Divide and Conquerarashr/lecture12.pdfDivide the problem into a number of subproblems Conquer the...

Divide and Conquer

June 2, 2014

Divide and Conquer

Divide the problem into a number of subproblems

Conquer the subproblems by solving them recursively or ifthey are small, there must be an easy solution.

Combine the solutions to the subproblems to the solution ofthe problem

Example:1. Merge-Sort(A, p, r)2. if p < r3. q := b(p + r)/2c4. Merge-Sort(A, p, q)5. Merge-Sort(A, q + 1, r)6. Merge(A, p, q, r)

Initial call for input array A = A[1] . . .A[n] isMerge-Sort(A, 1, n).

Divide and Conquer

Example:

sorted sequence1 2 2 3 4 5 6 7

2 4 5 7 1 2 3 6

2 5 4 7 1 3 2 6

5 2 4 7 1 3 2 6initial sequence

Merge-Sort

splits length-` sequence into two length-`/2 sequencessorts them recursivelymerges the two sorted subsequences

Divide and Conquer

Merge(A, p, q, r)

Take the smallest of the two front most elements of sequencesA[p..q] and A[q + 1..r ] and put it into a temporary array.

Repeat this, until both sequences are empty. Copy the resultingsequence from temporary array into A[p..r ].

Write a pseudo code for the procedure Merge(A, p, q, r) used inMerge-sort algorithm for merging two sorted arrays A[p . . . q] andA[q + 1 . . . r ] into one.

Divide and Conquer

Merge(A, p, q, r)

Take the smallest of the two front most elements of sequencesA[p..q] and A[q + 1..r ] and put it into a temporary array.

Repeat this, until both sequences are empty. Copy the resultingsequence from temporary array into A[p..r ].

Write a pseudo code for the procedure Merge(A, p, q, r) used inMerge-sort algorithm for merging two sorted arrays A[p . . . q] andA[q + 1 . . . r ] into one.

Divide and Conquer

MERGE(A, p, q, r)1. n1 := q − p + 1; n2 := r − q;2. for i := 1 to n1

3. L[i ] := A[p + i − 1]4. for i := 1 to n2

5. R[i ] := A[q + i ]6. i := 1; j := 1; k := p7. while i ≤ n1 and j ≤ n2

8. if L[i ] ≤ R[j ]9. A[k] := L[i ]; i := i + 1;10. else11. A[k] := R[j ]; j := j + 1;12. k := k + 1;13. if i > n1

14. while j ≤ n2

15. A[k] := R[j ]; j := j + 1; k := k + 1;16. while i ≤ n1

17. A[k] := L[i ]; i := i + 1; k := k + 1;

Divide and Conquer

Analyzing an D&Q algorithm

Let T (n) be running time on problem of size n

If n is small enough (say, n ≤ c for constant c), thenstraightforward solution takes Θ(1)

If division of problem yields a subproblems, each of which 1/bof original (Merge-Sort: a = b = 2)

Division into subproblems takes D(n)

Combination of solutions to subproblems takes C (n)

T (n) =

Θ(1) if n ≤ caT (n/b) + D(n) + C (n) otherwise

Divide and Conquer

T (n) =

Divide and Conquer

T (n) =

Divide and Conquer

T (n) =

Divide and Conquer

For Merge-Sort:

a = b = 2D(n) = Θ(1) (just compute “middle” of array)C (n) = Θ(n) (merging has running time linear in length ofresulting sequence)

TMS(n) =

Θ(1) if n ≤ 1TMS(bn/2c) + TMS(dn/2e) + Θ(n) otherwise.

That’s what’s called a recurrenceBut: we want closed form, i.e., we want to solve the recurrence.

Divide and Conquer

Solving recurrences

There are a few methods for solving recurrences, some easy andnot powerful, some complicated and powerful.Methods:

1 guess & verify (also called“substitution method”)

2 master method3 generating functions

and some others.We’re going to see 1. and 2.

Divide and Conquer

Substitution method

Basic idea:

1 “guess” the form of the solution

2 Use mathematical induction to find constants and show thatsolution works.

Usually more difficult part is the part 1.Back to example: we had

TMS(n) ≤ 2TMS(dn/2e) + Θ(n)

for n ≥ 2.If you hadn’t seen something like this before, how would youguess?There is no general way to guess the correct solutions. It takesexperience.

Divide and Conquer

Heuristics that can help to find a good guess.

One way would be to have a look at first few terms. Say ifwe had T (n) = 2T (n/2) + 3n, then

T (n) = 2T (n/2) + 3n

= 2(2T (n/4) + 3(n/2)) + 3n

= 2(2(2T (n/8) + 3(n/4)) + 3(n/2)) + 3n

= 23T (n/23) + 223(n/22) + 213(n/21) + 203(n/20)

We can do this log n times

2log n · T (n/2log n) +

log(n)−1∑i=0

2i3(n/2i )

= n · T (1) + 3n ·log(n)−1∑

= n · T (1) + 3n log n = Θ(n log n)

After guessing a solution you’ll have to prove the correctness.

Divide and Conquer

Heuristics that can help to find a good guess.

One way would be to have a look at first few terms. Say ifwe had T (n) = 2T (n/2) + 3n, then

T (n) = 2T (n/2) + 3n

= 2(2T (n/4) + 3(n/2)) + 3n

= 2(2(2T (n/8) + 3(n/4)) + 3(n/2)) + 3n

= 23T (n/23) + 223(n/22) + 213(n/21) + 203(n/20)

We can do this log n times

2log n · T (n/2log n) +

log(n)−1∑i=0

2i3(n/2i )

= n · T (1) + 3n ·log(n)−1∑

= n · T (1) + 3n log n = Θ(n log n)

After guessing a solution you’ll have to prove the correctness.Divide and Conquer

similar recurrences might have similar solutionsConsider

T (n) = 2T (bn/2c+ 25) + n

Looks similar to last example, but is the additional 25 in theargument going to change the solution?Not really, because for large n, difference between

T (bn/2c) and T (bn/2c+ 25)

is not large: both cut n nearly in half: for n = 2, 000 we have

T (1, 000) and T (1, 025),

for n = 1, 000, 000 we have

T (500, 000) and T (500, 025).

Thus, reasonable assumption is that nowT (n) = O(n log n) as well.

Divide and Conquer

stepwise refinement – guessing loose lower and upperbounds, and gradually taking them closer to each otherFor T (n) = 2T (bn/2c) + n we see

T (n) = Ω(n) (because of the n term)

T (n) = O(n2) (easily proven)

From there, we can perhaps “converge” on asymptoticallytight bound Θ(n log n).

Divide and Conquer

Proving correctness of a guess

For Merge-Sort we have T (n) ≤ 2T (dn/2e) + Θ(n), which means,there is a constant d > 0 such that

T (n) ≤ 2T (dn/2e) + dn for n ≥ 2.

We guessed that T (n) = O(n log n).We prove T (n) ≤ cn log n for appropriate choice of constant c > 0.

Induction hypothesis: assume that bound holds for any n < m,hence also for n = dm/2e, i.e.,

T (dm/2e) ≤ cdm/2e log(dm/2e)

Divide and Conquer

and prove it for m ≥ 4 (induction step):

T (m) ≤ 2T (dm/2e) + dm

≤ 2(cdm/2e log(dm/2e)) + dm

≤ 2(c(m + 1)/2 · log((m + 1)/2)) + dm

≤ c(m + 1) log((m + 1)/2) + dm

= c(m + 1) log(m + 1)− c(m + 1) log 2 + dm

≤ c(m + 1)(log m + 1/3)− c(m + 1) + dm

= cm log m + c log m + c/3(m + 1)− c(m + 1) + dm

≤ cm log m + cm/2− 2/3c(m + 1) + dm

≤ cm log m + (c/2− 2/3c + d)m = cm log m + (d − c/6)m

≤ cm log m for c ≥ 6d .

Divide and Conquer

T (m) ≤ 2T (dm/2e) + dm

≤ 2(c(m + 1)/2 · log((m + 1)/2)) + dm

≤ c(m + 1) log((m + 1)/2) + dm

= c(m + 1) log(m + 1)− c(m + 1) log 2 + dm

≤ c(m + 1)(log m + 1/3)− c(m + 1) + dm

≤ cm log m + cm/2− 2/3c(m + 1) + dm

Divide and Conquer

T (m) ≤ 2T (dm/2e) + dm

≤ 2(c(m + 1)/2 · log((m + 1)/2)) + dm

≤ c(m + 1) log((m + 1)/2) + dm

= c(m + 1) log(m + 1)− c(m + 1) log 2 + dm

≤ c(m + 1)(log m + 1/3)− c(m + 1) + dm

≤ cm log m + cm/2− 2/3c(m + 1) + dm

Divide and Conquer

T (m) ≤ 2T (dm/2e) + dm

≤ 2(c(m + 1)/2 · log((m + 1)/2)) + dm

≤ c(m + 1) log((m + 1)/2) + dm

= c(m + 1) log(m + 1)− c(m + 1) log 2 + dm

≤ c(m + 1)(log m + 1/3)− c(m + 1) + dm

≤ cm log m + cm/2− 2/3c(m + 1) + dm

Divide and Conquer

T (m) ≤ 2T (dm/2e) + dm

≤ 2(c(m + 1)/2 · log((m + 1)/2)) + dm

≤ c(m + 1) log((m + 1)/2) + dm

= c(m + 1) log(m + 1)− c(m + 1) log 2 + dm

≤ c(m + 1)(log m + 1/3)− c(m + 1) + dm

≤ cm log m + cm/2− 2/3c(m + 1) + dm

Divide and Conquer

T (m) ≤ 2T (dm/2e) + dm

≤ 2(c(m + 1)/2 · log((m + 1)/2)) + dm

≤ c(m + 1) log((m + 1)/2) + dm

= c(m + 1) log(m + 1)− c(m + 1) log 2 + dm

≤ c(m + 1)(log m + 1/3)− c(m + 1) + dm

≤ cm log m + cm/2− 2/3c(m + 1) + dm

Divide and Conquer

T (m) ≤ 2T (dm/2e) + dm

≤ 2(c(m + 1)/2 · log((m + 1)/2)) + dm

≤ c(m + 1) log((m + 1)/2) + dm

= c(m + 1) log(m + 1)− c(m + 1) log 2 + dm

≤ c(m + 1)(log m + 1/3)− c(m + 1) + dm

≤ cm log m + cm/2− 2/3c(m + 1) + dm

Divide and Conquer

T (m) ≤ 2T (dm/2e) + dm

≤ 2(c(m + 1)/2 · log((m + 1)/2)) + dm

≤ c(m + 1) log((m + 1)/2) + dm

= c(m + 1) log(m + 1)− c(m + 1) log 2 + dm

≤ c(m + 1)(log m + 1/3)− c(m + 1) + dm

≤ cm log m + cm/2− 2/3c(m + 1) + dm

Divide and Conquer

T (m) ≤ 2T (dm/2e) + dm

≤ 2(c(m + 1)/2 · log((m + 1)/2)) + dm

≤ c(m + 1) log((m + 1)/2) + dm

= c(m + 1) log(m + 1)− c(m + 1) log 2 + dm

≤ c(m + 1)(log m + 1/3)− c(m + 1) + dm

≤ cm log m + cm/2− 2/3c(m + 1) + dm

Divide and Conquer

T (m) ≤ 2T (dm/2e) + dm

≤ 2(c(m + 1)/2 · log((m + 1)/2)) + dm

≤ c(m + 1) log((m + 1)/2) + dm

= c(m + 1) log(m + 1)− c(m + 1) log 2 + dm

≤ c(m + 1)(log m + 1/3)− c(m + 1) + dm

≤ cm log m + cm/2− 2/3c(m + 1) + dm

Divide and Conquer

Base step

It remains to show that boundary conditions of recurrence (m < 4)are suitable as base cases for the inductive proof.We have got to show that we can choose c large enough s.t.bound

T (m) ≤ cm log m

works for boundary conditions as well (when m < 4).Assume that T (1) = b > 0.For m = 1,

T (m) ≤ cm log m = c · 1 · 0 = 0

is a bit of a problem, because T (1) is a constant greater than 0.

Divide and Conquer

How to resolve this problem?Recall that we wanted to prove that T (n) = O(n log n).Also, recall that by def of O(), we are free to disregard a constantnumber of small values of n: f (n) = O(g(n))⇔there exist constants c , n0 : f (n) ≤ c · g(n) for n ≥ n0

A way out of our problem is to remove difficult boundarycondition T (1) = b > 0 from consideration in inductive proof.

Note: for m ≥ 4, T (m) does not depend directly on T (1)(T (2) ≤ 2T (1) + 2d = 2b + 2d ,T (3) ≤ 2T (2) + 3d = 2(2b + 2d) + 3d = 4b + 7d ,T (4) ≤ 2T (2) + 4d)

This means:We replace T (1) by T (2) and T (3) as the base case in theinductive proof, letting n0 = 2.

Divide and Conquer

In other words, we are showing that the bound

T (n) ≤ cn log n

holds for any n ≥ 2.

For m = 2: T (2) = 2b + 2d? ≤?c .2 log 2 = 2c

For m = 3: T (3) = 4b + 7d? ≤?c .3 log 3

Hence, set c to max(6d , b + d , 4b+7d3 log 3 ) and the above boundary

conditions as well as the induction step will work.

Important:General technique! Can be used very often!

Divide and Conquer

A neat trick called “changing variables”

Suppose we have

T (n) = 2T (√

n) + log n

Now rename m = log n⇔ 2m = n. We know√n = n1/2 = (2m)1/2 = 2m/2 and thus obtain

T (2m) = 2T (2m/2) + m

Now rename S(m) = T (2m) and get

S(m) = 2S(m/2) + m

Looks familiar. We know the solution S(m) = Θ(m log m).Going back from S(m) to T (n) we obtain

T (n) = T (2m) = S(m) = Θ(m log m) = Θ(log n log log n)

Divide and Conquer

Suppose we have

T (n) = 2T (√

n) + log n

T (2m) = 2T (2m/2) + m

S(m) = 2S(m/2) + m

Divide and Conquer

Suppose we have

T (n) = 2T (√

n) + log n

T (2m) = 2T (2m/2) + m

S(m) = 2S(m/2) + m

Looks familiar. We know the solution S(m) = Θ(m log m).

Going back from S(m) to T (n) we obtain

Divide and Conquer

Suppose we have

T (n) = 2T (√

n) + log n

T (2m) = 2T (2m/2) + m

S(m) = 2S(m/2) + m

Divide and Conquer

Some basic algebraSums

a + (a + 1) + (a + 2) + · · ·+ (b − 1) + b =∑b

i=a i = (a+b)(b−a+1)2

a + a · c + a · c2 + · · ·+ a · cn−1 + a · cn =∑n

i=0 a · c i = a · 1−cn+1

if 0 < c < 1 then we can estimate the sum as follows∑ni=0 a · c i = a · 1−cn+1

1−c < a · 11−c

Divide and Conquer

a + (a + 1) + (a + 2) + · · ·+ (b − 1) + b =∑b

i=a i = (a+b)(b−a+1)2

a + a · c + a · c2 + · · ·+ a · cn−1 + a · cn =∑n

i=0 a · c i = a · 1−cn+1

if 0 < c < 1 then we can estimate the sum as follows

∑ni=0 a · c i = a · 1−cn+1

1−c < a · 11−c

Divide and Conquer

a + (a + 1) + (a + 2) + · · ·+ (b − 1) + b =∑b

i=a i = (a+b)(b−a+1)2

a + a · c + a · c2 + · · ·+ a · cn−1 + a · cn =∑n

i=0 a · c i = a · 1−cn+1

if 0 < c < 1 then we can estimate the sum as follows∑ni=0 a · c i = a · 1−cn+1

1−c < a · 11−c

Divide and Conquer

logarithms and powers

loga n and an are inverse functions to each other:

loga(an) = n for all n

aloga n = n for all n > 0

properties:loga(b · c) = loga b + loga c

loga b = logc blogc a

loga b = 1logb a

alogc b = blogc a

Divide and Conquer

loga b = 1logb a

alogc b = blogc a

Divide and Conquer

loga b = 1logb a

alogc b = blogc a

Divide and Conquer

loga b = 1logb a

alogc b = blogc a

Divide and Conquer

loga b = 1logb a

alogc b = blogc a

Divide and Conquer

loga b = 1logb a

alogc b = blogc a

Divide and Conquer

loga b = 1logb a

alogc b = blogc a

Divide and Conquer

Example. T (n) = 3T (bn/4c) + Θ(n2)summing the rows of the tree we get

T (n) =cn2 + 316cn2 + ( 3

16)2cn2 + · · ·+ ( 316)log4 n−1cn2 + Θ(nlog4 3)

1− 3/16cn2 + Θ(nlog4 3)

=1613cn2 + Θ(nlog4 3) ∈ O(n2)

log4 3 = 1.262, hence nlog4 3 ∈ o(n2) and so

T (n) ∈ O(n2)

then prove by the substitution method (MI) that the guess O(n2)is correct

Divide and Conquer

The “Master Method”

Recipe for recurrences of the form

T (n) = aT (n/b) + f (n)

with a ≥ 1 and b > 1 constant, and f (n) an asymptoticallypositive function (f (n) = 5, f (n) = c log n, f (n) = n, f (n) = n12

are just fine).Split problem into a subproblems each of size n/b.Subproblems are solved recursively, each in time T (n/b).Dividing problem and combining solutions of subproblems iscaptured by f (n).Deals with many frequently seen recurrences (in particular, ourMerge-Sort example with a = b = 2 and f (n) = Θ(n)).

Divide and Conquer

Theorem

Let a ≥ 1 and b > 1 be constants, let f (n) be a function, and letT (n) be defined on the nonnegative integers by the recurrence

T (n) = aT (n/b) + f (n),

where we interpret n/b to mean either bn/bc or dn/be. Then T (n)can be bounded asymptotically as follows.

1 If f (n) = O(n(logb a)−ε) for some constant ε > 0, thenT (n) = Θ(nlogb a).

2 If f (n) = Θ(nlogb a), thenT (n) = Θ(nlogb a · log n).

3 If f (n) = Ω(n(logb a)+ε) for some constant ε > 0, and ifa · f (n/b) ≤ c · f (n) for some constant c < 1 and allsufficiently large n, then T (n) = Θ(f (n)).

Divide and Conquer

Notes on Master’s Theorem

2. If f (n) = Θ(nlogb a), thenT (n) = Θ(nlogb a · log n).

Note 1: Although it’s looking rather scary, it really isn’t. Forinstance, with Merge-Sort’s recurrence T (n) = 2T (n/2) + Θ(n)we have nlogb a = nlog2 2 = n1 = n, and we can apply case 2.The result is therefore Θ(nlogb a · log n) = Θ(n log n).

Note 2: In case 1,

f (n) = n(logb a)−ε = nlogb a/nε = o(nlogb a) ,

so the ε does matter. This case is basically about “small”functions f . But it’s not enough if f (n) is just asymptoticallysmaller than nlogb a (that is f (n) ∈ o(nlogb a), it must bepolynomially smaller!

Divide and Conquer

Notes on Master’s Theorem

2. If f (n) = Θ(nlogb a), thenT (n) = Θ(nlogb a · log n).

Note 1: Although it’s looking rather scary, it really isn’t. Forinstance, with Merge-Sort’s recurrence T (n) = 2T (n/2) + Θ(n)we have nlogb a = nlog2 2 = n1 = n, and we can apply case 2.The result is therefore Θ(nlogb a · log n) = Θ(n log n).

Note 2: In case 1,

f (n) = n(logb a)−ε = nlogb a/nε = o(nlogb a) ,

so the ε does matter. This case is basically about “small”functions f . But it’s not enough if f (n) is just asymptoticallysmaller than nlogb a (that is f (n) ∈ o(nlogb a), it must bepolynomially smaller!

Divide and Conquer

3. If f (n) = Ω(n(logb a)+ε) for some constant ε > 0, and ifa · f (n/b) ≤ c · f (n) for some constant c < 1 and allsufficiently large n, then T (n) = Θ(f (n)).

Note 3: Similarly, in case 3,

f (n) = n(logb a)+ε = nlogb a · nε = ω(nlogb a) ,

so the ε does matter again. This case is basically about “large”functions n. But again, f (n) ∈ ω(nlogb a) is not enough, it must bepolynomially larger. And in addition f (n) has to satisfy the“regularity condition”:

af (n/b) ≤ cf (n)

for some constant c < 1 and n ≥ n0 for some n0.

Divide and Conquer

3. If f (n) = Ω(n(logb a)+ε) for some constant ε > 0, and ifa · f (n/b) ≤ c · f (n) for some constant c < 1 and allsufficiently large n, then T (n) = Θ(f (n)).

Note 3: Similarly, in case 3,

f (n) = n(logb a)+ε = nlogb a · nε = ω(nlogb a) ,

so the ε does matter again. This case is basically about “large”functions n. But again, f (n) ∈ ω(nlogb a) is not enough, it must bepolynomially larger. And in addition f (n) has to satisfy the“regularity condition”:

af (n/b) ≤ cf (n)

for some constant c < 1 and n ≥ n0 for some n0.

Divide and Conquer

The idea is that we compare nlogb a to f (n).

Result is (intuitively) determined by larger of two.

In case 1, nlogb a is larger, so result is Θ(nlogb a).

In case 3, f (n) is larger, so result is Θ(f (n)).

In case 2, both have same order, we multiply it by a logarithmicfactor, and result is Θ(nlogb a · log n) = Θ(f (n) · log n).

Important: Does not cover all possible cases.

For instance, there is a gap between cases 1 and 2 whenever f (n)is smaller than nlogb a but not polynomially smaller.

Divide and Conquer

Using the master theoremSimple enough. Some examples:

T (n) = 9T (n/3) + n

We have a = 9, b = 3, f (n) = n. Thus, nlogb a = nlog3 9 = n2.Clearly, f (n) = O(nlog3(9)−ε) for ε = 1, so case 1 givesT (n) = Θ(n2).

T (n) = T (2n/3) + 1

We have a = 1, b = 3/2, and f (n) = 1, sonlogb a = nlog2/3 1 = n0 = 1.

Apply case 2 (f (n) = Θ(nlogb a) = Θ(1), result is T (n) = Θ(log n).

Divide and Conquer

Using the master theoremSimple enough. Some examples:

T (n) = 9T (n/3) + n

We have a = 9, b = 3, f (n) = n. Thus, nlogb a = nlog3 9 = n2.Clearly, f (n) = O(nlog3(9)−ε) for ε = 1, so case 1 givesT (n) = Θ(n2).

T (n) = T (2n/3) + 1

We have a = 1, b = 3/2, and f (n) = 1, sonlogb a = nlog2/3 1 = n0 = 1.

Apply case 2 (f (n) = Θ(nlogb a) = Θ(1), result is T (n) = Θ(log n).

Divide and Conquer

T (n) = 3T (n/4) + n log n

We have a = 3, b = 4, and f (n) = n log n, sonlogb a = nlog4 3 = O(n0.793).

Clearly, f (n) = n log n = Ω(n) and

thus also f (n) = Ω(nlogb(a)+ε)

for ε ≈ 0.2. Also,a · f (n/b) = 3(n/4) log(n/4) ≤ (3/4)n log n = c · f (n) for anyc = 3/4 < 1.

Thus we can apply case 3 with result T (n) = Θ(n log n).

Divide and Conquer

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