DISASTER MANAGEMENT AND POST·DISASTER SOCIAL SERVICES: THE NEED TO PREPARE SOCIAL WORK

STUDENTS TO PRACTICE IN DISASTER SETTING

Adi Fahrudin Beddu Salam Baco

Mohd Dahlan Hj Abdul Malek Mohammad Haji-Yusuf

ABSTRACT

This paper was based on a literature review about professional training on disaster management. It was found that disasters have common immediate. medium. and long-term problems and needs. The literature review from the experiences of various countries throughout the world also suggested a range of helping roles and tasks that social work is suited for. A social work profession has particular expenise to understand and address the medium and longer-term effect of loss on individuals,families. and communities and immediatelfront-line helpers affected by the disaster. It is suggested that courses on disaster management and post-disaster social services be included in social work education curriculum. Sodal work education must involve preparing social work students for practices in disaster setting.

INTRODUCTION

Disaster is an accident or event which occurs and is beyond human control. Its cause can be technological. social-political or natural (Lyon, 1999). Tropical storms, tornadoes, fires, floods, earthquakes, transportation accidents. mass murders. hazardous material spills, building collapses, nuclear plant malfunctions, terrorist bombings, and many other disasters occur throughout our country each year. In the wake of these events lies a wide path of catastrophic physical and psychological destruction. Many seriously traumatized people can be found there, struggling to recover from their losses and rebuild their lives (Weaver, 1995). The consequences of disaster can affect numerous individuals or whole groups. communities or societies. It is one of the fields in which social work could address. The purpose of disaster social work practice can be seen as effecting deliberate changes in the interaction of people and their environment, with the goal of improving the capacity of individuals to cope with their life tasks in a way that is satisfying to themselves and to others (Adi Fahrudin, Mohd Dahlan Hj Abdul Malek, Beddu Salam Baco. and Mohammad Haji-Yusuf, 2(00).

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Adl Fahrudin. 8eddu Salam Saco. Mohd Dahlan Hj Abdul Malek. Mohammad Hajl.Yusuf

Once a disaster occurs. the people involved perceived many things differently than they did before. Prior to the event. their lives were orderly and they felt like they were in command. In the days and weeks following the disaster. they often feel they no longer have control over anything - the event has caused unexpected losses and has taken away their normal routines. They find themselves awash in a sea of paperwork and bureaucrJcy (relief agencies and services. insumnce claims. etc.) that many refer to as tlte secolld disaster. They soon begin to realize it will be some time before they will regain their former sense of stability and control_

Faced with so many changes. they begin to react with fear. anger. anxil!ty. and depression - al\ normal stress reactions under the circumstances. Disaster social workers do not expect the victims to feel well in the wake of a disa.<;ter. yet the victims will expect themselves to "get over it" and to feel better quickly. When this does not occur. they suddenly fear that they are weak or they are going crazy_ Disaster social workers need to provide opportunities for debriefing. education about "normal" reactions. stress inoculation about routine challenges of recovery, and support.

The basic tenet of disaster management begins with the central principle that the target population primarily consists of normal people who have been through an abnormally stressful disaster/emergency situation. Victims generJlly will not stop functioning. but will react in fairly predictable ways (with some differences due to age/maturity). By using various crisis intervention techniques. outreach services, and psycho-educational approaches. the victims and relief workers can be quickly triaged and briefly counseled (or referred for formal services). so as to return them to pre-disaster levels of functioning as quickly as possible. The goal of disaster social work is to help assure that the victims become survivors. by doing whatever can be done to prevent long-term, negative consequences of the psychological trauma.

In some countries. disasters are outside the general experience of most professional social workers. However. a minority of social workers is involved in the preparation for facing potential disasters and/or in responses to actual occurrences. They may be part of the central or local government teams or national relief organization, and in some circumstances their roles involve professional accountability. Most social workers are involved in administrative work rather than a focus on psychosocial impact of disaster. This is because few professional social workers have received training in crisis intervention. advocacy. mediation, education. defusing, and debriefing - the primary skills needed for disaster social work intervention. Social workers, for example. are mandated to provide appropriate professional services in public emergencies. yet few social workers

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Disaster Management And Post-Disaster Social Services

have the specific training/skills needed to serve as relief workers. Many undergraduate and graduate programs in social work spend little time (if any at all) teaching the critical prevention and crisis intervention techniques needed for

relief work.

THE DYNAMICS OF DISASTER AND ITS AFTERMATH

Rice (1999) classifies three types of disaster: natural. technological and social disaster. The term "social disaster" refers to an event that does not readily fit the natural and technological categories. but nonetheless shares the elements of unpredictability and lack of control and produces a powerful impact on human beings. Lyons (1999) has classified disaster into natural and man-made disaster. He classified disaster according to whether they are natural. of which earthquakes and volcanoes are examples; or man-made (sic) (the result of human action or inaction), of which war. civil conflict. terrorism and technical failure are the most obvious. However, it has also been increasingly recognized that a range of disasters, including drought and famine. while apparently 'natural' are partly related to human behavior and political and economic decisions, which have impacted on the physical environment, including the climate. In the case of floods. these may be the result of natural causes. as in the case of tidal waves resulting from earthquakes.

Apart from the above distinctions. disasters can also be classified according to scale. both in terms of the number of people involved and whether the event is seen as having predominantly local, national or international implication. Berren. Biegel. and Ghetner (1989) suggest that a 'small disaster' might only involve twenty deaths, while medium and large-scale ones would involve up to or in excess of a hundred respectively, but it is probably more helpful, if using this criterion, to think in terms of tens. hundreds and thousands of deaths. Also. the extent to which a disaster is small or medium in scale numbers may not correlate with its national or international significance.

In other contexts. Carter (1997) focuses on the effects of two types of disaster; na/ural disas/er and man-made disaster. Natural disaster destroys crops. infra­structure. and opportunities for employment. The effect of natural disaster will be the absence of infrastructure for flood control. irrigation and transport. and the incapacity of governments to provide urgent assistance worsening the destruction. Man-made disaster, mainly in the form of civil war and other internal conflicts. destroys both crops and employment opportunities and obstructed the flow of food supplies.

Disaster can bring about physical and psychosocial impacts to victims and other persons near the location. It has been suggested that persons/communities struck by disaster will generally pass through four phases of response:

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Adl Flhrudln, 8eddu Slllm 8ICO, Mohd D,hlln H/ Abdul M,',It, Mohlmm,d HI/I-Yu.uf

Heroic phase - may begin prior to impact and last up to a week; people will struggle to prevent loss of lives and minimize property damage;

Honeymoon phase - may last two weeks to two months; massive relief efforts lift spirits of survivors and hopes of quick recovery run high, but optimism is often short lived~

Disillusionment phase - may last from several months to a year or more; sometimes called the second disaster, the realities of bureaucratic paperwork and recovery delays set in; outside help leaves and folks realize they have lots to do themselves: ~

Reconstruction phase - may take several years; normal functioning is gradually reestablished (Farberow and Gordon, 1981, pp. 3-4~ Weaver, 1995, pp. 31-32).

From this perspective, Rice (1991) states that survivors always find their usual comfortable existence replaced by discomfort, severe deprivation, and physical fatigue. Lengthy periods of cleanup, recovering personal effects from the devastation where possible, enforced relocation that sometime become permanen~ rebuilding, caring for the sick or injured family members, and arranging for the burial of deceased family members are some of the activities that consume enormous amounts of physical and psychological energy. Leach (1995) believes that disaster victims can be grouped according to specific patterns of responding to the initial impact. The first group remains relatively calm, lucid in their thinking, and calculating in their actions. These people are often called the "super coof'. From 10% to 20% will fall into this group. The second group appears very dazed and confused. Their thinking process will typically be faulty or impaired, and they will not be able to plan in a coherent way. Their behaviors may seem robot-like. and they will show clear physical symptoms of high anxiety. About 75% of victims fall into this group. The third group actual1y shows a variety of inappropriate behaviors that increase their risks. Some seem frozen in time and space. Even though they should move out of harm's way, they remain immobile, perhaps simply waiting for the inevitable. Others may engage in very dangerous behaviors. These dangerous behaviors are often part of the victims' dissociative responses to the catastrophe. About 10% to 15 % fal1 in this group.

Mcleod (1984) believes that many psychological and physical symptoms appear after a natural calamity. Psychological symptoms include initial panic, anxiety. phobic fear, vulnerability, guilt, isolation, withdrawal, depression (including some suicide attempts), anger, and frustration, as well as interpersonal and marital problems. Koopman, Classen, Cardena, and Spiegel (1996) refer to them as the dissociative responses that commonly occur in response to disaster. The diss().. ciative response includes numbing of responsiveness, and detachment usually expressed as depersonalization and derealization. Depersonalization occurs when victims experience themselves as strangers, detached from their bodies, or feel that this must be happening to someone else. Derealization is the feeling that what happened took much longer than it did or did not real1y happen, or the event is distorted in hal1ucinations and delusion.

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Disaster Management And Post·Dlsaster Social Services

These are the common feelings and reactions that most victims will express and! or display: basic survival concerns, grief over loss of loved ones and/or prized possessions, separation anxiety and fears for safety of significant others, regressive behavior (e.g., thumb sucking in children), relocation and isolation anxieties, need to express thoughts/feelings about experiencing the disaster, need to feel one is part of the community and rebuilding efforts, and altruism and the desire to help others cope and rebuild (Farberow, 1978, p.26; Weaver, 1995, p. 32).

THE ROLE OF DISASTER SOCIAL WORK

The evolution of social work as a distinct activity has been closely related to the development of state intervention and provision in the broad field of social welfare. The term social welfare used here includes policies related to health, education, housing, and income support measures as well as community development, or more narrowly defined as social services (Midgley, 1995). Social work often developed initially in relation to these other types of welfare provisions, as well as having independent roots in the voluntary sector. In Europe and North America, social work had its origins in the late nineteenth century in the process of industrialization and urbanization, with their resultant poverty and poor health and living conditions of large numbers of people. Elsewhere it has developed during the twentieth century at varying pace, but often in response to similar processes and resultant social problems (Morales and Sheafor, 1999).

The roles of social workers have changed since its beginning as assistants in charitable organizations around the 1870s (Kadushin, 1992; Clare, 1991). Today, social workers are found in a range of positions including casework, community development, policy and planning, and management. The social work profession has a commitment to people where social welfare is one of its basic principles.

Disaster is one area where social work gives a lot of attention. The explication of disaster and its aftermath in the previous section testifies to the need for social workers to be involved in disaster management. Undeniably, social work can play an important and active role in managing disaster problems and needs during and after the disasters. Social work intervention can be done by social work administration and can be managed before, during and after disaster. In most types of disaster, the immediate and short-term problems and needs are practical and technical. In some disasters, such as earthquakes or air crashes, there is a clear need for 'rescue' services, but conditions may dictate a breakdown of professional roles in which a range of individuals may become 'helpers by circumstance' before the arrival of' assigned helpers' (Gibson, 1991). The very essential requirements in this stage are speed and co-ordination of responses. Social workers can organize and co-ordinate the process of helping, especially during the first three days which are regarded as crucial in the possibility of finding survivors alive, and providing technical equipment and expert personnel.

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Adl Fahrudln, Beddu Salam Baeo, lIohd Dahlan Hj Abdul lIa,.Ir, lIohammad Hajf.Yu.ut

While some of the preceding material may seem remote from the daily experience of many social workers. the concerns are consistent with those of the social work profession. Indeed. the social work profession has particular expertise to offer (not in some of the technical and dramatic responses to disasters) in understanding and addressing the medium and longer-term effects on individuals and communities affected by disaster. It is also receptive in responding to the stress sometimes experienced by the immediate/front-line helpers. In developing countries_ professional social workers may only be present in small numbers. perhaps employed as part of the international relief programs. although they also have roles in social planning, or lobbying. including at national and international levels_ aimed at addressing the roots of disasters (Lyons, 1999).

Apart from the role in longer-term interventions. researchers have suggested that there is also a role for social workers in the early stages of disaster work and that a rapid and effective response at this stage may well facilitate effective use of the services later (Harrison,1987; Newburn, 1996). Caplan (1968) in his study in the US in the 1960s identified the opportunity for effective intervention at the point Of crisis. While 'crisis intervention' theories and techniques were developed in relation to the mental health field, they clearly also have relevance to situations arising from disasters. The old principle holds true that a little help, rationally directed and purposefully focused at this strategic time, is likely to have greater value than more extensive help given at 'a period of less emotional accessibiliry­(Caplan, 1968).

Caplan (1968) also mentioned the effect of trauma associated with disasters. He called it as 'post-traumatic stress disorder' (PTSD). Whatever the debates about PTSD as a psychiatric condition, more commonly acknowledged stages in griee reaction have been attributed to the survivors of disasters. Thus, people are likely, initially, to be 'in shock', that is, numb and detached, with an increase in anxiety or anger or possible denial as realization dawns. Gibson (1991) states that a phase of acknowledgement may result in pain, anxiety or depression related to mourning, the adaptation to victim or flashbacks or nightmares might nevertheless accompany survivors.

In some types of disaster - war or hostage situations, for instance - people may survive but carry a huge burden of gUilt in relation to their inability to protect others, or aspects of their behavior which they regard as cowardly or unwonhy_ The scale of shock (including possible mass hysteria) and grief, which folio,"" disasters, makes this an unfamiliar and daunting area of work for social Work profession. It is a recognized part of some social workers' roles and it has also been developed in other countries in response to particular situations. For instance in C~ile. the e~fects ~f chronic poverty among some populations, social worke~ proVIde matenal assIstance. In earthquakes and floods disasters, social workers also contributed actively on emergency services to individual and group involved This is a part of their wider practice. which stresses community participation and social organization (Jiminez and Aylwin, 1992:35).

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Disaster Management And Post·Dlsaster Social Services

The role of social workers in the Middle East war in 1991 resulted in the 'call up' of social workers in Israel for emergency duties. They were mainly concerned with assistance to people evacuated from the affected area by missile attacks including the screening and establishment of records on the evacuees (Lyon, 1999). Lowenberg (1992) questioned the possible use to which such records (including reference to the mental state of the evacuees) might be put, and suggested that it would have been useful if social workers had engaged in planning and development of guidelines for such eventualities before being called upon to offer services and make decisions, which might have longer·term implications.

From Japan, a lesson can be learnt from the Kobe-Osaka earthquake where social workers were needed to perform events in the early stages of inquiring about missing people and the distribution of relief aid, as well as long-term assistance in the development of new communities, and offering specialist services for particular affected groups, such as orphaned children or people left with disabilities (Lyons, 1999). The disaster had challenged the welfare sector and other professions to make changes to their crisis planning and management systems, and that cooperative work between infonnal helpers and the emergency and welfare services was also indicated in the immediate and longer-term responses.

In the UK too, models of practice for social work involvement have been developed in response to a succession of disasters, particularly since the Bradford fire in 1985 where 55 people were killed and hundreds more injured, which swept through one end of a football stadium. Newburn (1996) described this as the turning point when Social Services Departments have taken on board the responsibility to provide an organized and longer-term response to major emergencies. Newburn (1994) suggested that most people (survivors, relatives, primary helpers) would not seek help from social workers without being prompted, and that a proactive approach offering practical support, befriending and listening were as important as formal counseling (although this might be requested or offered later). The need for early and efficient information to minimize uncertainty and distress, and for flexibility in responses to individuals and groups was also noted (NeWburn, 1994).

Lyons (1999) added that various accounts have also noted that, while some of the activity is concentrated in the immediate period following a disaster, people may still be suffering from the effects and seeking social work help for up to two years later and that although the intensity of distress may abate, this can recur with the advent of anniversaries or other occasions. The other area in which the social work profession plays important roles in disaster management and social services is the professional support which can be offered to colleagues in the rescue services, who may themselves have experienceq distress and shock as a result of disaster work.

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Adl Fahrudln, B.ddu Salam Baco, Mohd DahlIn HI Abdul Malek, Mohammad Hall-Yusuf

DISASTER MANAGEMENT AND POST-DISASTER SERVICES PRAcnCE

The needs of disaster management and post-disaster services practice skill for social work students are important. Defusing and debriefing, for example, are two common skills needed for social workers while dealing with disaster victims. Ac­cording to Weaver (1995), defusing is the term given to the process of talking it out - taking the fuse out of an emotional bomb (explosive situation). It involves allowing victims and workers the opportunity to ventilate their disaster related memories, stresses, losses, and methods of coping, and be able to do so in a safe and supportive atmosphere. The defusing process usually involves informal and impromptu sessions. A social worker might witness an emotional interchange between a victim and another staff member and, soon afterward, approach one or both of them and open a dialogue. This will, in tum, help folks release thoughts and feelings that might not otherwise be expressed. Suppression or repression of this kind of highly charged material might lead to the development of any number of stress-related physical and/or mental illnesses. Greeting a victim who is waiting in line at a disaster service center and offering a snack or a drink, or playing a game with a child in an emergency shelter, or making a purchase from a clerk at a store in a disaster area, or even ordering a meal while in the field, can be enough of an opportunity to open a dialogue with someone who is anxious to tell his or her story. Running into a coworker at the copy machine offers the same chance. So does going out to eat with other staff members. Although informal and immediate. the defusing often becomes a mini-debriefing and can follow the same fonnat discussed in the next section. Because the allotted time is often too brief, the defusing session is simply a starting point. Further intervention is often required and this can be anything from offering ongoing support (e.g., briefly touching base with the persons/groups in the coming days/weeks) to scheduling and pro­viding formal debriefing sessions.

According to Weaver (1995), debriefing is a formal meeting. done individually Or in ~mal\ groups. It is generally held shqrtly after an unusually stressful incident. stnct~y for th.e purpose of dealing with the emotional residuals of the event. Any locatIOn that IS large enough to accommodate the group, and which can be secured so as to assure privacy. is appropriate for use. This session may require several hours, particularly if a process such as Mitchell's (1983) formal Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD) model is used (Weaver, 1995). Whenever possible everyone involved in the crisis should attend the debriefing(s). Many organization~ are recommended or even required to attend defusing or debriefing sessions whenever certain types of incidents occur. American Red Cross (ARC), for instance' offers defusing, as necessary, throughout a person's tour of duty at a disaste; scene. ARC also strongly recommends (but does not require) having a debriefing before leaving for home. Once ARC workers get home, their local ARC Chapters usually offer them another debriefing. At the morgue following the 1994 crash of Flight 427 near Pittsburgh, volunteer trackers and scribes (persons who escorted

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Disaster Management And Post·Dlsaster Social Services

the remains of the 132 victims through the Indentification process) were offered graphic pre· briefings (a form of stress inoculation). They were also required to attend dcbriefings at the end of their shi fts. Many expressed their grati tude and all seemed to value the opportunity to be debriefed (Weaver, 1995).

The original Mitchell process was designed for first responders (police, fire fighters, emergency medical technicians, etc) to help them overcome the emotional after effects of crilical incidents (e.g .• line-of-duty deaths). Sessions were usually held within the first 24-72 hours after the traumatic event, with follow-up sessions as needed (Mitchell, 1983). Given the nature of disasters, we do not always identify all of the victims that quickly. Fortunately, the debriefing process is still beneficial, even when the sessions are held long after the event. Most mental health professionals have not been taught about defusing and debriefing and reported being amazed at how helpful these simple but powerful tools become in their day-to-day practices. There are now several debriefing models. While they differ in the number and type of phases (or stages), the theme focuses on the same basic elements that Mitchell's original process sought to examine. This is done to help people cope with the sights, sounds. and smells. thoughts. feelings. symptoms. and memories that are all part of a normal stress reaction to a traumatic event.

Whatever model social workers use, it is of utmost importance to allow lots of time for the victims or those involved to ventilate, especially during the initial stages/phases when facts, thoughts. and feelings are being discussed. They should be encouraged to express the most vivid or graphic. negative images and memories. This expression can be treated as cleaning out an emotional wound before allowing it to heal while foreign material is still on the inside. Improper procedure with a cut might promote infection. Improper procedure here will mean the emotional wound can be easily reopened by future stressful events and it will lessen the ability to avert PTSD. They should be taught about stress reactions and be provided with stress inoculation about anniversary reactions and other problems that they will eventually face. Lots of support and expression of positive image and outlook for their successful recovery should be given. The social workers may end the "meeting" by thanking them for coming and joining in the debriefing process - shake their hands and/or give a hug as each person leaves the session. In this way. social workers help the disaster victims to normalize their life experiences.

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Adl F.hrudln, Beddu S.'Im Bleo, 1I0hd D.hl.n HI Abdul 1I."Ir, lIohlmm.d H'II-Yu.uf

PREPARING STIJDENTS FOR PRACI1CE IN DISASTER SETfING

The previous sections have discussed t~e dynamic of disaster and its aftennath~ • the need for social workers to get involved in the management of disaster and the rehabilitation of its victims physically, socially and most importantly psychologically. Concomitant to this is the necessary task of preparing the workers to fulfill the need for this growing crop of professionals to ddiver the approPriate services. Some services must be developed in-house or by inter·agency 'Irailling~ which might afford such opportunities, and/or facilities such as help lines for professionals themselves. At the university level foreltarnple, a social work program provides and develops student skills for work with disaster victims. Social Work education also prepares students with variations in work skills with various clients. The introduction of some aspect of disaster management, its impacts, and SOCia) services for disaster victims must constitute one course or form a substantia) content in any subject in social work curriculum. It is important to improve student skills for work with such clients.

In Malaysia, social work developed from formalized social welfare program under special department established by the colonial administration (Ismail Baba., 1990). Abdullah Malim Baginda (2000) states that social work has been prdcticed in Malaysia for quite a long while and social work education has been in place since the 1950s and, that being the case, the excuse that it is a new profession in this country is no longer valid. But the social work profession and social work education in Malaysia still need a very long time to reach the status of professionalism (Fahrudin, 2(00).

The aim of training students in social work education is to make them become competent professionals. The social work education must provide 8 favorable physical environment and an academic atmosphere for learning and practicing knowledge and skills in a di versity of areas. The social work education also shOuld develop positive attitudes towards human beings and nurture professional expertise, enthusiasm and personal life goals.

In Malaysia, until the year 2000, social work program is offered by some univenoities like Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) and Universiti Utara Malaysia Malaysia (UUM). But only Universiti Sains MalaYSia was recognized by International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW) In this paper, the social work courses at the USM (2000), UNIMAS (2000) and UUM (2000) have been analyzed. The results indicate that the major social Work courses at these universities may be briefly summarized into five components:

( 1) Foundation courses - Introduction to Social Work; Introduction to Psychology; Law and Social Rules; Introduction to Statistic and SOCial Research; Human Growth and Social Environment.

(2) Macro courses - Social Planning and Policy; Human ServiCe Organization; Social Work Research Methods; Social Welfare Service:

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Disaster Management And Post·Dlsaster Social Services

(3) Micro courses -Occupational Social Work; Medical Social Work; Child and Family Services.

(4) Methodology - case work; group work; and community work. (5) Fieldwork - micro practice setting and macro practice setting.

It was found that no course or subject on disaster management and services was given in any social work program. The analysis also found no fieldwork training relevant to disaster management and its social services was given. The social work curriculum in USM. UNIMAS and UUM is still limited in preparing their students for the range of diversity of clients of disaster victims. Only in UNIMAS do students have the choice to take one International Social Work courses which contains the disaster management component. But not all social work students can take these courses. It is meant for students who specialize in macro-practice areas only. Even so. the content does not have detailed description on disaster problems and its services. This inadequacy may be due to the reduction of social work components to align it with the national policy of shortening degree courses from four to three years.

In comparison with other ASEAN countries like Thailand, Philippines, Indonesia and Singapore, social work education and the role of social work in Malaysia is underdeveloped. In Indonesia for example, the Bandung School of Social Welfare has a Refugees Research Centre which adopts disaster management, social reha­bilitation, crisis intervention as one area where such courses like Social Welfare Services. Social Planning and Policy, Social Work Practice with Special Groups, and Disaster Prevention Studies are given (Bandung School of Social Welfare Prospectus, 200 1). Students from this school are trained in disaster management and rehabilitation, and the application of skill in direct field practice. For example, the social disaster (riot) after the referendum in East Timor in 1999, saw some students from this school got involved in crisis social services for the refugees in West Timor during and after the riot. This involvement has been supervised by lecturers and supported by the Department of Social Affairs of Republic of Indonesia. It is one of the media to develop students' attitudes and practical skills with clients and it is also a component of the International Social Work course (Fahrudin.I999).

In Thailand. Thammasat University in Bangkok has collaborative work with the Asian Disaster Management Training Centre at the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT). Social work students from Thammasat University have an opportunity to practice helping skills to disaster victims. In the Philippines. social work students from the College of Social Work and Community Development at the University of the Philippines have practice with many types of disaster victims and they work hand in hand with the Ministry of Social Development.

Based on this social work education scenario, especially in ASEAN universities, we are aware that disasters. which affect people and events in Malaysia, also pose particular challenges to the social work profession at the immediate phase in such tasks as providing information and initial support to enquirers, and in longer-term

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Adl Fahrudin, Beddu Salam Baco, Mohd Dahlan HI Abdul Malek, Mohammad Hall·Yusuf

providing support to survivors or the bereaved. We would like to suggest, following Gibson (1991). that since social workers as helpers have sometime become 'secondary victims' of disasters, a program of Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CIS D) be taught in social work program in Malaysian universities.

This program can be introduced in the subjects taught or in the micro fieldwork training. Another important perspective in social work education was suggested by Chetkow-Yanoov (1997) who advocated the teaching of peace studies and conflict resolution skills to social work students. Research in this area has been done locally.

Based on the need and physical scenarios and experiences of Malaysia, we feel that social work education must be reformed in curriculum and teaching method to include indigenous teaching materials. According to Faizah Mas'ud, Gill Raja & Kamsiah Ali (2000), social work education in Malaysia may apply new models which Malaysia needs to form, or adapt from other developing countries which would meet the conditions here. The models must adopt disaster management and post-disaster services as a practice skiIIs component in social work education curriculum. Finally. we would like to emphasize the need to raise the awareness of professionals and students toward social work education by building and inculcating positive attitude and skiIIs especially among students who will be acting as gatekeepers to the social work profession.

CONCLUSION

This paper explores a range of potential roles and tasks for social workers in relation to disasters. This area of work has come into the agendas of agency and nations. A multi-varied cause, form and scale of disasters suggests that some have national implications which need to be understood and addressed by social workers and the organizations which employ and represent them. To achieve this purpose, we must encourage, improve. and reform the quality of social work education in Malaysia. Taking lessons from other countries, we hope social work education in Malaysia will prepare students with more knowledge and skills to work for any type of disaster and can serve the victims so as to improve their social functioning.

For the future. social work education in Malaysia must devise a comprehensive curriculum with the primary objective of increasing students' skilL A comprehensive curriculum must be prepared based on depth of research on problems and needs for the future, including disaster management and post-disaster social services practice skills. The degree of social work must include disaster management and post-disaster social services as one subject. The social work program must alIaw and allocate time so students can increase their knowledge and practical skills about disaster at national and intemationallevels.

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