to the Prophet. "There is a woman who worships God a great deal. but she is very abusive to her neighbours." And the Prophet sal " She will be in the fire." The man then said, "But there is another woman who worships little and gives but little in alms, but she does not annoy her neighbours with her tongue?" The Prophet said, "She will be in Paradise." (Mishkat, book xxii. ch. xv.)

NESTOR.

Arabic Nastur A Christian monk who resided in Syria, who is said to have borne witness to Muhammad. The legend is not accepted by Sunni writers, and Sir William Muir (Life of Mahomet, new ed, p. 21). says it is to be rejected as a puerile fabrication. It is, however, believed by the Shi'ahs, and the following is the story as given in the Shi'ah work entitled the Hayatu ‘l-Qalub, on the supposed authority of Abu Talib, Muhammad's uncle:-437

DICTIONARY OF ISLAM.

O.

OATH.

Arabic yamin , pl. yaminal aiman. The teaching of the Qur'an with reference to an oath, is expressed in the following verses:-

Surah ii. 225 : "God will not; punish you for an inconsiderate word in your oath, but he will punish you for that which your hearts have assented to."

Surah v. 91 :"God will not punish you for an inconsiderate word in your oaths, but he will punish you in regard to an oath taken seriously. Its expiation shall be to feed ten poor persons with such moderate food as ye feed your own families with, or to clothe them; or to set, free a captive. But he who cannot find means shall fast three days."

Surah xvi. : "Take not your oaths between you deceitfully."

The following is the teaching of Muhammad, as given in the traditions :-

"Whoever swears to a thing and says, 'if it please God,' and acts contrary to his oath, it is no sin."

"Swear not by idols or by your own fathers".

"Swear not by God except it be to the truth."

"Whosoever swears by the prayers or by the fast, or by the pilgrimage, is not a Muslim."

The Prophet used generally to swear in these words "No, by the Turner of Hearts."

According to the Hidayah (Hamilton's ed. vol. vi.. pp. 1, 2) yamin is constituted by the use of the name of Almighty God, or by any of those appellations by which the Deity generally known or understood.

False oaths are of three kinds:-

(1) Al-Yaminu 'l-Ghamus

An oath taken concerning a thing already past, in which is conveyed an intentional intentional falsehood on the part of the swearer: such an oath is highly sinful, the Prophet having declared — "Whosoever sweareth falsely, the same shall be condemned to hell."

(2) Al- Yaminu 'l-mun'aqid

An oath taken concerning a matter which is to come. Thus, a man swears that he will do such a thing, or he will not do such a thing, and where be fails in this, expiation is incumbent upon him, which expiation is established on the authority of the sacred writings.

(3) Yaminu 'l-Laghw

An oath. taken concerning an incident or transaction. already past, where the swearer believes that the matter to which he thus bears testimony accords with what he swears, though it should happen to he actually otherwise; which case it may be hoped from the divine mercy that the swearer will not be condemned for such an oath. The expiation, or kaffarah, is of no avail for the Yaminu 'l-Ghamus, but it is necessary for the Yaminu 'l-mun'aqid. It consists of either feeding or clothing ten poor persons, or releasing a Muslim captive.

The Muslim law with regard to oaths is a modification of the Talmudic law, for from the Divine Law the Jewish doctors deduced many special cases of perjury, which are thus classified :-

(1) Jus jurandum promassorium, a rash or inconsiderate oath for the future, or a false assertion respecting the past (Lev. v. 4).

(2) Vanum, an absurd contradictory assertion.

(3) Depositi, breach of contract denied (Lev. xix. 11).

(4) Testimonii, judicial perjury (Lev. v. 1). (H. W. P. in Smith's Dict. of the Bible.) The Mosaic law admitted expiation in the case of rash or forgotten oaths, vide Lev. v.4, but the Yaminu 'l-mun'aqid of Muhammadan law allows a much greater latitude, for it applies to all vows or oaths excepting those intentionally false made with regard to future events.

The teaching of Muhammadan jurists on the subject of oath's and vows, exhibits that reservatio mentalis of Muhammadan morality which is so similar to that of the Jewish Rabbis, and which was condemned by Jesus Christ in St. Matt. xxiii. 16.

Sunni writers on jurisprudence say that an oath should be expressed by such attributes of the Deity as are commonly used in swearing, such as the power, or the glory, or the might of God, because an oath is usually expressed wider one or other of those qualities; and the sense of gamin, viz. "strength" is by this means obtained, since as the swearer believes in the power, glory, and might and other attributes of the Deity, it follows that the mention of these attributes only is sufficient to strengthen the resolution in the performance of the act vowed, or the avoidance thereof.

If a man swear "by the knowledge of God," it does not constitute an oath, because an oath expressed by the knowledge of God is not in use; moreover, by "knowledge" is frequently implied merely that which is known; and in this sense the word knowledge is not expressive either of the name of God, or of any of His attributes. In the same manner, should a person swear "by the wrath of God," or "by the mercy of God," it does not constitute an oath, because an oath is not commonly expressed by any of

these attributes: moreover by the word rahmah is sometimes understood "rain," and "heaven" is also occasionally expressed by that term; and by the word Ghaiz is understood

438

"punishment" and none of those are either appellations or attributes of the Deity.

If a person swear by another name than that of God,—such as "the Prophet," or "the Holy Temple," this does not constitute an oath, as the Prophet has said, "if any man among you take so oath, he must swear by the name of God, or else his oath is void." If a person swear by the Qur'an, it does not constitute an oath, although the Qur'an be the word of God, because men do not swear by the Qur'an The compiler of the Hidayah observes that this is where the swearer only says," by the Prophet," or "by the temple" or "by the Qur'an." but if the swearer say, "If I act contrary to what I now say, may I be deprived "of the Prophet," or "of the temple," or "of the Qur'an," this constitutes an oath, because such privation would reduce the swearer to the state of an infidel, and the suspension of infidelity upon a condition amounts to yamin.

Abu Hanifah alleges that if a man should swear "by the truth of God ," this does not constitute an oath, and in this Imam Muhammad coincides. There are two opinions of Abu Yusuf recorded on this point. According to one, it is not an oath; but according to the other it is an oath, because truth is one of the attributes of the 'Deity, signifying the certainty of the divine existence, and hence it is the same as if the swearer were to say," by God, the truth!" and as oaths are common under this mode of expression, so an oath is hereby constituted. The argument of Imam Muhammad and Abu Hanifah is that the term "the truth," as here expressed, relates merely to the identity of the godhead as the object of obedience, and hence on oath thus expressed appears to be taken by that which is neither an appellation nor an attribute of God. The learned jurists, however, say that if a person express himself thus, "by the truth I will do so and so," this constitutes an oath, because the truth is one of the appellatives or proper names of God. But if a person 'were to say, "I will do this truly," it does not amount to an oath, because the word truly can only be taken, in. this case, as a corroboration or confirmation of the promise contained in the speech, being the same as If he were to say,"I shall do this indeed." If a man say, "I swear," or "I vow," or "I testify," whether the words "by God" be superadded or not, it constitutes an oath, because such wards are commonly used. swearing; the use of them in the present tense is undisputed; and they are also sometimes need in the future tense, where the context admits of a construction in the present; and attestation amounts to an oath, as in that sense it occurs in the sacred writings. Now sweating "by the name of God" is both customary and conformable to the divine ordanances, but without the name of God it is forbidden. When it so occurs, therefore, it must be construed into a lawful oath; hence some say that intention is not requisite in it; others, however, allege that the intention is essential, because the words here recited bear the construction of a promise, that is, they admit of being received as applying to the future, and also of being taken as a vow without the name of God.

If a person, speaking in the Persian language, were to say "I swear by God," it, amounts to an oath, because here the idiom confines the expression solely to the

present; but if he were to say simply, "I swear," some allege that this does not constitute an oath. If he were to say, "I swear by the divorce of my wife," this is not an oath, as an oath is not so expressed. in practice. If a man in swearing say "by the age" or "the existence of God," it constitutes an oath, because the age or existence of God signifies his eternity, which is one of his attributes.

If a person should say, "If I do this may I be a Jew, or a Christian, or an infidel," it constitutes an oath; because, as the swearer has made the condition a sign of infidelity, it follows that he is conscious of his obligation to avoid the condition; and this obligation is possible, by making it an oath, in such a way as to render unlawful to himself that which is lawful. And if the oath relate to anything which he, has done in the time past, as if he were to say, "If I have done so may I be a Jew or an infidel." and so forth, this is yaminu 'l-Ghamis, or "perjuty." The swearer is not, however, in this case made a Jew or an infidel, because the words "may I be an infidel," and so forth, relate to some future indefinite period. Some, on the contrary, have alleged that be becomes actually as an infidel," because the penalty which the swearer imprecates upon himself relates to the present instant of hits testimony, being the same as if he were to say, "I am a Jew." &c. But the majority of doctors say, the swearer does not become a Jew or infidel in either of the oases, either in that of a vow with respect to the future, or an oath regarding the past, provided he consider this merely as a form of swearing. But If he boiler, that by thus sweating he fully subjects himself to the penalty expressed, he suffers accordingly, in either instance, because be appears consenting to infidelity, on account of having ventured upon a thing by the commission of which he conceives that he may be rendered an infidel.

If a person say, "If I do this, may, the anger of God fall upon me," this does not constitute a vow, as not being a customary mode of expression for that purpose. And so also, if a person .were to say, "May I be an adulterer or a drunkard or an usurer," because these are not generally understood or received as forms of swearing.

The following are considered the meat solemn and binding methods of taking an oath-:

1. Saying three times. "by the Great God."

2. Taking the Qur'an and saying, "by what this contains of the word of God."

3. By placing a sword on the Qur'an.

4. By saying, "I Impose upon myself divorcement."

Muhammad himself was rather given to 439

swearing, and the Qur'an is full of wild oaths, one of the most terrible of which, according to the Prophet's own words, is to swear by the setting stars." (Surah lvi. 74.)

Burckhardt, in his notes on the Bedouin Arabs, says that those children of the desert often take hold of the middle of a tent pole and swear by the life of the tent and its owners.

As might be expected, from the example set them by their Prophet, Muhammadans are commonly guilty of taking God's in vain by swearing upon every petty occasion. Like the of the Greeks, the word is hardly ever out of their months.

[For further information on the subject of Oaths, see Hamilton's Hidayah, book vi the Durru 'l-Mukhtar, the Raddu 'l-Muhtar and the Fatawa-i-'Alamgiri, in loco, in which there are chapters devoted to the consideration of oaths and vows made under all circumstances of life, e.g. with respect to entering places of residence; with regard to actions; with respect to eating and drinking, speaking and conversing; of vows in manumission and divorce; with respect to buying and selling, marriage, clothing, wearing ornaments, striking, killing, the payment of money, &. etc.)

OATH, The administration of an.

An oath in a court of justice is not worthy of credit unless it be taken in the name of God, because Muhammad said, "Whosoever takes an oath otherwise than in the name of God, is most certainly a polytheist-" It is incumbent upon the Qazi, or judge, to request the swearer to corroborate his oath by reciting some of the attributes of God. For example, "I swear by God, the Righteous, the Knower of Secrets," etc. A defendant must not be required to swear by divorce or emancipation, as if he should say: "If it be true my wife is divorced, or my slave is free."

If an oath be administered to a Jew, he should say, "I swear by God who revealed the Taurat to 'Moses."

If to a Christian, he should say, "I swear by God who revealed the Injil to Jesus."

If to a Majusi or fire-worshipper, he should say, "I swear by God who created fire."

An oath cannot be administered to an idolater otherwise than in the name of God, in accordance with this verse in the Qur'an, "If ye ask of them who bath created you, verily they will say God Almighty." (Surah xxxix. 39.)

An oath cannot he administered to infidels in their places of worship, because the Qazi is not allowed to enter such a place. This applies to the places of worship of the Jews and Christians, as well as of Idolaters. (Hiddyah, vol. ii. p. 77.)

Women are not in Muslim law (as in Jewish, Mishna Sheb. Vol. ii. p 77.), forbidden to bear witness on oath.

OBSEQUIES OF THE DEAD.

[JANAZAH]

OFFENCE AGAINST THE PERSON.

OFFERINGS.

The Arabic word nazr is often used for an offering, but in its strict theological meaning it expresses a vow. Khairit pl. of Khair, is used for ordinary acts of charity. Sadiqah also expresses the same meaning. Niyaz is an offering to a saint. Zakat , the legal alms.

[For an account of these offerings refer to the words.]

OHUD.

[UHUD.]

OLD TESTAMENT.

Al-'Ahdu 'l-'Atiq Muhammad, in his Qur'an, professes to receive all the inspired books of the Old Testament. (See Surah ii. 130: "We believe in God, and what has been revealed to us, and what has been revealed to Abraham, and Ishmael, and Isaac, and Jacob, and the Tribes, and what was brought unto the Prophets from their Lord: and we will not distinguish between any of them. and unto Him are we resigned" (i.e. Muslims). But there is no evidence that Muhammad had ever seen the Jewish Scriptures, as now received by both Jews and Christians. In the Qur'an, be mentions the Taurat of Moses, the Zabur (Psalms) of David, and makes several references to the historical portions of the Old Testament; but Jonah is the only name amongst the writers of the prophetical books (either greater or minor), of the Old Testament scriptures, mentioned in the Qur'an.

Muhammadan writers say there have been 124,000 prophets, but only eight of these have been apostles to whom the Almighty has revealed books, and that only one hundred portions, or suhuf, and four, books, or kutub, have been given to mankind. Ten portions to Adam, the first of the prophets, fifty to Seth (not once mentioned in the Qur'an), thirty to Idris or Enoch, and ten to Abraham. One book to Moses, another to David, another to Jesus, and the fourth to Muhammad.

Six of the prophets are said to have brought in new laws which successively abrogated the preceding, namely Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad.

It Is imposible to read the Qur'an carefully without arriving at the conclusion that Muhammad derived his knowledge of the events of Old Testament scriptures rather from the Rabbins and their Talmudic teaching, than from the inspired text itself. Mr. Emanuel Deutsch truly says: "Judaism forms the Israel of Muhammadanism, both general and special. It seems as if he (Muhammad) had breathed from his childhood almost the air of contemporary Judaism. such Judaism as is found by us crystallised in the Talmud, the Targam, ad the Midras." (Literary Remains, p.89.) 440

The following Old Testament characters are mentioned by name in the Qur'an:-

Aaron, Harun; Abel, Habil, Cain, Qabil, Abraham, Ibrahim; Adam, Adam, Korab, Qarun, David, Da'ud, Goliath, Jalut; Enoch, Idris, Elias, Ilyas, Elijah, Alyasa, Ezra, 'Uzair, Gabriel Jibril, Gog, Yajuj, Magog, Majuj; Isaac, Ishaq, Ishmael, Isma'il, Jacob, Ya'qub, Joseph, Yusuf, Job, Aiyub, Jonah, Yunus, Joshua, Yusha; Korah. Qarun; Lot, Lut, Michael, Mika'il, Moses, Musa, Noah, Nuh Pharaoh, Firaun, Solomon, Sulaiman, Saul, Talut.

The following incidents of. Old Testameuit history are related in the. Qur'an, with a strange want of accuracy and a large admixture of Talmudic fable:-

Aaron makes a calf. Surah xx. 90.Cain and Abel. Surah v. 30.Abraham visited by angels. Surah xi. 72, xv. 51.Abraham ready to sacrifice his son. Surah xxxvii. 101.Adam, his fall Surah vii. 18, ii. 34.Korah and his company. Surah xxviii. 76, xxix. 88, xl. 25.Creation of the world. Surah xvi. 3, xiii. 3, xxxv. 1, 12.David's praise of God. Surah xxxiv. 10.Deluge. Surah liv. 9, lxix. 11, xi. 42.Jacob goes to Egypt. Surah xii. 100.Jonah and the fish. Surah vi. 86, x. 98, xxxvii. 139, lxviii. 48.Joseph's history. Surah vi. 84, iii, 1, xl. 36.Manna and qauils given. Surah vii. 160, xx. 82.Moses strikes the rock. Surah vii. 160.Noah's ark. Surah xi. 40.Pharaoh. Surah ii. 4, x; 76, xliii. 45, xl. 36.Solomon's judgment. Surah xxi. 78.Queen of Sheba. Surah xxvii. 22.The compiler of the Kasifu 'z-Zunur, (ed. Flügel, vol. ii. p. 458, article, Taurat) attempts an account of the Old Testament scriptures.

He divides the whole into four sections. and gives the names of the books as follows:-

(1) The Taurat, or the Five Books of Moses.

(2) Yusha' (Joshua).

Sifru 'l-Hukkam (Judges).Shami'il (Samuel).Sifru 'l-Muluk (Kings).

(3) Sha'ya (Isaiah).Irmiya (Jeremiah).Hizqil (Ezekiel).Yunus (Jonah).

(4) Ta'rikh. A history from Adam to the building of the Temple.Mazamir (Psalms).Aiyub (Job).

Amsal (Proverbs).Ahbaru 'i-Hukkam qabla 'l-Muluk (Ecclesiastes)Nasha id li-Sulaiman (Song of Solomon).Hikmah (Wisdom).An-Nawah (Lamentations).Urdshair (Esther).Danyal (Daniel).'Uzair (Esdras).

[PROPHETS, TAURAT, ZABUR.]

OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS, .The testimony of the Qur'an to the.

The references in the Qur'an to the sacred scriptures of the Jews and Christians are very many, and in all cases Muhammad refers to these sacred writings with the highest respect end veneration. He acknowledges their inspiration, admits the existence of such documents in his own day, and appeals to them in support of his own mission.

The following verses of the Qur'an, in which there are references to the Old and New Testament, have been placed in chronological order, and the translations are given for the most part from Sir William Muirs Manual on "The Coran," published by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge : -

Surah lxxxvii. 18: "Verily this is in the books of yore; the books of Abraham and Moses."

Surah liii. 37—40: "Hath he not been told of that which. is in the pages of Moses, and of Abraham who acted faithfully? That a burdened soul shall not bear anothers burden, and that there shall be nothing (imputed) to a man, but that which he himself hath wrought," &c."

Surah xxxii. 23-25: "And verily We gave Moses the book: wherefore be not in doubt as to the reception thereof, and We made it a direction to the Israelites. And We made from among them leaders who should direct according to Our command, when they were steadfast, and believed in Our signs. Verily thy Lord, he will judge between; hem on the Day of Resurrection as to that concerning which they disagree."

Surah liv. 43: "Are your unbelievers (Ye Makkans) better than those (i.e. of the days of Noah, Lot, Moses, &c., just referred to;) or is there an immunity for you in the Scriptures? "

Surah xxxiv. 30: "And the unbelievers say : - We will not believe in this Qur'an, nor in that (which was revealed) before it."

Surah xli. 45: "And verily We gave Moses the book, and they felt to variance concerning it."

Surah xlv. 15, 16: "And verily We gave the children of Israel the book, and wisdom, and prophecy, and We nourished them with pleasant food, and We exalted them above the rest of the world; and We gave them plain directions in the matter (of religion;) and they fell not to variance until after divine knowledge (or the Revelation,) had come unto them, out of jealousy among themselves. Verily, thy Lord will decide between them on the Day of Judgment, concerning that about which they disagree."

Surah xxxvii. 84:" Verily when it is said unto them :—There is no God but the Lord; they arrogantly reply,—What! shall we give up our gods for a phrenzied poet? Nay, he 441

cometh with the truth, and attesteth (the Revelations) of the (former) apostles."

Surah xxxvii. 114: "And verily we were gracious to Moses and Aaron, and saved them and their people from great tribulation; and We brought them assistance, and they were the conquerors; and We gave them the perspiouous book, and directed them into the right way."

Surah xxvi. 194: "Verily it (the Qur'an) is a revelation from the Lord of creation; the faithful Spirit bath caused it to descend' on thy heart, that thou mightest be one of the warners, in the plain Arabic tongue. And verily it is in the former Scriptures. What! is it not a sign unto them that the wise men of the Children of Israel recognize it?"

Surah xlvi. 12: "And when they refuse to be guided thereby, they say ;—this is an antiquated lie. Yet preceding it there is the Book of Moses, a guide and a mercy; and this Qur'an is a book attesting (previous Revelation), in the Arabic tongue, to warn the transgressors, and glad tidings to the righteous."

Surah xlvi. 30: "And (call to mind) when We caused a company of the Genii 'to turn aside unto thee that they might hear the Qur'ãn; And, when they were present thereat, they said, - Give ear. And when it was ended, they returned to their people as warners; they said.,—Oh our people! verily we have heard a book revealed after Moses, atttesting the revelation that precedeth it; it leadeth to the truth, and unto the straight path."

Surah xxxv. 25: "And if they reject thee, verily they who preceded them rejected (their prophets), who brought them clear signs, and writings, and the enlightening book."

Surah xxxv. 31: "And that which We have revealed unto thee is the truth, attesting that which precedeth it?"

Surah xix. 11 "Oh John! take the book (the Taurat) with power;- and We gave, him wisdom while a child."

Surah xix. 28, 29: "And she (Mary) pointed to him (the infant Jesus:) they said, — How shall we speak with a child in the cradle? (The infant Jesus) said,— verily I am

the servant of God; he hath given me the book (i.e. the Gospel), and made me a prophet."

Surah xlii. 1.: " Thus doth God the glorious and the wise, communicate inspiration unto thee, as he did unto those that preceded thee."

Surah xlii. 12: "He hath ordained unto you the religion which he commanded unto Noah, and which We have revealed unto thee, and which We commanded unto Abraham, Moses, and Jeans ;—saying, Maintain the true religion, and be not at variance therein."

Surah xlii. 14, 15: "And they did not differ until after the knowledge (of Divine, Revelation) came unto them, rebelliously 'among themselves: and unless the word had gone forth from thy Lord (respiting these) until a fixed time, verily the matter had been decided between them. And verily they that have inherited the book after them are in a perplexing doubt respecting the same. Wherefore invite men unto the true faith), and stand fast as thou hast been commanded, and follow not their desires. And say, I believe in whatever books God hath revealed, and I am commanded to decide between you; God is our Lord, and your Lord. To us will (be reckoned) our works - to you, yours. There is no ground of dispute between us and you. God will gather tin together, and to Him shall be the return."

Surah xl. 55, 66: "And verily We gave unto Moses guidance. and We caused the Children of Israel to inherit the book,—a guide and an admonition unto people of understanding hearts. Wherefore he patient, for the promise of God is true, and ask pardon for thy sin &c."

Surah xl. 72: "They who reject the book and that which We ha ye sent our messengers with (the Old and New Testament)— they shall know: when the collars shall be an their necks, acid the chains by which they shall he dragged into hell :—— then shall they be burned in the fire."

Surah xxv. 36: "And verily We gave Moses the hook, and We appointed his brother Aaron his helper."

Surah xx. 132: "And they (the Qaraish) say: — 'If he doth not bring us a sign from his Lord (we will not believe).' What I hath not an evident demonstration come unto them in the former pages?"

Surah xliii. 43: "And ask those of Our Apostles whom We have sent before thee, whether We have appointed any besides the Merciful, as a God whom they should worship."

Surah xii. 111: "It is not a story fabricated, but an attestation of (the revelation) which is before it, and an explanation of every matter, a guide and a mercy to the people that believe."

Surah xi. 17, 18: "These are they for whom there is no portion in the next life but fire: and that which they have done shall perish therein; vain will that be which they have wrought. What! (shall such a one be equal unto him) who proceedeth upon a plain

direction front his Lord; and a witness from him (i.e. from the Lord) attendeth him, and before him (or it) is the Book of Moses a guide and a mercy."

Surah xi. 3: "And verily We gave Moses the book, and they fell to variance regarding it. And had not the word gone forth from thy Lord, surely the matter had been decided between them; and verily they are in perplexing doubt concerning the same."

Surah x. 37: "And this Qur'an is not such that it could have been fabricated by other than God: but it is an attestation of that (i.e. of those Scriptures) which precede it, and an explanation of the book,— there is no doubt therein,— from the Lord of creation. What' will they say, he (Muhammad) hath forged it? Say,—then bring a Surah like unto it."

Surah x. 13: "If thou art in doubt regard- 442

ing that which We have sent down unto thee, then ask those who read the book (revealed) before thee. Verily the truth hath come unto thee from thy Lord; be not therefore amongst those that doubt."

Surah vi. 20: "Those to whom We have given the book recognize him as they recognize their own sons. They that have destroyed their own souls, these believe not."

Surah vi. 90: "These are they to whom We have given the book, and wisdom, and prophecy, and if these (the Quraish) disbelieve the same, verily We have given it in trust unto a people who are not disbelievers there- in. These are they whom God hath guided; wherefore persevere in the guidance of them."

Surah vi. 93: "And they do not estimate God with a just estimation, when they say,—God hath not sent down—(i.e. revealed, anything to Man. Say, who sent down the book, which Moses brought, a light and a direction to mankind? Ye (var. read, they) make (or transcribe) it upon sheets of paper which ye (or they) show, and ye (or they) conceal much; and ye are taught that which ye knew not, neither did your fathers. Say, —God: then leave them to sport in their follies.

Surah vi. 93 : "And this book We have revealed, - blessed,- certifying the truth of that (revelation) which precedeth it, and that thou mightest admonish the people of the city (Makkah) and those around it."

Surah vi. 114; "He It is that hath sent down to you the book, explaining (all things;) and those to whom We have given the book know that it (the Qur'an) hath been sent down from thy Lord in truth. Wherefore, be not thou (O Muhammad) among those that doubt."

Surah vi. 124: "And when a verse cometh unto them, they say,—We will not believe until there is brought unto us (a revelation) like unto that which the apostles of God brought."

Surah vi. 154: "Then We gave Moses the book complete as to whatever is excellent, and an explanation of every matter, and a direction and a mercy, if haply they might believe in the meeting of their Lord."

Surah vi. 155: "And this book (the Qur'an) We have sent down,—blessed; wherefore follow it, and fear God, if haply ye may find mercy; lest ye should say,—Verily the Scripture hath been revealed to two people (the Jews and Christians) before us, and we are ignorant of their reading —or lest ye should say — If the Scripture had been revealed to us, we surely would have followed, its direction and mercy." &c.

Surah xxviii. 44: "And verily We gave Moses the book, after that We had destroyed the former generations,—an enlightenment unto mankind, and a direction, and a mercy, if haply they might be admonished."

Surah xxviii. 47: "And thou wert not on the side of Mount Sinai, when We called out (to Moses ;.) but (thou art) a mercy from thy Lord, that thou mayest admonish a people unto whom no warner hath come before thee, if perchance they may receive admonition ;— and lest, if there befall them a calamity for the evil works they have committed, they should say,—Oh Lord! if thou hadst sent unto us a prophet., we had followed thy revelations, and been of the number of the believers. And now that the truth hath come unto them from us, they say,—if there were to come (a revelation) like unto that which came unto Moses (we should believe). What! do they not disbelieve in that which was given unto Moses heretofore: they say,—two impostures that mutually assist one another; and they say,—verily we reject them both. Say,— bring a book from God that guideth more aright than these two, If ye be true ; and if they answer not," &c.

Surah xxviii. 53: "Those to whom We have given the Scripture before it (i.e. before the Qur'an,) believe therein; and when it (the Qur'an) is read unto them, they say,—We believe in it; verily it is the truth from our Lord, surely we were Muslims from before."

Surah xxiii. 25: "And verily We gave Moses the book,, if haply they might be directed; and We made the son of Mary and his mother a sign," &c.

Surah xxi. 7: "And We sent not before thee (as Apostles) other than men whom We inspired: ask, therefore, the people of the Scripture, if ye know it not".

Surah xxi. 49: "And verily We gave Moses and Aaron the distinction (al-Furqan), and a light, and an admonition to the pious,—those who fear their Lord in secret, and who tremble for the. hour (of Judgment). This blessed admonition also We have sent down; will ye therefore deny it?"

Surah xxi. 105: "And verily We have written in the Psalms, after the Law, that my servants, the righteous, shall inherit the earth."

Surah xvii. 2: "And We gave Moses the book, and made it 'a direction to the Children of Israel, (saying) —Take ye not other than Me for a patron."

Surah xvii. 4, 5, and 7: "And We declared in the book, in respect of the Children of Israel,'—saying, Ye shall surely work corruptly on the earth twice, and ye shall be elated with great arrogance. And when the threat of the first of these two (visitations) came to pass,' We sent against you our servants of terrible strength, &c., and when the threat of the second (visitation) came to pass," &c.

Surah xvii. 55: "And verily We have bestowed favour upon some of the prophets more than upon others, and We gave David 'the Psalms," &c.

Surah xvii. 108: "Say,—Believe in it (the Qur'an), or believe not: — verily they unto whom the knowledge (of Divine Revelation) hath been given anterior to it, when they hear it recited unto them, fall down upon their faces worshipping: and they say,—Praised be our Lord; verily the promise of our Lord 443

is fulfilled. And they fall down on their races weeping, and it increaseth their humility."

Surah xvi. 43: "And We have not sent before thee other than men whom We have inspired ;—wherefore ask the people of the Scripture if ye know not. (We sent than) with evident signs and books, and We have sent down unto thee the revelation, that thou mightest make, known to mankind that which bath been revealed to them, that haply they might reflect"

Surah xiii. 45: "And those who disbelieve say,—Thou art not sent ;—say,-—God sufficeth for a witness between me and between you, and also he with whom is the knowledge of the book."

Surah xxix. 27: "And We gave to him (i.e. to Abraham) Isaac and Jacob, and We placed among his descendants prophecy and the book."

Surah xxix. 46: "And contend. not with the people of the book (Jews and Christians) but in a generous manner, excepting those of them who act wickedly; and say,—We believe in that which hath been revealed to us, and in that which hath been revealed to you: and your God and our God is one, and we are to Him resigned."

Surah xxix. 47: "And thus have We sent down to thee the book (the Qur'an,) and those to whom We have given the Scripture believe in it."

Surah vii. 158: "And I will shortly write down it (i.e. my mercy,) for those who fear the Lord and give alms, and those who believe in our signs: those who shall follow the apostle, - the illiterate prophet,—whom they shall find written (i.e. described) in the Pentateuch and in the Gospel among them; be shall command them to do that which is excellent," &c.

Surah vii. 168: "And (call to mind) when thy Lord commanded that there should certainly be sent against them (i.e. the Jews) until the day of resurrection those that would afflict them with grievous distress ;—verily thy Lord is swift in vengeance, and he is surely forgiving and merciful. And We dispersed them in the earth amongst the nations; there are of them that are virtuous, and there are of them that are not so. And

We proved them with blessings, and with adversities, if perchance they might return. And there succeeded after them a generation that inherited the book, who receive the temporal advantage of this world, and .say,—lt will be forgiven unto us. And if there come unto them an advantage the like thereof, they accept it. What I hath there not been taken from them the covenant of the book, that they should not say of God other than the truth, and they diligently study that which is therein."

Surah lxxiv. 30: "Over it (Hell) are nine-teen angels.; and We have not made the guardians of the fire other than angels; and We have not expressed their number, except as a trial to those who disbelieve, and in order that those to whom We have given the book may firmly believe, and that they who believe may increase in faith; and that those to whom We have given the book may not doubt, nor the believers."

Surah ii. 1-5: "This is the book In which there is no doubt,—a guide to the pious ;— they who believe In the Unseen, and observe prayer, and spend out of that which we have provided them with ;—and they who believe in that which hath been revealed unto thee, and that which hath been revealed before thee, and have faith in the life to come. These walk according to the direction of their Lord, and these are the blessed."

Surah ii. 36: "Oh Children of Israel! remember My favour wherewith I have favoured you, and fulfil My covenant,—I likewise will fulfil your covenant; and fear Me, and believe in that which I have revealed, attesting the truth of the (Scripture) which is with you: and be not the first to reject the same; and sell not my revelation for a small price; and clothe not the truth with error, and do not conceal the truth while ye know it."

Surah ii. 50: "And when We gave Moses the book and the distinction (between good and evil, - Furqan,) —if haply ye might be directed."

Surah ii. 71: "And when they (the Jews of al-Madinah,) meet the believers, they say, - We believe; but when they retire privately one with the other, they say,—Why do ye acquaint them with what God hath revealed to you, that they may therewith dispute with you before your Lord? What do ye not understand? Do they not know that God knoweth what they conceal as well as that which they make public."

Surah ii. 79: "What do ye (the Jews) believe in part of the book, and reject part thereof? But whosoever amongst you doeth. this, his reward shall be none other than disgrace in the present life, and in the Day of Judgment they shall be cut into a more awful torment."

Surah ii. 81: "And verily We gave Moses the Book, and caused prophets to arise after him, and We gave to Jesus, the Son of Mary, evident signs, and strengthened him with the Holy Spirit."

Surah ii. 89: "And when a Book (i.e. the Qur'an) came unto them from God, attesting the truth of that (Scripture) which is with them, (although they had from before been praying fof victory over those who disbelieve); yet when that came unto them which they recognised, they rejected the same."

Surah ii. 83: "And when it is said unto them ;—Believe in that which God hath revealed; they say —We believe, in that which hath been revealed unto us; and they' reject that which (hath been revealed) after it, although it be the truth attesting that which is with them."

Surah li. 85: "And verily Moses came unto you with evident, signs (or revelations); then ye took the calf," &c.

Surah ii. 86: "For he (Gabriel) hath caused it (the Qur'an) to descend upon thy heart by the command of God, attesting that 444

(Scripture) which is before it, and a direction and good tidings to the believers."

Surah ii. 95 "And when a prophet came unto them from God. attesting that (Scripture) which is with them, a party of those who have received the Scripture cast the Book of God behind their backs, as if they knew it not."

Surah ii. 107: "The Jews say, the Christians are not (founded) upon anything; and the Christians say the Jews are not (founded) upon anything; and yet they read the Scripture."

Surah ii. 130 (see also Surah lii. 79) "Say —We believe in God and in what hath been revealed unto us, and in what hath been revealed unto Abraham, and Ishmael. and Isaac, and Jacob, and the Tribes; and in what hath been given unto Moses and unto Jesus and in what hath been given unto the prophets from their Lord: we make no distinction between any of them; and unto Him we are resigned."

Surah ii. 139; "Verily We saw thee turn about thy face into the Heavens: wherefore We will cause thee to turn towards a qiblah that will please thee —turn therefore thy face towards the holy temple: wheresoever thou art, turn thy face towards it. And verily those to whom the Scripture hath been given, they know that this is the truth from their Lord, and God is not unmindful of that which they do. And if thou broughtest unto those to whom the Scripture hath been given, every kind of signs they would not follow thy qiblah, nor wilt thou follow their qiblah," &c.

Surah ii. 142: "Those to whom We have given the Scripture recognise him as they recognise their own sons; but. verily a section of them hide the truth, although they know it."

Surah ii 169: "Verily they that conceal the Scripture which God hath revealed, and sell it for a small price;— these shall eat nought but the fire in their bellies, and God shall not speak unto them on the Day of Judgment, neither shall He purify them; they shall have bitter torment These are they that have bought error at the price of direction. and punishment at the price of pardon:—how shall they endure the fire !— this because God bath sent down the Book in truth; and they that dispute regarding the Book are in a grievous error."

Surah ii. 209: " Mankind was one people, and God sent. prophets as preachers of good tidings, and warners: and He sent down the Scripture with them in truth, that it might

decide between men in that in which they differed —and they differed not therein, excepting those to whom it was given after there came to them clear demonstrations, wickedly amongst themselves; and God guided those that believed to the truth concerning which they disputed, by His will." &c.

Surah ii 254: "Of these prophets We have preferred some above others. Some of them hath God spoken unto, and He hath raised some of them to nigh dignity. And We gave unto Jesus, the Son of Mary, evident signs, and We strengthened Him by the Holy spirit. And if God bad pleased, those that came after them, would not have contended with one another, after the evident signs (or plain revelations), had come unto them. Yet they fell to variance. And amongst them were those that believed: and amongst them were those that disbelieved. And if God had wished, they had not contended with one another; but God doeth that which pleaseth Him."

Surah ii. 286: "The apostle believeth in that which hath been re.voaled unto him from his Lord: and the faithful, everyone of them. believeth In God, and in His angels, and in His books, and in His apostles; we make no distinction between any one of his apostles."

Surah lvii. 18: "And those that believe in God, and in His apostles, these are the righteous, and the witnesses with their Lord; they have their reward and their light; but, they that disbelieve, and accuse Our revelations of falsehood, these are the companions of hell-fire."

Surah lvii. 25: "We have verily sent Our apostles with evident demonstrations; and We revealed unto them the Scripture, and the Balance, that men might observe justice; and We revealed (the use of) Iron wherein is great strength. and advantages to mankind, and in order that God might know who assisteth him and his apostles in secret,—for God is mighty and glorious. and verily We sent Noah and Abraham; and. We placed amongst their posterity, prophecy and the Scripture: and amongst them were those that. were rightly directed, but many of them were evil-doers. Afterwards We caused Our apostles to follow in their footsteps; and We caused Jesus, the Son of Mary, to succeed them, and We gave him the Gospel: and We put into the hearts of his followers compassion and mercy; and as to Monasticism they invented the same,.— [We did not prescribe it unto them].- simply out of a desire to please God, but they have not observed it with a right observance. And We have given those of them that believe, their reward, but many or them are evil-doers. Oh ye that believe! fear God, and believe in His prophet. He will give you a double portion of His mercy, and will create for you a Light wherein ye shall walk, and forgive you, for the Lord is forgiving and merciful."

Surah xcviii. 1: "The unbelievers from amongst the people of the Book, and the idolaters. did not waver until there came unto them a clear—a prophet from God reading pure pages, containing right Scriptures: And those to whom the Scriptures have been given did not fall to variance, until after a clear (Revelation) had come unto them: and they are not commanded (in their own Scriptures) other-wise than that they should worship God, rendering unto Him the orthodox worship, and that they should observe prayer, and give alms: and this is the right faith."

Surah lxii. 5: "The likeness of those who are charged with the Law (the Taurat) and do not. discharge (the obligations of) it, is as 445

the likeness of the Ass laden with books. Evil is the likeness of the people which rejecteth the signs of God: and God doth not guide the unjust people."

Surah xlviii. 29: " Muhammad is the prophet of God: and those who follow him are fierce against the unbelievers, but compassionate among themselves. Thou mayest see them bowing down, prostrating themselves, seeking the favour of God and his pleasure. Their signs are in their faces from the marks of their prostration. This is the likeness of them in the Pentateuch and the likeness of them in the Gospel, — as a seed which putteth forth its stalk and strengtheneth it, and swelleth and riseth on its stem, and delighteth the sower thereat, — that the unbelievers may he indignant thereat. "

Surah lxi. 6: And when Jesus, the Son of Mary, said — O children of Israel, verily I am an Apostle of God unto you, attesting that which is before me of the Taurat, and giving glad tidings of an apostle that shall come after me, whose name is Ahmad (the Praised)."

Surah iv. 48: "Hast thou not seen those to whom We have given a portion of the Scripture?—they buy error, and desire that ye may err from the way: and God best knowoth your enemies. God sufficeth for a patron. and God sufficeth for a helper. Of those who profess Judaism there are that dislocate words from their places. and say — 'we have heard, — and, have disobeyed'; and 'do thou hearken without hearing;' and, ' look upon us' ; twisting with their tongues, and reviling the faith. And if they had said, ' we have heard and obeyed and,' hearken'; and,' look upon us': it find been better for them and more upright : hut God hath cursed them for their unbelief, and they shall not believe, excepting a few. O ye unto whom the Scriptures have been given! believe in what We have revealed attesting that (Scripture) which is with you, before We deface your countenances, and turn them front backwards, or curse them as We cursed those who (broke) the Sabbath: and the command of the Lord was fulflilled."

Surah iv. 49: "Hast thou not seen those to whom a portion of the Scripture hath been given? they believe in false gods and idols, and they say to the unbelievers, These are better directed in the way than those who believe."449

DICTIONARY OF ISLAM.

P.

PAIGHAMBAR.

The Persian and Hindustani translation of the Arabic Rasul and Nabi . [PROPHET.]

PARACLETE.

[PARAQLIT.]

PARADISE.

The Muhammadan Paradise is called al-Jannah "the garden," pl. jannat, in Arabic and Bihisht , in Persian; the word al-Firdaus , or Paradise, being restricted to one region in the celestial abodes of bliss. There are eight heavens or paradises mentioned in the Qur'an, and although they appear to be but eight different, names for the place of bliss, Muhammadan divines have held them to be eight different stages.

They are as follows (see Ghiyasu l-Lughah) :—

1. Jannatu 'l-Khuld (Suratu 'l-Furqan, xxv. 16,), The Garden of Eternity.

2. Daru 's-Salam (Suratu l-An'am, vi. 127), The Dwelling of Peace.

3. Daru 'l-Qarar (Suratu 'l-Mu'min, ii. 42). The Dwelling which abideth.

4. Jannatu 'l-'Adn (Suratu 'l-Bara'ah, ix. 73), The Gardens of Eden.

5. Jannatu '1-Ma'wa (Suratu 's-Sajdan, xxxii. 19), The Gardens of Refuge.

6. Jannatu 'n-Na'im (Suratu 1-Ma'idah, v. 70), The Gardens of Delight.

7. 'Illiyun (Suratu 't-Tatfif, lxxxiii. 18).

8. Jannatu 'l-Firdaus (Suratu 'l-Kahf. xviii. 107), The Gardena of Paradise.

These eight stages are spoken of as eight doors in the Miskat, book ii. ch. i.)

The sensual delights of Muhammad's Paradise are proverbial, and they must have exercised a considerable influence upon the minds of the people to whom he made known his mission: There are frequent allusions. to them in the Qur'an. The following are , specimen passages :—

Suratu '1-Insan (lxxvi.), 12—22 :—" God hath rewarded their constancy, with Paradise, and silken robes, reclining therein on bridal couches; nought shall they know of' sun or piercing cold; its shades shall close over them, and low shall its fruits hang down: and vessels of silver and goblets like flagons shall be borne round among them flagons of silver whose measure themselves shall mete. And there shall they be given to drink of the cup tempered with zanjabil (ginger) from the fount therein whose name is Salsabil (i.e. the softly flowing). Blooming youths go round among them. When thou loosest at them, thou wouldst deem them scattered pearls; and when thou seest this, thou wilt see delights and a vast kingdom; their clothing green silk robes kind rich brocade: with silver bracelets shall they be adorned: and drink of a pure beverage shall their Lord give them. This shall be your recompense."

Suratu 'l-Waqi'ah (lvi), 12—39 : "In garden of delight, a crowd of the former and a few of the later generations on inwrought couches reclining on them face to face,: blooming youths go round about them with goblets and ewers and a cup of flowing wins, their brows ache not from it, nor fails the sense: and with such fruits as shall please them best, and with flesh of such birds as they shall long for; and theirs shall he the Houris (Arabic hur), with huge dark eyes, like pearls hidden in their shells, in recompense for their labours past. No vain discourse shall they hear therein, nor charge of sin, but only cry 'Peace' Peace!.... Unfailing, unforbidden, and on lofty couches and of a rare creation have we made the Houris, and we have made them ever virgins, dear to their spouses and of equal age, for the people of the right hand, a crowd of the former, and a crowd of the later generations."

Suratu 'r-Rahman (lv.), 54—56: "On couches with linings of brocade shall they recline, and the fruit of the two gardens shall he within their easy reach. Therein shall he the damsels with retiring, glances, whom neither man nor jinn hath touched before them."

Suratu '1-Muhammad (xlvii.) 16, 17: "Therein are rivers of water which corrupt not; rivers of milk, whose taste changeth not; and rivers of wine, delicious to those who quaff it; and rivers of clarified honey: and therein are all kinds of fruit for them from their Lord."

The description of the celestial regions and the enjoyments promised to the faithful are still more minutely given in the traditional sayings of the Prophet; see the Mishkat, book xxiii. ch. xiii.

Abu Musa relates that "the Apostle of God said, Verily there is a tent, for every Muslim in Paradise, it is made of one pearl, its interior empty, its breadth 60 kos, and in every corner of it will be his wives : and they 450

shall not see one another. The Muslim shall love them alternately," &c.

Abu Sa'id relates that "the Apostle of God said, 'He who is least amongst the people of Paradise, shall have eighty thousand slaves, and seventytwo women, and has a tent pitched for him of pearls, rubies, and emeralds. . . . . Those who die in the world, young or old, are made of thirty years of age, and not more, when they enter Paradise.'" Abu Sa'id also relates that "the Apostle of God said, ' Verily a man in Paradise reclines upon seventy cushions, before he turns on his other side. Then a woman of Paradise comes to him and pats him on the shoulder, and the man sees his face in her cheek, which is brighter than a looking-glass, and verily her most inferior pearl brightens the east and west. Then the woman makes a salam to him, which he returns; and the man says," Who are you? " and she replies, "I am of the number promised of God for the virtuous." And verily she will have seventy garments, and the man's eyes will be fixed on them, till he will see the marrow of the bones of her legs through the calves of them, and she will have crowns on her head, the meanest pearl of which would give light between the east and west."

One of the attractions of Paradise is the river Kausar. [KAUSAR.] According to Anas, "the Apostle of God said, it is a river which God has given me in Paradise, its water is

whiter than milk, and sweeter than honey, and on its waters are birds whose necks are like the necks of camels."

The following is an instance of the way in which the Prophet endeavoured to suit his paradise to the tastes of the people :—

Abu Aiyub says, An Arab came to the Prophet and said, 'O Apostle of God! I am fond of horses; are there any in Paradise?' The Prophet replied, 'if you are taken into Paradise, you will get a ruby horse, with two wings, and you will mount him, and be will carry you wherever you wish."

Abu Hruairah said, "Verily the Apostle of God said, when an Arab was sitting near him, that a man of the people of Paradise will ask permission of his Lord to cultivate land, and God will say, 'Have you not everything you could wish for? What will you cultivate?" The man will say, 'Yes, everything is present, but I am fond of cultivating.' Then he will be permitted to cultivate, and he will sow, and, quicker than the twinkling of an eye, it will grow. become ripe, and be reaped, and it will stand in sheaves like mountains."

The apologists for Islam, Carlyle for example, have suggested that the sensual delights of Muhammad's paradise may, after all, be taken in a figurative sense, as the Revelation of St. John or the Song of Solomon. lt is quite true that such an interpretation is hinted at in the Akhlaq-i-Jalali (Thompson's translation, p. 102), and Mr. Lane in his Egyptians (vol. i. p. 84) says that a Muslim of some learning considered the descriptions of Paradise figurative, but such is not the view held by Muhammadan doctors, whether Sunni, Shi'ah, or Wahhabi. They are all agreed as to the literal interpretation of the sensual enjoyments of the Muslim paradise, and very many are the books written giving minute particulars of the joys in store for the faithful.

Islam, true to its anti-Christian character, preaches a sensual abode of bliss, in opposition to the express teaching of our Lord in Matt. xxii. 30: "They neither marry nor are given in marriage, but are as the angels of God in heaven."

Were proof needed to show that the Prophet taught a real and literal interpretation of the sensual delights of the abodes of bliss, a tradition of high authority is found in the Sahihu Muslim (p. 379), vide also Mishkat, book xxiii. ch. 13), in which the Prophet goes to some trouble to explain the sanitary laws of the heavenly kingdom, in the most literal manner possible.

Sir William Muir says: "It is remarkable that the notices in the Coran of this voluptuous Paradise are almost entirely confined to a time when, whatever the tendency of his desires. Mahomet was living chaste and temperate with a single wife of threescore years of age. Gibbon characteristically observes that 'Mahomet has not specified the male companions of the female elect, lest he should either alarm the jealousy of the former husbands, or disturb their felicity by the suspicion of an everlasting marriage.' The remark, made in raillery, is pregnant with reason, and aims a fatal blow, at the Paradise of Islam. Faithful women will renew their youth in heaven as well as faithful men: why should not their good works merit an equal and analogous reward? But Mahomet shrank from this legitimate conclusion, It is

noteworthy that in the Medina Suras — that is in all the voluminous revelations of the ten years following the Hegira — women are only twice referred to as one of the delights of Paradise; and on both occasions in these simple words :- and to them (believers) there shall be therein pure wives.' (Surah ii. 23, Surah iv. 60.) Was it that satiety had then left no longings unfulfilled; or that a closer contact with Judaism had repressed the budding pruriency of his revelation, and covered with confusion the picture of a sensual Paradise which had been drawn at Mecca?" (Life of Mahomet, new ed. p. 82 and note.)

Sir W.. Muir has omitted a third passage, Surah iii. 13, where "women of stainless purity" are spoken of, but it is remarkable how much more restrained are the Prophet's descriptions of Paradise in his later revelations. For example, Surah xiii. 23, 24, 35:-

"Gardens of Eden — into which they shall enter together with the just of their fathers, and their wives and their descendants, and the angels , shall go in unto them at every portal: 'Peace be with you, say they, because ye have endured all things . . . . The rivers flow beneath its bowers; its food and its shades are perpetual." 451

PARDON FOR SIN.

The words used to exprees pardon for sins on the part of the Almighty, are 'Afin , Maghfirah , and Ghufran The act of seeking pardon is Istighfar .

The following is the teaching of the Qur'an on the subject:-

Surah liii. 32, 33: God's is what is in the heavens and what is in the earth, that He may reward those who do evil with evil, and those who do good with good. Those who shun great sins and iniquities — all but venial sins, — verily thy Lord is of ample forgiveness."

Surah lxvii. 12: "Verily those who fear their Lord in secret, for them is forgiveness and a great reward."

Surah xxxii. 71: "He (God) will correct you for your works and pardon you for your sins: for he who obeys God and His Apostle has attained a mighty happiness."

Surah xxxv. 8: "Those who believe and do right, for them is forgiveness."

Surah viii. 29: "O ye who believe! if ye fear God, He will make for you a discrimination, and will cover your offences and will forgive you; for God is the Lord of mighty grace."

Repentance is expressed in the Qur'an by the word Tabah , which the Imam an-Nawawi says means " turning the heart from sin." (Commentary on Sahihu Muslim, vol. ii. p. 354.) The word frequently occurs in the Qur'an. For example : —

Surah iv, 20: "If they repent and amend, then let them be. 'Verily God relenteth. He is merciful."

Surah xxv 71: "Whoso hath repented and hath done what is right, verily it is he who turneth to God with a true conversion" (matab).

The teaching of the traditions 'on the subject of repentance and pardon for sin is in some places exceedingly wild, as will be seen from the following selections taken from the sayings of the Prophet given in the Mishkat, book x. ch. iii:-

"There was a. man of the children of Israel, who killed ninety-nine people, after which he came out. asking if his repentance would be accepted; and having met a monk, he asked him. 'Is there acceptance for repentance?' The monk said, 'No.' Then the man killed the monk, and stood asking about the approval of his repentance. And a man said to him, 'Come to such a village.' Then the signs of immediate death were upon him, and he tried to reach the village upon his knees. and died on the way. Then the angels of mercy and punishment disputed about him. Then God ordered the village towards which the man had attempted to go to be near to the corpse; and the village which he had fled from to be far away from him. Then God said to the angels, 'Compute, and measure the distance between the two villages' And it was found that the village towards which he was going was nearer to him by one span. And he was pardoned."

An incesant sinner has not sinned that has asked pardon, although he may have sinned seventy times a day, because asking pardon is the coverer of sin."

God has said, 'Verily if you come before Me with sins equal to the duet of the earth, and then come before Me without associating anything with Me, verily I will come before you with the pardon equal to the dust of the earth."

"Verily God. accepts of the repentance of His servant as long as is soul does not come into his throat."

"I swear by God that verily I ask pardon of God and repent before - Him more than seventy times daily."

"Verily my heart is veiled with melancholy, and verily I ask pardon of God one hundred times a day."

"Verily, when a true believer commits a sin, a black spot is created in his heart; and if he repents and asks pardon of God, the black spot is rubbed off his heart; but if he increases his sins, the black spot increases, so that it takes hold of the whole heart. Then this spot is a rust which God has mentioned in the Qur'an, 'their hearts became rusty from their works.'"

"Verily there were two men of the children of Israel who had a friendship for each other. One of them was a worshipper of God, and the other a sinner. The worshipper of God said to the sinner, 'Give up sinning.' he said, 'Leave me to my Lord.' At length he found him committing a very great sin, and said, 'Give up sinning' The sinner said, 'Leave me to my Lord. Were you sent as a guard over me?' The worshipper said, 'I swear by God He will not always forgive your sins, nor will He bring you Into Paradise.' Then God sent an angel to them, who took both their souls, and they both

appeared before God together. And God said co the sinner, 'Come into Paradise.' And he said to the other: 'What, can you prevent My compassion on my servant?' He said, 'I cannot, O my Lord.' And God said to the angels, 'Carry him to the fire.'"

PARENTAGE.

The periods of six months and of two years are fixed as the shortest and longest periods of pregnancy, and, consequently any child born within those periods is assumed to be the child of the woman's husband, even though she be either a widow or divorced. This strange ruling of Muslim law is founded on a declaration of 'Ayishah, who is related to have said, "The child does not remain in the. womb of the mother beyond two years."

The Imam ash-Shafi'i. has said the longest period of pregnancy extends to four years (Hamilton's Hiddyah, vol. i. p. 383.)

If a person acknowledge the parentage of a child who is able to give an account of himself, and the ages of the parties are such as to admit of the one being the child of the other, and the parentage of the child be not 452

well known to any persons and the child himself verify the statement, the parentage is established. (Ibid., vol. iii, p. 169.)

PARENTS.

Duty to, is frequently enjoined in the Qur'an; for example, Surah xvii. 24, 25: "Thy Lord hath decreed that ye shall not serve other than Him, and that ye shall be kind to your parents, whether one or both of them reach old age with thee; and. ye must not say, 'Fie!' (Uff) nor grumble at them, but speak to them a generous speech. And lower to them the wing of humility out, of compassion, and say,'O Lord! have compassion on them, as they brought me up when I was little!

PARISH.

In connection with the mosques of cities and villages there are appointed districts not unlike English parishes. Within these districts the Imam of the mosque is held responsible for the marriages and burials of the people, and his services can be claimed for these ceremonies, for which he receives customary fees. Any other Maulawi performing marriages or burials, is expected to obtain the permission of the Imam of the parish. In fact, the position of the Imam of a mosque is similar to that of a beneficed clergyman. He receives the marriage and burial fees, fees at the ceremony of circumcision, thank off offerings on the birth of a child or on recovery from sickness presents on the festival days, &c., as well as the waqf or endowment, of the mosque.

PARSI.

[MAJUS.]

PARTURITION.

[NIFAS.]

PATIENCE.

Arabic sabr . Is frequently enjoined in the Qur'an, e.g. Surah ii. 148: "O ye who believe! seek help through patience and prayer: verily God is with the patient."

PAWNING.

[RAHN.]

PEN, The, of Fate.

[QALAM.]

PENTATEUCH.

[TAURAT.]

PESTILENCE.

Arabic ta'un waba' . According to the teaching of Muhammad in the traditions, a pestilence is a punishment sent by God, it is also an occasion of martyrdom, and that Muslim who abides in the place where he is at the time of a pestilence, and dies of it, is admitted to the rank of a martyr. It is also enjoined that Musalmans shall not enter a place where there is a pestilence raging, but remain where they are until it is passed. (Mishkat, book v. ch. 1.)

PHARAOH.

Arabic Fir'aun . Heb. The King of Egypt in ,the time of Moses. Considered by all Muhammadans to be the very personification of wickedness.

Al-Baizawi says Firaun was the common title of the kings of Egypt, just as Caesar was that of the Roman Emperors, and that the name of Pharaoh, according to some, was al-Walid ibn Mus'ab, and according to others Mus'ab ibn Raiyam, and according to others Qabus, and that he lived 620 years. Abu'l fida' says that Mus'ab being 170

years old and having no child, whilst he kept his herds he saw a cow calf, and heard her say at the same time,"O Mus'ab, be not grieved, thou shalt have a son, a wicked son, who shall be cast into hell," and that, this son was the wicked Fir'aun of the time of Moses.

In the Qur'an, Surah xxxviii. 11, he is surnamed Fir'aun Zu '1-Autud or "Pharaoh the master of the Stakes, who called the Apostles liars." Some say the stakes refer to the strength of his kingdom, others that they were instruments of torture and death which he used.

Pharaoh was drowned in the Red Sea, and the commentators say that Gabriel would not let his body sink, but that it floated as a sign and a warning to the children of Israel. (See Qur'an, Surah x. 90-92.)

A further account of Pharaoh, us given in the Qur'an, will be found in the article on Moses. The Pharaoh of Joseph's time is said to he Raiyan ibn al-Walid al-'Amliql, the ancestor of the renowned Pharaoh in the time of. Moses. [MOSES.]

PHILOSOPHY, MUSLIM.

Arabic falsafah , or 'ilmu 'l-hikmah . The following account of Arabian philosophy is taken with permission from Professor Ueberweg's History of Philosophy, translated by G. S. Morris, M.A. (Hodder and Stoughton), vol. i p. 406:-

"The whole phiolsophy of the Arabians was only a form of Aristotelianism, tempered more or less with Neo-Platonic conceptions. The medical and physical science of the Greeks and Greek philosophy became known to the Arabs especially under the rule of the Abassides (from A.D. 750 on), when medical, and afterwards (from the time of the reign of Alrnamun, in the first half of the ninth century) philosophical works were translated from Greek into Syriac and Arabic by Syriac Christians. The tradition of Greek philosophy was associated with that combination of Platonism and Aristotelianism which prevailed among the last philosophers of antiquity, and with the study by Christian theologians of the Aristotelian logic as a formal organon of dogmatics; but in view of the rigid monotheism of the Mohammedan religion, it was necessary that the Aristotelian metaphysics, and especially the Aristotelian theology, should be more fully adopted among the Arabs than among the Neo-Platoaists and Christians, and that in consequence of the union among the former of philosophical with medical studies, the works of Aristotle on natural science should be studied by them with especial zeal.

" Of the Arabian philosophers in the East, the most important were Alkendi (al-Kindi), who was still more renowned as a mathematician and astrologer; Alfarabi (al-Farabi), who adopted the Neo-Platonic doctrine of 453

emanation: Avicenna (Abu Sina), the representative of a purer Aristotelianism and a man who for centuries, even among the Christian scholars of the later medieval centuries, stood in the highest consideration as a philosopher, and, still more, as a

teacher of medicine; and, finally. Algazel (al-Ghazzali), who maintained a philosophical skepticism in the interest of theological orthodoxy.

"The most important Arabian philosophers in the West; were Avempace (Thu Badja), Abubacer (Abu Bakr Ibn Tufail) and Averroës (Thu Rashid). Avempace and Abubacer dwell in their works on the idea of the independent and gradual development of man. Abubacer (in his 'Natural Man') develops this idea in a spirit of opposition to positive religion, although he affirms that positive religion and philosophical doctrine pursue the same end, namely, the union of the human intellect with the divine. Averroës, the celebrated commentator of Aristotle, interprets the doctrine of the latter respecting the active and the passive intellect in a sense which is nearly pantheistic and which excludes the idea of individual immortality. He admits the existence of only one active intellect, and affirms that this belongs in common to the whole human race, that it becomes temporarily particularized in individuals, but that each of its emanations becomes finally reabsorbed in the original whole, in which alone, therefore, they possess immortality."

"The acquaintance of the Mohammedan Arabs with the writings of Aristotle was brought about through the agency of Syrian Christians. Before the time of Mohammad, many Nestorian Syrians lived among the Arabs as physicians. Mohammed also had intercourse with Nestorian monks. Hareth Ibn Calda, the friend and physician of the Prophet, was a Nestorian. It was not, however, until after the extension of the Mohammedan rule over Syria and Persia, and chiefly after the Abassides had commenced to reign (A.D. 750), that foreign learning, especially in medicine and philosophy, became generally known among the Arabs. Philosophy had already been cultivated in those countries during the last days of Neo-Platonism, by David the Armenian about 500 A.D.; his Prolog. to Philos. and to the Isagoge, and his commentary on the Categ. in Brandis' Collection of Scholia. to Arist. his works, Venice, 1823; on him cf. C. F. Neumann, Paris, 1829) and afterwards by the Syrians, especially Christian Syrians, translated Greek authors, particularly medical, but afterward philosophical authors also, first into Syriac, and then from Syriac into Arabic (or they,' perhaps made use also of earlier Syriac translations some of which are today extant)."

During the reign and at the instance of Almamun (A.D. 813-833), the first translations of works of Aristotle into Arabic were made, under the direction of Johannes Ibn-al-Batrik (i.e. the son of the Patriarch, who, according to Renan [L.L, p. 57]. is to be distinguished from Johannes Mesue, the physician), these translations. in part still extant, were regarded (according to Abulfarsgius, Histor. Dynast, p. 153 et al.) as faithful but inelegant.

"A man more worthy of mention is Honein Ibn Ishak (Johannitius), a Neirtorian, who flourshed under Motewakkel, and died in 876. Acquainted with the Syriac, Arabic, and Greek languages, he was at the head of a school of interpreters at Bagdad, to which his son Ishak Ben Honein and his nephew Hobeisch-el-Asam also belonged. The works not only of Aristotle himself, but also of several ancient Aristotelians (Alexander Aphrodisiensis, Themistius, and also Neo-Platonic exegetes, such as Porphyry and Ammonius), and ot Galenus and others, were translated into (Syriac and) Arabic. Of these translations, also, some of those in Arabic are still existing, but the Syriac translations are all lost. (Honein's Arabic translation of the Categories has

been edited by Jul. Theod. Zenker, Leips. 1846). In the tenth century new translations, not only of the works of Aristotle, but also of Theophrastus, Alexander of Aphrodisias, Theomistius, Syrianus, Ammonius, etc., were produced by Syrian Christians, of whom the most important were the Nestorians, Abu Baschar Mata and Jahja ben Adi, the Tagritan, as also Isa Ben Zaras. The Syriac translations (or revisions of earlier translations) by these men have been lost, but the Arabic translations were widely circulated and have in large measure been preserved; they were used by Alfarabi, Avicenna, Averroës, and the other Arabian philosophers. The Republic, Timcocus, and Laws of Plato, were also translated into Arabic. Averroës (in Spain, about 1150) possessed and paraphrased the Rep., but he did not the Politics of Aristotle; the book existing in MS. at Paris, entitled Siaset (Siyasah), i.e. Politica, is the spurious work De Regimme Principum s.Secretum Secretorum; the Polotics of Aristotle is not known to exist in Arabic. Farther, extracts from the Neo-Platonists, especially from Proclus, were translated into Arabic. The Syrians were led, especially in consequence of their contact with the Arabs, to extend their studies beyond the Organon; they began to cultivate in the Arabic language all the branches of philosophy on the basis of Aristotle's works, and in this they were afterwards followed by the Arabs themselves, who soon surpassed their Syrian teachers. Alfarabi and Avicenna were the scholars of Syrian and Christian physicians. The later Syrian philosophy bears the type of the Arabian philosophy. The most important represeutative of the former was Gregorius Barhebraeus or Abulfaragins, the Jacobite, who lived in the thirteenth century, and was descended from Jewish parents, and whose compendium of the Peripatetic philosophy (Butyrum Sapientice) is still of great authority among the Syrians."

"Alkendi (Abu Jusuf Jacub Ibn Eshak al Kendi. i.e. the father at Joseph, Jacob, son of Isaac, the Kendaean, of the district of Kendah) was born at Busra, on the Persian Gulf. where later, in the tenth century, the 454

brothers of Purity' or the Sincere Brethren, who collected in an Encyclopedia the learning then acceptable to the Arabians, were located. Hie lived during and after the first half of the ninth century, dying about 810. He was renowned as a mathematician, physician, and philosopher. He composed commentaries on the logical writings of Aristotle, and wrote also on metaphysical problems. In theology he was a rationalist. His astrology was founded on the hypothesis that all things are so bound together by harmonious causal relations, that each when completely conceived, must represent as in a mirror the whole universe.

"Alfarabi (Abu Nasr Mohammed ben Mohammed ben Tarkhan of Farab), born near the end of the ninth century, received his philosophical training mainly at Bagdad, where he also began to teach. Attached to the mystical sect of the Sufi, which Said Abdul Chair had founded about A.D. 820 (under the unmistakable influence of Buddhism, although Tholuck [Sufismus, Berlin, 1821 Blüthensammlung aus der Morgenländ. Mystik, Berlin, 1825] assigns to it a purely Mohammedan origin), Alfarabi went at a later epoch to Aleppo and Damascus, where be died A.D. 950. In logic Alfarabi follows Aristotle almost without exception. Whether logic is to be regarded as a part of philosophy or not, depends, according to Alfarabi. on the greater or less extension given to the conception of philosophy, and is therefore a useless question. Argumentation is the instrument by which to develop the unknown from the

known; it is employed by the uten logicus logica docens is the theory which relates to this instrument, argumentation, or which treats of it as its subject (subjectum). Yet logic also treats of single concepts (incomplexa) as elements of judgments and argumentations (according to Alfarabi, as reported by Albertus M., De Proedicabil. i. 2 seq. cf., Prantl, Gesch. der Log., ii. p. 302 seq,) Alfarabi defines the universal (see Alb M., De Praed., ii. 5) as the unum de multus et in Mulitic, which definition is followed immediately by the inference that the universal has no existance apart from the individual (non habet esse separatum a multis). It is worthy of notice that Alfarabi does not admit in its absolute sense the aphorism: singulare sentitur, universale intlligitur, but teaches that the singular, although in its material aspect an object of sensible perception, exists in its formal aspect in the intellect, and, on the other hand, that the universal, although as such belonging to the intellect, exists also in sensu, in so far as it exists blended with the individual (Alb. An post. i. 1, 3). Among the contents of the Metaphysics of Alfarabi, mention is made of his proof of the existence of God, which was employed by Albertus Magnus and later philosophers. This proof is founded on Plat., Tim, p. 28:

and Arist. Metaph, vii. 7 etc., or on the principal that all change and all development must have a cause. Alfarabi distinguishes (Fontes Quaestionum, ch. 3 seq., in Schmölders Doc. Phil. Ar., p. 44), between that which has a possible and that which has a necessary existence, just as Plato and Aristotle distinguish between the changeable and the eternal). If the possible is to exist in reality, a cause is necessary thereto. The world is composite, hence it had a beginning or was caused (ch. 2). But the series of causes and effects can neither recede in infinitum, nor return like a circle into itself;: it must, therefore, depend upon some necessary link, and this link, is the first being (ens primum). This first being exists necessarily; the supposition of its non-existence involves a contradiction. It is uncaused, and needs in order to its existence no cause external to itself. It is the cause of all that exists. Its eternity implies its perfection. It is free from all accidents. It is a simple and unchangeable. As the absolutely Good it is at once absolute thought, absolute object of thought, and absolute thinking being (intelligentia, intslligible, intelligens). It has wisdom, life, insight, might, and will, beauty excellence, brightness; it enjoys the highest happiness, is the first willing being and the first object of will (desire). In the knowledge of his being, Alfarabi (De rebus studio Arist. phil. phoemitt. Comm., ch. 4, ap. Schmölders, Doc. ph. Arab, p. 22), sees the end of philosophy, and he defines the practical duty of man as consisting in rising, so far as human force permits it, into likeness with God. In his teachings respecting that which is caused by or derived from God (Fontes Quoest, ch. 6 seq,), Alfarabi follows the Neo-Platonists. His fundamental conception is expressed by the word emanation. The first created thing was the Intellect, which came forth from the first being (the of Plotinus; this doctrine was logically consistent only for Plotinus, not for Alfarabi, since the former represented his One as superior to all preficates, while Alfarabi, in agreement with Aristotle and with religious dogmatics, recognized in his first being intelligence). From this intellect flowed forth, as a new emanation, the Cosmical Soul, in the complication and combination of whose ideas the basis of corporeality is to he found. Emanation proceeds from the higher or outer spheres to the lower or inner ones. In bodies, matter and form are necessarily combined with each other. Terrestrial bodies are composed of the four elements. The lower physical powers, up to the potential intellect, are dependent on

matter. The potential intellect, through the operation (in-beaming) of the active divine intellect, is made actual (intellectus in actu or in effectu), and this actual intellect, as resulting from development, may be called acquired intellect (intellectus acquisitus, after the doctrine of Alexander of Aphrodisias, concerning the ). The actual human intellect is free from matter, and is a simple substance, which alone survives the death of the body and remains indestructible. Evil is a necessary condition of good in a finite 455

world. All things are under divine guidance and are good, since all was created by God. Between the human understanding and the things which it seeks to know there exists (as Alfarabi teaches, De Intellecto el Intellectu, p. 48 seq.) a similarity of form, which arises from their having both been formed by the sense first being, and which makes knowledge possible.

"Avicenna (Abu Ali Al Hosain Abdallah Ibn Sina) was born at Afsenna, in the province of Bokhara, in the year 980. His mind was early developed by the study of theology, philosophy, and medicine, and in his youth he had already written a scientific encyclopedia. He taught medicine and philosophy in Ispahen.. He died at Hamadan in the fifty-eighth year of his life. His medical Canon was employed for centuries as the basis of instruction. In philosophy he set out from the doctrines of Alfarabi, but modified them by omitting many Neo-Platonic theorems and approximating more nearly to the real doctrine of Aristotle. The principle on which his logic was founded, and which Averroes adopted and Albertus Magnus often cites, was destined to exert a great influence. It was worded thus: Intellectus in formis agit universalitutem (Alb., De Proedicab, ii. 3 and 6). The genus, as also the species, the differentia the accidens, and the proprium, are in themselves neither universal nor singular. But the thinking mind, by comparing the similar forms, forms the genus logicum, which answers to the definition of the genus, viz. : that it is predicated of many objects specifically different, and answers the question, 'What is it? (tells the quiditas). It is the genus naturale which furnishes the basis of comparison. When the mind adds to the generic and specific the individual accidents, the singular is formed (Avic., Log., Venice edition, 1508, f. 12, ap. Prantl, Geschichte der Logik, ii. 847 seq.) Only figuratively, according to Avicenna, can the genus be called matter and the specific difference form; such phraseology (frequent in Aristotle) is not strictly correct. Avicenna distinguishes several modes of generic existence, viz.: ante res, in rebus and post res. Genera are ante res in the mind of God; for all that exists is related to God as a work of art is related to an artist; it existed in his wisdom and will before its entrance into the world of manifold existence in this sense, and only in this sense, is the universal before the individual. Realized with its accidents in matter, the genus constitutes the natural thing, res naturalis which the universal essence is immanent. The third mode of the existence of the genus is that which it has in being conceived by the human intellect; when the latter abstracts the form and then compares it again with individual objects to which by one and the same definition it belongs, in this comparisen (respectus) is contained the universal (Avic., Log., f. 12; Metaph., v. 1, 2,f. 87, in Prantl, ii. P. 349). Our thought, which is directed to things, contains nevertheless dispositions which are peculiar to itself; when things are thought, there is added in thought something which does not exist outside of thought. Thus universality as such, the generic concept and the specific difference, the subject and predicate, and other similar elements, belong only to thought. Now it is possible to direct the

attention, not merely to things, but also to the dispositions which are peculiar to thought, and this takes place in logic (Metaph., i.2;iii. 10, in Prantl, ii. p. 320 )n this is based on the distinction of 'first' and 'second intentions.' The direction of attention to things is the first intention (intentio prima); the second intention (intentio secunda) is directed to the dispositions which are peculiar to our thinking concerning things. Since the universal as such belongs not to things, but to thought, it belongs to the second intention. The principle of individual plurality, according to Avicenna, is matter, which he regards, not with Alfarabi as an emanation from the Cosmical Soul, but but with Aristotle as eternal and uncreated; all potentiality is grounded in it, as actuality is in God. Nothing changeable can come forth directly from the unchangeable first cause. His first and only direct product is the inteligentia prima (the of Plotinus, as with Alfarabi); from it the chain of emanations extends throngh the various celestial spheres to our earth. But the issuing of the lower from the higher is to be conceived, not as a single, temporal act, but as an eternal act, in which cause and effect are synchronous. The cause which gave to things their existence must continually maintain them in existence; it is an error to imagine that things once brought into existence continue therein of themselves. Notwithstanding its dependence on God, the world has existed from eternity. Time and motion always were (Avic. Metaph., vi. 2, et al; cf. the account in the Tractatus de Erroribus, ap. Hauréau, Ph. Sc. i. p. 368). Avicenna distinguishes a two-fold development of our potential understanding into actuality, the one common, depending on instruction, the other rare, and dependent on immediate divine illumination . According to a report transmitted to us by Averroes, Avicenna, in his Philosophia Orientalis, which has not come down to us, contradicted his Aristotellan principles, and conceived by God as a heavenly body."

"Algazel (Abu Hamed Mohammed ibn Achmed Al-Ghazzali), born A..D. 1059 at Ghazzalah in Khorasan taught first at Bagdad, and afterwards having become a Sufi, resided in Syria. He died A.D. 1111 at Tus. He was a sceptic in Philosophy, but only that his faith might be all the stronger in the doctrines of theology. His course in this respect marked a reaction of the exclusively religious principle of Mohammedanism against philosophical speculation - which in spite of all accommodation had not made itself fully orthodox - and particularly against Aristotelianism; between the mysticism of the Neo-Platonist, on the contrary, and the Sufism of Algazel, there existed an essential affinity. In his Makacid al filasifa (Maqasidu 'l-Fala- 456

sifah), The Aims of the Philosophers, Algazel sets forth the doctrines of philosophy following essentially Alfarabi and particularly Aviecenna. These doctrines are then subjected by him to a hostile criticism in his Tehafot al filasifah (Tahafutu '1- Falasifah), 'Against the Philosophers,’ while in his 'Fundamental Principles of Faith,’ he presents positively his own views. Averroës wrote by way rejoinder his Destructio Destructionis Philosophorum477

DICTIONARY OF ISLAM.

Q

QABALAH, QIBALAH.

A deed of conveyance of transfer of right or property. Any contract or bargain or sale signed by a judge. (Hidayah, vol. ii. p. 569.)

QABA QAUSAIN.

Lit. "two bows' length." An expression which occurs in the Qur'an, Surah liii, 8-10: "Then he drew near and hovered o'er; until he was two bows' length off or nigher still. Then he revealed to his servant what he revealed him." Commentators understand this to refer to the angel Gabriel. Mystic writers use the term to express a state of nearness to God. (See 'Abdu 'r-Razzaq's Dict. Of Suf'i Terms.)

QABIL.

[CAIN.]

AL-QABIZ.

"The Restrainer." One of the ninety-nine attributes of God. But the word does not occur in the Qur'an.

QABR.

A grave. [GRAVE, TOMB.]

QABUL.

"Consent." A term in the Muhammadan law of marriage, contracts, &c.

QABZ WA BAST.

Two terms which are employed to express two opposite states of the heart; aqbz being a contraction, and bast, an expansion, of the spiritual state. (See 'Abdu 'r-Razzaq's Dict. Of Suf'i Terms.)

QA'DAH.

The sitting posture in the daily prayer, when the tashahhud is recited. [TASHAHHUD.] 478

QADAR.

Lit. "Measuring." (1) The word generally used in the Hadis for fate, or predestination. (2) Al Qadar, the title of the xcviiith Surah of the Qur'an. [TAQDIR, PREDESTINATION.]

QADARIYAH.

A sect of Muhammadans who deny absolute predestination, and believe in the power (qadr) of man's free will, They were the ancient Mutazilahs before al-Wasil separated from the school of Hasan al-Basri.

QADIM.

"Ancient; old." Al-Qaaim, "'The one without beginning." Qadimu 'l-Aiyan, "Ancient of day." God.

AL-QADIR.

"The Powerful." One of the ninety-nine attributes of God The word occurs in the Qur'an, Surah ii. 19, "God is mighty over all." and in many other passages.

QADIRIYAH.

An ascetic order of Faqirs instituted A.H. 561, by Saiyid Abdu 'l-Qadir al-Jilani, surnamed Pir Dastagir, whose shrine is at Baghdad. It is most popular religions order amongst the Sunnis of Asia, [FAQIR, ZIKR.]

QAF.

(1) The twenty-first letter of the Arabic alphabet. (2) The title of the Lth Surah of the Qur'an. (3) The circle of mountains which Easterns fancy encompass the world. The Muhammadan belief being that they are inhabited by demons and jinn, and that the mountain range is emerald which gives an azure hue to the sky. Hence in Persian az qaf ta qaf means the whole world. The name is also used for Mount Caucasus.

AL-QAHHAR.

"The Dominant." One of the ninety-nine names of God. It occurs in the Qur'an, Surah xiii. 17: "He is the One, the Dominant."

QA'IF.

Lit. " Skillful in knowing footsteps." One who can judge of character from the outward appearance.

One instance of the kind is related in the Traditions, namely, 'Ayishah relates, "One day the Prophet came home in high spirits and said, O 'Ayishah, verily Mujazziz al-Mudliiji came and saw Usaniah and Zaid covered over with a cloth, except their feet and he said, 'Verily, I know from these feet the relationship of father and son." (Mishkat, book xiii.ch xv. pt 1.) This knowledge is called Ilmu 'l-Qiqafah.)

QAINUQA'.

A Jewish tribe near al-Madinah in the time of Muhhamad. He besieged them in their stronghold in the second year of the Hijrah, and having conquered them, sent most of them into exile. (See Muir's Life of Mahomet, vol. iii., p. 134.)

QAISAR.

[CÆSAR.]

QAIS IBN SA'D.

One of the leading companions. He was of the tribe Khazraj and, the son of Sa'd, a Companion of note. He was a man of large stature and corpulent, emiment for learning, wisdom, and courage. He commanded the Prophet's body-guard, and under the Khalifah 'Ali - he was made Governor of Egypt. Died at al-Madinah,, A.H. 60.

AL-QAIYUM.

Lit. "The Self-Subsisting" One of the ninety nine attributes of God. It occurs in the Qur'an, Surah iii. 1: "There is no deity but God, the living, the self-subsisting."

QALAM.

Lit. "A. (reed) pen." (1) The pen with which God is said to have pre-recorded the actions of men. The Prophet said the first thing which God created was the Pen (qalam) and that it wrote down the quantity of every individual thing to be created, all that was and all that will be to all eternity. (See Mishkat.) (2) Al-Qalam. the title of the lxviiith Surah of the Qur'an.

QALANDAR.

A Persian title to an order of faqirs or darwishes. An Ascetic.

AL-QAMAR.

"The moon." The title of the livth Surah of the Qur'an, in the first verse of which the word occures, "And the moon hath been split in sunder." [MOON, SHAQQU 'L-QAMAR.]

QANA'AH.

Contentment, resignation.

QANIT.

Lit. "One who stands in prayer or in the service of God, Godly, devout, prayerful. The term is used twice in the Qur'an:-

Surah xvi. 121: "Verily, Abraham was a leader in religion and obedient to God."

Surah xxxix. 12: "He who observeth the hours of the night in devotion."

QANUN.

Canon; a rule, a regulation, a law, a statute.

QARABAH.

Lit. "Proximity." A legal term in Muhammadan law for relationship.

QARI.

pl. qurra'. "A reader." A term used for one who reads the Qur'an correctly, and is acquainted with the 'Ilmu 't-Tajwid, or the science of reading the Qur'an. In the history of Islam there are seven celebrated Qurra', or " readers," who are known as al-Qurra'u 's-Sab'ah, or "the seven readers." They are:-

1. Imam Ibn Kasir. Died at Makkah, A.H. 120.

2. Imam 'Asim of al-Kufah, who learnt the 'way of reading the Qur'an from 'Abdu 'r-Rahman as-Salãmi, who was taught by the Khalifahs 'Usman and 'Ali. He died at al-Kufah, A.H. 127.

3. Imam Abu 'Umr was born at Makkah, A.H. 70, and died at al-Kufah, A.H. 154. It is on his authority that the following important statement has been handed down: "When the first copy of the Qur'an was written out 479

and presented to the Khalifah 'Usman, he said, 'There are faults of language in it let the Arabs of the desert rectify them with their tongues." The meaning of this is that they should pronounce the words correctly but not alter the written copy.

4. Imam Hamzah of al-Kufah was born A.H. 80, and died A.H. 156.

5. Imam al-Kisa'i who had a great reputation as a Qari', but none as a poet. It was a common saying, among the learned in grammar, that there was no one who knew so little poetry as al-Kisa'i. He is said to have died at Tus about the year 182.

6. Imam Nafi', a native of al-Madinah, who died A.H. 169.

7. Imam ibn 'Amir, who was a native of Syria. His date is uncertain.

AL-QARI'AH. . "The Striking." The title of the CIst Surah of the Qur'an, which begins with the words, " The Striking! What is the Striking? And what shall make thee understand how terrible the striking will be."

JalaIu 'd-din says it is one of the epithets given to the, last day, because it will strike the hearts of all creatures with terror.

QARIN. . Lit. "The one united." The demon which is said to be indissolubly united with every man. (See Mishkat, book xiii. ch. xv.; also Surah xli. 24; Surah xliii. 35; Surah l. 22.)

QARINAR. . The context.A term used in theological and exegetical works.

QARUN. . [KORAH.]

QARZ. . Lit. "Cutting."

(1) A. word used in the Qur'an for good deeds done for God, for which a future recompense will be awarded. e.g. Surah v. 15: "Lend God a liberal loan and I will surely put away from you your evil deeds, and will cause you to enter garden through which rivers flow."

(2) Money advanced as a loan without interest, to be repaid at the pleasure of the borrower.

(3) The word is used in Persian, Urdu, and Pushtoo for money lent at interest, but the legal term for such a debt is riba'.

QASAM. . [OATH.]

QARZ. QASAMAH . Lit. "Taking an oath." An oath under the following circumstances:_

When a person is found slain in a place and it is not known who was the murderers, and his heirs demand satisfaction for his blood from the inhabitants of the district, then fifty of the inhabitants selected by the next kin, must be put to their oaths and depose to this effect.: "I swear by God that I did not kill him, nor do I know the murderer."

This custom is founded upon the Mosaic law. See Deut.. xxi. l-9.

AL-QASAS. . "The narrative " The title of the xxviiith Surah of the Qur'an. So called because in the 25th verse of this chapter Moses is said to have related the narrative of his adventures to Shu'aib.

QASM. . Lit. "To divide." A division of conjugal rights, which is enjoined by Muslim law. (See Mishkat, book xii. ch. x.)

AL-QASWA'. . Lit. "One whose ears are cropt." Muhammad's celebrated she-camel who conveyed him in the flight from Makkah.

QATL. [MURDER.]

QATTAT. . A slanderer. A tale bearer, who, according to the Traditions, will not enter. the kingdom of heaven; for the Prophet has said, "A tale-bearer shall not enter Paradise." (Mishkat, book xxii. ch. x. pt. I.)

QAT'U 'T-TARIQ. [HIGHWAY ROBBERY.]

QAUL. . , A saying; a promise; a covenant. The word occurs in the Qur'an frequently in these senses.

QAUIU 'L-HAQQ. .

"The Word of Truth" A title given to Jesus Christ in the Qur'an, Surah xix, 85: This was Jesus the son of Mary, the word of truth concerning wham they doubt" By the commentators Husain, al-Kamalan, and Abdu 'l-Qadir, the words are understood to refer to the statement made, but al-Baizawi says it is a title applied to Jesus the son of Mary [JESUS CHRIST.]

QAWAD. . "Retaliation." Lex Talonis. [MURDER. QISAS. RETALIATION.].

AL-QAWI. . "The Strong" One of the ninety nine attributes of God. It occurs in the Qur'an, Surah xl 69 "'Thy Lord is the Strong, the Mighty."

QAZA'. . pl. aqziyah.. Lit. "Consummating." (1) The office of a Qazi, or judge (2) The sentence of a Qazi (3) Repeating prayers to make up for having omitted them at the appointed time (4) Making up for an omission in religious duties such as fasting, &c (5) The decree existing in the Divine mind from all eternity, and the execution and declaration of a decree at the appointed time (6) Sudden death.

QAZF. . Lit. "Throwing at." Accusing a virtuous, man or woman of adultery, the punishment for which is eighty lashes, or, in the case of a slave, forty lashes. This punishment was established by a supposed revelation from heaven, when the Prophet's favourite wife, 'Ayishah. was accused of improper intimacy with Safwan Ibnn 'l-Murattil. Vide Qur'an, Suratu 'n-Nur (xxiv.), 4: "But to those who accuse married persons of adultery and produce not four witnesses, them shall ye scourge with four-score stripes." (Hidayah, vol. ii. p. 58.) 480

QIBLAH.

"Anything opposite". The direction in which all Muhammadans must pray, whether in their public or in their private devotions, namely, towards Makkah. It is established by

the express injunction of the Qur'ãn, contained in the Suratn l-Baqarab (ii.), 136—l45: -

"Fools among men will say, What has turned them from their Qiblah on which they were agreed? Say, God's is the east and the west, He guides whom He will unto the right path. Thus have we made you a middle nation to he witnesses against men, and that the apostle may be a witness against men. We have not appointed the qiblah on which thou wert agreed, save that we might know who follows the Apostle from him who turns upon his heels, although it is a great thing save to those whom God doth guide. But God will not waste your faith, for verily God with men is kind and merciful. We see thee often turn about thy face in the heavens, we will surely turn thee to a qiblah thou shalt like. Turn, then, thy face towards the Sacred Mosque, wherever, ye be turn your faces towards it, for verily those who have the Book know that it is the truth from their Lord. God is not careless of that which ye do. And if thou shouldst bring to those who have been given the Book every sign, they would not follow your qiblah, nor do some of them follow the qiblah of the others; and If thou followest their lusts after the knowledge that has come to thee, then art thou of the evil-doers. Those whom we have given the Book know him as they know their sons, although a sect of them do surely hide the truth the while they know. The truth (is) from thy Lord, be not therefore one of those who doubt thereof. Every sect has some one side to which they turn (in prayer), but do ye hasten onwards to good works, wherever ye are, God will bring you all together. Verily, God is mighty over all. From whencesoever thou comest forth, there turn thy face to wards the Sacred Mosque; for it is surely truth from thy Lord, God is not careless about what ye do. And from whencesoever thou comest forth, there turn thy face to wards the Sacred Mosque, and wheresoever ye are, turn your faces towards it, that may have no argument against you, save only those of them who are unjust, and fear them not, but fear me, and I will fulfil my favour to you; perchance ye may be guided yet."

In explanation of these verses (which are allowed to be of different periods), and the change of Qiblah, al-Baizawi, the commentator, remarks that when Muhammad was in Makkah he always worshipped towards the Ka'bah; but after the flight to al-Madinah, he was ordered by God to change the Qiblah towards as-Sakhrah, the rock at Jerusalem on which the Temple was formerly erected, in order to conciliate the Jews, but that, about sixteen months after his arrival in al-Madinah, Muhammad longed once more to pray towards Makkah, and he besought the Lord to this effect, and then the instructions were revealed, "Verily we have seen thee turning thy face," &c., as given above. (See al-Baizawi, in loco.)

This temporary change of the Qiblah to Jerusalem is now regarded as "a trial of faith," and it is asserted that Makkah was, always the true Qiblah. But it is impossible for any non-Muslim, not to see in this transaction a piece of worldly wisdom on the part of the Prophet.

Jalhlu 'd-din as-Suyuti admits that the 10th verse of the IInd Surah—which reads:

"The east and the west is God's, therefore whichever way ye turn is the face of God"— has been abrogated by a more recent verse, and that, at one time in the history of Muhammad's mission there was no Qiblah at all.

Major Osborne, remarks in his Islam under the Arabs, p. 58:—

"There have been few incidents more disastrous in their consequences to the human race than this decree of Muhammad, changing the Kibla from Jerusalem to Mekka. Had he remained true to his earlier and better faith, the Arabs would have entered the religious community of the nations as peace-makers, not as enemies and destroyers. To all alike —Jews, Christians, and Muhammadans—there would have been a single centre of holiness and devotion; but the Arab would have brought with him just that element of conviction which was needed to enlarge and vivify the preceding religions. To the Jew he would have been a living witness that the God who spoke in times past to his fathers by the prophets still sent messengers to men, though not taken from the chosen seeds—the very testimony which they needed to rise out of the conception of a national deity to that of a God of all men.

To the Christians, his deep and ardent conviction of God as a present living and working power, would have been a voice recalling them from their petty sectarian squabbles and virtual idolatry, to the presence of the living Christ. By the change of the Kibla, Islam was placed in direct antagonism to Judaism and Christianity. It became a rival faith, possessing an independent centre of existence. It ceased to draw its authenticity from the same wells of inspiration. Jew and Christian could learn nothing from a creed which they knew only as an exterminator; and the Muhammadan was condemned to a moral and intellectual isolation. And so long as he remains true to his creed, he cannot participate in the onward march of men. The keystone of that creed is a black pebble in a heathen temple. All the ordinances of his faith, all the history of it, are so grouped round and connected with this stone, that were the odour of sanctity dispelled which surrounds it, the whole religion would inevitably, perish. The farther and the faster men progress elsewhere, the more hopeless becomes the position of the Muslim. He can only hate the knowledge which would gently lead him to the light. Chained to a black stone in a barren wilderness, the heart and reason 481

of the Muhammadan world would seem have taken the similitude of the objects they reverence; and the refreshing dew, genial sunshines which fertilise all else, seke in vain for anything to quicken there." (Islam under the Arabs, p. 58.)

QIBTI.

Copt. The Christian descendants of the Ancient Egyptians, derived from Coptos, a great city in Upper Egypt now called Gooft. The favourite slave of Muhammad, Mariyah, was a Copt, and is known in Muslim history as Mariyatu '1-Qibtiyah. [MUHAMMAD, WIVES OF.]

For an account of the manners and customs of the Coptic Christians, see Lane's Modern Egyptians.

QIMAR.

Dice or any game of chance. It is forbidden by the Muhammadan religion. (Mishkat, book xvii. ch. ii. pt. 2.)

QINN.

A slave, especially one born in the family and whose father and mother are slaves.

QINTAR.

A talent. A sum of money mentioned in the Qur'an, Surah ii. 67: "And of the people of the Book there are some of them who if thou entrust them with a qintar give it back to you."

Muhammad Tahir, the author of the Majma'u 'l-Bihar, p. 173, says a qintar is a very large sum of money. As much gold as will go into the hide of a cow! or, according to others, 4,000 dinars. Others say it is an unlimited sum, which implies a considerable amount of money.

QIRA'AH.

Lit. "Reading." A term given to the different methods of reading the Qur'an. A science which is termed Ilmu 't-Tajwid. [QUR'AN.]

QIRAN.

Lit. "Conjunction." (1) The conjunction of 'two planets. The performance of the Hajj and the 'Umrah at the same time.

QISAS . From qasas. Lit. "Tracking the footsteps of an enemy." The law of retaliation. The lex talionis of the Mosaic law, with the important exception that in the Muslim law the next of kin can accept a money compensation for willful murder.

The subject of retaliation must be considered, first, as to the occasions affecting life, and, secondly, as to retaliation in matters short of life.

(1) In occasions affecting life, retaliation is incurred by willfully killing a person whose blood is under continual protection, such as a Muslim or a Zimmi, in opposition to aliens who have only an occasional or temporary protection. A freeman is to be slain for a freeman, and a slave for a slave; but according to Abu Hanifah, a freeman is to be slain for the murder of a slave if the slave be the property of another. A Muslim is also to be slain for the murder of a zimmi, according to Abu Hanifa, but ash-Shafi'i disputes this, because the Prophet said a Muslim is not to be put to death for an infidel. A man is slain for a woman, and adult for an infant, and a sound person for one who is blind, infirm, dismembered, lame, or insane. A father is not to be slain for his child, because the Prophet has said, "Retaliation must not be executed upon the parent for his offspring"; but a child is slain for the murder of his parent. A master is

not slain for his slave, and if one of two partners in a slave kill such a slave, retaliation is not incurred. If a person inherit the right of retaliating upon his parent, the retaliation fails. Retaliation is to be executed by the next of kin with some mortal weapon or sharp instrument capable of inflicting a mortal wound.

If a person immerse another, whether an infant or an adult, into water from which it is impossible to escape, retaliation, according to Abu Hanifah, is not incurred, but his two disciples maintain otherwise.

(2) Of retaliation short of life. If a person wilfully strikes off the hand of another, his hand it to be struck off in return, because it is said in the Qur'an (Surah v. 49), "There is retaliation in case of wounds." If a person strike off the foot of another, or cut off the nose, retaliation is inflicted in turn. If a person strike another on the eye, so as to force the member, with its vessels, out of the socket, there is no retaliation; it is impossible to preserve a perfect equality in extracting the eye. If, on the contrary, the eye remain in its place, but the faculty of seeing be destroyed, retaliation is to be inflicted, as in this case equality may be effected by extinguishing the sight of the offender's corresponding eye with a hot iron. If a person strike out the teeth of another, he incurs retaliation: for it is said in the Qur'an, "A tooth for a tooth." (Surah v. 49.)

Retaliation is not to be inflicted in the case of breaking any bones except teeth, because it is impossible to observe an equality in other fractures. There is no retaliation, in offenses short of life, between a man and a woman, a free person and a slave, or one slave and another slave; but ash-Shafi'i maintains that that retaliation holds in these cases. Retaliation for parts of the body holds between a Muslim and an unbeliever, both being upon an equality between each other with respect to fines for the offences in question.

If the corresponding member of the maimer be defective, nothing more than retaliation on that defective member, or a fine; and if such member be in the meantime lost, nothing whatever is due.

There is no retaliation for the tongue or the virile member.

(3) Retaliation may be commuted for a sum of money. When the heirs of a murdered person enter into a composition with the murderer for a certain sum, retaliation is remitted, and the sum agreed to is due, to whatever amount. This is founded upon an express injunction of the Qur'an: "Where the heir of the murdered person is offered anything, by way of compensation, out of 482

the property of the murderer, let him take it." And also in the Traditions, it is related that Muhammad said (Mishkat, book xiv.): "The heir of the murdered person is at liberty either to take retaliation, or a fine with the murderer's consent." Moreover, it is maintained by Muhammadan jurists that retaliation is purely a matter which rests with the next of kin, who are at liberty to remit entirely by pardon, and that therefore a compensation can be accepted which is advantageous to the heirs and also to the murderer.

When a person who has incurred retaliation dies, the right of retaliation necessarily ceases, and consequently no fine is due from the murderer's estate. [MURDER.]

QISSIS.

Persian kashish. A Christian presbyter or priest. The occurs once in the Qur'an, Surah v. 85:-

Thou shalt certainly find those to be nearest in affection to them who say, We are Christians." This because some of their priests (qissisun) and monks (ruhban), and because they are free from pride"

QITFIR.

Potiphar alluded to in the Qur'an, Surah xii. 21, as "the man form Egypt", who had bought him (Joseph). Al-Baizawi, the commentator, says his name was Qitfir

QIYAM.

Lit. "Standing." (1) The standing in the Muhammadan prayers when the Subhan, the Ta'awwuz, the Tasmiyah, the Fatihah, and certain portions of the Qur'an, are recited. [PRAYER.] (2 ) Yaumu 'l-Qiyam, the Day of Judgment.

AL-QIYAMAH .

"The Standing up. (1) The Day of Resurrection [RESURRECTION.] (2) The title of the LXXVth Surah of the Qur'an. (3) The Sufis use the term in a spiritual sense for the state of man who, having counted himself dead the world, " stands up" in a new life in God. (See 'Abdu 'r-Razzao's Dict. of Sufi Terms.

QIYAS .

Lit. "To compare." The fourth foundation of Islam, that is to say. the anological reasoning of the learned with regard to the teaching of the Qur'an, Hadis. and Ijma'.

There are four conditions of Qiyas : (1) That the precept or practice upon which it is founded must, be of common ('amro) and not of special (khass) application , (2) The cause ('illah) of the injunction must, be known and understood; (3) The decision must be based upon either the Qur'an, the Hadis, or the Ijma'; (4) The decision arrived at must be contrary to anything declared elsewhere in the Qur'an and Hadis.

Qiyas is of two kinds, Qiyas-l Jali, or evident, and Qiyas-i-Khaf'I, or hidden.

An example of Qiyas-l-Jali is as follows: Wine is forbidden in the Qur'an under word khamr which literally means anything intoxicating; it is, therefore, evident that opium and all intoxicating drugs are also forbidden.

Qiyas-l-Khaf'I is seen in the following example :—ln the Hadis it is enjoined that one goat in forty must be given to God. To some poor persons the money may be more acceptable; therefore, the value of the goat may be given instead of the goat.

QUBA.

A place three miles from al-Madinah, where the Prophets she-camel., al-Qaswa' knelt down as she brought her master on his flight from Makkah, and where Muhammad laid the foundations of a mosque. This was the first place of public prayer in Islam. Muhammad laid the first brick with his javelin, and marked out the direction of prayer. It is this mosque which is mentioned in the Qur'an, Surah ix. 109:—

There is a mosque founded from its first day in piety. More worthy is it that thou enter therein: therein are men who aspire to purity, and God loveth the purified."

It is esteemed the fourth mosque in rank, being next to that al-Makkah, al-Madinah, and Jerusalem, and tradition relates that the Prophet said one prayer in it was equal to a lesser pilgrimage to Makkah. [UMRAH.] Captain Burton says:-

"It was originally a square building of very small size; Osman enlarged it in the direction of the minaret, making it sixty-six cubits each way. It is no longer 'mean and decayed' as in Burckhardt's time. The Sultan Abdel Hamid, father of Mahmud, created a neat structure of cut stone, whose crenelles make, it look more like a place of defence than of prayer. It has, however, no pretensions to grandeur. The minaret is of Turkish shape. To the south, a small and narrow Riwak (riwaq), or raised hypo-style, with unpretending columns, looks out northwards upon a little open area simply sanded over, and this is the whole building."

AL-QUDDUS.

"The Holy." One of the ninety-nine names of God. It occurs in the Qur'an, Surah lix. 23 "He is God besides whom there is no deity, the King, the Holy."

QUDRAH.

Power. Omnipotence. One of the attributes of God al-Qudratu l-halwa'. The sweet cake of God, i e. The manna of Israel. The word Qudrah does not occur in the Qur'an.

QUNUTU L-WITR.

A special supplication said after the Witr prayers, or, according to some, after the morning prayers. It was at such times that the Prophet would pray for the liberation of his friends and for the destruction of his enemies.

For the different forms of supplication, see Mishkat, book iv. chapters xxxvi and xxxvii. The following is the one usually recited. "O God! direct me amongst those to whom Thou hast shown the right road, and keep me in safety from the calamities of this world and the nest, and love me amongst those Thou hast befriended. Increase Thy favours on me, and preserve me from ill; for verily Thou canst order at Thy will, and canst not 483

be ordered. Verily none are ruined that Thou befriendest; nor are any made great whom Thou art at enmity.

QURAISH.

The Arab tribe from which Muhammad was descended, and of which his grandfather, 'Abdu l-Muttalib was chief or prince. This tribe occupies a very prominent place in the Qur'an and in Muhammadan history. In the Traditions, a special section is not apart for a record of the savings of the Prophet regarding the good qualities of this title.

Muhammad is related to have said: "Whosoever wishes for the destruction of the Quraish, him may God destroy."

Ibn 'Umar relates that the Prophet said, "The office of Khalifah should be in the Quraish as long as there are two persons in the tribe, one to be ruler and the other to be ruled." (Mishkat, book xxiv. c. xii.)

The Sharif, or Sheriff of Makkah, is always of the Quraish tribe, but ever since the extinction of the Abbaside KhaIifahs, the Sultans of Turkey have held the office of Khalifah, who are not of this tribe. [KHALIFAH.]

For an account of the Quraish, refer to Sir William Muir's Lifje of Mahomet, vol. i. Intro. excv. See also article [ARABIA.]

Muhamrnad Tahir, in his Majma'u 'l-Bihar vol. ii.. p. 138, says Quraish is the name of a great marine monster which preys on fish, and was given to this tribe on account of its strength and inportance amongst the tribes of Arabia. Quraish is the title of the cvith Surah of the Qur'an.

QURAIZAH.

A tribe of Jews located near al-Madinah is the time of Muhammad. They at first professed to support his mission, but afterwards became disaffected. The Prophet

asserted that he had been commanded by God to destroy them, and a complete massacre of the men took place, and the women and children were taken captive. The event Is referred to at length in the xxxiiird Surah of the Qur'an.