dnv-position_paper_co2_utilization_tcm4-445820.pdf

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Research and Innovation, Position Paper 07 - 2011

Carbon Dioxide UtilizationElectrochemical Conversion of CO

2 Opportunities and Challenges


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Contact details:Narasi Sridhar [email protected]

Davion Hill [email protected]

Research andInnovation in

DNV

This isDNV

The objective o strategic researchis to enable long term innovationand business growth through newknowledge and services in supporto the overall strategy o DNV. Suchresearch is carried out in selectedareas that are believed to be oparticular signicance or DNV inthe uture. A Position Paper romDNV Research and Innovation

is intended to highlight ndingsrom our research programmes.

DNV is a global provider o servicesor managing risk. Establishedin 1864, DNV is an independentoundation with the purpose osaeguarding lie, property and theenvironment. DNV comprises 300oces in 100 countries with 9,000employees. Our vision is makinga global impact or a sae andsustainable uture.


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SummaryNature utilizes CO2 to produce myriad substances that are consumedby humans and animals. Some industrial processes aim to acceleratethe utilization o CO

2. There are essentially three pathways or utilizing

CO2: conversion o CO

2into uel, utilization o CO

2as a eedstock or

chemicals, and non-conversion use o CO2. The various utilization

technologies together have the potential to reduce CO2

emissions by

at least 3.7 gigatons/year (Gt/y) (approximately 10 % o total current

annual CO2

emissions), both directly and by reducing use o ossil uels.

However, much greater reductions are possible through wider adoption

o these technologies.

Biochemical or chemical conversion o CO2

to uels using biomass is an

attractive technology or converting large quantities o CO2

into readily

usable chemicals. Should only 5 % o liquid ossil uel be replaced

by biomass-based liquid uel, then, based on a range o liecycle CO2

emissions, a reduction o approximately 0.4 Gt/y o CO2would result. CO

2

conversion to minerals and insertion into polymers may have the benet

o sequestering CO2in relatively stable matrices. I 10 % o global building

material demand was met by conversion o CO2

to stable minerals, then a

potential reduction o 1.6 Gt/y o CO2

has been estimated. Chemical and

electrochemical conversion o CO2

into value-added chemical eedstock

and intermediates is attractive in terms o ossil uel avoidance. It is

estimated that the total CO2 emissions avoidance potential o this pathwayis about 0.3 Gt/y. The non-conversion uses o CO2, such as enhanced oil

recovery and solvent use, have the potential to consume about 1.4 Gt/y

o CO2.

There is no single, universally applicable pathway or CO2

utilization.

Depending on the industry, location, and other constraints, one

or more technologies may t better than others. An approach that

integrates dierent methods may be the most practical solution or many

applications. In this report, we present a small-scale demonstration o

an electrochemical technology or converting CO2

into ormic acid and

ormate salts. The technology appears to be promising, but several actorsmust be addressed to ensure commercial viability.


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CO2

can be utilized in three major pathways [1-3]: 1) as a

storage medium or renewable energy, 2) as a eedstock

or various chemicals, and 3) as a solvent or working fuid

(Figure 1). The use o CO2

to convert solar energy into

biomass and, rom there, to various renewable uels is now

widely supported by industry and governments as a means

to secure uture energy supplies and to decrease net CO2

emissions to atmosphere. While the use o ood crops, such

as corn, as a source or biomass uels will probably decrease

in the uture, second and third generation biouels that

are based on grasses and algae will increase in supply. It is

expected that, by 2050, biomass-based sources will supply

200 500 exajoules per year or about 50 % o the worlds

energy requirements [5]. It is anticipated that about 5 %

o the worlds liquid uel usage may arise rom biomass,

with a net CO2 reduction ranging rom 20 to over 100 %,

in comparison with conventional uels over their liecycles

[7].

Figure 1. Dierent pathways or utilizing CO2.

Pathways or Utilization o CO2


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It has been estimated that by 2035, the world will produce

15 Gt/y o CO2 rom burning liquid uels [6]. Thereore,

replacing about 5 % o liquid uels with biouel, and

assuming a 50 % liecycle reduction in CO2

emissions in

comparison with petroleum-based uel, has the potential

to reduce CO2

emissions by 0.4 Gt/y.

In addition to generating biomass, CO2 can be converted

via chemical and electrochemical processes to other

energy storage chemicals, such as syngas, ormic acid,

methane, ethylene, methanol, and dimethyl ether (DME)

[4]. Although it is more ecient to use the electricalenergy derived rom renewable power sources directly,

their variability poses a problem or many industries.

Furthermore, the distribution inrastructure or

hydrocarbon uel is well established. Finally, chemicals

such as ormic acid may be a useul storage medium

or hydrogen that could be used in uel cells or burned

directly.

An alternative pathway is to convert CO2 into chemical

eedstock. The entire portolio o commodity chemicals

are currently manuactured rom a ew primary buildingblocks or platorm chemicals in the ossil-based chemical

industry. CO2 can be used as a source material and,

utilizing renewable energy sources and water, can be

converted into a similar suite o building block chemicals.

Insertion o CO2 into epoxides to manuacture various

polymeric materials is an exciting technology as it not

only utilizes CO2, but also avoids using ossil eedstock

and creating CO2 emissions. It has been estimated that

the various chemical conversion pathways can consume

approximately 0.3 to 0.7 Gt/y o CO2 [8].

Conversion o CO2 into inorganic minerals that may be used

in building materials is being pursued by some companies

[9]. This involves a combination o electrochemical

reactions to generate the alkaline reactant and necessary

mineralization reactions. Initial estimates suggest that

even i 10 % o the worlds building materials were to be

replaced by such a source, consumption o 1.6Gt/y CO2

would result [8].

CO2 can also be used in various processes without rst

converting it into other chemical orms. The injection o

supercritical CO2 into depleted oil wells to enhance the

urther recovery o oil is well established. Indeed, this is

presently the only commercially viable technology orcarbon capture and storage (CCS). It has been estimated

that CO2 injection can increase oil recovery rom a

depleting well by about 10 to 20 % o the original oil in

place. Similarly, CO2 can be used to recover methane

rom unmined coal seams. It has been estimated that in

the U.S. alone, 89 billion barrels o oil could technically be

recovered using CO2, leading to a storage o 16 Gt o CO2

in the depleted oil reservoirs [10]. The use o supercritical

CO2 as a solvent in processing many chemicals (e.g., favor

extraction) is also well established. New uses o supercritical

CO2 in chemical processing are emerging, and have theadded benet o reducing water usage. Supercritical CO2

is also being explored as a heat transer fuid or some

geothermal applications. These non-conversion methods

o utilization constitute a signicant raction o the total

CO2 emissions.


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Although there are many pathways or CO2 utilization, this

position paper details DNVs eorts in electrochemical

reduction o CO2. The electrochemical method has

several advantages:

1. Extensive research during the last several decades

has yielded high selectivity, low cost, heterogeneous

catalysts or CO2 electrochemical reduction to

various useul products or aqueous reaction systems

[11-27].

2. Electrochemical conversion can be perormed at

room temperature and ambient pressure.3. I the supporting electrolytes are ully recycled and

the anode reactions can be perormed using waste

water, then the overall chemical consumption can be

minimized to just water or wastewater.

4. A renewable source o electricity can be used to drive

the process, including solar, wind, hydroelectric,

geothermal, tidal, and thermoelectric processes.

Thereore this method can also be used as a

renewable electricity storage mechanism; it converts

the electrical energy to chemical energy by producing

uels rom CO2, such as methanol and ormic acid.The stored energy can be released later or end-

use by oxidization o the uels through uel cells or

normal uel-burning engines.

5. Electrochemical conversion can be augmented using

light energy or solar thermal energy.

6. The electrochemical reaction system is modular and

thus scale-up is relatively simple.

7. In general, the electrochemical systems have a

compact design.

Using metal or alloy electrodes/catalysts, various products

can be produced by electrochemical reduction o CO2,

including carbon monoxide (CO), ormic acid (HCOOH),

oxalates (C2O4-), hydrocarbons (e.g., ethylene C2H4),

and alcohols (e.g., methanol, CH3OH). DNV selected

the Electrochemical Reduction o CO2 to Formate/

Formic Acid (ECFORM) as the process or comprehensive

evaluation o the technical easibility or CO2 utilization

because commercialization o this process was considered

to be most likely to be protable.

As mentioned previously, ormic acid can be a useul

storage medium or hydrogen that could be used in uel

cells or burned directly. As shown in Figure 4, the energy

density o ormic acid, via its use in a ormic acid uel cell, isquite attractive in comparison with other storage methods.

The recoverable energy density that would be available via

the combustion o methanol, ethylene, or methane, or the

use o ormic acid in uel cells, is higher than conventional

energy storage technologies, as shown in Figure 2. Note

that the vertical axis is log scale.

Figure 2. Products created rom electrochemical CO2 conversionprocesses have signifcantly more energy density than other energy

storage technologies.


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Formic acid and carbon monoxide require little energy

or their respective market value, as shown in Figure 4.

Methanol is another attractive uel, but requires more

electrical energy than ormic acid or its production rom

CO2. Ethylene and methane require signicantly more

energy input, and the methane market price is constrained

by natural gas prices.

Both ormic acid and carbon monoxide sell or near

$1,200 per ton o product and require approximately 2500

kWh/ton or their production via electrochemical CO2

conversion. These prices are likely to decrease as their

production volume increases, and their usage may also

increase as their price decreases. Other products, such as

methane, require nearly 40,000 kWh/ton or conversion,

and would only achieve $200-$300 per ton on the market.

Carbon monoxide is dicult to store and transport, and

thereore ormic acid is a more practical and desirable

product.

The current world market demand or ormic acid and

ormate salts is quite low (several million metric tons). The

traditional uses o ormic acid have been in the leather

tanning industry and animal eed markets. However, new

uses, in terms o hydrogen storage and uel cells, are being

developed by BASF and others, making this an attractive

chemical. Formate salts are used in oil well completion

and in de-icing o airport runways. Larger volumes and

somewhat lower prices may expand these, and other,

applications.

Figure 3. Formic acid and carbon monoxide have higher value rom

the energy required or their creation than conventional uels such asmethanol or methane.


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The ECFORM Process

A schematic diagram o the ECFORM process is shown

in Figure 4. It consists o two electrodes, the cathode

(negative electrode) and the anode (positive electrode),

across which an electrical voltage is applied. The two

electrodes are placed in two dierent chambers, separated

rom each other by an ion exchange membrane. This

prevents bulk mixing o the solutions fowing in each o

the chambers, while simultaneously allowing ions to move

across the membrane and maintain electrical continuity. A

suitable electrolyte is introduced into the cathode chamber

along with CO2. The electrolyte comes into contact with

the cathode, and the dissolved CO2 is electrochemicallyreduced to the desired products. This electrical circuit

is completed by the complementary oxidation reaction

occurring in the anode chamber. In ECFORM, tin or

proprietary tin-based alloys are used as the cathodes that

convert CO2

to ormate salts. Small concentrations o by-

products (hydrogen and CO) are also produced at the

cathode. An oxygen evolution reaction takes place at the

anode.

An important metric o the process is the energy

consumption, which is determined by the number oelectrons (n) involved in reducing 1 molecule o CO

2to

products, cell voltage, and the current eciency, also called

Faraday eciency (FE). The FE denotes the percentage o

the total current used or the desired product (i.e., the

selectivity). The calculations in Figure 5 include additional

energy consumed by auxiliary components, such as pumps.

As shown in Figure 5, the reduction o CO2

to ormate/

ormic acid and to carbon monoxide, respectively, appears

to be the best option or practical development or at least

two reasons. First, both reactions involve the participation

o only two electrons, and thereore the electrical power

consumption is the lowest. Secondly, the high FE o CO

and ormate/ormic acid reactions have been achieved onaordable metal cathodes, urther minimizing the energy

consumption and cost. The next promising reaction may

be the production o methanol. Although this involves 6

electrons or each molecule o methanol ormed, the low

over potentials on the catalysts reduce the cell potential

to nearly hal o that or other electrochemical processes.

Thus, relatively lower specic energy consumption can

also be achieved.

An economically viable electrochemical technology

requires optimization o our key parameters (Figure 6):high current densities, high FE, low specic electricity

consumption, and long electrode lietime. The minimum

Figure 4. A schematic representation o the ECFORM process to convert CO2

to ormate/ormic acid.


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values or each parameter in a commercially viable

electrochemical process are also included in Figure 6,along with target areas or improvements. In addition,

there are other important requirements, such as high one-

pass conversion rate and continuous operation.

In general, higher current densities result in lower FE and

shorter lietimes because o competing reactions. With

longer run times, FE tends to decrease (catalyst/cathode

degradation) and cell voltage increase, both o which

result in greater power consumption. DNV has developed

novel cathode and anode catalysts that reduce the total

cell voltage by almost 1 volt [26, 27]. Additionally, DNV

has designed a reactor that reduces the resistive losses

by another 2 volts, thus resulting in an overall decrease

in the total cell voltage by about 60 %, compared withthe data published in the literature [27]. Furthermore,

the long-term perormance o the cathode catalyst has

been increased by at least 20 times over that reported in

the literature. This has mainly been achieved through

improvements in the electrochemical cell design and

operational parameters. Fundamental studies perormed

by The Ohio State University, in collaboration with DNV,

have improved our understanding o the cathode catalyst

degradation mechanisms. This will enable urther

advances in catalyst lie. DNV has also identied less

corrosive electrolytes that will reduce both capital and

operational expenditure.

Figure 5. Specifc energy consumption vs. Faradaic efciency (FE)

or various products. The thicker lines with data points indicate

experimental results achieved in various studies.

Figure 6. The relationship among the key parameters in ERC processes.


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ECFORM Reactor Demonstration

Testing o a lter-press type, bench-scale reactor indicated

a set o conditions or most avorable selectivity and

reactivity or ormate production. Figure 7 shows an

example in which, under optimum pressure and fow rate

control, the selectivity (FE) o a High Surace Area (HSA)

cathode is kept constant over a range o applied potentials

or one day. Since large electrodes have a tendency to

display potential variation, this analysis indicates that

slight changes in electrode potential will not aect the

productivity o ECFORM, once process parameters are

controlled.

Long-term stable perormance o HSA electrodes was

determined by periodic measurement o reactivity

(current density) and selectivity (FE rom ormate product

measurement in catholyte samples) under constant

optimum operation. The results in Figure 8 indicate stable

perormance over 4 days, with no appreciable damage or

degradation o the tin electrodeposited carbon electrode.

This is a signicant improvement over results reported in

the literature. These results suggest that electrochemical

conversion o CO2may be a commercially viable technology

in the uture.

A semi-pilot size reactor with a supercial area o 600 cm2

(capable o reducing approximately 1 Kg/d o CO2) was

built and assembled, with other process components and

instruments, into a solar-powered trailer to demonstrate

the operation o the process using completely renewable

power (Figure 9). The demonstration reactor serves

several purposes. Firstly, it showcases the capability

o the ECFORM process to utilize renewable energy,

such as solar, to convert CO2 into a commercially useulproduct. Secondly, the reactor system can be used to test

and improve the process, in terms o the hydrodynamics,

heterogeneity o the suraces, and eects on selectivity,

automation, and controls, saety, and the overall eciency

o the system. Finally, the demonstration reactor provides

a useul means by which process and value chain analysis

models can be validated. The reactor has been modeled

using a model-based fow sheet simulator, gPROMS, and

this model will also be used or scale-up assessments.

Figure 7. Near constant FE over a potential

range (-1.4 to -2.3 Vsce) o a HSA cathodeunder optimum operating conditions.


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Figure 8. HSA electrodes displayed

constant reactivity and selectivityover 4 days.

Figure 9. Demonstration reactor

assembled in a solar-powered trailer.

Solar PanelECFORMSetup


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Analysis o the CO2

utilization processes can be conducted

in terms o cradle-to-grave CO2

emission (liecycle analysis

or LCA) or a source-to-gate analysis, in which the boundaries

start with the source o CO2

and end with the product that

is delivered by a given process. The latter analysis, reerred

to here as value chain analysis (VCA) is convenient or

understanding the net CO2

emitted in a given utilization

process, since the product delivered is no dierent rom

that made by utilizing ossil uel. Most importantly (and

unlike LCA), VCA also computes the net present value

o the process. Thus, VCA provides an opportunity or

comparing any new process with conventional processes,as well as indicating uture developmental work that could

be targeted in an economically meaningul way. The VCA

model that we developed or the ECFORM process can

be readily modied or analysis o other CO2

utilization

processes.

Most CO2utilization processes require mixed gas collection

rom the emissions source. I the exhaust source contains

additional gases (such as nitrogen, sulur, or nitrogen

oxides), some additional purication or capture o the

CO2 will be needed. The delivery o the mixed exhaustgas to the capture stage, and the capture process itsel,

requires inputs o energy and/or consumables, and these

must be included in the total VCA. Once the puried CO2

has been diverted to the conversion process, this delivery

may also require urther energy inputs. Finally, the

conversion process itsel will have energy and consumables

inputs. The entire value chain can be compared with

direct emissions (with or without nes), carbon capture

and storage (CCS), or with conventional processes or

manuacturing the same product. Multiple scenarios

can be computed, and these can include carbon taxes (i

any), energy costs, consumables, and the value o the nal

product, such that the total impact o these actors on the

protability and net present value o the investment into

the CO2 conversion process can be assessed.

Emissions source and gas delivery

DNV has analyzed emissions scenarios and sources,

ranging rom the size and scale o a coal-red power plantto point sources within a petrochemical renery. The

electrochemical CO2

conversion process has been tested

via the model and demonstrates the greatest probability o

protability occurs when the ollowing conditions are met:

- the CO2

is delivered in pure or mostly-pure orm;

- process heat or other renewable energy orms are

available;

- process volumes are manageable (


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When the above conditions are met, the protability,

energy balance, and carbon balance o the CO2conversion

process become most sensitive to the parameters o the

conversion process itsel.

CO2

Separation, Capture, and Delivery

Because o the conditions described previously, the

separation, capture, and delivery o CO2

to the conversion

process are considered separately and independently rom

the CO2

conversion process. The availability o already

captured or puried CO2

will aect the protability o the

process. The energy penalty or a coal plant capturing CO2

(not including transport and storage) ranges rom 0.2 to

0.35 MWh/t o CO2

captured. This represents about 5 to

10 % o the energy required or conversion on a kWh/ton

basis, as ECFORM requires approximately 2.5 to 4 MWh/

ton o converted CO2. The dierence between ECFORM

and the CCS process is that whereas ECFORM produces

a useul product, CCS does not. Thereore ECFORM is

an energy conversion process. There are other possible

CO2 separation and sequestration technologies that couldlower these energy requirements.

CO2

Conversion

Based on dierent chemical reaction routes, the

protability o the CO2

conversion process depends not

only on the value o the nal products, but also on the

energy and consumables that are required to support

the electrochemical reaction. As shown in Figure 11,

i the process requires additional chemicals, such as

sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid, to support the

reactions, then the net present value o the reaction is

largely negatively driven by these consumables, on top o

the already substantial energy demands.

Figure 11. Reaction pathways that are heavily dependent on

consumables drive the proftability o the reaction in the negative

direction, more so than by the energy costs.

Figure 12. Reaction pathways that minimize consumables become moredominated by energy, which must be eectively managed.


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However, i the use o consumable chemicals is decreased,

or example through the use o electrolyte recovery

processes and the utilization o alkaline waste water, thenenergy demands dominate the overall process economics

(Figure 12). While the energy costs are increased, the

reaction is more sustainable i renewable energy is used

or the process.

As is shown in Figure 13, the prot margins can be

increased as energy costs are reduced. There is potential

or additional revenues in utilizing the load leveling

needs o the electric grid. These opportunities are called

responsive ancillary services. For example, i energy-

intensive processes such as ECFORM are used to regulate

voltage rom a wind energy acility, the processes gain

additional revenues while being renewably powered.

Additionally, revenues rom carbon credits or avoidance

o carbon tax may also aid in protability. In this analysis, a

carbon credit revenue o up to $50/ton does not alter theprotability substantially, but the combined revenues rom

carbon credits and energy management reduce the energy

costs by 15 %.

Four Scenarios or CO2

Conversion

Four possible scenarios are envisioned or assessing the

protability o an electrochemical conversion process.

This assessment does not consider capital expenditures

or the time value o money. Also, the cost o consumables

is considered to be negligible in comparison with energy

costs. Finally, it is assumed that the ormic acid resulting

rom the electrochemical process does not need urther

concentration, or example through distillation or

Figure 13. Value-added process improvements decrease the energy

costs o the ECFORM process.

Figure 14. The dierence between sales price and operational cost or

ECFORM process (red numbers) under dierent scenarios (only energy

costs are included consumable costs are considered to be negligible).


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evaporation. The X-axis represents the price o the

product made in the ECFORM process. This depends on

many actors, including the volume manuactured and

market demands. The Y-axis represents the CO2

price,

either through a trading scheme or a tax. The numbers

represent dierent values o protability (assumed as a

simple dierence between expected value o price minus

cost) or the dierent scenarios. The cost is calculated

assuming an energy consumption o 3859 kW/ton ormic

acid. Electricity prices are assumed to range rom $0.07/

kWh to $0.15/kWh, with a peak requency at $0.10/kWh.

The energy cost thereore ranges rom $270 to $578 per

ton o ormic acid, with an average o $420 per ton o

ormic acid. For example, i the price o ormic acid is

assumed to be $1220/ton and the price o CO2

is $200/

ton o CO2

(1 ton o ormic acid reduces CO2

by almost 1

ton), then operational prot is $1200+$200-$420 = $980

per ton. Our analyses indicate that the simple margins

(price minus the cost o manuacturing) are benecial or

this process under the scenarios considered.


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CO2

utilization is being increasingly recognized as a

method by which global CO2

emissions can be reduced

in an economical manner. This is especially true or

industries, such as reneries, which cannot implement

CCS economically.

Considerable research is being conducted in many

directions to urther the economic viability o processes

that utilize CO2. Biomass conversion to uels is perhaps

the most intensively pursued route, not only to mitigate

CO2

emissions, but also to secure alternative uel supply.

Conversion o cellulosic biomass into alcohols and algaeinto biodiesel or other hydrocarbon uel is predicted

to become extensively adopted in the coming decade.

Liecycle assessments o these uel sources demonstrate

considerable reductions in CO2

emissions compared with

petroleum uels. However, their present economic viability

is dependent on government subsidies.

Several companies are pursuing thermochemical

conversion o CO2

into chemical eedstock or polymers.

Research and development are currently ocused towards

reducing the temperature o conversion, increasing catalystlie, and decreasing the use o consumables. Conversion o

CO2

into minerals has advanced signicantly, with at least

one company claiming commercial viability or large-scale

deployment. Carbon policies that impose a signicant

increase in carbon prices are necessary to sustain these

eorts until they can become economically viable.

Electrochemical and photoelectrochemical conversion

routes will come to the ore in the next decade. Current

research is yielding catalysts with long-term perormance

characteristics and low energy use, but signicant

technical advances are still needed or large-scale use.

Electrochemical conversion promises to be deployable in

many systems, because o its low ootprint, its scalability, its

ungible use o electricity, and its ability to produce many

end products. The combination o the electrochemical

process with grid-based ancillary services can make these

processes economically viable, even without a carbon

tax. DNV will continue its eorts in improving the

ECFORM technology, particularly making it more robust

and economically viable, and explore opportunities

or customizing CO2

utilization methods or industrial

applications.

All these technologies will rely on ecient carbon capture,as many industrial sources produce dispersed and dilute

efuents containing CO2.

Just as integrated bioreneries have come to characterize

the use o multiple technologies to make an array o

products rom biomass, multiple technologies or utilizing

CO2

in interconnected systems, tailored to a given

application, may be the path ahead or uture sustainable

management o CO2.

The uture


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Reerences

General Reading

1. M.M. Halmann, Chemical xation o carbon dioxide, Methods or

recycling CO2

into useul products, CRC Press, 1993.

2. M.M. Halmann and M. Steinberg, Greenhouse Gas Carbon Dioxide

Mitigation: Science and Technology, CRC Press, 1998

3. M. Aresta (Editor), Carbon Dioxide as a Chemical Feedstock, Wiley-

VCH, 2010.

4. G.A.Olah, A.Goeppert, and G.K.Surya Prakash, Beyond Oil and Gas:

The Methanol Economy, Wiley-VCH, 2009.

Specifc Reerences

5. Bioenergy A sustainable and reliable energy source, A review

o status and prospects, IEA Bioenergy: Exco 2009:05, www.

ieabioenergy.com.6. Increasing Feedstock Production or Biouels, Biomass Research and

Development Board (U.S.), 2009.

7. International Energy Outlook 2010, U.S. Energy Inormation

Administration, DOE/EIA-0484 (2010).

8. M.Aresta and A. Dibenedetto, Catalysis Today, 98 (2004), 455-462.

9. http://www.calera.com/index.php/liecycle_carbon_scalability/

scalability/

10. U.S. Department o energy, Carbon Sequestration Technology

Roadmap and Program Plan, 2007.

11. Chaplin, R. P. S.; Wragg, A. A., Eects o process conditions

and electrode material on reaction pathways or carbon dioxide

electroreduction with particular reerence to ormate ormation.

Journal o Applied Electrochemistry 2003, 33, (12), 1107-1123.12. Gattrell, M.; Gupta, N.; Co, A., A review o the aqueous

electrochemical reduction o CO2

to hydrocarbons at copper. Journal

o Electroanalytical Chemistry 2006, 594, (1), 1-19.

13. Jitaru, M.; Lowy, D. A.; Toma, M.; Toma, B. C.; Oniciu, L.,

Electrochemical reduction o carbon dioxide on fat metallic cathodes.

Journal o Applied Electrochemistry 1997, 27, (8), 875-889.

14. Mahmood, M. N.; Masheder, D.; Harty, C. J., Use O Gas-Diusion

Electrodes For High-Rate Electrochemical Reduction O Carbon-

Dioxide .1. Reduction At Lead, Indium-Impregnated And Tin-

Impregnated Electrodes. Journal o Applied Electrochemistry 1987,

17, (6), 1159-1170.

15. Hara, K.; Kudo, A.; Sakata, T., Electrochemical Reduction O Carbon-

Dioxide Under High-Pressure On Various Electrodes In An Aqueous-

Electrolyte. Journal o Electroanalytical Chemistry 1995, 391, (1-2),141-147.

16. Hara, K.; Kudo, A.; Sakata, T., Electrochemical Reduction O High-

Pressure Carbon-Dioxide On Fe Electrodes At Large Current-Density.

Journal o Electroanalytical Chemistry 1995, 386, (1-2), 257-260.

17. Oloman, C.; Li, H., Electrochemical processing o carbon dioxide.

Chemsuschem 2008, 1, (5), 385-391.

18. Li, H.; Oloman, C., Development o a continuous reactor or the

electro-reduction o carbon dioxide to ormate Part 2: Scale-up.

Journal o Applied Electrochemistry 2007, 37, (10), 1107-1117.

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