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8/8/2019 Diploma 222123
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2010
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2
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3
1.
1.1 (computer network) e
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y (LAN);
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4
y (MAN);
y (WAN).
,
( LAN - o MAN,
- WAN). ( WAN -
LAN), - ,
[3].
1.2.2 :
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1.2.3 :
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5
. - LAN
Ethernet Token Ring. LAN AppleTalk ARCnet.
1.2.4 : ,
. ,
. - LAN NetBEUI, 1PX/SPX /I .
LAN AppleTalk OSI [3].
1.3 IP
, IP
IP . , IP , IP .
,
.
- VoIP .
VoIP ,
. -
VoIP, -
. , ,
. VoIP IP ,
Ethernet , .
IP
, IP
, [7].
IP
. ,
, .
, ,
. IP
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6
.
,
IP
[7].
1.3.1 VoIP VoIP :
; .
, (ITU)
(IETF).
,
.
1.3.1.1 :
. -
IP : H.323 (peer-to-peer ); Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) ;
Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP) ; Megaco/ H.248 ( / ); Skinny Client Control Protocol (SCCP).
1.3.1.2 : ,
.
RTP(cRTP)/RTCP/IP/UDP:
- Real-time Transport Protocol
RTP OSI , UDP
.
, . RTP
,
.
- Real Time Control Protocol
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Real Time Control Protocol ,
RTP.
, RTP.
- Compressed RTP
Compressed RTP (cRTP) RTP,
IP .
IP/UDP/RTP, 40 . cRTP
2 4 ,
.
1.3.2 ,
.
-
, . ,
, -
(PCM). ,
.
VoIP . ,
.
. LAN
, ,
G.711. ,
, ,
- . LAN ,
WAN - ,
.
, .
[10]:
y G.711 - 64 Kbps
y G.729 - 8 Kbps
y G.723 - 6.3 5.3 Kbps
y G.722 - 64 Kbps.
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1.3.3 , VoIP - IP - .
- ± 99.999% IP
.
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± . . ,
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o <150ms
o <50ms
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1.3.4 QoS
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y ;
y ;
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y ;
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, ,
:
y ;
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/ .
1.4 IP ( , ,
.) TCP/IP IP . ,
, IP .
,
, ,
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.
IP . , IP ,
.
IP 32- .
- (doted-decimal) .
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, 8 . ,
0 255.
w.x.y.z. IP
11001001.10101100.01010001.01100111 -
201.172.81.103. IP ,
32 232 4 294 967 296.
IP , . IP
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,
.
TCP/IP IP ±
(classful addressing) (classless addressing).
-
. IP 3 . ,
(netblocks).
.
( IP ).
.
. - -
( IP ) - .
IANA (Internet Assigned
Numbers Authority).
,
IANA.
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10
1.1
A 0 0 ± 127 8
B 10 128 ± 191 16
C 110 192 ± 223 24
126 ( ), 16
IP .
. ,
65635 IP . 2 , 254 .
IP ,
0.
, ± 10. 182.34.123.5
, 182, 128 ± 191.
182, , 10110110.
10, ,
. , , C .
, IP ±
. ,
. -
, 7 ,
128 - 0 127.
127 , IP 0.0.0.0
IP , 126.
(16
).
, 14 ,
214 = 16384 .
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11
(24
).
, 21 ,
221 = 2097152 .
.
, 1000 .
,
254.
65000 , , 64000 .
.
(CIDR - classless interdomain routing). , CIDR
, IP , 175.234.45.0/20. 20 - ,
. 12 IP
. IP
, CIDR ³slash x´
( ) . CIDR /8 ,
/16 , /24 .
CIDR - IP ,
, , /5, /12, /21 . .
1.5 , , /
. ±
.
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(100%- ) .
, , .
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12
,
, .
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1.5.1 ,
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1.5.1.1
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13
y .
, .
Ä ´ ,
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, , .
1.5.1.2 :
y ;
y DoS ;
y IP ;
y ;
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1.5.2
1.5.2.1 -
.
.
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, , ,
. .
y ,
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y ,
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y , ,
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y - , - ,
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14
( ,
) (
).
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1.5.2.2
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15
,
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.
1.5.2.3 , .
.
,
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16
2.
,
. ,
,
,
.
,
. .
.
2.1
2.1
- , LAN. ,
Shared Medium LAN (SM-LAN),
, ,
, ,
.
, .
15 km
15 km
15 km
O 1 2
3
4
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, .
.
LAN N WAN
[1].
2.1.1 LAN - :
LAN -
. -
[1]:
> -
.
> -
.
.
> -
.
.
> -
.
> -
-
,
, .
> -
,
.
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> -
,
.
LAN,
.
LAN ,
, , . LAN
,
. ,
EN 50 173, .
o ,
, "" .
- .
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[1].
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,
.
. -
.
LAN, (Campus-Backbone).
e
- LAN .
,
, .
,
± ISDN, 3 4,
. ,
± . ,
.
,
ISDN [1].
- LAN
, N 50 173, LAN
, 1 000 000 m2, -
3 000 m 50 50000 [1].
,
, .
.
,
,
.
.
.
, ,
.
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,
1 500 m. -
. ,
, 2 000 m
.
, .
, , ,
, .
220 V
0.5 m . 220 V
0.2 m [1].
- LAN -
.
150
( ISDN , .). LAN , ,
100 120 .
UTP S .
10 m .
, LAN
,
,
, ,
.
A D, e .
- , ,
. ,
. ,
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22
, ,
100 k Hz. 1
Hz, 16 z.
10 s . D
, .
100 z 1 GHz.
- ,
o,
NEXT(Near End Crosstalk) R (Attentuation to Crosstalk Ratio)
NEXT o, d . ,
1
2
=10log (P1/P2) , dB 0 ,
, [1]:
2.1
z 0.1 1 4 10 16 20 62.5 100
16
5.5 15
0, 3.7 6.6 10.7 14
dB D 2.5 4.8 7.5 9.4 10.5 18.4 23.2 0
,
,
, .
, ,
.
- , ,
, .
.
NEXT
. NEXT
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, ,
[1]:
2.2
z 0.1 1 4 10 16 20 62.5 100
Ma 27
48 11
39 29 23 19
NEXT dB D 54 45 39 36 34.5 27 24
R :
R (d ) = N X (d ) - 0 (d ).
N , , R
.
. ,
- 10-10 R - .
R, ,
[1]:
2.3
z 0.1 1 4 10 16 20 62.5 100
CR
K 11
K B 42.5 4
K C 35.3 22.4 12.2 5
dB K D 40 35 30 28 13 4
R
ISO/IEC 11 801, N 50 173
100
. 1 5,
, . :
1 - ,
2 - , 1 z,
3 - , 16 z,
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24
4 - , 20 z,
5 - , 100 z,
6 - , 600 z,
K 7 - , 1000 Hz.
~ ,
. -
0, NEXT
R.
3, 4 5,
100 ,
NEXT, 100 m [1].
2.4 MHz 1 4 10 16 20 31.25 62.5 100
. 3 2.6 5.6 9.8 13.1
dB . 4 2.1 4.3 7.2 8.9 10.2
. 5 2.1 4.3 6.6 8.2 9.2 11.8 17.1 22
x- . 3 41 32 26 23
- . 4 56 47 41 38 36
NEXT dB . 5 62 53 47 44 42 40 35 32
120 150.
- , LAN
LAN
, RJ 45.
, .
[1]:
b - 4 5.
b - 3 6.
b - 1 2.
b - 7 8.
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ISO 8802.
LAN
.
LLC
,
- 802.3, 802.4, 802.5, 802.11 ., LAN,
802.6, N.
, .
,
- .
, ,
[1].
I 802 [1] :
2.2 I 802
2.2.1 L A
Ethernet/I 802.3 10 s , 10 seF, 10 s 2,
10 5, 10 it/ s.
. Et erne t vMet L,
v , Met . - (B seband)
(Broadband). Base ,
(Baseband). L
(5 = 500 m)
(F - , - ) .
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I 802.3 -
HDLC. MAC :
2.3 MAC
- LLC- ,
D. [1]:
> re ( mbl ), , ,
10101010.
,
- .
> SFD (Start Frame Delimiter), ,
10101011.
> D (Destination Address), ,
, -
. ,
. (Multicast Address)
, .
, ,
.
> SA (Source Address), ,
.
.
> L/ (Length/Type), .
. - 0600,
1536,
, . 0600
. ,
46 .
,
.
> PAD (Padding Byte), 0 46 . -
46 .
7 1 6 6 2 46-1500bytes 4 Pre SFD DA SA Length/Type Data unit + pad FCS
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,
.
-
( ) .
, SFD.
Ethernet 10Bas e5
" " ( US)
50.
. .
500 m.
( ) .
Manchester, .
2 165 S.
U (Medium Attachment Unit),
2.5 m UI- (Attachment Unit Interface)
( ) 50 m. ( nsceiver)
, .
, , S/ D
(Carrier Sence Multiple Access with Collision Detection). ( ri S ns ) .
,
(Multiply Access).
, .
(Collision Detection)
( Jam) . ,
,
.
-
64 .
- , " ", 57.6 µS.
, 28.8
µS, 10 bit/s.
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,
SMA/CD.
Ethernet 10 s 2, Thin Ethernet
Cheaper net, " "
50 BNC ,
LAN- . 185 m
.
S / D. 950 S,
, 30,
- 0.5 m.
Ethernet 10Bas eT ,
UTP (Unshielded Twisted
Pair) STP (Shielded Twisted Pair). 10 seT-Repeater 10 -Hub.
(Client - Server) 100 m.
.
100 m,
UTP .
Ethernet 10Bas eF ,
50/125 µm 62/125 µm,
. .
10BaseT-Repeater, 10 s 5 10 2.
2.1.2 LAN t ¡ ¢ £ ¤ ¢ t/ I 802.3 10 Mbit/s
.
I 802.3
LAN, Fast Ethernet 100BaseT.
100 bit/s
, Ethernet.
CSMA/CD
.
100BaseT [1].
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Fast Ethernet 100 s Ethenter 10 s
,
. LAN Fast Ethernet 100 s
,
. - , Fast Ethernet 100 s
.
, .
Fast Ethernet 100 s
UTP STP
. Fast
Ethernet 100 s , LAN,
Ethernet10 s 10 bit/s,
, .
- , .
[1]:
> Fast Ethernet 100 s 4.
UTP, , . -
LAN UTP STP 5.
> Fast Ethernet 100 s X. UTP STP ,
5, IBM-S 1 .
> Fast Ethernet 100 s FX. ,
ISO 9314 FDDI (Fiber Data Distributed
Interface).
62.5/125µm.
I 802.3 1998 1999 .
LAN, Ethernet 1000BaseT
Gigabit Ethernet. 1 Gbit/s.
STP, UTP . 5, .
25 m m.
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R .
. ,
, -
. -
[1].
[1]:
2.4 ©
,
,
.
, . . .
. ,
[1]:
y Store and Forward Sw it ing
y C t-Throu th Sw it hing
y Near Cut-Throu th Sw it hing
Store and Forward
Sit hing
- . , ,
CRC , .
. , .
.
, 1,3 ms - - .
, Cut-Throu th Sw it hing
-
. -
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2.2 LAN
,
, ,
.
-
(WAN) .
:
> LAN;
> LAN WAN,
;
> LAN ,
( kbone).- LAN
, .
- LAN
, .
( ). I
802.3/ thernet. ,
. . ,
.
.
2.2.1 LAN ( ), , ,
(LAN), ,
- WAN.
. - ,
,
, .
I (I ) ,
. ,
,
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. , , -
.
I .
, ,
. ,
,
,
.
I
(Route).
,
R , . ,
, - .
,
,
.
, , ,
.
, . .
D ,
. ,
, NID
, . , .
.
LAN .
LAN LAN WAN
,
.
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36
.
, .
, ,
,
RI. , ,
.
. -
,
,
.
,
. RIP (Routing Information Protocol)
OSPF ( n Shortest Path First)
/I .
I , PROTOCOL I
.
.
I , . ,
, . ,
I
.
I a
.
LAN
, .
.
. I 802.3 n Ring,
- . -
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,
.
2.6 LA N
, I
.
.
LLC . ,
, ,
,
.
» . LAN
, . LAN ,
LLC ,
- DLPI (Da ta L ink Prov ider In terface), NDIS (Ne twork
Dr iver In terface Spec if ication), DI (Open Da ta L ink In terface) .
. ,
, .
2.2.2 L A
W A
LAN
WAN,
, . WAN -
,
. LAN WAN
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, (Gateway),
LAN WAN,
LAN WAN.
LAN. WAN
,
LAN WAN.
, LAN WAN.
LAN WAN
- LAN,
WAN. WAN
,
. .
.
,
LAN.
LAN WAN
- .
,
WAN, , LAN WAN - ISDN, - .25.
WAN ,
,
. , ,
LAN WAN,
. ,
64 kbit/s,
,
.
,
,
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ISDN. , FR
- -
, , o
.
,
,
WAN. ,
LAN- ,
WAN,
. WAN, -
-
.
.
,
. , - , -
.
2.7
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3. ,
,
.
. ,
- . Cisco Sys tems.
, .
, :
y ;
y ; y ± (PC).
, :
y : Cisco 2811
y : Cisco 1841
- , ,
.
. Cisco 2811.
- Cisco 2811 :
y 64 FLAS ;
y 256 DR AM ;
y 4 WAN ;
y 2 FastEtherne t ;
y 2 ;
y 2 US B ;
y 1500
IPsec VPN , ;
y (IOS) ± 12.2(14)T ;
3.1: Cisco 2811
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-
- ,
,
.
Cisco 1841:
y 64 FLAS H ;
y 256 DRAM ;
y 2 WAN ;
y 2 FastEthernet ;
y 1 ; 3.2: Ci sco 1841
y 1 USB ;y 800 IPsec VPN ;
y (IOS) ± 12.4(21), ±32 FLASH /128 DRAM.
- Cisco 2950, 24
. 24 ,
24 .
Cisco 2950:
y 24 - 10/100 Ethernet ;
y 1 - RS232;
y ±
13.6 Gbps;
y :Half-duplex,
full-duplex;
y ± , 3.3: Ci sco 2950
, .
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:
ASRock G41M-VS Intel G41 Chipset
Intel Celeron 450 2.2 G Hz LGA 775 FSB800M Hz
512KB cache
DDR2 2GB PC2-6400/800MHz Kingston 320GBHitachi Deskstar 7200rpm 16MB SATA II
Integrated Intel® Graphics Media Accelerator 4500
(GMA4500)
DVD-RW LG SATA
Realtek ALC662 6-channel High Definition audio
CODEC
LAN Realtek PCIEx1 LAN 8103EL/8102EL 10/100
Mbps
³Microsoft Windows 7 nterprise dition´.
3.1 .
, .
, .
- :
Cu rrent co nf igu r a t io n : 895 by te s !ver s io n 12.4no ser vic e passwo r d-en c r ypt io n !hos tnam e R1!!ip ss h ver sio n 1
!!interf ac e F as tEthernet 0/0ip a dd re ss 192.168.10.1 255.255.255.224dupl ex a ut o s peed a ut o !interf ac e F as tEthernet 0/1no ip a dd re ss dupl ex a ut o s peed a ut o
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shut d ow n !interf ac e S er ia l0/0/0ip a dd re ss 192.168.10.105 255.255.255.252c l ock r a te 1000000
!interf ac e S er ia l0/0/1ip a dd re ss 77.70.18.4 255.255.0.0
!interf ac e S er ia l0/1/0ip a dd re ss 192.168.10.97 255.255.255.252c l ock r a te 1000000
!interf ac e S er ia l0/1/1ip a dd re ss 192.168.10.101 255.255.255.252c l ock r a te 1000000
!interf ac e Vl a n1no ip a dd re ss shut d ow n !ip c l ass l e ss
ip r o ute 192.168.10.80 255.255.255.240 S er ia l0/1/0ip r o ute 192.168.10.64 255.255.255.240 S er ia l0/1/1ip r o ute 192.168.10.32 255.255.255.224 S er ia l0/0/0ip r o ute 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 S er ia l0/0/1!!no c dp r un !line co n 0line vt y 0 4l o gin
!!end
S er ia l0/1/0 , S er ia l0/1/1 , S er ia l0/0/0 .
- :
Cu rrent co nf igu r a t io n : 536 by te s !ver s io n 12.4no ser vic e passwo r d-en c r ypt io n !hos tnam e R4!
!!!!ip ss h ver sio n 1!!interf ac e F as tEthernet 0/0ip a dd re ss 192.168.10.81 255.255.255.240dupl ex a ut o s peed a ut o
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!interf ac e F as tEthernet 0/1no ip a dd re ss dupl ex a ut o s peed a ut o shut d ow n !interf ac e S er ia l0/1/0ip a dd re ss 192.168.10.98 255.255.255.252
!interf ac e S er ia l0/1/1no ip a dd re ss shut d ow n !interf ac e Vl a n1no ip a dd re ss shut d ow n !ip c l ass l e ss ip r o ute 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 S er ia l0/1/0!!
!!!no c dp r un !line co n 0line vt y 0 4l o gin
!! End
S er ia l0/1/0
.
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. 3 Fa0/0 192.168.10.65 255.255.255.240 N/A
S0/1/0 192.168.10.101 255.255.255.252 N/A
. 4 Fa0/0 192.168.10.81 255.255.255.240 N/A
S0/1/0 192.168.10.98 255.255.255.252 N/A
PC1 NIC 192.168.10.2 255.255.255.224 192.168.10.1PC5 NIC 192.168.10.82 255.255.255.240 192.168.10.81
PC7 NIC 192.168.10.66 255.255.255.240 192.168.10.65
PC9 NIC 192.168.10.34 255.255.255.224 192.168.10.33
- :
- .
:
PC1 PC7:
P C>pi n g 192.168.10.65
P in gin g 192.168.10.65 w ith 32 by te s o f d a t a :
Re ply fr om 192.168.10.65: by te s=32 t im e=13 ms TTL=254
Re ply fr om 192.168.10.65: by te s=32 t im e=11 ms TTL=254
Re ply fr om 192.168.10.65: by te s=32 t im e=8 ms TTL=254
Re ply fr om 192.168.10.65: by te s=32 t im e=9 ms TTL=254
P in g st a t i s t ics f o r 192.168.10.65:
P ack et s: S ent = 4, R ec eived = 4, Los t = 0 (0% l oss ) ,
App r o xima te r o und tr ip t im e s in m illi- seco nd s :
Minim um = 8 ms , M a xim um = 13 ms , Aver a g e = 10 ms
PC5 PC9:
P C>pi n g 192.168.10.34
P in gin g 192.168.10.34 w ith 32 by te s o f d a t a :
Re ply fr om 192.168.10.34: by te s=32 t im e=23 ms TTL=125
Re ply fr om 192.168.10.34: by te s=32 t im e=22 ms TTL=125
Re ply fr om 192.168.10.34: by te s=32 t im e=27 ms TTL=125
Re ply fr om 192.168.10.34: by te s=32 t im e=20 ms TTL=125
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P in g st a t i s t ics f o r 192.168.10.34:
P ack et s: S ent = 4, R ec eived = 4, Los t = 0 (0% l oss ) ,
App r o xima te r o und tr ip t im e s in m illi- seco nd s :
Minim um = 20 ms , M a xim um = 27 ms , Aver a g e = 23 ms
4.2
- :
500 /h, :
:
500.10 6.8/3600 = 1,11 . 10 6 bps = 1,11 bps
, thernet 802.3
:
80 B . 8 . 100 / = 64 bps
:
1,11 . 10 6 + 64.10 3 = 1,174.10 6 bps § 1,2.10 6 bps = 1,2 bps
- :
, -
,
5% .
G.711 , 64kbps
, 20ms,
:
50 / . 220B .8 = 88.103 bps = 88 kbps
5% 4,4 kbps,
: 92,4 kbps § 100 kbps . :
1,2.10 6 bps + 100.10 3 = 1,3.10 6 bps = 1.3 Mbps
-
:
- : 20.1,3 = 26 Mbps
- 15 : 15.1,3 = 19.5 Mbps
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- 10 : 10.1,3 = 13 Mbps
4.1
- :
- 1 : 16 Mbps + 20 Mbps = 36 Mpbs
- 2 : 18 Mbps + 13 Mbps = 31 Mpbs
- 3 : 18 Mbps + 13 Mbps = 31 Mpbs
- : 2,6Mbps + 1,3 Mbps + 1,95 Mbps = 5,85 § 6 Mpbs
.
Fast Ethernet 100 Mpbs
, 15 . 15
,
( 0.2 ± 0.4 db/km,
30 50 ),
45 55
36 Mpbs.
.
----------------- 2
(15)
3
(10)
4
(10)--------------- 30% 30% 30% 10%
2 (15) 30% ------------- 30% 30% 10% 3 (10) 30% 30% ------------- 30% 10% 4 (10) 30% 30% 30% ------------- 10%
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4.3
, .
( ),
.
, , . ..
,
-
36 Mbit/sec.
4.2
(4.2) c
l *P!
, Erl [9]
P - .
l ± .
c ± .
.
I = 1240B
4.3.
(4.3)
!P , /
36Mb. , :
29608*1240
1000000*36124036
!!! B
M bP , /
100Mbit/sec
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Er l Mbi t
B A 25.0242.0
10024,24
1000000*1008*1240*2960
sec/1001240sec*/2960
1}!!!!
=0.25 Erl ,
25%. ,
1 Erl,
100%. ,
0 Erl, ,
.
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51
5.
:
y ;
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,
,
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: WAN
.
:
- Cisco 2811 ± 1200$;
- Cisco 1841 ± 650$;
- Cisco 2950 ± 250$;
- ± 300$;
- UTP ± 1000 ( 0.3$/ ) ± 300$;
- ± 45 ( 0.5$/ ) ± 22 500$;
- ± 2000$
,
,
50 000$, .
WAN ,
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350$, 500$ . 1400$
1500$ .
,
WAN 23 600$, 35 400
.
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Systems 2295$ .
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53
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54
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:
ARCnet - Attached Resource Computer NETwork
IANA - Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
IEEE - Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IETF - Internet Engineering Task Force
IOS - Internetwork Operating System
IP - internet protocol;
ISO - International Organization for Standardization
ITU - International Telecommunication Union
LAN - local area network;
LLC - Logical Link Contro
MAC - Media Access ControlMAN - metropolitan area network
MTU - maximum transmission unit;
QoS - qualiti of service;
OSPF - Open Shortest Path First
PCM - Pulse-code modulation
RIP - Routing Information Protocol
SIP - Session Initiation Protocol
STP - Shielded twisted pairTCP - transmission control protocol;
UDP - User Datagram Protocol
UTP - Unshielded twisted pair
VLAN - virtual LAN
VoIP - voice over ip;
VPN - vitrtual private network;
WAN - wide area network;
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:
[1] . , ± 2, , 2005
[2] ., , IP, , 2006
[3] . . , , , 2002
[4] Ballow S. M., Managing IP Networks with Cisco Routers, O'Reilly, 1999
[5] IP routing fundamentals, Cisco Press, 1999
[6] Parkhurst B., Routing first-step, Cisco Press, 2004
[7] Sean Christensen; Voice over IP Solutions, Juniper Networks Inc. ,2001;
[8] www.cisco.com
[9] www.en.wikipedia.org
[10] http://www.cisco.com/en/US/tech/tk652/tk698/technologies_tech_note09186a0080094
ae2.shtml [11] http://www.cypressindustries.com/fiber_optics_cables.html
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. ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ . 2
1. ................................ ............... 3
1.1 ................................ ................................ ............................... 3
1.2 ................................ ................................ ................... 3
1.2.1 : ................................ 3
1.2.2 : ................................ ................... 4
1.2.3 : ................................ ................ 4
1.2.4 : ................................ ..................... 5
1.3 ................................ .................... 5
1.3.1 VoIP ................................ ................................ ................................ 6
1.3.2 ................................ ................................ ................................ ............. 7
1.3.3 , VoIP ................ 8
1.3.4 QoS ................................ ................................ ........................... 8
1.4 IP ................................ ................................ ................................ ......... 8
1.5 ................................ ................................ .............................. 11
1.5.1 ................................ ................................ .............................. 12
1.5.2 ................................ ................................ ....................... 13
2. ................................ ........ 16
2.1 ................................ ................................ .............. 16
2.1.1 LAN ................................ ................................ . 17
2.2 LAN ................................ ................................ ...... 25 2.2.1 LAN Ethernet/I 802.3 ................................ ............................. 26
2.1.2 LAN thernet/I 802.3 ................................ 29
2.1.3 LAN Ethernet / IEE 802.3 ................................ ........................... 31
2.2 ................................ .......................... 34
2.2.1 LAN ( ) ............................. 34
2.2.2 LAN WAN .............................. 37
3. , ................................ ..................... 40
3.1 ................................ ................................ ................................ ....... 42
4. / ................................ ......................... 45
4.1 ................................ ................................ .................. 45
4.2 ................................ .............................. 47
5. ................................ ................................ ...................... 51
6: ................................ ............................. 53
7: ................................ ............... 54
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: ................................ ................................ ............. 56
: ................................ ................................ ................................ 57