DISCOURSEDISCOURSE

DEVELOPMENTDEVELOPMENT

VEYSEL AHMET YETKIN

SIBEL GULEC

SENCAN TUNC

YASEMIN YELKEN

2N3

FFor children there is more to or children there is more to becoming a good speaker than becoming a good speaker than simply acquiring the syntax, simply acquiring the syntax, phonology and vocabulary of their phonology and vocabulary of their native language. They need to native language. They need to acquire a variety of discourse and acquire a variety of discourse and conversational skills.conversational skills.

Establishing a topic of conversationEstablishing a topic of conversation Keeping the topic going and Keeping the topic going and

developing a coherent dialoguedeveloping a coherent dialogue Learning how to take turnsLearning how to take turns Learning how to use language Learning how to use language

politelypolitely Recipient designRecipient design

Establishing a topic ofEstablishing a topic of

conversationconversation

While establishing a conversational topic, While establishing a conversational topic, children often pause and wait for adult children often pause and wait for adult

confirmation before continuing. Initially, the confirmation before continuing. Initially, the adults seeks clarification from child but as adults seeks clarification from child but as they grow older, children initiate their own they grow older, children initiate their own

repairs when they understand that their repairs when they understand that their utterance has not been successful.utterance has not been successful.

There is a variety of factors that There is a variety of factors that account for children’s early difficulties account for children’s early difficulties

in establishing a topicin establishing a topic : :

Children have a limited attention Children have a limited attention span and are easily distracted by the span and are easily distracted by the environmentenvironment..

Young children’s inability to take the Young children’s inability to take the perspective of their listener can also perspective of their listener can also cause problems.cause problems. This can lead to the This can lead to the problems when children attemp to problems when children attemp to use deictic visual and spatial terms use deictic visual and spatial terms such as here, there, this, that.such as here, there, this, that.

Immature syntax and children’s tendency to Immature syntax and children’s tendency to assume that “adults know everything” can assume that “adults know everything” can also make their contributions appear also make their contributions appear irrelevant to the topic atirrelevant to the topic at ha hand.nd. While children While children frequently assume that the hearer can simply frequently assume that the hearer can simply ““piece together’’ the relationship between the piece together’’ the relationship between the various aspects of the topic, adults expect various aspects of the topic, adults expect contingency and relevancy.contingency and relevancy.

In establishing a topic, young children initially In establishing a topic, young children initially rely quite heavily on contextual cues and on rely quite heavily on contextual cues and on gestures and naming.gestures and naming.

Here are two examples that illustrate some of the difficulties Here are two examples that illustrate some of the difficulties outlined by Keenan and Schieffelin. In both conversations, outlined by Keenan and Schieffelin. In both conversations,

Sophie (C), aged 3;11 is talking with her mother (M). The data Sophie (C), aged 3;11 is talking with her mother (M). The data is from Fletcher (1985):is from Fletcher (1985):

C: I got a headache.C: I got a headache. M: oh darling, have you?M: oh darling, have you? C: mmm, can we have some cucumber for lunch?C: mmm, can we have some cucumber for lunch? M: cucumber? yeah if you want to.M: cucumber? yeah if you want to. C: cuz I need some. I need a cool bit.C: cuz I need some. I need a cool bit. M: you need some cucumber, do you?M: you need some cucumber, do you? C: cuz I need the cold bit to spread on my face and it goes away.C: cuz I need the cold bit to spread on my face and it goes away. M: oh Sophie.M: oh Sophie.

C: (telling her mother about about a television program she had seen) um – C: (telling her mother about about a television program she had seen) um – um – he – he had is own room, and – he - he had a pointy thing and a um – he – he had is own room, and – he - he had a pointy thing and a machine, you see.machine, you see.

M: a machineM: a machine C: and – and – he heard he say if you push that button again, and the man C: and – and – he heard he say if you push that button again, and the man

did and you see and – um – he – and he – and all the paper flied out inside.did and you see and – um – he – and he – and all the paper flied out inside. M: oh because it was a wind machine.M: oh because it was a wind machine. C: yes.C: yes.

Keeping the topic going and Keeping the topic going and developing a coherent developing a coherent

dialoguedialogueBy saying coherence we mean an orderly flow ofBy saying coherence we mean an orderly flow ofinformation that make sense to the listener.information that make sense to the listener.As children become older their linguistic and social As children become older their linguistic and social

skillsskillsincrease. Social skills are about how they interact withincrease. Social skills are about how they interact withwhom.whom.

For example: 4 year olds speak in more simplifiedFor example: 4 year olds speak in more simplifiedlanguage to younger children than to same agelanguage to younger children than to same agechildren and adults.children and adults.

4 year old to a 2 year old child: come, milk?4 year old to a 2 year old child: come, milk?

3;8 – 4;0: It is preschool period that children 3;8 – 4;0: It is preschool period that children begin to develop the ability to initiate a begin to develop the ability to initiate a conversation and secure an appropriate conversation and secure an appropriate response.response.

Jessica: I take the baby(toy) and you takeJessica: I take the baby(toy) and you take the car.(i)the car.(i) Robert: Yes.Robert: Yes. Jessica: You have blue pants and I haveJessica: You have blue pants and I have pink shirt, don’t I?(i)pink shirt, don’t I?(i) Robert: Yes.Robert: Yes.

4;0 – 4;7: The acquisition of auxiliary verbs 4;0 – 4;7: The acquisition of auxiliary verbs and negation allows for greater continuity.and negation allows for greater continuity.

>and that’s all (i) and then we’ll go back >and that’s all (i) and then we’ll go back home see.(continuing,i)home see.(continuing,i)

>no he’ll give the other children some.(r,i)>no he’ll give the other children some.(r,i) >no cos there’s no more children.(r,i)>no cos there’s no more children.(r,i) >there is.(r,i)>there is.(r,i) >there isn’t.(r,i)>there isn’t.(r,i) >there is.(r,i)>there is.(r,i)

4;7 – 4;10: Utterences increasingly continue as 4;7 – 4;10: Utterences increasingly continue as children have the ability to encode justifications and children have the ability to encode justifications and casual relationships.casual relationships.

>if you had a toy one and i had a toy one and he had >if you had a toy one and i had a toy one and he had a real one it’d be good (i) we’d all be taking pictures a real one it’d be good (i) we’d all be taking pictures of Jason (continuing,i) and my daddy. (continuing,i)of Jason (continuing,i) and my daddy. (continuing,i)

>yes he’d be taking lots of pictures of us instead of >yes he’d be taking lots of pictures of us instead of us taking pictures of ourselves. (r,i)us taking pictures of ourselves. (r,i)

>yes (r) how could we take pictures of ourselves. >yes (r) how could we take pictures of ourselves. (continuing,i)(continuing,i)

>no I could take a picture of you and you could take >no I could take a picture of you and you could take a picture of me. (r,i)a picture of me. (r,i)>yes but they wouldn’t come out like real cameras. >yes but they wouldn’t come out like real cameras. (continuing,i)(continuing,i)

Learning how to take turnsLearning how to take turns In the 1970s,Jerome Bruner and Catherine Snow pointed In the 1970s,Jerome Bruner and Catherine Snow pointed

out that it is very important to establish turn-taking out that it is very important to establish turn-taking behaviour long before children actually start talking.behaviour long before children actually start talking.

We sometimes speak with babies as if there were a turn We sometimes speak with babies as if there were a turn taking like in this example:taking like in this example:

Ann: (smiles)Ann: (smiles) Mother: oh what a nice smile. yes isn’t that nice? there. Mother: oh what a nice smile. yes isn’t that nice? there. there is a little nice smilethere is a little nice smile Ann: (burps)Ann: (burps) Mother: what a nice little wind as well. yes, that’s better Mother: what a nice little wind as well. yes, that’s better isn’t it? yes. yes.isn’t it? yes. yes. Ann: (vocalizes)Ann: (vocalizes) Mother: there’s a nice noise.Mother: there’s a nice noise.

Verbal plays that young children engage in Verbal plays that young children engage in each other also provide valuable practice in each other also provide valuable practice in turn-taking.turn-taking.

e.g. ‘kutu kutu pense’ (each child says this e.g. ‘kutu kutu pense’ (each child says this song after another)song after another)

‘ ‘tekerlemeli oyunlar’tekerlemeli oyunlar’

While they are playing, they learn turn While they are playing, they learn turn taking.taking.

Nevertheless, young children are Nevertheless, young children are usually perceived to be incompetent usually perceived to be incompetent turn-takers. Because older speakers turn-takers. Because older speakers think that the contributions of young think that the contributions of young children will be irrelevant or delayed. children will be irrelevant or delayed. This affect their turn taking This affect their turn taking behaviour negatively.behaviour negatively.

The younger the child, the more likely their attemps to initiate a The younger the child, the more likely their attemps to initiate a new topic will be ignored by older speakers and the more likely new topic will be ignored by older speakers and the more likely they are to be interrupted or overleapped (two speakers talking they are to be interrupted or overleapped (two speakers talking simultaneously), despite the fact that children are the ones widely simultaneously), despite the fact that children are the ones widely perceived as ‘interrupters’. This exchange from Ervin-Tripp (1979) perceived as ‘interrupters’. This exchange from Ervin-Tripp (1979) involves a young child ‘‘T’’ (C), ‘‘T’s’’ mother (M), and a resarcher. involves a young child ‘‘T’’ (C), ‘‘T’s’’ mother (M), and a resarcher. C wants to turn on the lawn sprinklers:C wants to turn on the lawn sprinklers:

C: Mommy.C: Mommy.M: T. has a little problem with his patience. We’re working on M: T. has a little problem with his patience. We’re working on patience. What’s patience, T.?patience. What’s patience, T.?C: Nothing.C: Nothing.M: Come on.M: Come on.C: I want to turn them -C: I want to turn them - (at the same time)(at the same time)M: What is –M: What is –C: on now.C: on now.M: patience? Can you remember?M: patience? Can you remember?

Some of this difficulty relates to the Some of this difficulty relates to the problems outlined above in learning problems outlined above in learning how to establish a topic and some how to establish a topic and some comes from children’s relative comes from children’s relative cognitive immaturity. cognitive immaturity. Sometimes Sometimes they don’t know the points where it they don’t know the points where it would be appropriate for them to would be appropriate for them to have a turn.have a turn.

Learning how to use language Learning how to use language politelypolitely

When children first start to use language, When children first start to use language, it’s not it’s not confined to naming things or commenting on confined to naming things or commenting on themthem. They also use language to participate in . They also use language to participate in social events thsocial events thrrough ritualized formulas like ough ritualized formulas like “bye”,“bye”, ““hello’’, hello’’, “thank you”,“thank you”, “welcome”“welcome”..CChildren’s ability to make and interpret polite hildren’s ability to make and interpret polite request will depend partly on children’s syntactic request will depend partly on children’s syntactic developments. Before they master auxiliary developments. Before they master auxiliary verbs, early requests can be quite blunt. verbs, early requests can be quite blunt.

For example;For example;Gimme cookie / Can I have some cookie?Gimme cookie / Can I have some cookie?

The relative status of different participants in the conversation, theThe relative status of different participants in the conversation, thedegree of familiarity or social distance between them, and relativedegree of familiarity or social distance between them, and relativecosts to the listener receiving the request are other factors costs to the listener receiving the request are other factors

determiningdeterminingpoliteness.politeness.

Examples:Examples:

In the imperative formIn the imperative form Odanı temizle.Odanı temizle.

As a question in the interrogative formAs a question in the interrogative form Odanı temizler misin? / Kaç kere odanı temizlemeni Odanı temizler misin? / Kaç kere odanı temizlemeni

söyleyeceğim?söyleyeceğim?

As a statement in the declerative formAs a statement in the declerative form Bu oda çok karışık.Bu oda çok karışık.

Difference in status, vertical social distanceDifference in status, vertical social distance Televizyonu aç. (if said to a friend or to stranger)Televizyonu aç. (if said to a friend or to stranger)

Difference in familiarity, horizontal social distanceDifference in familiarity, horizontal social distance Kalem ver. (if said to a friend or to a stranger) Kalem ver. (if said to a friend or to a stranger)

Difference in the degree of the request’s cost to Difference in the degree of the request’s cost to the recipientthe recipient Kitabını alıyorum. / Yeni dizüstü bilgisayarını Kitabını alıyorum. / Yeni dizüstü bilgisayarını alıyorum.alıyorum. (if said to same friend)(if said to same friend)

Various forms of directives emerge Various forms of directives emerge in children (Ervin-Tripp)in children (Ervin-Tripp)

Prelinguistic directives: 0;9 – 1;3Prelinguistic directives: 0;9 – 1;3Give me thatGive me that

Telegraphic directives: 1;3 – 2;0Telegraphic directives: 1;3 – 2;0That mine. Gimme. More cookie.That mine. Gimme. More cookie.

Limited routines: 2;0 – 2;4Limited routines: 2;0 – 2;4Where’s my X? Is there X?Where’s my X? Is there X?

Embedded requests: 2;4 – 3;8Embedded requests: 2;4 – 3;8Could you give me one? Can I have a glass of Could you give me one? Can I have a glass of water.water.

Advanced embedding: 3;8 – 5;7Advanced embedding: 3;8 – 5;7Why don’t you buy some candy.Why don’t you buy some candy.

Hints: 2;5 – 4+Hints: 2;5 – 4+I can’t do it, Daddy (meaning do it for me)I can’t do it, Daddy (meaning do it for me)

Eleborate oblique strategies – desire mentioned: Eleborate oblique strategies – desire mentioned: 4+4+We haven’t had any candy for a long time.We haven’t had any candy for a long time.

Eleborate oblique strategies – desire not mentioned: 5+Eleborate oblique strategies – desire not mentioned: 5+The child reveales her real reason for asking cucumber for lunch in The child reveales her real reason for asking cucumber for lunch in the example below;the example below; C: I got a headache.C: I got a headache. M: oh darling. have you?M: oh darling. have you? C: mmm. can we have some cucumber for lunch?C: mmm. can we have some cucumber for lunch? M: cucumber? yeah. if you want to.M: cucumber? yeah. if you want to. C: cuz I need some. I need a cool bit.C: cuz I need some. I need a cool bit. M: you need some cucumber do you?M: you need some cucumber do you? C: cuz I need the cold bit to spread on my face and it goes away.C: cuz I need the cold bit to spread on my face and it goes away. M: oh Sophie.M: oh Sophie. C: cuz it does, Mummy.C: cuz it does, Mummy. M: yes. but who on earth have you seen putting cucumber on their M: yes. but who on earth have you seen putting cucumber on their face?face? C: what?C: what? M: who have you seen put cucumber on their face?M: who have you seen put cucumber on their face? C: Griselda.C: Griselda.

Recipient designRecipient design The ability to design our talk to take into account The ability to design our talk to take into account

our conversational partners. To sum up when our conversational partners. To sum up when assessing children’s conversations in terms of assessing children’s conversations in terms of recipient design, we look for these features:recipient design, we look for these features:>The ability to produce appropriately polite >The ability to produce appropriately polite utterances for a particular speaker and a utterances for a particular speaker and a particular situation.particular situation.>The ability to adopt to the recipient’s >The ability to adopt to the recipient’s background knowledge and perspective.background knowledge and perspective.>The ability to be coherent to the topic in a >The ability to be coherent to the topic in a conversation.conversation.>The ability to speak sufficiently clearly for the >The ability to speak sufficiently clearly for the recipient to understand them.recipient to understand them.