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DNA: The Genetic Material
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Orientation
On the top rail, the strand is said to be oriented 5′ to 3′.
The strand on the bottom runs in the opposite direction and is oriented 3′ to 5′.
DNA: The Genetic Material
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DNA: The Genetic Material
Chromosome Structure DNA coils around histones to form nucleosomes,
which coil to form chromatin fibers. The chromatin fibers supercoil to form chromosomes
that are visible in the metaphase stage of mitosis.
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Replication of DNA
Semiconservative Replication
Parental strands of DNA separate, serve as templates, and produce DNA molecules that have one strand of parental DNA andone strand of new DNA.
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Unwinding
DNA helicase, an enzyme, is responsible for unwinding and unzipping the double helix.
RNA primase adds a short segment of RNA, called an RNA primer, on each DNA strand.
Replication of DNA
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Base pairing
DNA polymerase continues adding appropriate nucleotides to the chain by adding to the 3′ end of the new DNA strand.
Replication of DNA
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One strand is called the leading strand and is elongated as the DNA unwinds.
The other strand of DNA, called the lagging strand, elongates away from the replication fork.
The lagging strand is synthesized discontinuously into small segments, called Okazaki fragments.
Replication of DNA
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Joining
DNA polymerase removes the RNA primer and fills in the place with DNA nucleotides.
DNA ligase links the two sections.
Replication of DNA
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Replication of DNA
Comparing DNA Replication in Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes
Eukaryotic DNA unwinds in multiple areas as DNA is replicated.
In prokaryotes, the circular DNA strand is opened at one origin of replication.
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DNA, RNA, and Protein
Central Dogma
RNA
Contains the sugar ribose and the base uracil
Usually is single stranded
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Messenger RNA (mRNA) Long strands of RNA nucleotides that are
formed complementary to one strand of DNA
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) Associates with proteins to form ribosomes
in the cytoplasm
Transfer RNA (tRNA) Smaller segments of RNA nucleotides that
transport amino acids to the ribosome
DNA, RNA, and Protein
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DNA, RNA, and Protein
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DNA is unzipped in the nucleus and RNA polymerase binds to a specific section where an mRNA will be synthesized.
Transcription
Through transcription, the DNA code is transferred to mRNA in the nucleus.
DNA, RNA, and Protein
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RNA Processing
The code on the DNA is interrupted periodically by sequences that are not in the final mRNA.
Intervening sequences are called introns.
Remaining pieces of DNA that serve as the coding sequences are called exons.
DNA, RNA, and Protein
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The Code
Experiments during the 1960s demonstrated that the DNA code was a three-base code.
The three-base code in DNA or mRNA is called a codon.
DNA, RNA, and Protein
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Translation In translation, tRNA
molecules act as the interpreters of the mRNA codon sequence.
At the middle of the folded strand, there is a three-base coding sequence called the anticodon.
Each anticodon is complementary to a codon on the mRNA.
DNA, RNA, and Protein
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DNA, RNA, and Protein
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DNA, RNA, and Protein
One Gene—One Enzyme
The Beadle and Tatum experiment showed that one gene codes for one enzyme. We now know that one gene codes for one polypeptide.
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Gene Regulation and Mutation
Prokaryote Gene Regulation Ability of an organism to control which genes
are transcribed in response to the environment An operon is a section of DNA that contains
the genes for the proteins needed for a specific metabolic pathway.
Operator Promoter Regulatory gene Genes coding for proteins
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The Trp Operon
Gene Regulation and Mutation
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The Lac Operon
Gene Regulation and Mutation
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Eukaryote Gene Regulation
Controlling transcription
Transcription factors ensure that a gene is used at the right time and that proteins are made in the right amounts
The complex structure of eukaryotic DNA also regulates transcription.
Gene Regulation and Mutation
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Hox Genes
Hox genes are responsible for the general body pattern of most animals.
Gene Regulation and Mutation
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RNA Interference
RNA interference can stop the mRNA from translating its message.
Gene Regulation and Mutation
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Mutations
A permanent change that occurs in a cell’s DNA is called a mutation.
Types of mutations
Point mutation Insertion Deletion
Gene Regulation and Mutation
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Gene Regulation and Mutation
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Molecular GeneticsChapter 12
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Protein Folding and Stability
Substitutions also can lead to genetic disorders.
Can change both the folding and stability of the protein
Gene Regulation and Mutation
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Causes of Mutation
Can occur spontaneously
Chemicals and radiation also can damage DNA.
High-energy forms of radiation, such as X rays and gamma rays, are highly mutagenic.
Gene Regulation and Mutation
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Body-cell v. Sex-cell Mutation
Somatic cell mutations are not passed on to the next generation.
Mutations that occur in sex cells are passed on to the organism’s offspring and will be present in every cell of the offspring.
Gene Regulation and Mutation
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1. A2. B3. C4. D
CDQ 1
A. Watson and Crick
B. Mendel
C. Hershey and Chase
D. Avery
Which scientist(s) definitively proved that DNA transfers genetic material?
Chapter Diagnostic Questions
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1. A2. B3. C4. D
CDQ 2
Chapter Diagnostic Questions
A. ligase
B. Okazaki fragments
C. polymerase
D. helicase
Name the small segments of the lagging DNA strand.
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1. A2. B3. C4. D
CDQ 3
Chapter Diagnostic Questions
A. It contains the
sugar ribose.
B. It contains the
base uracil.
C. It is single-stranded.
D. It contains a phosphate.
Which is not true of RNA?
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1. A2. B3. C4. D
FQ 1
A. carbohydrate
B. DNA
C. lipid
D. protein
The experiments of Avery, Hershey and Chase provided evidence that the carrier of genetic information is _______.
Formative Questions
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1. A2. B3. C4. D
FQ 2
A. A—G and C—T
B. A—T and C—G
C. C—A and G—T
D. C—U and A—G
What is the base-pairing rule for purines and pyrimidines in the DNA molecule?
Formative Questions
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1. A2. B3. C4. D
FQ 3
Formative Questions
A.chromatin and histones
B. DNA and protein
C. DNA and lipids
D. protein and centromeres
What are chromosomes composed of?
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1. A
2. B
FQ 4
The work of Watson and Crick solved the mystery of how DNA works as a genetic code.
A. TrueB. False
Formative Questions
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1. A2. B3. C4. D
FQ 5
Formative Questions
A. DNA ligase
B. DNA polymerase
C. hilicase
D. RNA primer
Which is not an enzyme involved in DNA replication?
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1. A2. B3. C4. D
FQ 6
Which shows the basic chain of events in all organisms for reading and expressing genes?
A. DNA RNA protein
B. RNA DNA protein
C. mRNA rRNA tRNA
D. RNA processing
transcription translation
Formative Questions
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1. A2. B3. C4. D
FQ 7
Formative Questions
In the RNA molecule, uracil replaces _______.
A. adenine
B. cytosine
C. purine
D. thymine
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1. A2. B3. C4. D
FQ 8
Formative Questions
Which diagram shows messenger RNA (mRNA)?
A. B.
D.C
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1. A2. B3. C4. D
FQ 9
Formative Questions
What characteristic of the mRNA molecule do scientists not yet understand?
A. intervening sequences in the mRNA molecule called introns
B. the original mRNA made in the nucleus called the pre-mRNA
C. how the sequence of bases in the mRNA molecule codes for amino acids
D. the function of many adenine nucleotides at the 5′ end called the poly-A tail
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1. A2. B3. C4. D
FQ 10
Why do eukaryotic cells need a complex control system to regulate the expression of genes?
A. All of an organism’s cells transcribe the same genes.
B. Expression of incorrect genes can lead to mutations.
C. Certain genes are expressed more frequently than others are.
D. Different genes are expressed at different times in an organism’s lifetime.
Formative Questions
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1. A2. B3. C4. D
FQ 11
Formative Questions
Which type of gene causes cells to become specialized in structure in function?
A. exon
B. Hox gene
C. intron
D. operon
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1. A2. B3. C4. D
FQ 13
Formative Questions
Which is the most highly mutagenic?
A. chemicals in food
B. cigarette smoke
C. ultraviolet radiation
D. X rays
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1. A2. B3. C4. D
CAQ 1
Look at the following figure. Identify the proteins that DNA first coils around.
Chapter Assessment Questions
A. chromatin fibers
B. chromosomes
C. histones
D. nucleosome
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1. A2. B3. C4. D
CAQ 2
Chapter Assessment Questions
A. They determine size.
B. They determine body plan.
C. They determine sex.
D. They determine number
of body segments.
Explain how Hox genes affect an organism.
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Explain the difference between body-cell and sex-cell mutation.
Chapter Assessment Questions
Answer: A mutagen in a body cell becomespart of the of the genetic sequence in that cell and in future daughter cells. The cell may die or simply not perform its normal function. These mutations are not passed on to the next generation. When mutations occur in sex cells, they will be present in every cell of the offspring.
CAQ 3
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1. A2. B3. C4. D
STP 1
What does this diagram show about the replication of DNA in eukaryotic cells?
Standardized Test Practice
A. DNA is replicated only at certain places along the chromosome.
B. DNA replication is both semicontinuous and conservative.
C. Multiple areas of replication occur along the chromosome at the same time.
D. The leading DNA strand is synthesized discontinuously.
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1. A2. B3. C4. D
STP 2
Standardized Test Practice
A. mRNA processing
B. protein synthesis
C. transcription
D. translation
What is this process called?
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1. A2. B3. C4. D
STP 3
Standardized Test Practice
What type of mutation results in this change in the DNA sequence?
A. deletion
B. frameshift
C. insertion
D. substitution
TTCAGG TTCTGG
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1. A2. B3. C4. D
STP 4
Standardized Test Practice
How could RNA interference be used to treat diseases such as cancer and diabetes?
A. by activating genes to produce proteins that can overcome the disease
B. by interfering with DNA replication in cells affected by the disease
C. by preventing the translation of mRNA into the genes associated with the disease
D. by shutting down protein synthesis
in the cells of diseased tissues
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1. A
2. B
STP 5
Standardized Test Practice
The structure of a protein can be altered dramatically by the exchange of a single amino acid for another.
A. TrueB. False