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T O P I C S 1 9 3

Disaster Risk Management

Contributions by German Development Cooperation

Contents

Foreword 3

1. Aspects of global change – why is disaster risk management important? 51.1 Climate change – developing countries are particularly hard hit 101.2 Poverty – reducing vulnerability to extreme hazards 141.3 Urbanisation and population growth – disaster vulnerability will increase 17

2. Reducing disaster risks – the state of the national and international debate 20

3. Disaster risk management in development cooperation – a key task of sustainable development 27

3.1 Risk analysis – forward-looking investment planning in Peru's public sector 313.2 Disaster prevention – the example of Mozambique 333.3 Disaster risk management in reconstruction in Indonesia 353.4 Disaster risk management in schools – the action of Sri Lanka’s Ministry

of Education after the tsunami 383.5 Disaster preparedness – examples from Central America 40

4. The outlook – disaster risk management as a long-term commitment for development cooperation 44

Literature 47Abbreviations 48More Information 50Imprint 52

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D I S A S T E R R I S K M A N A G E M E N T


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Large-scale natural disasters frequently causemassive economic and environmental damageand inflict extreme suffering on the affectedcommunities. They are a significant impedimentto development and put the attainment of theMillennium Development Goals at risk.

In early May 2008, thousands of people werekilled when Cyclone Nargis swept Myanmar.Soon afterwards, an earthquake devastatedSichuan province in China. Two neighbouringcountries, almost simultaneously, thus had todeal with tens of thousands of dead and missing,ruined cities without power and water, andhunger and disease, all caused by thesedisasters.

In August 2005, Hurricane Katrina highlightedthe political, socioeconomic and cultural dimen -sions of these natural disasters and pitilesslydemonstrated that even highly developed coun-tries such as the US are extremely vulnerable tothe forces of nature. The list of extreme disasterevents could continue indefinitely – and there isa real threat that the frequency and intensity ofextreme weather conditions will increase as aresult of climate change.

People in developing countries are particularlyat risk from the damage caused by natural disas-ters. Poverty crucially influences the degree ofvulnerability to extreme natural events.Women are most at risk, as they account fortwo-thirds of the world’s extreme poor, oftenlack access to information (such as early warn-ings), and do not always receive a fair share ofaid. Statistics show that in the highly developedcountries, the death toll in natural disasters av-erages 22 persons per disaster. In poor countries,by contrast, every disaster claims an average of1052 lives. In poor countries, larger-scale naturaldisasters can also set back the developmentprocess by many years or even decades.

Heidemarie Wieczorek-Zeul, Federal Minister

for Economic Cooperation and Development

However, experience also shows that people canand must prepare for extreme natural events.Very often, previous mismanagement or deficitsare factors which worsen the scale of the disasterand could have been prevented by appropriatedisaster risk management. With correct actionwhich takes account of natural processes, societiescan greatly reduce their vulnerability – or evenprevent disasters such as mudslides or floodingfrom occurring at all.

The international community has becomeincreasingly aware of this nexus since the 1990s.With strengthened resolve following the tsunamiin the Indian Ocean, the Hyogo Framework forAction (HFA, 2005), which builds on the UN’s International Strategy for Disaster Reduction(ISDR), was adopted by international, nationaland non-governmental actors in Kobe, Japan, in2005.

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From now on, instead of passive disasterresponse, there is to be a far greater focus onpreventive disaster risk management. Disasterrisk management is to be integrated into devel-opment and sector planning and in poverty reduction strategies at all levels.

For German development cooperation too, thedisaster/development nexus is an important as-pect: without disaster risk management, the destructive force of natural disasters will contin-ue to wreak devastation, often reversing theprogress being made in the countries withwhich we cooperate, worsening poverty andthus impeding sustainable development.

We therefore fund projects which take accountof disaster risk management and are alreadysupporting numerous programmes in particu-larly vulnerable countries. Especially at-riskgroups such as women, children and the elderlyare a key focus of attention in this context. Theaim is to mainstream disaster risk management

from the outset in project/programme planningand implementation in at-risk regions. Besidesour bilateral activities, we are also acting on ourmultilateral commitments and are supportingthe operationalisation of the Hyogo Frameworkfor Action (HFA).

This publication offers an insight into our effortsto date, our practical strategies and experiences.In view of global trends such as climate change,urbanisation and population growth, we mustface up to these challenges. These trends showthat we should not underestimate the importanceof disaster risk management for the attainmentof the Millennium Development Goals.

K A T A S T R O P H E N V O R S O R G ED I S A S T E R R I S K M A N A G E M E N T

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1. Aspects of global change – Why is disaster risk management important?

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The frequency and intensity of disasters is increas-ing: a comparison of the decades 1980-1989 and1990-1999 shows that the number of major di -sasters increased from 63 to 91 and that economicdamage almost tripled (see Figure 1). In thedecade 1997-2006 extreme weather eventsalone caused 200,000 deaths and directeconomic losses totalling more than EURO 450 billion (Germanwatch, 2008).

It is likely that various global trends, includingclimate change, urbanisation, populationgrowth and poverty, will dramatically increasethe risk of disaster, particularly in developingcountries. The following three sections illustratethe connection between these trends and thelikelihood of disaster, and pinpoint the implica-tions for development cooperation.

What is a natural disaster?

The International Strategy for Disaster Reduction

(ISDR) defines a disaster as “a serious disruption of

the functioning of a community or a society involving

widespread human, material, economic or environ-

mental losses and impacts which exceeds the ability

of the affected community or society to cope using

its own resources”. According to the definitions used

by the United Nations, a natural disaster is consid -

ered to be “major” if the ability of the affected

regions to help themselves is significantly exceeded

and supra-regional or international aid is required.

This is usually the case if the number of people killed

runs into thousands or the number made homeless is

measured in hundreds of thousands, or if the total

damage (depending on the affected country’s eco-

nomic circumstances) or the insured damage is on

an unusually large scale.

What is disaster risk management?

Disaster risk management comprises the whole

systematic and conceptual framework of measures

that are closely linked to each other and that are

taken before a natural hazard occurs with the aim of

limiting or avoiding adverse impacts of a natural

event on society. The central aim is the reduction of

the disaster risk for people living in the regions that

are exposed to natural hazards. Reducing the disaster

risk involves, firstly, reducing the vulnerability of the

population itself to events such as earthquakes, floods

and storms and, secondly, preventing the occurrence

of new hazards, such as landslides caused by inappro-

priate land use or floods caused by deforestation along

the upper reaches of rivers.


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1.6 48.1 7.1 87.5 14.6 151.7 29.9 247.0 1377. 728.8

1950–1959 1960–1969 1970–1979 1980–1989 1990–1999

500

600

400

300

200

100

100

80

60

40

20

Num

ber o

f maj

or n

atur

al d

isas

ters

Number of major natural disasters

Insured damage

Economic damage*

(* in billion US dollars at 2005 values)

Dam

age

in b

illio

n U

S do

llars

21

27

47

63

91

Source: Munich Re, 2006

Damage by major natural disasters

Figure 1

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What does disaster risk management involve?

Disaster risk management consists of the following

elements:

> risk analysis,

> disaster prevention and mitigation,

> disaster preparedness and

> disaster-preventive reconstruction.

There is a risk of natural disaster when a society is exposed

to natural hazards but lacks adequate means and ability to

protect itself from potential negative impacts (vulnerabili-

ty). The risk analysis examines the natural hazard in rela-

tion to the society’s vulnerability, in order to first evaluate

potential damage and losses. This involves calculating the

probability that a natural hazard will occur, identifying vul-

nerability factors in society, drawing up damage scenarios

and evaluating measures for rapid reconstruction in the

event of a disaster. A society’s ability to continue to func-

tion while dealing with a hazard is described as resilience.

Prevention and mitigation covers activities whose long-

term aim is to mitigate the possible adverse impacts of a

natural event and its consequences and provide perma-

nent protection against its effects. Prevention and mitiga-

tion measures may be constructional (e.g. dykes) or norma-

tive and non-material (e.g. land use restrictions). Appropriate

preparedness enables a rapid and effective response to

be made to an imminent disaster. Important elements are

emergency plans, the availability of rescue and emergency

services, emergency medical care, rapid and efficient

transmission of warnings and the availability of means of

communication. Early warning systems as a component

of good preparedness can significantly reduce the impact

of disasters. A good early warning system will promptly

identify and assess a hazard. Warnings are issued to the

affected population and institutions, who respond appro-

priately. Disaster-preventive reconstruction aims to

draw appropriate lessons from the natural disaster and to

include disaster reduction criteria and measures directly in

the reconstruction process (e.g. through building codes).

Risk management

Coping

Nature

Society

Resilience

Natural hazard

Vulnerability

Risk

Risk analysis

Disaster prevention

Disaster preparedness

Rescue services

Humanitarian aid

Disaster-preventivereconstruction

Disaster


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What are the requirements of successful disaster risk management?

Disasters arise only from the combination of a natural

event (hazard) and a society that is vulnerable to this

event. A society’s vulnerability is determined by a number

of economic, social, physical and environmental factors.

Disaster risk management therefore requires the involve-

ment of all relevant sectors (including internal security,

agriculture, education, natural resource management)

and the involvement of civil society groups on an equal

footing. Poor sections of the population, including women

and children, are particularly hard hit by disasters and must

be enabled to protect themselves and their property, and

to play an active part in local risk management strategies.

The particular needs of women must therefore be taken

into account from the outset in the analysis of vulnerability

factors. However, women are not just victims: very often,

they can also make a targeted contribution to the mitiga-

tion of disaster risks. For that reason, gender aspects have

to be considered for successful disaster risk management.

Good governance (effective political institutions, respon-

sibilities and resources that are clearly allocated according

to the subsidiarity principle, and the state’s responsible

handling of political power and public resources) promotes

successful disaster risk management. The aim of disaster

risk management is to reduce disaster risk to a socially

acceptable and manageable level. As a contributor to sus-

tainable development, disaster risk management should

be integrated into poverty reduction strategies.

Classification of vulnerability factors

Physical FactorsK Technical construction/

Quality of settlementsand quality of buildings

K Basic infrastructureK Population growth and

density

Environmental factorsK Usable soilK Usable waterK Vegetation,

bio diversity, forestsK Stability of the

ecosystems

Economic factorsK Socioeconomic statusK Poverty and nutritionK Farming and cultivation systems, technology,

seed and structure of cultivationK Structure of income and economyK Access to resources and services

(water, energy, health, transport)K Reserves and financing opportunitiesK Incentive or sanction systems for preventionK Research and development

Social factors K Traditional knowledge systemsK Risk perceptionK EducationK Legal situation and human rights, property

relationshipK Civil participation, social organisations and

institutionsK Legal frameworks, norms, legislationK Politics, corruptionK Minorities, old and young peopleK Health statusK Power structures and access to information


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1.1 Climate change – developing countries are

particularly hard hit

Anthropogenic climate change has become noticeable far more quickly and on a far greaterscale than was originally forecast. We are alreadywitnessing an increase in extreme weatherevents such as strong precipitations, storms,droughts and heat waves as well as a rise in sealevels.

In its fourth assessment report on the state ofknowledge on climate change, published inFebruary 2007, the Intergovernmental Panel onClimate Change (IPCC) forecast global warmingof between 1.1 and 6.4°C by the year 2100, a risein sea level of between 18 and 59 centimetresand increased intensity of strong precipitationsand storms. These changes are caused by emis-sions of greenhouse gases (GHGs), primarilyfrom fossil fuels but also as a result of large-scaledeforestation.

Depending on local and regional circum stan ces,the consequences of climate change can varywidely. In some regions there will be more fre-quent droughts, while other areas will be more

severely affected by flooding. The melting of theglaciers and permafrost will lead to morefrequent landslides, particularly in mountain -ous regions. Many plant and animal species willmigrate or even become extinct as a result ofchanged climate conditions. Climate change isalready affecting the extent, quality and distri-bution of water resources. Rising temperatureswill cause diseases such as malaria to spread.

Climate change also represents one of the great-est challenges to world food security. As a resultof the predicted climate changes, the total areathat can be used for farming will shrink in manyparts of the world. The productivity of manyagricultural areas will decrease, sometimesdrastically, and the rising prices of basic food -stuffs will spark social and economic tensions.

The Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmen-

tal Panel on Climate Change concludes that the

intensity of tropical storms is likely to increase as a

result of climate change. This is a satellite picture of

Hurricane Isabel off the north coast of the Dominican

Republic in 2003.


1 1

Sensitive ecosystems, coastal zones and regionswith limited potential for adaptation are parti -cularly at risk from the adverse impacts ofclimate change. Countries such as Bangladesh,the Philippines, Indonesia, Madagascar,Mozambique and the countries of CentralAmerica, which are already subjected to floodsand hurricanes, will face intensified extremeweather events as a result of climate change.

In developing countries, however, people’sscope for adapting to changes in climate and

the increasing frequency of extreme weatherevents is limited by their poverty. They aredirectly affected by the consequences and areusually unable to deal with them unaided. Fur-thermore, many people in developing countriesare depen dent on agriculture, which is particu-larly vulnerable to changes in climate. In addition,the capacity of government institutions to adaptto climate change and cope with the increaseddisaster risk is restricted by their weak politicaland institutional structures and limited finan-cial resources.

Many extreme natural events will increase in intensity and/or frequency as a result of climate change.

Rise in sea level Drought

Rise in surfacetemperature

Greater intensity ofextreme weather

eventsFloods

Glacier melt andthawing of

permafrost soils

Landslides

Mudslides

Hurricanes

Climate change

Extreme weather events affected by climate change

Figure 2

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What can be done about the security risk posed by climate change?

In its report “Climate Change as a Security Risk” the German

Advisory Council on Global Change (WBGU, 2007) recom-

mends the following approaches to improving disaster risk

management as part of Initiative 6: ‘Supporting adaptation

strategies for developing countries’:

> “Developing cross-sectoral approaches in develop-ment cooperation: Development cooperation should

develop and implement cross-sectoral strategies for the

mitigation of disaster risks to a greater extent, focusing

especially on emergency planning, adaptation of land-

use planning, establishment of clear decision-making

structures at an early stage, and the inclusion of disaster

mitigation in education programmes. Early warning

systems should be embedded in comprehensive devel-

opment programmes. “

> “Integrating disaster risks into development strate-gies to a greater extent: should be taken into account

in consultations regarding Poverty Reduction Strategy

Papers and in the major poverty reduction programmes.”

If these institutions fail to cope with disasters,the collapse of the country’s infrastructure andsubsequent humanitarian disaster can in extremecases lead to uncontrolled migration and evento crises and conflicts. For this reason the GermanAdvisory Council on Global Change considers itlikely that the number of conflicts that are inducedby and exacerbate disaster will increase.

The extent of the consequences of climatechange described above, some of which can already be seen, depends to a large extent onwhether we succeed in significantly reducingfuture emissions of greenhouse gases. Reducingconcentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere must therefore be seen as an important step in mitigating climate change. In addition, strategies for adapting to thechanged climatic circumstances are crucial. The impact that climate change will have thusdepends not only on the degree and extent of local climate changes, but also on the optionsavailable to the population and their ability toadapt themselves and their lifestyle to thesechanges.

German development cooperation has alreadyrisen to this challenge and is supporting affectedcountries in their efforts to mitigate the effectsof climate change.

In 2007, as part of this response, the “Climateand Development” programme of action of the German Federal Ministry for Economic Co-operation and Development (BMZ) announcedthat measures designed to tackle the causes ofclimate change and limit its impacts would besignificantly extended. Disaster risk managementis particularly relevant to limiting climate changeimpacts (adaptation). From now on climate riskswill be systematically examined in all affectedprojects and – where necessary – disaster riskmanagement will be integrated in the projectwithin the framework of adaptation strategies.In this context the Deutsche Gesellschaft fürTechnische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ – GermanTechnical Cooperation) is currently working onthe development of a “Climate Check”.

Since disaster risk management has for sometime formed a component of many projects,


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important and field-tested approaches and instruments for adaptation strategies can nowbe made available. These include risk analysis(see Section 3.1).

German development policy has helped partnercountries adapt to climate change, for examplethrough the “Climate protection programme fordeveloping countries” and the advisory project

on “Disaster risk management in developmentcooperation”. As a result, authorities and localcommunities in Mozambique, for example,have adopted measures to mitigate existing disaster risks, which are likely to increase due toclimate change; among other things, they haveset up a local flood warning system and have in-cluded disaster preparedness as a topic in thecurricula in local schools (see Section 3.2).

The overlap between disaster risk management and adaptation to climate change

Disaster risk management Adaptation to climate change

Reducing the risks arising from climate change

Preventive measures forreducing disaster risk

(risk management)through:

- reducing a community's vulnerability

- preventing the emergence of new risks

Areas of action

Risk analysis

Disaster prevention and mitigation


Disaster-preventive reconstruction

Adaptation through:- identifying impacts and vulnerability

- identifying and prioritising measures

- managing adaptation cross-sectorally

Figure 3

More information?

> United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): www.unfccc.int

> Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC): www.ipcc.ch

http://www.unfccc.inthttp://www.ipcc.ch

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1.2 Poverty – reducing vulnerability to extreme

hazards

One person died in an earthquake of strength 8in Hokkaido, Japan, in 2003, while in the sameyear an earthquake of 6.5 in magnitude killed22,000 people in the Iranian city of Bam. Thesefigures show that a society’s vulnerability has amajor influence on the impact of an extremeevent. Poverty is one of the major causes ofdeaths associated with natural disasters. Morethan half of all deaths from natural disasters occur in underdeveloped countries.

If we compare the United Nations HumanDevelopment Index (HDI) with data on 2,500disas ters between 1991 and 2000 the correlationbetween development and vulnerability becomesclear: half of the disasters took place in coun trieswith a medium HDI, while two-thirds of thedeaths occurred in countries with a low HDI. Only two percent of the deaths occurred incountries with a high HDI (Wisner et al., 2003).

According to the World Bank, around one billionpeople live in absolute poverty and more thantwo billion suffer from malnutrition (WorldBank, 2007). Poor sections of the population

have only limited access to resources such as water and secure accommodation, edu cation,work, land and health; they are unable to createfinancial or material reserves, which makesthem particularly vulnerable to econo mic crisesand natural hazards. Poor people have lessaccess to knowledge and information aboutsteps they could take to reduce their risk. Poorpeople often migrate to the slums of the bigcities, which are frequently sited in areas wherenatural hazards pose an increased risk (see alsoSection 1.3).

The vulnerability of the poor to natural hazardsis also affected by their income, ethnic origin,gender and age, and by whether they live in anurban or rural location. Women and childrenare particularly hard hit by disasters – partly because of their high rates of illiteracy, theirlimited mobility and their widespread social dependence on male relatives. In outlying ruralregions, women often perform community andsocially-oriented tasks because men are forcedto earn a living elsewhere.

This means that women in particular must beprepared for disaster events and be involved inthe planning and implementation of preventive

The relationship between poverty and vulnerability to disasters

(Source: GTZ/ DKKV/ University of Bayreuth, 2005:19/ Adapted from: UNDP 1994, p. 10)

Poverty reduction realm

Positive realm

Disaster realm

Negative realm

Short-sighted povertyreduction measures can

increase vulnerability

Poverty reduction canreduce vulnerability

Disasters can providepoverty reduction

opportunities

Disasters can set backpoverty reduction efforts

Figure 4


measures from an early stage. This is the onlyway to ensure that appropriate account is takenof their views and meaningful use is made oftheir capacities at all stages from prevention toresponse.

At the World Conference on Disaster Reductionin Kobe, Japan, in 2005, scientists, practitionersand politicians emphasised the importance ofdisaster risk management for attainment of theUnited Nations Millennium Development Goals(MDGs). They stressed in particular its relevanceto MDG 1, which aims to reduce extreme povertyand hunger. 1

1 According to MDG 1 the number of people suffering from hunger should be halved between 1990 and 2015.

The causes of hunger and of the emerging globalfood crisis include shortfalls in food productionas a result of climate change and conse quent risesin the price of basic foodstuffs such as cereals.The higher food prices exacerbate the precarioussituation of people who are already living belowthe poverty line.

Agricultural development has important poten-tial for the sustainable reduction of poverty: it isessential that this potential is more effectivelyharnessed. Measures for disaster risk manage-

ment and adaptation to climate change can helpto save lives and reduce production shortfallscaused by droughts, storms, floods and changedprecipitation patterns (see Section 3.2). In addi-tion, information and early warning systemscan serve as a basis for risk management forfood security. The overall aim must be to reducethe vulnerability of agriculture to extremeweather events and the anthropogenicinfluences.

The study “Linking Poverty Reduction and Disas-ter Risk Management”, published in 2005, con-firms the mutually reinforcing associationbetween poverty and vulnerability to disaster(GTZ / DKKV / University of Bayreuth, 2005).

It comes to the conclusion that poverty compelspeople to overexploit existing natural resources;the consequences of this overuse, including soildegradation and deforestation, increase people’svulnerability to natural disasters. A disaster, if itoccurs, impedes sustainable development, there-by further increasing people’s vulnerability toany new disruption. Less developed countries, inparticular, are unable to break out of this self-reinforcing vicious circle without outside

Poverty compels many people to settle in

dangerous locations.

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assistance; their capacity to prepare themselvesfor disaster and to cope with disasters when theyoccur is limited. Disaster risk management andthe concomitant reduction of vulnerability toexternal hazards must therefore be a fundamen-tal element of long-term poverty reduction. Thestudy recommends that disaster risk manage-ment should be considered when nationalPoverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) aredrawn up for high-risk countries. Sector policiesand development strategies at every stage fromnational to international level are also relevant.Poverty analysis should be complemented byrisk analysis and concrete disaster risk manage-ment should be included in budget proposals.These conclusions are underlined in the report“Climate Change as a Security Risk” by theGerman Advisory Council on Global Change(WBGU, 2007: 219).

However, only sporadic successes have beenachieved in mainstreaming disaster riskmanagement in PRSPs so far (see Section 3.2).Integrating a (cost-intensive) prevention conceptinto a national strategy has proved to be adifficult undertaking, a challenge for both thecountries concerned and the donor community.

The overall aim of German development policyis to break the cycle of poverty and vulnerability.In development-oriented reconstruction,poverty reduction and disaster risk manage-ment are therefore important and relatedelements. Measures for increasing farmers'incomes are often closely linked with disasterprevention and mitigation – for example, whenconstructing terraces cultivated areas can beenlarged and at the same time protected fromlandslides. The additional control of irrigationleads to direct increases in crop yields. Localpeople who are themselves involved draw upappropriate strategies for reducing people’svulnerability and improving their life situation.

More information?

> United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) - Poverty Reduction: www.undp.org/poverty

> Millennium Development Goals: www.un.org/millenniumgoals


http://www.undp.org/povertyhttp://www.un.org/millenniumgoals


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High population density in

megacities increases the

disaster risk. Earthquakes

are an ever-present threat

in Manila.

1.3 Urbanisation and population growth –

disaster vulnerability will increase

The world population is not only increasing; itsdistribution around the globe is also changingdramatically. 90 percent of the world’s populationgrowth in the coming decades will take place inthe cities of the less developed countries. In 2015the world will have 58 cities with more than fivemillion inhabitants. Only ten of these will be inthe industrialised countries, with the vast majorityin developing countries. Around half of the world’spopulation already lives in urban centres; by2030 the proportion will have risen to almosttwo-thirds. Population growth and urbanisationare therefore particularly characteristic of devel-oping countries. Cities such as Manila, MexicoCity and São Paulo are undergoing an extremeurbanisation process which is already over -whelming their existing infrastructure andcapacity to deliver basic services. Many of thesemetropolises are also directly threatened by nat-ural hazards. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions

and floods have a catastrophic impact on thepopulation of conurbations if disaster risk manage-ment measures are inadequate. A number of fac-tors make cities particularly vulnerable to naturalhazards:

> The higher population density means that potential victim numbers are much higher incities than in rural areas.

> Because of the concentration of goods andservices in cities the potential economic damage is enormous.

> Building methods that are not adapted to existing risks and the absence or inadequateimplementation of disaster-preventive build-ing codes result in very high destructionpotential. Corruption is often the cause of theinadequate implementation of building codes.

> Cities in developing countries often face rap-id and uncontrolled urban growth and slum


Rapidly expanding cities are not adequately

prepared for sudden heavy rainfall. The

flooding which can occur as a result has

negative impacts on local communities and the

environment.

building. The capacity for risk reduction through urban planning is often limited. As a result, many settlements are located in hazard zones.

> Slum-dwellers’ resilience to disaster is limited by unclarified issues of ownership, the illegal nature of the slums and by poverty. Low incomes and limited access to a wide range of public services make the urban poor particularly vulnerable.

> Illegal settlements are often established in high-risk locations such as river flats or slopes where there is risk of landslides. In the event of a disaster, effective cooperation between illegal settlers and civil protection authorities is unlikely. In post-disaster reconstruction illegal slum-dwellers are also disadvantaged because they have no legal basis for their claims.

> Risk awareness and disaster risk manage ment capacity among the population are low.

> Inadequate emergency and evacuation plans and unclarified division of responsibilities between individual sector bodies and civil pro-

tection organisations can result in complex breakdowns of urban service systems in the event of a disaster. In large cities, in particular, there is a danger that public order will collapse when a disaster occurs; drinking water and electricity supplies and the accessibility of critical infrastructure such as hospitals and emergency accommodation may quickly be at risk. In extreme cases this can lead to epidemics and to large-scale security problems.

> Awareness of the need for early warning mechanisms and cross-sectoral disaster risk management measures is as yet relatively low among municipal governments and authorities.

> Due to a lack of information and expertise, industrial sites are inadequately protected from the hazards that could lead on to environ mental disasters.

> If a metropolis is of major economic interest – for example, an important port – the impact of a disaster may be felt supra-regionally or, if the city is part of a global economic network, even internationally.

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The felling of forests along the upper reaches ofrivers and land subsidence caused by ground-water withdrawal and the weight of buildingsincrease the risk of flooding, particularly forcities in coastal regions and on river deltas. Making urban and industrial conurbations indeveloping countries better and safer places to live is a major challenge for the state and itslocal and regional authorities. German develop-ment cooperation provides support in thedevelopment of disaster risk managementcapacities; its aims include improving urbanservices, ensuring that urban planning takesdisaster risk management into account, andincluding disaster preparedness in legislation. A first step should be to increase public aware-ness of disaster risks, either through the mediaor by addressing issues of natural risks in theschool curriculum. Disaster risk managementand emergency plans must be reviewed andadapted to current and future risks. The sameapplies to emergency supplies. The populationand all relevant actors, such as civil protectionorganisations, police, hospitals, disaster

preparedness authorities, urban planning andbuilding inspection bodies, industrial inspec-torates, providers of water and sewage servicesand education authorities, should be involved in the risk analysis and the development ofcoordinated measures. This ensures thatresponse to a disaster can be more effective, and reduces the vulnerability of cities in thelong term by taking account of hazard zones inurban planning, for instance. It is also importantto involve the private sector: insurance cancushion material losses and industries canprotect their plants against risk. The approachpursued by German development cooperationin urban regions is to involve community mem -bers in risk analysis and then in the planningand implementation of risk-reducing measuressuch as early warning systems or community-based disaster risk management systems (seeSection 3.3). Disaster risk management in at-riskurban agglomerations is essential for the viabledevelopment of these conurbations and for theprotection of those who live there.

More information?

> Cities Alliance – Cities without Slums: www.citiesalliance.org

> Local Governments for Sustainability (ICLEI): www.iclei.org

> United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT): www.unhabitat.org

http://www.citiesalliance.orghttp://www.iclei.orghttp://www.unhabitat.org

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2. Reducing disaster risks – The state of the national and international debate


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Following devastating disasters in the 1970s and 1980s, the United Nations (UN) declared the International Decade for Natural DisasterReduction (IDNDR) from 1990 to 1999. The inter-national community urged member countriesto do more to pursue and implement disasterrisk management measures in order to reducethe adverse social, environmental and econom-ic consequences of extreme natural events. Onaccount of their great vulnerability, particularattention was to be paid to the needs of develop-ing countries.

In its early years the IDNDR had a strong scientificand technical focus, with the worldwide appli-cation of existing technology being a priority.However, at the United Nations World Confe renceon Natural Disaster Reduction held in Yokohama,Japan, in 1994 the emphasis shifted for the firsttime to socioeconomic factors. Disaster riskmanagement was recognised as a component of sustainable development and the original IDNDR goals were extended to include this. TheYokohama Strategy for a Safer World was adopt-ed as one of the earliest guidelines for mitigatingnatural disasters.

As part of the implementation of the YokohamaStrategy, disaster risk management measures indeveloping countries have since 1996 been sup-ported by the European Commission Humani-tarian Office (ECHO) through the DisasterPreparedness (DIPECHO) programme.

As a result of the IDNDR and the United Nations'call for national committees to be set up, theGerman IDNDR Committee for Natural DisasterReduction was set up in Bonn. Since the end ofthe decade in 1999 its work has been continuedby the German Committee for Disaster Re duc tion(DKKV e.V.). The present DKKV is an intermediaryto international disaster reduc tion organisations

and initiatives; at national level it promotesrelevant communication bet ween research, pol-itics, business and education. Similar platformsfor strengthening disaster risk mana ge menthave been set up in some affected countries.

In his closing speech to the IDNDR in 1999 KofiAnnan, then Secretary-General of the UnitedNations, called for disaster reduction efforts to betaken further – away from a culture of react ionto one of prevention. Since the close of the decadethese policies have been continued through theUnited Nations International Strategy for Disas-ter Reduction (ISDR), which has its own secretariatin Geneva.

In 2002 the importance of disaster risk manage-ment for sustainable and secure developmentwas stressed at the World Summit on SustainableDevelopment (WSSD) in Johannesburg. Thisbrought disaster-related issues to the attentionof a wider public, since the work of many UnitedNations organisations has some bearing on dis-aster risk management.

For example, operative overall responsibility fordisaster risk management in developing coun-tries at the United Nations lies with the Develop-ment Programme (UNDP). In 2001 the Bureaufor Crisis Prevention and Recovery (BCPR) wasset up; it explicitly addresses the vulnerability of developing countries to disaster risks and sees prevention as a cross-cutting task of devel-opment programmes and policies.

In the shadow of the devastating tsunami in theIndian Ocean, the second United Nations WorldConference on Disaster Reduction – (WCDR)took place in Kobe, Japan, in January 2005. Thiswas a milestone in better disaster risk manage-ment: cases of best practice were presented(some of them by Germany), progress to date

22


was analysed and, building on this, the jointHyogo Framework for Action (HFA) was adoptedto general approval. The German government isamong those involved in the implementation ofthe Framework. Since then the HFA has represent-ed the most important international frameworkfor disaster risk management. It lays down thefollowing key priorities for action over the nextten years: 1. Ensure that disaster risk reduction is a

national and a local priority with a strong institutional basis for implementation;

2. Identify, assess and monitor disaster risks andenhance early warning;

3. Use knowledge, innovation and education tobuild a culture of safety and resilience at alllevels;

4. Reduce the underlying risk factors; and 5. Strengthen disaster preparedness for

effective response at all levels.

Disaster risk management is a challenge

for the international community

“We are convinced that disasters seriously under -

mine the results of development investments in a

very short time, and therefore, remain a major impe-

diment to sustainable development and poverty

eradication. We are also cognizant that develop-

ment investments that fail to appropriately consider

disaster risks could increase vulnerability. Coping

with and reducing disasters so as to enable and

strengthen nations' sustainable development is,

therefore, one of the most critical challenges facing

the international community.”

Hyogo Declaration, adopted in Kobe, Hyogo, Japan, on 20 January

2005

The world conference has given rise to a range ofinitiatives for implementation of the HFA:

> Building on the two previous Conferences onEarly Warning, the Third International Con-ference on Early Warning (EWC III) was heldin Bonn in 2006. With the theme “From Con-cept to Action”, the purpose of the Conferencewas to promote early warning as an interdis-ciplinary, cross-sectoral approach in theoryand practice. As one outcome, the frameworkfor global implementation of early warningsystems was established and practical projectproposals were unveiled. Two of them (inTajikistan and the Southern Caucasus) arenow receiving support from Germandevelopment cooperation.

> The finding that international aid was notreaching affected areas quickly enough led in 2005 to the setting up of the Central Emer-gency Response Fund (CERF) through a reso-lution of the General Assembly of the UnitedNations. The money thus made available en-ables affected groups to receive aid quickly in the event of natural disasters and armedconflicts. Germany is among the contributorsto the Fund.

> In order to heighten international awarenessfor reducing disaster risk, the Global Platformfor Disaster Risk Reduction (GPDRR) was setup in 2006. The Platform provides a global forum for all actors engaged in disaster riskmanagement; it is mainly funded by the ISDR.

> In mid-2006 the World Bank set up the GlobalFacility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery(GFDRR) as a financial instrument with whichto develop national risk management capaci-


ties in countries affected by natural disasters.In addition to the specific promotion of disas-ter risk management measures, its aim, likethat of CERF, is to improve the speed and effi-ciency with which international aid can beprovided when disasters strike. The WorldBank provides the basic funding, while donorcountries of the GFDRR make additional con-tributions. Regional development banks inLatin America and Asia support similarinstruments and funding mechanisms. TheGFDRR aims to achieve close coordination be-tween donors and promotes joint measures.For example, multi-donor damage, loss andneeds assessments took place in Bangladeshand Madagascar after disasters hit there.

> There are also a number of regional disasterrisk management organisations which focuson inter-country communication, studies andthe implementation of disaster reductionmeasures. Such organisations include theAsian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC)and the Coordination Centre for Natural Disasters Prevention in Central America(CEPREDENAC).

These international initiatives illustrate the shiftof emphasis from response to prevention that isalready taking place and show that increasingimportance is being attached to the implemen-tation of the HFA.

23

The second World Conference on Disaster

Reduction (WCDR) in Kobe, Hyogo, Japan,

was a milestone towards better coordination

of international efforts.

24


Hohenkammer Charter

In November 2005, 100 leading representatives of international government organisations and NGOs, financial experts

and practitioners from 30 countries met in Hohenkammer near Munich. Their aim: to strengthen the partnership bet-

ween politics, economics, science and people affected by disasters and to work together on the key issues of risk preven-

tion. Under the slogan “Worldwide disaster prevention - Awareness is the key” the experts discussed the most urgent

tasks in the optimisation of disaster risk management. At the end of the conference the experts adopted the Hohenkam-

mer Charter, which lists the ten greatest challenges in the field of disaster reduction:

Poverty: People living in poverty are especially vulnera-

ble; poverty relief is therefore a key element.

People: Disaster prevention efforts must reach or start

with the people in the areas at risk.

Decision-makers: The swift implementation of viable

preventative measures presupposes the committed

involvement of decision-makers from communal to na -

tional government level.

Dialogue: The exchange of views between those concer-

ned must be actively pursued in order to achieve a com-

mon understanding of the problems and solutions.

Partnerships: Politicians, trade and industry, scientists

and those affected have to cooperate better and more

efficiently. Alliances – public-private partnerships – have to

be infused with life.

Development policy: Risk prevention has to be singled

out as one of the central components of development

cooperation and national programmes, and implemen-

ted accordingly.

Propagation: Promising risk prevention initiatives that

currently exist at communal level must be transmitted

and propagated worldwide.

Incentives: Political, legal and economic incentives are

called for, to support investment in disaster prevention,

and to accelerate the processes involved.

Insurance: Risk transfer, such as insurance and solidarity

networks, helps reduce the vulnerability of governments

and people in risk situations.

Awareness development: Developing awareness is the

key to the implementation of adequate measures before

disaster strikes.


25

In parallel with and complementary to the ISDRsystem outlined above, other international con-ventions and initiatives also pursue and promotebetter disaster risk management. For example,the Millennium Declaration adopted at the Mil-lennium Summit of the United Nations in NewYork in 2000 calls for countries “to intensify co-operation to reduce the number and effects ofnatural and man-made disasters” (Paragraph 23of the Millennium Declaration). Some elementsof the road map towards the implementation ofthe United Nations Millennium Declaration arerelevant to the ISDR system. They relate to thefollowing:

> Supporting interdisciplinary and intersectoralpartnerships, improved scientific research onthe causes of natural disasters and better in-ternational cooperation to reduce the impactof climate variables, such as El Niño and LaNiña;

> Developing early warning, vulnerabilitymapping, technological transfer andtraining;

> Encouraging Governments to address theproblems created by megacities, the locationof settlements in high-risk areas and othermanmade determinants of disasters;

> Encouraging Governments to incorporatedisaster risk reduction into national planningprocesses, including building codes.

Alongside poverty reduction and the Millenni umDevelopment Goals, disaster risk manage mentis accorded increasing importance internation-ally through the United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change (UNFCCC - seeSection 1.1). At least since the 13th Conference ofthe Parties (COP 13) in Bali in December 2007, atwhich deliberations focused on a follow-onagreement to the Kyoto Protocol, the importance

of disaster risk management in the context ofadaptation to climate change is being addressed.

The German government regards tacklingclimate change as a global challenge. DuringGermany’s presidency of the G8 and the EU, participants at the G8 summit in Heiligendammagreed to intensify cooperation with the devel-oping countries on adaptation to climatechange.

Outside the agenda of the internationalcommunity there are a number of independentinitiatives and NGOs that concern themselveswith improving disaster risk management. Onesuch is the Hohenkammer Charter drawn up byleading experts at a conference of the MunichRe Foundation in 2005 (see box). The chartersummarises the most urgent tasks in the field of disaster risk management and calls for theprivate sector to demonstrate greater commit-ment.

At international level the involvement of theprivate financial sector in disaster risk manage-ment comes under the heading of “risk trans fer”.Insurance models adapted to the economicstrength of developing countries and theirinhabitants are intended to ensure rapid assis-tance in the event of a disaster, helping protectthe population from the financial conse quences.Risk funds, set up jointly by countries which ex-perience frequent natural disasters, such asthose in the Caribbean, ensure rapid mobilisa-tion of funds in a way that would not be possiblefor an individual country in an emer gency.

Within German development cooperation successful involvement of the private sector indisaster risk management is increasing. Withinthe framework of public-private partnerships(PPPs), the government and the private sectorwork together to mutual benefit.

26


The German Government’s framework

for action on disaster reduction

> Applications-oriented implementation of theresearch results of specialist academic

institutions on disaster prevention

> Strengthening national and international disaster reduction committees

> Development of intersectoral disaster reduction networks

> Support for training and education measuresat schools, universities and in adult education

> Establishment of international coordinationagencies for early warning of flooding, fire

etc.

> Participation in shaping and formulating UN disaster reduction policy

This is a way of generating additional fundingand expertise for development cooperation.The private sector benefits particularly throughadditional public funding, sector and country-specific know-how from the develop ment agen-cies, and through access to new markets fortheir own products and services. Within onePPP, for example, a coffee cooperative in LatinAmerica is being given support in order to adaptits plantations to climate change and make

them more disaster-proof. Risk analyses identifymeasures to protect coffee production andadapt it to changed planting and harvestingtimes. In Indonesia, a PPP with Munich Re andBank Indonesia is helping microfinanceproviders to develop sustainable and customer-oriented disaster-related insurance services,which specifically address low-income groups.The scheme is intended to enable poor sectionsof the population to protect themselves againstthreats to their livelihood, such as those posedby floods, storms and earthquakes.

Through its support for some of the initiativespresented, channelled through the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Devel-opment (BMZ) and the Federal Foreign Office(AA), the German Government is signalling justhow much importance it attaches to disaster riskmanagement. In 2003, it adopted the adjacentframework for action on disaster reduction toimplement the Millennium Declaration and theJohannesburg Programme of Action.

The following section illustrates how Germandevelopment cooperation, with its concept ofsustainability and specific disaster reductionprojects, contributes to implementation of theHFA.

More information?

> Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA): http://www.unisdr.org/eng/hfa/hfa.htm

> International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR): www.unisdr.org

http://www.unisdr.org/eng/hfa/hfa.htmhttp://www.unisdr.org


27

3. Disaster risk management in development cooperation – A key task of sustainable development


28

In our partner countries, as in Germany, thepolitical responsibility for protecting the popu -lation from disasters and ensuring security lieswith national governments. It is at national levelthat the statutory framework is established andthe competencies of the individual sectorministries defined. National governments arecontact partners in matters of internationalassistance or cooperation with differentcountries.

During the UN International Decade for NaturalDisaster Reduction (see Section 2) Germandevelopment cooperation began to help partnercountries set up disaster reduction structures.The majority of disaster risk managementprojects arise as a direct consequence of emer -gency aid measures in the wake of a disaster.This is because awareness of the need forprevention and mitigation is greatest after adisaster – as is the demand from our partner

countries. In connection with the UN Interna-tional Decade for Natural Disaster Reductionand the Hyogo Framework for Action, and as aresult of direct experience, there is also agrowing awareness, both in our partnercountries and within German developmentcooperation, that disaster risks must as a matterof principle be taken into account in all projectsin countries regarded as particularly vulnerable.In order to protect development investmentsfrom the consequences of disasters, Germandevelopment cooperation aims to mainstreamdisaster risk reduction as a standard task inhigh-risk countries. In addition to specificprojects with our partner countries, disaster risk reduction must be anchored within theinstruments and structures of German develop-ment cooperation itself. As part of this, proce-dures and guidelines need to be adapted so thatprojects are designed to be more disaster-preventive. Overall, German developmentcooperation strives to ensure that

Using an earthquake

simulation, local

communities are

informed about

earthquake resistant

building techniques.


29

> projects reduce the disaster risk rather thanamplify existing risks;

> projects and programmes help to limit theimpacts on people;

> the projects themselves are protected againstnatural events;

> proactive steps are taken wherever possibleto reduce the existing risk of natural disasters.

This approach offers an important interfacewith development cooperation's goal of reduc-ing poverty and building capacity. Disaster riskmanagement, when seen as the responsibility of

different sectors at local, national and interna-tional level, can therefore have a long-term effect.

There is thus a growing trend for disaster riskmanagement, or individual elements of it, to beincluded in programmes concerned withdecentralisation and municipal development,the environment, water, rural development, urban development and education (see Figure 5).For example, if risks posed by natural hazards areconsidered at the outset in land use and urbanplanning, certain types of use at high-risk loca-tions will be automatically excluded and thevulnerability of the resident population will becorrespondingly reduced.

Disaster risk management as a standard task in German development cooperation

Within German development cooperation, disaster risk

management in disaster-prone countries is seen as a

standard task that is incorporated into various sectors

and programmes. Planning is undertaken in collabo-

ration with local partners, and affected groups are

involved in implementation. This means that local

knowledge is effectively combined with technical

know-how and used to maximum effect to reduce vul-

nerability and improve resilience.

Health

Adaptation to climatechange

Urban industrial environ ment management

Water management

Ruraldevelopment

Environment and naturalresource management

Decentralisation

Legal system

Urban planningLand use

Education

Mainstreaming disaster risk management

Risk analysis

Disaster prevention &mitigation


Rehabilitation and reconstruction

Figure 5

30


In the field of education, many people can bereached through work done in schools to raiseawareness of disaster risks; evacuation exercisesand emergency drills can also be carried out inschools (see Section 3.4).

The issue of dealing with disasters is oftenreduced in terms of content to disaster responseand in organisational terms to state civil protec-tion institutions. Such institutions are indeed in-dispensable for the response to and managementof disasters: one of their key tasks is to preparethe population for a disaster through emergencyexercises and evacuation plans. However, thebodies charged with disaster response are notnormally in a position to address the long-termreduction of disaster risks. They have no author-ity to issue instructions with regard to theappropriate inclusion of disaster risk considera-tions in regional planning, urban planning, ed-ucation or budget planning at different levels.Central interfaces are needed here to effectivelyprevent and mitigate disasters. German develop-ment cooperation therefore supports anchoringdisaster risk management in various sectorministries and corresponding ly in variousdevelopment policy projects.

For disaster risk management structures to becomprehensive and viable, responsibilities forspecific tasks should be allocated on the subsidiar-ity principle, i.e. responsibility should be vestedin the least centralised level possible. After all,disasters take place locally, and when a disasteroccurs access routes are often severed. The nec-essary capacities for prevention and mitigation,preparedness and response must therefore beavailable locally.

Many countries that are particularly vulnerableto disasters are already attempting to developdisaster risk management structures them -

selves. German development cooperation sup-ports them in a wide variety of ways.

In the wake of disasters, for example, and follow -ing the provision of humanitarian aid by theGerman Government, medium and long-termreconstruction programmes are funded by theBMZ through financial and technical coopera-tion. Disaster risk management is a key elementof these programmes. Development-orientedemergency and transition aid is intended toease the transition between emergency reliefand longer-term programmes, enable people toregain their independence and safeguard aminimum level of social and infrastructural pro-vision. It is thus the starting point for the subse-quent process of sustainable development.

Since the UN International Decade for NaturalDisaster Reduction there has been an overall in-crease in the number of German developmentcooperation projects that either quote disasterrisk management as an objective in its own rightor incorporate it in their work within a differentsector. Very precise use is made of the expertisealready available in-country, and this is combinedwith external knowledge to achieve an optimumblend. As the following examples show, Germandevelopment cooperation projects take accountof the specific details of the situation and of theneeds of local partners, and they often form partof a multilateral approach.

But one principle always applies: we must learnfrom the past if we are to do better in future.Regular and independent monitoring of the im-pact and cost-effectiveness of the projects wesupport enables their progress and success to beevaluated.


31

3.1 Risk analysis – forward-looking investment

planning in Peru's public sector

Since 2006 risk analysis has been used through-out Peru to examine the disaster risk implicationsof public investment decisions. This is a complete-ly new approach to investment planning withinthe country.

Peru is frequently struck by earthquakes, droughts,landslides and cold snaps. In addition, every fiveto ten years the phenomenon known as the El NiñoSouthern Oscillation (ENSO) brings devastatingrainfall to the otherwise dry coastal regions ofnorthern Peru. This natural event is being furtherexacerbated by global climate change. For exam-ple, in 1998 – an El Niño year – northern Peru re-ceived 2,272 millimetres of precipitation during

the year, instead of the 60 millimetres recorded innormal years. This heavy rainfall led to floods,harvest losses and the destruc tion of irrigationchannels and houses. In 1998 100,000 people losttheir homes. Landslides and floods destroyedroads, so that for many months supplies couldnot reach the population by land. The total dam-age was put at EURO 2.5 billion.

However, the enormous damage is not attribut -able only to the heavy rain; inappropriate andnon-sustainable planning and implementationof public investment projects are partly responsi-ble for the scale of the damage.

As a result of this realisation, German develop-ment cooperation, through GTZ, is helping thePeruvian Ministry of Economy and Finance to

Risk analysis for public investments in Peru

Analysis of project area

Development and analysis of hazard scenarios for theproject area- Types of hazard- Duration, intensity, frequency and likely damage- Scenarios for future likelihood of occurrence

Risk analysis of the various alternatives

- Location of the individual project elements and their

vulnerability

- Fragility

- Level of resilience

Risk analysis of the various alternatives

- Estimation of vulnerabilities and possible damage

Analysis of disaster reduction measures for different

alternatives

- Cost-benefit analysis of the different disaster

reduction measures

- Inclusion of the cost-benefit analysis in assessment

of the alternatives

Development and prioritising

of projects

Geographicalrisk analysis

Regionalplanning

Sectorplanning

Develop-ment plan

Budgetplanning

Project im -plementation

Projectevaluation

Projectformulation

Integration in planning processes Integration in investment processes

Figure 6


routinely evaluate investments for their disasterrisk implications. To this end a disaster riskanalysis process has been incorporated into thenational planning system for public investment:the Sistema Nacional de Inversión Pública(SNIP). The SNIP is intended to help rationalisethe planning of public investment, improve theway public funds are used and compare costswith benefits. This takes place at local, regionaland national levels and in various sectors. Therisk-related evaluation of project proposals en-ables investments to be assessed and selectedfor their relevance, appropriateness and signifi-cance in reducing disaster vulnerability.

The central instrument used is the risk analysis,which aims to identify and assess potential dam-age and loss associated with an investment be-fore the investment takes place. To ensure thatthe risk analysis was properly integrated intothe SNIP, national and regional technical work-ing parties were set up in Peru, priority sectorswere identified, mechanisms for coordinatingactivities between the different levels of admin-istration were put in place and training in theuse of the risk analysis was provided. Theseprocesses are also intended to simplify theongoing systematisation and validation of theindividual integration steps.

As a result of this work, regional risk zones havenow been established for all major hazards. Inaddition the most urgently needed measureshave been identified and have been incorporat-ed into the budget in the form of project propos-als at various levels. In the pilot communities ofCastilla and Condesuyos, on average more than50 percent of the budget is now linked to disas-ter risk management criteria. Previously thesecriteria were considered only sporadically.

The findings from Peru demonstrate that thereis much room for improvement in the interactionbetween different political and administrativelevels – interaction that is essential for efficientdisaster risk management. Statutory require -ments are also more readily accepted if theyhave been drawn up using a participatoryprocess and are based on concrete, practical experience. The integration of risk analysis intoinvestment projects therefore fosters thesustainability of these projects and reducescosts.

32

Using risk maps, zones can be identified that are

unsuitable for infrastructural measures or require

specific protection measures.


3.2 Disaster prevention – the example of

Mozambique

Mozambique is one of the world’s poorest coun-tries. It is also one of the African states most fre-quently and most severely struck by floods, cy-clones and droughts. People living in the catch-ment area of the Buzi River, in particular, are of-ten the victims of floods and storms. The flood -ing in 2000 claimed 700 lives and destroyed thehouses and crops of farming families. In all 4.5million people were affected. In the wake of thedisaster, the Mozambican government, officialsand the population were unanimous in their de-sire for prevention and mitigation measures. Atthe time of the floods local organisational struc-tures were unprepared. There was no awarenessof the actual hazard or its implications.

Since then there has been a great rethinking inMozambique. The country has made majorprogress in setting up a disaster risk manage -ment system that operates at national, regionaland local levels. German development coopera-tion has supported this process. After the flooddisaster in 2000 German development coopera-tion provided humanitarian aid and reconstruc-tion assistance. In order to prepare the populationand the responsible authorities for futurecyclones and floods and to reduce the disasterrisk in the long term, disaster risk managementwas in 2003 incorporated into a new ruraldevelop ment programme being undertaken byGerman development cooperation. Elements ofdisaster risk management have also been intro-duced in the fields of decentralisation andeducation. Experience gained is now beingtransferred to other districts and institutional -ised within the National Institute for DisasterManagement (Instituto Nacional de Gestão deCalamidades or INGC).

In the catchment area of the Buzi River in Mozambi-

que, simple methods are used to warn the population

of floods.

33

Together with villagers, a risk

analysis is carried out, with equal

participation by women and men.

34


With German support, the Mozambicanvillages, districts and national bodies affectedby floods have improved their disaster risk man-agement in the following ways:

> Disaster risk management is a centralelement of the Mozambican Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP).

> The National Institute for Disaster Manage -ment (INGC) ensures the competent andeffective management of measures to be taken in an emergency.

> A smoothly functioning disaster risk manage-ment system involving early warning sys tems,emergency centres and coordination bodieshas been set up in the affected provinces. It in-cludes risk and disaster managementcommittees in which men and women arerepresented. They operate an early warningsystem for flooding set up in conjunction withthe Munich Re Foundation; the committeesalso conduct evacuation measures.

> Districts provide training for their staff in thesignificance of climate change and the possi-bilities of disaster risk management.

> In the affected districts, disaster risk manage-ment and climate change are included in theprimary and secondary school curricula andteachers are given appropriate in-servicetraining. The schools work closely with thevillage communities. There are plans to transfer the positive results obtained with local curricula and teaching materials to thenational level and subsequently to the region-al context of southern Africa.

> Disaster risk management measures havebeen included in local development plans.For example, disaster risks have been takeninto account in connection with agriculturalproduction, the securing of natural resources,the development of protection measures andsettlement location decisions.

> Community representatives from CentralAmerica and Mozambique have shared infor-mation on their experience of local early warning systems. Mozambique’s neighbour,Madagascar , is now making use of the experi-ence of disaster risk management gained inMozambique.


35

3.3 Disaster risk management in reconstruction

in Indonesia

As a result of its geographical position, Indonesiais one of the countries most frequently affectedby natural disasters caused by geological factors.The tsunami on 26 December 2004 claimedmore than 160,000 lives in Indonesia alone. Be-tween 2000 and 2008 49 floods, 30 earthquakes,24 landslides, 9 volcanic eruptions and 2 tsunamiswere recorded (EM-DAT 2008). When such natu-ral disasters occur, both the urban populationand the infrastructure (especially buildings,utilities, roads and bridges) are at high risk.Time and again major damage is inflicted onthe country’s economy. At Indonesia’s request,German development cooperation is helpingthe Indonesian government to reduce the disas-ter risk. Disaster risk management measures arebeing implemented both in the context ofreconstruction and emergency aid projects andin long-term education, decentralisation andbusiness development programmes. Some no-table examples will be mentioned here:

Managing geological risks in YogyakartaIn May 2006 an earthquake with a magnitude of6.2 (USGS) caused major destruction in Yogya -karta and parts of Central Java. More than 5,000people lost their lives and 200,000 were madehomeless. The fact that settlements had beenconstructed on unstable sediments (loose coastalsands) made the impact of the earthquake signifi -cantly more severe.

In order to be able to reduce the geological riskscountrywide on the basis of a standardised set ofprocedures, the Indonesian government calledupon the Geology and Mineral Resources Agency(Badan Geologi dan Sumberdaya Mineral) to as-sess the potential of these geological risks anddraw up guidelines for risk reduction at localauthority administrative level and elsewhere. At the request of Indonesia’s Ministry of the In-terior, the Federal Institute for Geosciences andNatural Resources (BGR) and the DeutscheGesell schaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit(GTZ) have since 2006 supported the Geologyand Mineral Resources Agency in this task on

Modelling of land subsidence in Semarang (Central Java):

Different colour codes show the degrees of

subsidence in Semarang, Central Java, and

thus the potential vulnerability to flooding.

K no subsidenceK 0-0.5 cm K 0.5-2 cmK 2-3 cmK 3-4 cmK 4-5 cmK > 5 cm

Source: Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaf-

ten und Rohstoffe / German Federal Institute

for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR)

Figure 7


behalf of German development cooperation.The risk reduction work is one component ofGTZ’s Good Local Governance Programme. Theaim is reduce overall vulnerability to naturalhazards and make settlement areas moresustainable.

The project has involved carrying out compre-hensive studies of soil properties and the asso -ciated impacts of earthquakes, and displayingthe results in risk maps. Municipal authorities,provincial governments and various local inter-est groups have received advice on ways in whichthey can improve their disaster preparednessand increase earthquake resistance in high-riskareas, working with disaster preparednessorganisations, specialist institutes andrepresentatives of civil society. In addition, administrative guidelines relating to regionalplanning have been evaluated and modified in

order to identify safe settlement areas and evacuation shelters. The risk maps and planningguidelines provide a basis for taking geologicalrisks into account in regional and developmentplanning at local and provincial level.

In the context of reconstruction aid in the wakeof the earthquake, GTZ, on behalf of the BMZ,supported the planning of settlement-relatedinfrastructure in the light of known geologicalrisks. It also assisted the reconstruction, most ofwhich took the form of self-help among the pop-ulation. Steps were then taken to set up andstrengthen a disaster reduction area associationfor the districts around the Merapi volcano, andto reach large sectors of the population withmeasures to raise awareness and rehearse pro-cedures to follow in the event of an earthquakeor other natural disaster.

In Indonesia, local groups

learn about the early

warning system.

36


37

Early warning and disaster-preventivereconstruction after the tsunami Once emergency humanitarian aid had beendelivered after the tsunami of 26 December2004, the focus shifted to the reconstruction ofhousing and the social infrastructure and therestoration of key social and economic functions.In an attempt to ensure that the frequent extremeweather events in the region will never againclaim so many lives, the German government –through its financial, technical and scientific co-operation – is strengthening local, regional andnational disaster risk management structures.

> Natural hazards are taken into account inparticipatory regional planning forreconstruction.

> Risk-reducing building codes and buildingmethods are used and mainstreamed.

> Disaster reduction is incorporated into theeducation system.

> A tsunami early warning system is being set up.

An important component of disaster-preventivereconstruction is community action planning(CAP), which involves the affected populationdirectly in planning processes. In workshopsand working groups men and women learnabout sustainability and together draw up pro-posals for adoption by the village community.Families who are particularly at risk are offeredsafer land for reconstruction, buildings areadapted to the level of risk and escape routesand shelters are set up. Through CAP, municipaland state institutions are enabled to provideswift, appropriate and coordinated essentialpublic services with the active participation ofthe population.

Because CAP meets with ready acceptance amongthe population and with planning partners,CAP services are now being requested frommany other organisations, such as the Red Crossand Caritas. This means that local CAP teamscan now formalise their services by setting upan NGO.

The development of the German IndonesianEarly Warning System (GITEWS), which is sup-ported by the German Government, will helpthe region to be better equipped in future topredict tidal waves and to enable the authoritiesand the population to react promptly. It is partof a warning system coordinated by UNESCO'sIntergovernmental Oceanographic Commiss ion(IOC) and a praiseworthy example of internation-al cooperation in disaster risk manage ment.German development cooperation has particu-lar responsibility for what is known as the “lastmile” i.e. ensuring that a tsunami warning actu-ally reaches the at-risk population and that theyand the responsible civil protection organi sationscan react appropriately.


Posters and warning signs, together

with disaster exercises (“dry runs”),

enable local communities to reach a

defined place of safety quickly in the

event of a tsunami warning.

3.4 Disaster risk management in schools –

the action of Sri Lanka’s Ministry of

Education after the tsunami

The example of Sri Lanka illustrates how a coun-try’s education system can raise the level of aware-ness of disaster risks. Not only can children andteachers be prepared to respond correctly inemergencies. They can also be given psycholog-ical counselling if necessary.

Sri Lanka is frequently at risk from floods, land-slides, cyclones and drought. The devastatingtsunami of 2004 left the country unable toassure primary education. Schools had been destroyed or were being used as emergencyshelters. Children, who were already sufferingas a result of ethnic conflicts, were left alonewith their traumatic memories of the disaster.

The experience of the tsunami highlighted thefact that schools and children, in particular, areat high risk. This led Sri Lanka’s Ministry of Edu-cation to incorporate disaster risk management

into the education system and make it a compo-nent of its sector-wide Education Sector Develop-ment Framework and Programme. A number ofdonors were involved in this (e.g. JICA, UNICEF,UNDP).

Since the issue of disaster risk management hadnot previously formed part of the educationalcurriculum in Sri Lanka, there was a lack of suit-ably qualified teachers. German technical co-operation, which before the tsunami was theonly organisation working at all interventionlevels in the education system, was thereforeasked by Sri Lanka’s Ministry for DisasterManagement and Human Rights to support thecreation of a safe environment for all schoolchildren. The aim was to improve the planningand imple mentation competencies of staffinvolved with disaster risk management inschools, and to facilitate the provision ofpsychosocial care for children and young people affected by the tsunami. Thanks to ourpartner’s commitment and the motivation ofchildren and teachers alike, much has beenachieved since 2005.

38


> Elements of disaster risk management havebeen included in the curricula for pre- and in-service teacher training. Teachers through -out the country are being made aware of dis-aster risk management issues and learningcivil protection drills.

> As part of a reform of the school curriculum,elements of disaster risk management are be-ing integrated into school subjects.

> Schools carry out civil protection drills in con-junction with local authorities.

> National guidelines for safety in schools havebeen drawn up in cooperation with the disas-ter management centre and local authoritiesand have been implemented in pilot schools.

> A school psychology service has been set upthat care can be provided for traumatisedschoolchildren; it has so far operated mainlyin the areas affected by the tsunami and othercrises.

Having a shared goal – that of providing a safeenvironment for all schoolchildren – has alsoenabled the different ethnic groups to engagein dialogue and work together.

So that the content of the new curriculum canbe implemented, teaching and learning mater -ials have been developed and distributed in allthree languages used in the country (Sinhalese,Tamil, English). The involvement of all ethnicgroups in civil protection exercises promotesthe awareness that a disaster can only be dealtwith as a communal effort.

In the long term it is hoped that the interculturalcooperation will have a positive impact on thebehaviour of the schoolchildren and their fami-lies and will contribute to greater cohesionwithin society.

Trainee teachers are taught the correct and safe

response in schools. Aspects of disaster risk manage-

ment now feature on the curriculum of teacher

training colleges across the country.

39


3.5 Disaster preparedness – examples from

Central America

Strengthening decentralised structures toreduce disaster risk in Central America

After South-East Asia, Central America ranks asthe most disaster-prone region in the world: it isregularly struck by droughts, storms, floods,landslides and earthquakes. When HurricaneMitch caused major floods and landslides in1998, claiming the lives of more than 10,000people, the German Government, aided by European Commission funds (ECHO), supportedthe Coordination Centre for Natural Disaster

Prevention in Central America (CEPREDENAC)in a range of awareness-raising, training and advisory activities aimed at improving disasterpreparedness. In pilot communities in Guatemala,Honduras, Nicaragua and El Salvador the estab-lishment of community-based disaster riskmanagement groups and participatory earlywarning systems using very simple technologyis still proving its worth today. These facilitiesstrengthen the population’s self-help capacitywho can assess risks and receive timely warningsof floods; the population is prepared for an emer-gency and in a position to evacuate communitiespromptly and in a coordinated manner.

40

The various actors in the local disaster management group in the village of

San Francisco Menéndez/Cara Sucia, El Salvador

Ministry of Healthdoctor working locally

NGO “Salvavida” integralmanagement of the “Cara Sucia” water

catchment area

Representatives of thevulnerable population Police

Coordination group forthe local early warning

system

Agricultural authorityoffice

TeachersPartner Red Comunitaria

(solidarity network ofvulnerable villages)

“Cara sucia” sugar canecooperative

Youth groups of FreeChurch Organisation CARE

WHO project “Integrated Health Care

Promotion”

DRM group Mayor COEMmunicip.

emergencycommittee

(Source: GTZ, 2004b)Figure 8


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Early warning systems are a

key component of good

preparedness. German

development cooperation

specifically involves local

communities in this field of

activity.

A major factor in this success is the involvementof all relevant public-sector and civil society actorsat all levels, from the outset, in planning processesand in the establishment and operation of earlywarning systems and disaster risk managementstructures. Municipal administrations areresponsible for facilitating and coordinatingthe multi-sectoral disaster risk managementgroups. The groups plan their own risk reductionmeasures and implement these as far as possible,given their limited financial resources.

The involvement of civil protection bodies anddialogue with them gives rise to learningprocesses; groups and individuals at local andnational level learn from each other about theopportunities and requirements of community-based disaster risk management.

Through cooperation with CEPREDENAC thissuccessful approach has now been extended toother communities in Central America and toother natural hazards.

Community-based disaster risk managementand early warning in northern Nicaragua

A project of Deutsche Welthungerhilfe (DWHH)in the department of Estelí in the north ofNicaragua illustrates how a long-term disastermanagement system can be established cost-effectively, rapidly, and with the participation ofthe local population. Site surveys were carriedout, measurements taken and aerial photographsevaluated in order to assess the risks of drought,floods and landslides to which the communityof San Juan de Limay was exposed. The vulnera-bility of each territorial unit was then calculatedon the basis of the pertinent social, economic,environmental and physical factors. The level ofvulnerability of each village could thus be iden-tified and a profile of the various natural hazardsand the corresponding risk reduction measureswas drawn up. The success of these efforts wasdemonstrated during the 2005 hurricane season:thanks to the functioning early warning systemno one was injured, even in the 15 villages with

particularly high disaster risk. It therefore comesas no surprise to see the system now snowballingin neighbouring regions and other developingcountries.

Community-based disaster risk manage-ment and inter-municipal cooperation inHonduras

The Honduran communities of La Masica,Arizona, Esparta, San Francisco and El Porvenirare regularly struck by heavy rain events andfloods. Individual communities are unable tocope with the consequences or bear the associ-ated costs. These problems were recognised by

the communities and as a result an intermunicipalassociation, the Mancomunidad de los Municip-ios del Centro de Atlántida (MAMUCA) was setup with German support at the end of 2001.

Since then the process of preparing for a disasterhas involved cooperation between local author-ities, networking, information exchange and re-ciprocal learning processes. The combined effortsare significantly improving evacuation measureswhen heavy rainfall once again hits the region.The inter-municipal flood early warning systemspeeds up the flow of information and facilitatesprompt and coordinated action.


Criteria for participatory planning

Relevance

of the activities for the

safety of the population

and the social and

economic development of

communities

Transparency

in decision-making, in the

awarding of public and

private fundin

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