Discourse Studies 2Discourse Studies 2

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Spoken and Written LanguageSpoken and Written Language

Written language is not simply speech written down.Written language is not simply speech written down. They are different because they evolve to serve They are different because they evolve to serve

different functions.different functions. Early writing tended to be oriented towards goods and Early writing tended to be oriented towards goods and

services: law, codes of behaviour, transaction.services: law, codes of behaviour, transaction. Artistic functions originated in the spoken language, Artistic functions originated in the spoken language,

and were only later written downand were only later written down Spoken language is more context dependent; writen Spoken language is more context dependent; writen

language tends to be more independent of its language tends to be more independent of its immediate context.immediate context.

SPOKEN AND WRITTEN SPOKEN AND WRITTEN LANGUAGELANGUAGE

CONTINUUM CONTINUUM

Most Spoken Most Written

Spoken Language

Written Language

Language accompanying action Language as reflection

The ContinuumThe Continuum

Most SpokenMost Spoken Context dependentContext dependent Language in actionLanguage in action Language as process Language as process

(dynamic)(dynamic)

Most WrittenMost Written Context independentContext independent Language as reflectionLanguage as reflection Language as product Language as product

(synoptic)(synoptic)

Different FeaturesDifferent Features

Turn taking Turn taking organisationorganisation

Context dependentContext dependent Dynamic structureDynamic structure Interactive stagingInteractive staging Open endedOpen ended Spontaneity Spontaneity

phenomena (false phenomena (false start, hesitation etc.)start, hesitation etc.)

Monologic Monologic organizationorganization

Context independentContext independent Synoptic structureSynoptic structure Rhetorical stagingRhetorical staging Closed / FiniteClosed / Finite Final draft/polishedFinal draft/polished (indication of earlier (indication of earlier

draft removed)draft removed)

Different FeaturesDifferent Features

Everyday lexisEveryday lexis Non-standard Non-standard

grammargrammar Grammatical Grammatical

complexitycomplexity Lexically sparseLexically sparse

Prestige lexisPrestige lexis Standard grammarStandard grammar

Grammatical Grammatical simplicitysimplicity

Lexically denseLexically dense

Context DependentContext Dependent

Meanings are recovered by contextMeanings are recovered by context Not everything should be explicitly statedNot everything should be explicitly stated Stating everything may result in Stating everything may result in

“overexplicitness”, thus, unnatural“overexplicitness”, thus, unnatural Language choice depends on context of Language choice depends on context of

situation (tenor, field, mode)situation (tenor, field, mode)

Context IndependentContext Independent

Meanings and context are created and Meanings and context are created and presented by writers.presented by writers.

Everything should be presented for clarity.Everything should be presented for clarity. Completeness is necessary.Completeness is necessary. Language choice is based on the imagined Language choice is based on the imagined

readersreaders

Dynamic StructureDynamic Structure

Structures are repeatedStructures are repeated Interactive stagingInteractive staging Open-endedOpen-ended A lot of opening and re-openingA lot of opening and re-opening A lot of topicsA lot of topics

Synoptic StructureSynoptic Structure

Generic structure potential: Generic structure potential: recount, recount, procedure, report etc.procedure, report etc.

Rhetorical stagingRhetorical staging Closed / finite / fixedClosed / finite / fixed

Spontaneity PhenomenaSpontaneity Phenomena

Incomplete clausesIncomplete clauses GambitsGambits False startFalse start Topic terminationTopic termination OverlapOverlap InterruptionInterruption Etc.Etc.

Final DraftFinal Draft

Well structuredWell structured Complete sentencesComplete sentences Well punctuatedWell punctuated Free from spelling mistakesFree from spelling mistakes Undergoes several editing processesUndergoes several editing processes Polished languagePolished language

Everyday vs. prestige lexisEveryday vs. prestige lexis

StartStart LivelyLively FunFun GuysGuys

CommenceCommence VivaciousVivacious JoyfulJoyful Ladies and gentlemenLadies and gentlemen Etc.Etc.

Standard vs. Non-standard Standard vs. Non-standard grammargrammar

There’s a lot of people.There’s a lot of people. It’s me!It’s me! I wanna go I wanna go I ain’t goingI ain’t going

There are many There are many people.people.

It is I.It is I. I want to goI want to go I am not goingI am not going

Grammatical Complexity &Grammatical Complexity &Lexically sparseLexically sparse

Hey, I tell you what! Yesterday I went to… Hey, I tell you what! Yesterday I went to… you know this place? They call it Guci. It’s you know this place? They call it Guci. It’s somewhere around this city… what do you somewhere around this city… what do you call it? The city that people plant those call it? The city that people plant those shallots and also lots of salted duck eggs? I shallots and also lots of salted duck eggs? I think it starts with B or something. From think it starts with B or something. From here it’s rather far… I think it’s after Tegal.here it’s rather far… I think it’s after Tegal.

Grammatical SimplicityGrammatical Simplicity &&Lexically DenseLexically Dense

Yesterday I went to a Yesterday I went to a little townlittle town called Guci. called Guci. It is a It is a small cool citysmall cool city located at a located at a cool cool mountain slopemountain slope not far from Brebes. not far from Brebes. Usually people come to Guci to enjoy Usually people come to Guci to enjoy some some hot-water springshot-water springs that are believed to have that are believed to have strong soothing effectsstrong soothing effects to those who suffer to those who suffer fromfrom water-born skin diseases water-born skin diseases caused by caused by badly managed sewage sanitationbadly managed sewage sanitation..

Spoken LanguageSpoken Language

Based on clausesBased on clauses Subjects/objects: simple pronouns (you, I) Subjects/objects: simple pronouns (you, I)

or noun phrase (my father, the houseor noun phrase (my father, the house Gambits: help clarify interpersonal Gambits: help clarify interpersonal

meaningsmeanings Fillers (well…, uhm…, right…)Fillers (well…, uhm…, right…) More emphasis on interpersonal meaningsMore emphasis on interpersonal meanings

Written LanguageWritten Language

Based on sentenceBased on sentence Subjects/Objects are realised in complex Subjects/Objects are realised in complex

noun phrasesnoun phrases Use of passive patterns (less personal, Use of passive patterns (less personal,

objectified)objectified) More emphasis on ideational meaningsMore emphasis on ideational meanings

Spoken: grammatical intricacySpoken: grammatical intricacy(G&W 1995:162-163)(G&W 1995:162-163)

I can’t mind the kids todayI can’t mind the kids today

Because I must go to fotball trainingBecause I must go to fotball training

And can’t leave earlyAnd can’t leave early

Because we’ve got an important game on SaturdayBecause we’ve got an important game on Saturday

And if we win itAnd if we win it

We go into the finalsWe go into the finals

Because I don’t have trainingBecause I don’t have training

So I can mind them thenSo I can mind them then

If that’s Ok with youIf that’s Ok with you

Written Form: Lexical densityWritten Form: Lexical density(p.164)(p.164)

Due to the importance of a win in Saturday’s football Due to the importance of a win in Saturday’s football game as a pre-requisite for a final appearance, the game as a pre-requisite for a final appearance, the necessity of my training attendance diminishes necessity of my training attendance diminishes my child minding capacity tonightmy child minding capacity tonight

However, the lack of an attendance requirement on However, the lack of an attendance requirement on Wednesday allows my availability consequent Wednesday allows my availability consequent upon your approval.upon your approval.

What has changed?What has changed?

The way the information is distributed, the The way the information is distributed, the number of content words per clause has number of content words per clause has risen dramatically.risen dramatically.

The lexical density has risen.The lexical density has risen. Grammatical changes push the lexical Grammatical changes push the lexical

density up.density up. The key difference in grammar is the The key difference in grammar is the

amount of grammatical metaphor.amount of grammatical metaphor.

NominalisationNominalisation

Much information that was spread outbin the Much information that was spread outbin the spoken language has been condensed by way of spoken language has been condensed by way of nominatisation.nominatisation.

e.g.e.g.• because I must go to football training (clause)because I must go to football training (clause)• The necessity of my training requirement (noun The necessity of my training requirement (noun

phrase)phrase)

Example (Halliday 1989)Example (Halliday 1989)

SpokenSpoken::This is yer phone bill and you hafta go to the post This is yer phone bill and you hafta go to the post

office to pay it – uh by next Monday, that’s what office to pay it – uh by next Monday, that’s what this bax tells ya – or they’ll cut the phone off.this bax tells ya – or they’ll cut the phone off.

WrittenWritten::All phone bills must be paid by the date shown or All phone bills must be paid by the date shown or

service will be discontinued.service will be discontinued.

Approaches to Approaches to DiscourseDiscourse

See D. Schiffrin 2004See D. Schiffrin 2004

Speech Act Theory Speech Act Theory (Austin 1955, Searle 1969)(Austin 1955, Searle 1969)

– A logico-philosophic perspective on conversational A logico-philosophic perspective on conversational organization focusing on organization focusing on interpretationinterpretation rather rather than the production of utterances in discourse.than the production of utterances in discourse.

– From the basic belief that language is used to From the basic belief that language is used to perform actions.perform actions.

– Every utterance can be analyzed as the realization Every utterance can be analyzed as the realization of the speaker’s intent (of the speaker’s intent (illocutionary forceillocutionary force) to ) to achieve a particular purpose.achieve a particular purpose.

– Neither Austin nor Searle were concerned with the Neither Austin nor Searle were concerned with the analysis of continuous discourse.analysis of continuous discourse.

Speech Act TheorySpeech Act Theory

– Unit of analysis: Unit of analysis: speech actspeech act (SA) or (SA) or illocutionary force illocutionary force (IF)(IF)..

– Principal problems: the lack of a one-to-one match up Principal problems: the lack of a one-to-one match up between discourse function (IF) and the grammatical form.between discourse function (IF) and the grammatical form.

– Provides the insight that the basic unit of conversational Provides the insight that the basic unit of conversational analysis must be functionally motivated rather than formally analysis must be functionally motivated rather than formally defined one.defined one.

– Systemic name : Systemic name : speech functionspeech function (SF) – central issue in (SF) – central issue in discourse structure.discourse structure.

Basic speech function / speech act Basic speech function / speech act system (G&W, 1995:23)system (G&W, 1995:23)

give invite to receivegive invite to receive

rolerole demand invite to givedemand invite to give

goods and services objects and actionsgoods and services objects and actions

commoditycommodity information facts and opinioninformation facts and opinion

(language)(language)

Actional CompetenceActional CompetenceCelce-Murcia et al. (1995:22)Celce-Murcia et al. (1995:22)

INTERPERSONAL EXCHANGEINTERPERSONAL EXCHANGE Greeting and leave-takingGreeting and leave-taking Making introductions, identifying oneselfMaking introductions, identifying oneself Extending, accepting and declining invitations Extending, accepting and declining invitations and offersand offers Making and breaking engagementsMaking and breaking engagements Expressing and acknowledging gratitudeExpressing and acknowledging gratitude Complementing and congratulatingComplementing and congratulating Reacting to the interlocutor's speechReacting to the interlocutor's speech showing attention, interest, surprise, sympathy, happiness, showing attention, interest, surprise, sympathy, happiness,

disbelief, disappointmentdisbelief, disappointment

INFORMATIONINFORMATION -- Asking for and giving informationAsking for and giving information -- Reporting (describing and narrating)Reporting (describing and narrating) -- RememberingRemembering -- Explaining and discussingExplaining and discussingOPINIONSOPINIONS -- Expressing and finding out about opinions and Expressing and finding out about opinions and attitudesattitudes -- Agreeing and disagreeingAgreeing and disagreeing -- Approving and disapprovingApproving and disapproving -- Showing satisfaction and dissatisfactionShowing satisfaction and dissatisfaction

FEELINGSFEELINGS Expressing and finding out about feelingsExpressing and finding out about feelings love, happiness, sadness, pleasure, anxiety, anger, love, happiness, sadness, pleasure, anxiety, anger,

embarrassment, pain, relief, fear,embarrassment, pain, relief, fear, annoyance, surprise, etc.annoyance, surprise, etc.SUASIONSUASION Suggesting, requesting and instructingSuggesting, requesting and instructing Giving orders, advising and warningGiving orders, advising and warning Persuading, encouraging and discouragingPersuading, encouraging and discouraging Asking for, granting and witholding permissionAsking for, granting and witholding permission

PROBLEMSPROBLEMS -- Complaining and criticizingComplaining and criticizing -- Blaming and accusingBlaming and accusing -- Admitting and denyingAdmitting and denying -- RegrettingRegretting -- Apologising and forgivingApologising and forgivingFUTURE SCENARIOSFUTURE SCENARIOS -- Expressing and finding out about wishes, hopes, and Expressing and finding out about wishes, hopes, and

desiresdesires -- Expressing and eliciting plans, goals and intentionsExpressing and eliciting plans, goals and intentions -- PromisingPromising -- Predicting and speculatingPredicting and speculating -- Discussing possibilities and capabilities of doing Discussing possibilities and capabilities of doing

somethingsomethingKNOWLEDGE OF SPEECH ACT SETSKNOWLEDGE OF SPEECH ACT SETS

Interactional SociolinguisticsInteractional Sociolinguistics

Interactional Sociolinguistics (Gumperz 1982, Goffman Interactional Sociolinguistics (Gumperz 1982, Goffman 1959-1981)1959-1981)

– Grows out of the work of anthropologists.Grows out of the work of anthropologists.– Centrally concerned with the importance of context Centrally concerned with the importance of context

in the production and interpretation of discourse.in the production and interpretation of discourse.– Units of analysis: grammatical and prosodic features Units of analysis: grammatical and prosodic features

in interactions.in interactions.– Gumperz demonstrated that interactants from Gumperz demonstrated that interactants from

different socio-cultural backgrounds may “hear” and different socio-cultural backgrounds may “hear” and understand discourse differently according to their understand discourse differently according to their interpretation contextualisation cues in discourse. interpretation contextualisation cues in discourse. E.g. intonation contours, ‘speaking for another’, E.g. intonation contours, ‘speaking for another’, alignment, gender.alignment, gender.

Ethnography of Ethnography of CommunicationCommunication

Ethnography of Communication (Dell Hymes (1972b, Ethnography of Communication (Dell Hymes (1972b, 1974)1974)

– Concerned with understanding the social context of linguistic Concerned with understanding the social context of linguistic interactions: ‘who says what to whom, when, where. Why, and interactions: ‘who says what to whom, when, where. Why, and how’.how’.

– Prime unit of analysisPrime unit of analysis: speech event: speech event. . – Definition: ‘The speech event is to what analysis of verbal Definition: ‘The speech event is to what analysis of verbal

interaction what the sentence is to grammar … It represents an interaction what the sentence is to grammar … It represents an extension in the size of the basic analytical unit from the single extension in the size of the basic analytical unit from the single utterance to stretches of utterances, as well as a shift in focus utterance to stretches of utterances, as well as a shift in focus from … text to … interaction’.from … text to … interaction’.

– Speech event refers to ‘activities … that are directly governed Speech event refers to ‘activities … that are directly governed by rules or norms for the use of speech’ (Hymes 1972:56)by rules or norms for the use of speech’ (Hymes 1972:56)

– Speech event comprises components (Hymes SPEAKING grid).Speech event comprises components (Hymes SPEAKING grid).

– Analysis of these components of a speech event is central to what Analysis of these components of a speech event is central to what became known as became known as ethnography of communicationethnography of communication or ethnography or ethnography of speaking, with the ethnographer’s aim being to discover rules of speaking, with the ethnographer’s aim being to discover rules of appropriateness in speech events.of appropriateness in speech events.

– Genres often coincides with speech eventsGenres often coincides with speech events– The ethnographic framework has led to broader notions of The ethnographic framework has led to broader notions of

communicative competencecommunicative competence..– Problem: Lack of explicitness in Hymes’ account on the Problem: Lack of explicitness in Hymes’ account on the

relationship between genre and other components of the speaking relationship between genre and other components of the speaking grid and their expression in language andgrid and their expression in language and

Recognition of the close relationship between speech Recognition of the close relationship between speech events and their social/cultural contextsevents and their social/cultural contexts

PragmaticsPragmatics(Grice 1975, Leech 1983, Levinson (Grice 1975, Leech 1983, Levinson

1983)1983)

– Formulates conversational behaviour in terms of general Formulates conversational behaviour in terms of general “principles” rather than rules.“principles” rather than rules.

– At the base of pragmatic approach is to conversation analysis At the base of pragmatic approach is to conversation analysis is Gricean’s is Gricean’s co-operative principleco-operative principle (CP). (CP).

– This principle seeks to account for not only how participants This principle seeks to account for not only how participants decide what to DO next in conversation, but also how decide what to DO next in conversation, but also how interlocutors go about interpreting what the previous speaker interlocutors go about interpreting what the previous speaker has just done.has just done.

– This principle is the broken down into specific maxims: This principle is the broken down into specific maxims: Quantity (say only as much as necessary), Quality (try to make Quantity (say only as much as necessary), Quality (try to make your contribution one that is true), Relation (be relevant), and your contribution one that is true), Relation (be relevant), and manner (be brief and avoid ambiguitymanner (be brief and avoid ambiguity).).

– Provides useful means of characterizing different Provides useful means of characterizing different varieties of conversation, e.g. in interactions, one varieties of conversation, e.g. in interactions, one can deliberately try to be provocative or can deliberately try to be provocative or consensual.consensual.

– Significant problem: it implies that conversations Significant problem: it implies that conversations occur co-operatively, between equals where power occur co-operatively, between equals where power is equally distributed etc.is equally distributed etc.

– In reality: conversations involve levels of In reality: conversations involve levels of disagreement and resistance; power is constantly disagreement and resistance; power is constantly under contestationunder contestation..

– Schiffrin (1987): focused on quantitative interactive Schiffrin (1987): focused on quantitative interactive sociolinguistic analysis, esp. discourse markers sociolinguistic analysis, esp. discourse markers (defined as ‘sequentially dependent elements which (defined as ‘sequentially dependent elements which bracket units of talk).bracket units of talk).

– Schiffrin’s unit of analysis: Schiffrin’s unit of analysis: turnturn..– Basic concern: the accomplishment of conversational Basic concern: the accomplishment of conversational

coherence. coherence. – She argues for the importance of both qualitative and She argues for the importance of both qualitative and

quantitative / distributional analysis in order to quantitative / distributional analysis in order to determine the function of the different discourse determine the function of the different discourse markers in conversation.markers in conversation.

Conversation Analysis (CA) Conversation Analysis (CA) (Harold Garfinkel 1960s-1970s)(Harold Garfinkel 1960s-1970s)

– Garfinkel (sociologist) concern: to understand Garfinkel (sociologist) concern: to understand how social members make sense of everyday how social members make sense of everyday life.life.

– Sack, Schegloff, Jefferson (1973)tried to explain Sack, Schegloff, Jefferson (1973)tried to explain how conversation can happen at all.how conversation can happen at all.

– CA is a branch of ethnomethodology.CA is a branch of ethnomethodology.– Two grossly apparent facts: a) only one person Two grossly apparent facts: a) only one person

speaks at a time, and b) speakers change recurs. speaks at a time, and b) speakers change recurs. Thus conversation is a ‘turn taking’ activity.Thus conversation is a ‘turn taking’ activity.

– Speakers recognize points of potential speekar Speakers recognize points of potential speekar change – turn constructional unit (TCU).change – turn constructional unit (TCU).

– CA identified TCU as the critical units of CA identified TCU as the critical units of conversation, it has not specified exactly how a conversation, it has not specified exactly how a TCU boundary can be recognized in any situation.TCU boundary can be recognized in any situation.

– Models conversation as infinitely generative turn-Models conversation as infinitely generative turn-taking machine, where interactants try to avoid taking machine, where interactants try to avoid lapse: the possibility that no one is speaking.lapse: the possibility that no one is speaking.

– Contribution: the identification of ‘adjacency pairs’: Contribution: the identification of ‘adjacency pairs’: conversational relatedness operating between conversational relatedness operating between adjacent utterances.adjacent utterances.

– Adjacency pair: first and second pair parts.Adjacency pair: first and second pair parts.– Major problems: a) lack of systematicity- thus Major problems: a) lack of systematicity- thus

quantitative analysis is impossible; 2) limited I its quantitative analysis is impossible; 2) limited I its ability to deal comprehensively with complete, ability to deal comprehensively with complete, sustained interactions; 3) though offers a powerful sustained interactions; 3) though offers a powerful interpretation of conversation as dynamic interpretation of conversation as dynamic interactive achievement, it is unable to say just interactive achievement, it is unable to say just what kind of achievement it iswhat kind of achievement it is

Variation AnalysisVariation Analysis (Labov 1972a, Labov and Waletzky 1967)(Labov 1972a, Labov and Waletzky 1967)

– L & W argue that fundamental narrative structures L & W argue that fundamental narrative structures are evident in spoken narratives of personal are evident in spoken narratives of personal experience.experience.

– The overall structure of fully formed narrative of The overall structure of fully formed narrative of personal experience involves six stages: 1) Abstract, personal experience involves six stages: 1) Abstract, 2) Orientation, 3) Complication, 4) Evaluation, 5) 2) Orientation, 3) Complication, 4) Evaluation, 5) Resolution, 6) Coda where 1) and 6) are optional.Resolution, 6) Coda where 1) and 6) are optional.

– Strength: its clarity and applicability.Strength: its clarity and applicability.– Problems: data was obtained from interviews.Problems: data was obtained from interviews.– Variationists’ approach to discourse stems from Variationists’ approach to discourse stems from

quantitative of linguistic change and variation.quantitative of linguistic change and variation.– Although typically focused on social and linguistic Although typically focused on social and linguistic

constraints on semantically equivalent variants, the constraints on semantically equivalent variants, the approach has also been extended to texts.approach has also been extended to texts.

Structural-Functional Structural-Functional Approaches to ConversationApproaches to Conversation