Sociology Paper 1 (November 2008)

Section A: Research Methods

1. Sociologists who wish to collect qualitative data often use unstructured or informal interviews. This type of interview usually consists of a list of topics the interviewer wishes to discuss. The interviewer will ask a number of open-ended questions, which may stimulate discussions or further questions. The interviewer will carry out the interview in a relaxed manner in order to put the interviewee at ease.

This form of interview is said to have greater validity than more formal interviews as it can produce data that has greater depth. However, critics of this approach say that it can lead to interviewer bias.

Observation is another approach used by sociologists to collect qualitative data.

(a) In sociological research what is meant by the following terms:

i. unstructured interviews [2]

An open-ended discussion between the respondent and the interviewer. The interviewee will be free to discuss any areas within the framework of the research.

ii. validity [2]

Validity is concerned with whether the findings of the research actually provide a true picture of what is being studied.

iii. interviewer bias. [2]

Interview bias is concerned with the answers given in an interview, which are influenced by the presence or behaviour of the interviewer.

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(b) Describe two problems that can occur when conducting unstructured interviews. [4]

bias – there is more chance of the researcher making his views known to the respondent even by facial expression/ body language

time consuming - because a rapport has to be developed with the respondents to build up trust and it may take a long time to conduct the interviews and analyse the data from them

inexperience – interviewers are often dealing with sensitive areas and so if they are not experienced and good interviewers the respondent may not be very cooperative

problems of reliability – it is difficult to check the researcher’s analysis and conclusions

(c) Describe one advantage and one disadvantage of using observations as means of collecting data. [4]

Advantages include:

provides a first hand knowledge of the group being studied - as the groups get more used to the researcher they are more likely to act naturally

observation takes place over a longer period - because the amount of time is longer than other methods the researcher can get a valid account of the group’s behaviour.

Subjects more likely act naturally - as the subjects get more used to the presence of the researcher they are more likely to act naturally

Disadvantages include:

time consuming – all the data has to be collected over a longer period of time

expensive – because of the length of time it takes to conduct the observation – sometimes months – it will cost a lot of money

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danger of the researcher becoming too involved – working with the subjects

Subjects may change their behaviour – as they are being studied the subjects may modify their behaviour when being observed – ‘the Hawthorne effect’ and the researcher may be unaware of this

Validity – the researcher may interpet/analyse the interactions from a particular point of view (gender/ethnic/class) which will affect the validity of the research

(d) Suggest two advantages of using unstructured interviews in sociological research. [4]

Advantages include:

Issues can be explored in more depth – there may not be a time limit to the interview so the respondent can give more detailed data.

Accuracy - such interviews may have more accuracy because of the relationship established with the interviewee.

New research directions - during the course of the interview may emerge as the interviewee may reveal data not considered by the researcher.

(e)

i. Distinguish between covert and overt forms of observation. [2]

Covert observation refers to viewing the target group without the group’s knowledge.

Overt observation refers to the situation where the observed group is aware that they are being observed.

ii. Distinguish between participant and non-participant forms of observation. [2]

Participant observation refers to the type of research where the research engages in the activities of the group.

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Non participant observation refers to the type of research where the observer does not become involved with the group in question, but studies them without any intervention.

(f) Identify and explain two advantages and two disadvantages of using covert participant observation in sociological research. [8]

Advantages include:

Insight into the group - being involved in the research enables them to gain a real insight into the working and perceptions of the group;

suitablilty - covert participant observation may be the only method to research certain subjects

flexibility - such research is flexible and sometimes because of this new research directions may emerge

more natural – participants don’t know that they are being watched and so will behave in a more natural way

The disadvantages include:

the failure of the group to accept the researcher – if this happens the validity of the study may be damaged

research results too subjective - the observer may start to become too close to their subjects and therefore write up their research too subjectively

cost – this kind of research is expensive and time consuming.

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Section B: Culture and Socialisation

2. Children as they grow up in a particular society learn its norms and values.

(a) What is meant by the term norms? [2]

Social rules that define correct behaviour in a society or group

(b) Describe two ways children learn to interact with other members of society.

[4]

Children learn to interact with society through:

Parents – through primary socialisation in the home, children learn the norms and values of society – the right way and the wrong way to behave

School – through Secondary socialisation at school, children learn the norms and values of society and the rules and regulations that they need to follow

peer group – through friends children learn how to interact with other children and what is acceptable behaviour and what is not

media – from the media children learn about popular culture like fashion and music – what is popular and what is not

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(c) Explain why childhood is seen as a distinct stage in life in modern industrial societies.

[6]

Childhood is dependent on the time and culture you live in ‘

Childhood is seen as a distinct phase because of a number of factors:

wealth of industrial societies – modern societies are more affluent which enables the provision of free education for children

freedom from paid employment - the fact that modern societies now have more money means that children no longer need to work

Change in laws to protect children - introduction of laws such as the Education Acts/Factory Acts stopped children being treated as adults

growth of children’s legal rights – charters for children’s rights are accepted by most countries now and children enjoy much greater protection than ever before. They also have more say in what happens to them.

This was in contrast to pre- industrial

agriculture - the main form of work was farming and the skills needed to be passed on to the children through socialisation

Economic necessity - it was important for children to do some form of ‘adult’ work as soon as they were physically able to so that they could contribute towards household expenses

In developing societies – childhood is not the same

poverty - in poorer societies children have to contribute to the family income

Lack of educational opportunities – because children have to work to help support the family this means that they don’t get the chance to go to school

(d) To what extent is human behaviour shaped by socialisation? [8]

Discuss ‘nature’ versus ‘nurture’

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‘nature’ ‘nature’ refers to what a person inherits through their

genes.  Each person inherits 50% of their genes from their mother and

50% from their father genes determine such things as what sex a child will be and

hair and eye colour Biologists argue that genetic influence can also explain social

behaviour and characteristics.  For example, aggression, personality and intelligence are

all inherited according to Biologists instinct means behaviour programmed in the genes.  All sociologists see socialisation as very important.  They disagree on whether it benefits everyone in society or

whether it gives some groups more advantages than others. 

‘Nurture’

When sociologists talk about nurture they are referring to all the behaviour we learn through the socialisation process. 

The things we do are a result of what we have learned.  This means that our experiences and our environment play

a large part in shaping our behaviour.  Our social behaviour comes from the expectations and

guidelines found within each society and culture Cultures share norms and values

Values describe a shared moral system where most people believe in certain ideas

Norms are the unspoken an unwritten rules of behaviour in everyday life. We learn them through socialisation.

These norms and values passed on to everyone in society through socialisation

How Important is socialisation?

Sociologists think socialisation is important because it helps to keep social order. 

Some have argued that for society to exist and survive people have to find a way to live together without constant fighting. 

Also, large societies cannot rely on the forces of law and order to keep the peace and make sure people obey the rules.

The socialisation process allows people to learn the rules of society and to see what happens if these rules are broken. 

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All sociologists see socialisation as very important.  They disagree on whether it benefits everyone in society or

whether it gives some groups more advantages than others

Children are socialised from birth

Primary Socialisation - children learn from their parents what they should or shouldn’t do in a particular situation – for example how to behave at the table or in other social situations

Socialisation continues throughout life

Secondary Socialisation - we continue learning throughout life- for example at school or work there are expectations and people learn the basic attitudes and skills necessary to mix socially with others

To support your arguments that human behaviour is shaped by socialisation talk about ‘unsocialised children’ who have been found.

There are some case studies of ‘wild’ children, these are children who have been brought up without human contact

Talk briefly about one of them for example The wild boy of Aveyron  

In 1800, a boy of about 12 years of age was found in a forest in the South of France.  He did not appear to have any parents and was taken to an orphanage.  He was then put into the care of a doctor who wanted to study his progress.

When he was first found he could not speak.  He did make strange noises and would howl in the dark.  He hated wearing clothes, was not toilet trained and he appeared not to feel cold or heat.  He was observed to go out and play in the snow with no clothes and apparently he did not suffer from this – in fact, he seemed to enjoy it.

He lived until he was about forty years old.  During this time he did learn some words.  He also learned to use the toilet, wear clothes and dress himself.  However, he never developed fully.

Conclusion

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Even though genetics has a part to play in shaping human behaviour there is also a lot of evidence that human behaviour is shaped by socialisation?

3. People living in a society may have a very different set of customs and beliefs to those living in other societies. Such cultural differences illustrate how societies develop their own unique cultures.

(a) What is meant by the term cultural differences? [2]

The ways in terms of customs, norms, values etc. differ from society to society.

(b) Describe two features of a society’s culture. [4]

Culture is the whole of the knowledge ideas and habits of a society that are transmitted from one generation to the next.

Culture is not static and is always changing Culture is more important than instinct

Likely answers may focus on:

Language – there is usually a common language that everyone speaks within a culture even though there may be subcultures within the culture that speak another language also. Customs – certain customs are associated with certain cultures. For example even though most people in Britain would eat beef or pork they would never eat snake or dog which is considered good in some cultures.Values – provide general guidelines for how to behave within a culture. Values vary from culture to culture. For example ‘privacy’ and ‘value for human life are highly valued by most people in Britain. art and literature – each culture may have art and literature that is specific to that culture and reflects the values and beliefs of that culture

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(c) Explain how the elderly are likely to be treated differently in modern industrial society compared to more traditional societies. [6]

Likely answers will focus on:

Industrial society

Old people have a relatively low status – there are common stereotypes of old people as being ‘useless’ or ‘old fools’ who have nothing to contribute to society

Loneliness- old people are often lonely as many of them live on their own far away from their families

Many have low incomes – even though many old people have a government pension they still live below the poverty line and find it hard to manage

provision of social services – old people can get extra help from the government if they can’t manage but many don’t ask

Traditional societies

Old people are treated with respect – they will be asked their opinions because their wisdom and experience is valued

Feeling of community there is more of a community spirit as people have lived in the same neighbourhood all their lives

Stronger familial links – old people will usually live with their families and have strong support networks

No provision of social services – the elderly are unlikely to have a pension and there may be less state support so they will have to depend on their families for financial support(d) To what extent do people in the same culture share the

same values? [8]

Culture is the knowledge, ideas and habits of a society that are transmitted from one generation to the next.

Culture is not static and is always changing

People from the same culture have certain things in common Language – there is usually a common language that everyone speaks within a culture even though there may be subcultures within the culture that speak another language also.

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Customs – certain customs are associated with certain cultures. For example even though most people in Britain would eat beef or pork they would never eat snake or dog which is considered good in some cultures.

art and literature – each culture may have art and literature that is specific to that culture and reflects the values and beliefs of that culture

People from the same culture often share the same values. These provide general guidelines for how to behave within a culture. Values vary from culture to culture. For example ‘privacy’ and ‘value for human life are highly valued by most people in Britain.

Cultural Values

A culture's values are its ideas about what is good, right, fair, and just.

Conflict theory focuses on how values differ between groups within a culture, while functionalism focuses on the shared values within a culture, Consensus

For example, American sociologist Robert K. Merton suggested that the most important values in American society are wealth, success, power, and prestige, but that everyone does not have an equal opportunity to attain these values.

Functional sociologist Talcott Parsons noted that Americans share the common value of the “American work ethic,” which encourages hard work.

Other sociologists have proposed a common core of American values, including accomplishment, material success, problem-solving, reliance on science and technology, democracy, patriotism, charity, freedom, equality and justice, individualism, responsibility, and accountability.

Conflicting Values A culture, though, may have conflicting values. For instance, the value of material success may conflict with

the value of charity. Or the value of equality may conflict with the value of

individualism. Such contradictions may exist due to an inconsistency

between people's actions and their professed values, which

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explains why sociologists must carefully distinguish between what people do and what they say.

Real culture refers to the values and norms that a society actually follows, while ideal culture refers to the values and norms that a society professes to believe.

Subcultures Even if there is an overall shared culture, within it there are

clearly distinguishable sets of values and behaviour that form a subculture

Within these subcultures clear variations exist in the values that people hold and the pattern of behaviour that they engage in

Within any cultures there are subcultures they are linked to ethnic social class and age divisions in society

People in these subcultures may be socialised differently and learn different values according to social class; ethnic group; age group;

Reasons they might vary:

the influence of social class – the values of the working class are different from those of the middle class although the extent of those differences is a matter of debate. Research has suggested that working class children are brought up in a more rigid way by their parents and there is less stress on academic success. Working class children do not receive as much help with reading and writing as middle class children. All this has consequences for their future success at school and their future employment

the influence of ethnicity – People from different ethnic groups may bring up their children to have specific values that may differ from the ‘mainstream values’ of British society. For example the children of Indian immigrants to Britain will most likely follow the Hindu or Muslim religions. They may have different views about the role of family and the correct behaviour for females especially in terms of marriage which may be arranged.

the influence of age – a typical example would be a youth subculture, these subcultures emerge for each generation. In each generation there is a variety of styles of dress; types of music; special language and attitudes that distinguish youth from older people and from children. These values make youth distinct or different from the rest of society but rarely do they

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represent a complete rejection of the overall culture

Within any culture there is cultural diversity, or the presence of multiple cultures and cultural differences within a society. In reality, many different cultural groups make up a society.

Cultural DiversityMany people mistakenly use such phrases as “British culture,” “white culture,” or “Western culture,” as if such large, common, and homogenous cultures exists in Britain today. These people fail to acknowledge the presence of cultural diversity, or the presence of multiple cultures and cultural differences within a society. In reality, many different cultural groups comprise the United Kingdom.

Therefore people in a culture often share some of the same cultural values. They can also retain their own group or ethnic values which doesn’t always clash with the main culture but can coexist in increasing multicultural societies

Section C: Social Stratification

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4. A person’s social class is influenced by a number of factors. One of the most important influences is occupation.

(a) What is meant by the term of social class? [2]

An open system, where broad groups of people share similar economic positions, such as, occupation and wealth.

(b) Describe two ways a middle class background may affect a person’s work opportunities.

[4]

Likely answers may focus on: Parental expectations – middle-class parents have high

expectations for their children to do well in school and go into a good career

education – middle-class children stay in school longer and are more likely to continue into higher education (university) which in turn leads to better careers

wealth - middle-class parents are able to provide sufficient funds for children to stay on in education or training

contacts – middle-class parents often have contacts in different profession which may help their children when finding employment or with promotion.

(c) Explain why middle class occupations, such as doctors and lawyers tend to earn more than working class occupations in modern industrial societies.

[6]

Reasons:

higher levels of training – the position of professional like lawyers is based on the possession of educational qualifications and a long period of training. These higher professional qualifications mean that they enjoy high rewards, status and job security.

Longer periods of training leading to a relatively short supply of such professionals – so they can demand high salaries as they are the ones who are calling the shots

the ability of professional organisations to organise effectively – professionals have strong occupational

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associations that protect and actively pursue their interests in terms of improving terms and conditions e.g. ‘The Law Society’ and ‘The British Medical Association’

(d) To what extent does social class background still influence an individual’s opportunities in life?

[8]

Many areas of our lives are directly linked to class. Among the ‘life chances’ affected by class are:

How long people live (life expectancy) How healthy people are How much and what they eat The kind of housing they live in The level of education they reach and the qualifications they

achieve How likely they are to be employed or to be made redundant Their chances of being killed or injured at work The money they can spend on both necessities and luxuries How often they can take a holiday and what kind of holiday Their chances of being the victim of crime

The power of the elite within society is based upon:

Income Wealth A network of social connections – sometimes known as the ‘old

boys network’

The least powerful within society still have few opportunities to escape from poverty

Life chances are determined by factors such as: Social class Gender Schooling Ethnicity, etc

Differences in life chances still exist

Social class background still influences an individual’s opportunities in life?

In Education

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For example middle class children will do better in school than working class children because:

education – parents put a high value on education and expect their children to work hard and do well so that they can go on to university and get good qualifications

wealth – parents are able to provide sufficient funds for their children to be able to continue with education or training;

Parental expectations - parents have high expectation for their children especially in terms of career choices

middle class contacts – the people their parents know may help them to provide contacts for employment or help them with promotion.

In WorkFor example: the middle class will also do better in employment than the working class because:

generally people from middle class backgrounds are more likely to be in professional and managerial positions

They are more likely to be in senior management positions and professions (like law)

They are more likely to be promoted They have higher incomes They have better job security and benefits

In HealthFor example: the middle class will also do better than the working class health-wise

A professional can expect to live on average seven years longer than an unskilled working man

They visit the doctor more often and tend to have more regular checkups

They have a better diet and take more exercise so have less serious illness than working class people

They are more likely to go to the doctor for regular checkups

So

Even though all industrial societies have seen an increase in equality and affluence since the end of the Second World War.

Even though some of the working class are becoming more like the middle class through embourgeoisement

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There are still people who don’t do well and have not benefited from the new affluence in society

5. Despite the existence of equal rights legislation (laws) in modern industrial societies, many ethnic minorities still experience discrimination in areas such as employment and housing.

(a) What is meant by the term discrimination? [2]

Discrimination refers to the ways a racial group may be treated unfairly by the rest of society in areas such as: education; work, equality before the law etc.

(b) Describe two types of discrimination ethnic minorities may experience at work. [4]

Likely answers may focus on:

difficulty in entering into certain professions – access to certain professions is limited because of discrimination or failure to get onto the university course. There are shortages of black doctors and lawyers

lack of promotion prospects - ethnic minorities often face a glass ceiling at work due to discrimination on racial grounds which can be overt (obvious) or more likely covert (in other words hidden)

poorer pay – ethnic minorities often work in low income jobs wth less job security and prospects for promotion

discrimination in selection process for available jobs – employers often deny job interviews on the ground of race.

Know the meaning of these terms:

Prejudice’To pre-judge people before you know the facts. Prejudice refers to opinions and attitudes held by members of one group towards another. These views are often based on opinion rather than evidence.

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‘Discrimination’To treat people differently, usually badly, because they are different in some way – for example a different skin colour or from a different ethnic group.

(c) Explain why ethnic minorities may have experienced less discrimination in modern industrial societies in recent years.

[6]

Likely answers may focus on:

Changes to the law– changes in the law have helped to combat discrimination and helped ethnic minorities get more equality. The Race Relations Act 1976 makes discrimination against the law.

Changing attitudes of employers towards racism. Changing attitudes about negative racial stereotypes have made employers more likely to want to employ ethnic minorities than before. Changing perceptions of the abilities of the ethnic minorities has also helped with employment prospects.

Skill shortages – this has ensured that ethnic minorities are encouraged to undertake certain jobs to make up for these shortfalls in the labour market. They are now, after training, able to get into areas like ICT where there are shortages

(d) To what extent do ethnic minorities remain disadvantaged throughout their lives? [8]

Ethnic minorities are disadvantaged in all areas of life:

Education

ethnic groups differ greatly in income, housing standards and level of job - these inequalities are the often the cause of differences in educational attainment

there is evidence that those ethnic groups which do very badly are those with the highest level of deprivation

the attitudes of teachers is important in motivating students – often teachers have lower expectations of certain ethnic groups

there is discrimination in the process of streaming and options choices for ethnic minorities

the educational success of the child was closely related to the

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educational standards of the parents students born in Britain had parents not fluent in English so may

not have shared cultural values

health

ethnic minorities have a shorter life expectancy caused by social and economic conditions

ethnic minorities are less likely to use health services especially older people possibly because they don’t speak English

Work generally people from ethnic minorities are less likely to be in

professional and managerial positions and more often in lower paid and routine work.

They are all under represented in the professions (like law) and senior management positions

They are less likely to be promoted They are more likely to do shift work and part-time work They have higher unemployment rates than the average They have lower incomes than the average

Criminal Justice System Ethnic minorities are more likely to be attacked and harassed. There is also evidence that not only are they victims of violence

from the general public but they are also not treated equally by the criminal justice system.

Young black males are more likely to be stopped and arrested by the police

Sociologists have uncovered what they call a ‘canteen culture’ among some police in which racist language and beliefs are freely expressed.

An official inquiry in 1999 was held into the racist murder of black youth Stephen Lawrence.

The inquiry accused the Metropolitan Police (the London Police force) of Institutional Racism meaning that racist ideas and attitudes exist throughout the police force and influence the way the police operate

So some ethnic minorities remain disadvantaged throughout their lives and seem to be trapped in a cycle of poverty and deprivation.

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