Dispatch Police corruption in Africa undermines trust, but...

Copyright © Afrobarometer 2015 1

Dispatch No. 56 | 2 November 2015

Police corruption in Africa undermines trust, but

support for law enforcement remains strong

Afrobarometer Dispatch No. 56 | Pauline M. Wambua

Summary

According to the 2013 Global Corruption Report by Transparency International (TI), the police

are perceived as the most corrupt institution in Africa. Of 36 countries worldwide where

police are seen as the most corrupt institution, 20 are in Africa. According to the report, the

police are the most often bribed institution, followed by the judiciary; 31% of people who

came into contact with the police report having paid a bribe. Bribery rates of the police

were 75% or higher in seven countries, including six African countries.

Such negative perceptions of police integrity are damaging to the credibility and

effectiveness of the agency charged with protecting the lives and property of citizens. As

Kumssa (2015) observes, police corruption undermines public trust in the institution and

impairs effective enforcement of the law.

While the TI report is loud and clear, it does not address how public perceptions of police

corruption relate to citizens’ trust in the police, support for the police mandate to make

people obey the law, and crime victims’ decision on whether to report crime. This paper

adds the voices of ordinary Africans on these issues, as well as on citizens’ first-hand

experience of bribing the police, using Afrobarometer surveys carried out in 34 African

countries between 2002 and 2013.

Afrobarometer surveys

Afrobarometer is a pan-African, non-partisan research network that conducts public attitude

surveys on democracy, governance, economic conditions, and related issues across more

than 30 countries in Africa. Five rounds of surveys were conducted between 1999 and 2013,

and Round 6 surveys are currently under way (2014/2015). Twelve countries have been part

of the surveys since Round 1 (1999/2001). Subsequent rounds have increased the number of

countries to 16 (2002/2003), 18 (2005/2006), 20 (2008/2009), and 34 (2011/2013).

Of the 26 African countries that TI surveyed in 2012/2013, 23 were also part of the 2011/2013

Afrobarometer surveys. TI and Afrobarometer differ in methodology: TI uses computer-

assisted telephone interviewing in addition to face-to-face interviews and in some countries

samples only urban areas; Afrobarometer uses only face-to-face interviews in the language

of the respondent’s choice, and all samples are nationally representative.

Afrobarometer’s samples of between 1,200 and 2,400 adults yield country-level results with a

margin of sampling error of +/-3% (for 1,200 respondents) or +/-2% (for 2,400 respondents) at a

95% confidence level.

Key findings

Across the 34 countries surveyed by Afrobarometer, the police are perceived as the

most corrupt public institution; on average, 42% of citizens say “most” or “all” police

are corrupt.


Only about half (53%) of citizens say they trust the police “somewhat” or “a lot.” In the

18 countries tracked since 2005, trust in the police has decreased from 58% in

2005/2006 to 54% in 2011-2013.

As perceptions of corruption among police have increased, people’s trust in the

police has decreased.

Despite these trends, support for the police mandate to make people obey the law

has increased across the 16 countries tracked since 2002/2003, from 73% to 79% in

2011/2013.

Only half of citizens would go to the police first for assistance if they were victims of

crime. The main reasons why victims do not report crimes to the police are concerns

about police performance.

Among the 16 countries tracked since 2002/2003, Zambia is the only country where

trust in the police and support for the police mandate have increased while

perceived police corruption and the reported payment of bribes to police have

decreased.

Perceived corruption among the police

Across 34 countries surveyed in 2011/2013, about four of 10 respondents (42%) say that

“most” or “all” of the police are corrupt; only 10% say that “none” of the police are corrupt

(Figure 1).

Figure 1: Perceptions of police corruption | 34 countries | 2011/2013

Respondents were asked: How many of the following people do you think are involved in corruption, or

haven’t you heard enough about them to say: Police?

Citizens perceive the police as their countries’ most corrupt public institution (Figure 2).

Among the 34 surveyed countries, citizens in only eight countries do not rank the police as

the most corrupt institution (Algeria, Benin, Cameroon, Mali, Namibia, Sudan, Swaziland, and

Togo). In these countries, the police are ranked in the top three, among the seven institutions

that were compared, except for Algeria, where the police rank sixth.

None of them,

10%

Some of them,

38%

Most of them,

28%

All of them, 14%

Don't know /

Haven't heard

enough, 10%


Figure 2: Perceptions of corruption across institutions | 34 countries | 2011/2013

(% who say “all of them” or “most of them”)

Nonetheless, countries vary widely in the proportions of the population who see the police as

corrupt. Almost eight of 10 Nigerians (78%) perceive “most” or “all” police to be corrupt,

compared to only 17% of Cape Verdeans (where police still rank as the most corrupt

institution) and 14% of Algerians (Figure 3).

At the regional level, police in East Africa are perceived to be corrupt by the largest

proportion of citizens: 52% of East Africans say “most” or “all” of their countries’ police are

corrupt, compared to 45% of West Africans, 39% of southern Africans, and 31% of North

Africans (Figure 4).

24%

27%

28%

30%

34%

34%

42%

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45%

Office of the presidency

Judges and magistrates

Members of Parliament

Local government councillors

Government officials

Tax officials

Police


Figure 3: Perceptions of police corruption by country | 34 countries | 2011/2013


Figure 4: Perceptions of police corruption by region | 34 countries | 2011/2013


14%

17%

18%

25%

25%

30%

32%

33%

33%

34%

35%

35%

37%

37%

38%

38%

38%

42%

42%

43%

44%

45%

46%

46%

53%

53%

55%

55%

56%

57%

62%

62%

69%

69%

78%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%

Algeria

Cape Verde

Mauritius

Tunisia

Senegal

Botswana

Burkina Faso

Madagascar

Niger

Sudan

Guinea

Lesotho

Morocco

MozambiqueCote d’Ivoire

Malawi

Swaziland

Namibia

Average

Togo

Egypt

Benin

Mali

Zambia

South Africa

Burundi

Ghana

Liberia

Tanzania

Cameroon

Uganda

Zimbabwe

Sierra Leone

Kenya

Nigeria

31%

39%

42%

45%

52%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%

North Africa

Southern Africa

Average

West Africa

East Africa


Across the 16 countries tracked since 2002/2003,1 the proportion of citizens who perceive

“most” or “all” police to be corrupt increased from 43% to 47% in 2011/2013. Public

perceptions of corruption among the police in Zimbabwe showed the greatest increase, a

20-percentage-point jump (Figure 5), while the greatest decrease was in Senegal, which saw

a 16-point decline (Figure 6).

Figure 5: Change in perceptions of police corruption: Countries with greatest

increase | 16 countries | 2002-2013

(% saying “all of them” or “most of them”)

Figure 6: Change in perceptions of police corruption: Countries with greatest

decrease | 16 countries | 2002-2013

(% saying “all of them” or “most of them”)

1 The 16 countries tracked since Round 2 in 2002/2003 are Botswana, Cape Verde, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.

42%

62%

47%

62%

38%

48%45%

53%44%

34%37%

56%

59%64%

73%

69%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

2002/2003 2005/2006 2008/2009 2011/2013

Zimbabwe South Africa Tanzania Kenya

41%

27%25%

25%

55%50%

46%46%48%

28%40% 38%

67% 67% 69%

62%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

2002/2003 2005/2006 2008/2009 2011/2013

Senegal Mali Malawi Uganda


Trust in the police

Slightly more than half of citizens (53%) say they trust the police “somewhat” or “a lot,” while

44% trust them “not at all” or “just a little.” Still, the police are not among the least-trusted

institutions. Citizens trust the army the most and opposition political parties the least (Figure 7).

Among the 34 countries, the police are the least-trusted institution in only Sierra Leone and

Nigeria.

Figure 7: Trust in institutions | 34 countries | 2011/2013

Respondents were asked: How much do you trust each of the following, or haven’t you heard enough

about them to say?

(% who say “somewhat” or “a lot”)

Algerians trust their police the most, with 82% saying they trust them “somewhat” or “a lot,”

while Nigerians trust their police the least (16%) (Figure 8).

At the regional level, southern Africans (59%) trust their countries’ police more than East

Africans (57%), North Africans (51%), and West Africans (48%) (Figure 9).

35%

41%

47%

48%

51%

51%

53%

59%

61%

67%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80%

Opposition political parties

Tax department

Elected local government council

Ruling party

Electoral commission

Parliament

Police

Courts of law

President

Army


Figure 8: Trust in the police by country | 34 countries | 2011/2013


Figure 9: Trust in the police by region | 34 countries | 2011/2013


16%

31%

32%

34%

35%

38%

40%

42%

42%

43%

44%

48%

48%

49%

49%

49%

50%

51%

52%

53%

56%

57%

60%

60%

61%

61%

65%

66%

67%

68%

70%

76%

76%

77%

82%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%

Nigeria

Liberia

Kenya

Sierra Leone

Morocco

Egypt

Cameroon

Cote d’Ivoire

Ghana

Guinea

Togo

Zimbabwe

Tunisia

Zambia

Mali

South Africa

Sudan

Uganda

Madagascar

Average

Lesotho

Benin

Swaziland

Cape Verde

Tanzania

Botswana

Mozambique

Burkina Faso

Mauritius

Malawi

Burundi

Niger

Namibia

Senegal

Algeria

48%

51%

53%

57%

59%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%

West Africa

North Africa

Average

East Africa

Southern Africa


Across the 18 countries tracked since 2005/2006,2 trust in the police decreased from 58% to

54% in 2011/2013. Benin, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe show increasing trust levels, most

notably an 18-percentage-point increase in Zambia between 2005 and 2013 (Figure 10).

Tanzania, Mali, and Ghana show the largest decreases in trust over the period, each with a

drop of more than 20 percentage points (Figure 11).

Figure 10: Trust in police: Countries with greatest increase | 18 countries | 2005-2013

(% saying “somewhat” or “a lot”)

Figure 11: Trust in police: Countries with greatest decrease | 18 countries | 2005-2013

(% saying “somewhat” or “a lot”)

2 Data on trust in the police exists for 1999/2000 and 2002/2003, but due to small changes in response options, these survey rounds are excluded from this comparison. The 18 countries tracked since 2005/2006 are Benin, Botswana, Cape Verde, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.

31%

51% 49%43%

53% 57%

64%

71%76%

39% 46% 48%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

2005/2006 2008/2009 2011/2013

Zambia Benin Namibia Zimbabwe

73%

50%49%

84%

61%61%64%

47%42%

66%

37%

51%

67%

59% 56%

79%69%

68%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

2005/2006 2008/2009 2011/2013

Mali Tanzania Ghana

Uganda Lesotho Malawi


The analysis shows that the less citizens perceive the police as corrupt, the more they trust the

police (Figure 12). A Pearson’s correlation test shows a strong positive correlation between

the two (r = 0.651 at 0.01 significance level).

Figure 12: Association between perceived corruption and trust in the police

| 34 countries | 2011/2013

Paying bribes to avoid problems with the police

Across the 34 countries, 14% of survey respondents say they paid bribes during the previous

year to avoid problems with the police. Those who paid bribes include respondents who say

they paid bribes “once or twice,” “a few times,” or “often.” Morocco (36%), Sierra Leone

(36%), and Kenya (31%) had the greatest proportion of citizens who paid bribes. Cape Verde

had the smallest proportion (1%), followed by Mauritius, Namibia, and Botswana (3% each)

(Figure 13).

North Africans were more likely to pay bribes (18%) than citizens in East Africa (17%), West

Africa (15%), and southern Africa (8%) (Figure 14).


Figure 13: Paid bribes to police in past year, by country | 34 countries | 2011/2013

Respondents were asked: In the past year, how often, if ever, have you had to pay a bribe, give a gift,

or do a favour to government officials in order to: Avoid a problem with the police, like passing a

checkpoint or avoiding a fine or arrest? (% who say “once or twice,” “a few times,” or “often”)

Figure 14: Paid bribes to police in past year, by region | 34 countries | 2011/2013

(% who say “once or twice,” “a few times,” or “often”)

1%

3%

3%

3%

4%

6%

6%

6%

7%

7%

8%

8%

8%

9%

10%

10%

11%

13%

14%

14%

14%

15%

16%

17%

17%

19%

19%

20%

22%

24%

26%

27%

31%

36%

36%

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

Cape Verde

Namibia

Botswana

Mauritius

Senegal

Lesotho

Madagascar

Malawi

Benin

South Africa

Zambia

Mali

Swaziland

Algeria

Burkina Faso

Tunisia

Ghana

Tanzania

Niger

Average

Burundi

Togo

MozambiqueCote d’Ivoire

Sudan

Egypt

Nigeria

Guinea

Uganda

Zimbabwe

Cameroon

Liberia

Kenya

Sierra Leone

Morocco

8%

14%

15%

17%

18%

0% 5% 10% 15% 20%

Southern Africa

Average

West Africa

East Africa

North Africa


In the 16 countries tracked since 2002/2003, 11% report paying a bribe in 2011/2013, and this

figure has changed only marginally over time. Payment of bribes increased most in

Zimbabwe (8 percentage points) and decreased most in Nigeria (6 percentage points)

(Figure 15).

Figure 15: Payment of bribes: Countries with greatest increase or decrease

| 16 countries | 2002-2013

(% saying “once or twice,” “a few times,” or “often”)

As bribe payments to police increase, so does the perception of police corruption (Pearson’s

r = 0.480 at 0.01 significance level) (Figure 16).

Figure 16: Payment of bribe and perceptions of corruption among police

| 34 countries | 2011/2013

16%

22%

19%

24%

2% 2%5%

6%

27% 29%26%

31%

12%

17%13%

16%

26%

22%24%

19%

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

2002/2003 2005/2006 2008/2009 2011/2013

Zimbabwe Malawi Kenya Mozambique Nigeria


In addition, there is a strong negative correlation (r = -0.673 at 0.01 significance level)

between the payment of bribes and public trust. The more people pay bribes to avoid

problems with the police, the less they trust the police (Figure 17).

Figure 17: Payment of bribes and trust in the police | 34 countries | 2011/2013

Perceptions of police mandate to make people obey the law

Despite limited trust and widespread perceptions of police corruption, four of five citizens

(79%) believe that the police “always have the right to make people obey the law,”

suggesting that the institution is perceived as legitimate despite its weaknesses. By country,

the proportion of citizens who “agree” or “strongly agree” that the police have the right to

make people obey the law ranges from highs in Tunisia (92%), Ghana (91%), and Senegal

(89%) to lows in Togo (61%) and Cape Verde (62%) (Figure 18).


Figure 18: Support for the right of police to make people obey the law |

34 countries | 2011/2013

Respondents were asked: For each of the following statements, please tell me whether you disagree or

agree: The police always have the right to make people obey the law?

(% who “agree” or “strongly agree”)

In the 16 countries tracked since 2002/2003, support for this police mandate increased, from

76% to 80% in 2011/2013. Botswana had the greatest increase in support (26 percentage

points) (Figure 19), while Cape Verde recorded the largest decrease in support (20

percentage points) (Figure 20). The only other countries where support for the police

mandate to make people obey the law decreased over time are Mali and Uganda.

61%

62%

70%

71%

71%

72%

72%

72%

73%

73%

74%

74%

76%

76%

77%

78%

78%

79%

81%

81%

81%

82%

82%

82%

82%

83%

84%

84%

85%

86%

87%

88%

89%

91%

92%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Togo

Cape Verde

Kenya

Morocco

Cameroon

Burundi

Nigeria

Benin

Guinea

South Africa

Madagascar

Mozambique

Burkina Faso

Uganda

Sudan

Mali

Tanzania

Average

Egypt

Algeria

Cote d’Ivoire

Mauritius

Liberia

Sierra Leone

Malawi

Zimbabwe

Zambia

Niger

Swaziland

Namibia

Lesotho

Botswana

Senegal

Ghana

Tunisia


Figure 19: Change in support of the right of police to make people obey the law:

Countries with the greatest increase | 16 countries | 2002-2013


Figure 20: Change in support of the right of police to make people obey the law:

Countries with decrease | 16 countries | 2002-2013


62%

85%

88%

75%

88%90%

87%

66%

69%72%

78%76%

68%

82%

86%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

2002/2003 2005/2006 2008/2009 2011/2013

Botswana Lesotho Tanzania Namibia

81%

71%

63%

62%

88%

81%80%

76%

87%84%

77%78%

50%

55%

60%

65%

70%

75%

80%

85%

90%

2002/2003 2005/2006 2008/2009 2011/2013

Cape Verde Uganda Mali


Reporting crime to the police

One-fourth (25%) of respondents say they were victims of theft from their homes during the

preceding year, and 8% say they were suffered physical attacks. Among those who report

being victims of crime in the 34 countries, only 43% say they reported the crime, while 56% did

not. Citizens of Togo and Benin are least likely to report crime to police (79% of victims did not

report the crime to police), while Algerians are most likely to report crime (only 25% did not)

(Figure 21).

Figure 21: Did not report crime to police | 34 countries | 2011/2013

Respondents who reported being victims of crime during the previous year were asked: Was such an

incident reported to the police? (% who say “no”)

Note: The figures are percentages of self-reported crime victims who did not report the crime to the

police. Sample sizes are smaller than national samples, and margins of uncertainty are therefore larger.

25%

31%

33%

34%

35%

36%

38%

39%

42%

45%

47%

50%

54%

54%

54%

56%

59%

59%

60%

61%

61%

62%

63%

64%

65%

67%

68%

69%

69%

71%

72%

72%

75%

79%

79%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%

Algeria

Mauritius

Botswana

Namibia

Zimbabwe

Swaziland

Lesotho

South Africa

Tunisia

Kenya

Mozambique

Morocco

Tanzania

Cape Verde

Sudan

Average

Liberia

Sierra Leone

Uganda

Egypt

Zambia

Cameroon

Burundi

Malawi

Burkina Faso

Guinea

Senegal

Nigeria

Cote d’Ivoire

Mali

Niger

Madagascar

Ghana

Benin

Togo


The main reasons why victims do not report crimes to the police, according to survey

respondents, are issues related to police performance: Police don’t listen or care (cited by

14% of respondents), police would have demanded a bribe (10%), police would not have

been able to do anything (8%), and police may be involved in the theft or assault (2%).

Together, these police-performance-related issues are cited by 34% of respondents across

the 34 countries (Figure 22). Other reasons that were cited include that there is no police

station in the area, that victims fear reprisal from the attacker, and that the crime was

reported to another authority. About one in five respondents (18%) say that most people do

report crime to the police.

Figure 22: Reasons why crimes are not reported to the police | by region

| 2011/2013

Respondents were asked: Some people say that many crimes are never reported to the police. Based

on your experience, what do you think is the main reason that many people do not report crimes like

thefts or attacks to the police when they occur?

Across 34 countries, about half (53%) of citizens say they would seek assistance first from the

police, rather than from other people or organisations, if they were victims of a crime. North

Africans are most likely to go to the police first for assistance (64%), while East Africans (43%)

are least likely to seek police assistance first (Figure 23). Other frequently cited places for

crime victims to go first for assistance include traditional leaders or courts, family and friends,

local government officials, and street committees or local security organisations.

37%

8%10%

6%

11%

37%

9% 9%7%

23%

30%

7%

14%

3%

20%

30%

2%

14%

0%

26%

34%

7%

12%

4%

18%

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

Police performance-

related issues

No police or police

station in the area

Victim feared reprisal

from attacker

Crime reported to

other authority

Most people do

report crimes to the

police

West Africa East Africa Southern Africa North Africa Average


To further explore this data, please visit Afrobarometer's online data analysis facility at www.afrobarometer.org/online-data-analysis.

Figure 23: First person/organisation to go to for assistance after a crime | by region

| 2011/2013

Respondents were asked: If you were a victim of crime in this country, who, if anyone, would you go to

first for assistance?

Conclusion

This analysis confirms Transparency International’s finding that the police are perceived as

the most corrupt public institution in most African countries and suggests that this perception

reduces public trust in the police. A majority of crime victims do not report the crimes to the

police, mainly due to issues related to police performance, according to survey respondents.

Nonetheless, support for the police mandate to enforce the law remains strong. Future

research might further clarify how perceptions of police corruption affect police

performance and effectiveness.

Since 2002, Zambia is the only surveyed country where there has been a positive change in

the four indicators reported in this paper: Public trust in the police has increased (from 31% to

49%), the proportion of citizens who do not see “all” or “most” of the police as corrupt has

increased (from 44% to 49%), the proportion of citizens who paid bribes to avoid police

trouble has declined (from 11% to 8%), and support for police enforcement of the law has

increased (from 78% to 83%). Further research might clarify reasons for this positive change

and provide lessons that can be shared with other countries.

49%

25%

10%

5%1%

43%

18%

6%

11%14%

57%

18%

9%

3%5%

64%

53%

18%

10%

4% 4%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

The police A traditional

leader or

traditional court

Your family or

friends

Local

government

official

A street

committee or

local security

organisation

West Africa East Africa Southern Africa North Africa Average


References

Kumssa, A. (2015). Police corruption: A perspective on its nature and control. Donnish Journal of Political Science and International Relations, 1(1), 1-8. http://donnishjournals.org/djpsir/pdf/2015/march/Asfaw-Kumssa.pdf.

Transparency International (2013). Report on the transparency global corruption barometer 2013. www.transparency.org/gcb2013/report.

Pauline M. Wambua is a MasterCard scholar pursuing a master’s degree in public policy in

the Department of Political Science at Michigan State University. Email:

[email protected]

Afrobarometer is produced collaboratively by social scientists from more than 30 African

countries. Coordination is provided by the Center for Democratic Development (CDD) in

Ghana, the Institute for Justice and Reconciliation (IJR) in South Africa, the Institute for

Development Studies (IDS) at the University of Nairobi in Kenya, and the Institute for Empirical

Research in Political Economy (IREEP) in Benin. Michigan State University (MSU) and the

University of Cape Town (UCT) provide technical support to the network.

Core support for Afrobarometer Rounds 5 and 6 has been provided by the UK’s Department

for International Development (DFID), the Mo Ibrahim Foundation, the Swedish International

Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA), the United States Agency for International

Development (USAID), and the World Bank.

For more information, please visit www.afrobarometer.org.

Afrobarometer Dispatch No. 56 | 2 November 2015

http://donnishjournals.org/djpsir/pdf/2015/march/Asfaw-Kumssa.pdf

http://www.afrobarometer.org/

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