Digital transformation: a review, synthesis and ... · S. Naa, R. Pü 1 3 1 Introduction...

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Management Review Quarterlyhttps://doi.org/10.1007/s11301-020-00185-7

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Digital transformation: a review, synthesis and opportunities for future research

Swen Nadkarni1 · Reinhard Prügl1

Received: 14 July 2019 / Accepted: 28 March 2020 © The Author(s) 2020

AbstractIn the last years, scholarly attention was on a steady rise leading to a significant increase in the number of papers addressing different technological and organiza-tional aspects of digital transformation. In this paper, we consolidate existing find-ings which mainly stem from the literature of information systems, map the terri-tory by sharing important macro- and micro-level observations, and propose future research opportunities for this pervasive field. The paper systematically reviews 58 peer-reviewed studies published between 2001 and 2019, dealing with different aspects of digital transformation. Emerging from our review, we develop inductive thematic maps which identify technology and actor as the two aggregate dimensions of digital transformation. For each dimension, we derive further units of analysis (nine core themes in total) which help to disentangle the particularities of digital transformation processes and thereby emphasize the most influential and unique antecedents and consequences. In a second step, in order to assist in breaking down disciplinary silos and strengthen the management perspective, we supplement the resulting state-of-the-art of digital transformation by integrating cross-disciplinary contributions from reviewing 28 papers on technological disruption and 32 papers on corporate entrepreneurship. The review reveals that certain aspects, such as the pace of transformation, the culture and work environment, or the middle manage-ment perspective are significantly underdeveloped.

Keywords Digital transformation · Digital disruption · Technological disruption · Corporate entrepreneurship · Literature review · Research agenda

JEL Classification M10

* Swen Nadkarni [email protected]

Reinhard Prügl [email protected]

1 Chair of Innovation, Technology & Entrepreneurship, Zeppelin University, Am Seemooser Horn 20, 88045 Friedrichshafen, Germany

http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s11301-020-00185-7&domain=pdf

S. Nadkarni, R. Prügl

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1 Introduction

Digital transformation, defined as transformation ‘concerned with the changes digital technologies can bring about in a company’s business model, … products or organizational structures’ (Hess et al. 2016, p. 124), is perhaps the most per-vasive managerial challenge for incumbent firms of the last and coming decades. However, digital possibilities need to come together with skilled employees and executives in order to reveal its transformative power. Thus, digital transforma-tion needs both technology and people. In the last years, scholarly attention, par-ticularly in the information systems (IS) literature, was on a steady rise leading to a significant increase in the number of papers addressing different technological and organizational aspects of digital transformation. In the light of this develop-ment, we are convinced it is the right time to map the territory and reflect on the current state of knowledge. Therefore, in this paper we aim at providing a descriptive, thematic analysis of the field by critically assessing where, how and by whom research on digital transformation is conducted. Based on this analysis, we identify future research opportunities.

We approach this objective in two steps. First, we adopt an inductive approach and conduct a systematic literature review (following Tranfield et al. 2003; Web-ster and Watson 2002) of 58 peer-reviewed papers dealing with digital transfor-mation. By applying elements of grounded theory and content analysis (Corley and Gioia 2004; Gioia et al. 1994) we identify important core themes in the lit-erature that are particularly pronounced and/or unique in transformations enabled by digital technologies. In a second step, in order to assist in breaking down dis-ciplinary silos (Jones and Gatrell 2014) and avoiding the building of an ivory tower (Bartunek et al. 2006; Fuetsch and Suess-Reyes 2017), we supplement the pre-dominantly IS-based digital transformation literature with a broader man-agement perspective. Accordingly, we integrate cross-disciplinary contributions from reviewing 28 papers on technological disruption and 32 papers on corporate entrepreneurship.

We find these research fields particularly suitable for informing digital trans-formation research for two reasons. First, by reviewing the literature on techno-logical disruption we hope to derive implications regarding technology adop-tion and integration. Burdened with the legacy of old technology, bureaucratic structures and core rigidities (Leonard-Barton 1992), incumbents may face major challenges in this respect during their digital transformation journey. Second, we expect corporate entrepreneurship to add a more holistic perspective on firm-internal aspects during the process of transformation, such as management influ-ence or the impact of knowledge and organizational learning.

Our findings and related contributions are threefold: First, based on a sys-tematic and structured analysis we develop digital transformation maps which inductively categorize and describe the existing body of research. These thematic maps identify technology and actor as the two aggregate dimensions of digital transformation. Within these dimensions, we reveal nine core themes which help to disentangle the particularities of digital transformation processes and thereby

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Digital transformation: a review, synthesis and opportunities…

emphasize the most influential and unique antecedents and consequences of this specific type of transformation. Thus, it becomes possible to identify the predom-inant contextual factors for which research would create the strongest leverage for a better understanding of the challenges inherent in digital transformation. Sec-ond, we contribute to the advancement of this field by elaborating opportunities for future research on digital transformation which integrate the three perspec-tives mentioned above. In particular, informed by corporate entrepreneurship, we find that the important middle management perspective on digital transfor-mation has thus far been largely neglected by researchers. Also, emerging from our review we call for more studies on the various options for integrating digital transformation within organizational architectures and existing processes. Third, in reviewing the adjacent literature on technological disruption and corporate entrepreneurship, we strengthen the valuable management perspective within the primarily IS-based discussion on digital transformation. This way we avoid the reinvention of the wheel while at the same time enable the identification of cross-disciplinary research opportunities. We hope to stimulate discussion between these different but strongly related disciplines and enable mutual learning and a fruitful exchange of ideas.

2 Conceptual foundations

Technology as a major determinant of organizational form and structure has been well acknowledged by academics for a long time (Thompson and Bates 1957; Wood-ward 1965; Scott 1992). Following a significant decline of interest in this relation-ship until the mid-1990s (Zammuto et al. 2007), innovations in information tech-nologies (IT) and the rise of pre-internet technologies have revitalized its relevance in the context of organizational transformation. Thus, the literature on IT-enabled organizational transformation, a concept which originates from the field of informa-tion systems (IS) that has caught considerable academic attention starting back in the early 1990s (Ranganathan et al. 2004; Besson and Rowe 2012), may be seen as one of the scholarly roots of digital transformation research. In his seminal book, Morton (1991) argued that companies must experience fundamental transforma-tions for effective IT implementation. In the course of the years a shift of attention occurred from technological to managerial and organizational issues (Markus and Benjamin 1997; Doherty and King 2005). Non-technological aspects such as lead-ership, culture, and employee training were found to be equally important for suc-cessful IT-enabled transformation (Markus 2004). This is supported by Orlikowski (1996) who found empirical evidence from a 2-year case study that organizational transformation was in fact enabled by technology, but not caused by it.

Today, information technologies have become ‘one of the threads from which the fabric of organization is now woven’ (Zammuto et al. 2007, p. 750). Digital tech-nologies are considered a major asset for leveraging organizational transformation, given their disruptive nature and cross-organizational and systemic effects (Besson and Rowe 2012). In order to achieve successful digital transformation, changes must occur at various levels within the organization, including an adaptation of the core


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business (Karimi and Walter 2015), the exchange of resources and capabilities (Cha et al. 2015; Yeow et al. 2018), the reconfiguration of processes and structures (Resca et al. 2013), adjustments in leadership (Hansen and Sia 2015; Singh and Hess 2017), and the implementation of a vivid digital culture (Llopis et al. 2004). Therefore, the scope of our review revolves around digital transformation at the organizational level only (in contrast to implications at the individual level).

In this study, we conceptualize digital transformation at the intercept of the adop-tion of disruptive digital technologies on the one side and actor-guided organiza-tional transformation of capabilities, structures, processes and business model com-ponents on the other side. In other words, and in line with Hess et al. (2016), we define digital transformation as organizational change triggered by digital technolo-gies. Hence, we argue that two perspectives of digital transformation within organi-zations must be captured: a technology-centric and an actor-centric perspective. To exploit the technology-centric perspective we include the literature on technological disruption (e.g. Tushman and Anderson 1986; Anderson and Tushman 1990) and merge it with research on digital transformation. For the actor-centric perspective, we derive essential implications from the field of corporate entrepreneurship (Guth and Ginsberg 1990), which we believe may add valuable insights regarding actor-driven innovation and renewal processes within firms. In the following, we offer a brief introduction to both concepts and their relationship with digital transformation.

Rice et al. (1998) define disruptive innovations as ‘game changers’ which have the potential ‘(1) for a 5–10 times improvement in performance compared to exist-ing products; (2) to create the basis for a 30–50% reduction in costs; or (3) to have new-to-the world performance features’ (p. 52). Similarly, Utterback (1994) empha-sizes this disruptiveness at the firm and industry level and provides a similar ‘game changer’ definition in terms of ‘change that sweeps away much of a firm’s existing investment in technical skills and knowledge, designs, production technique, plant and equipment’ (p. 200). Tushman and Anderson (1986) distinguish between prod-uct and process disruptiveness. Product disruptiveness encompasses new product classes, product substitutions, or fundamental product improvements. Process dis-ruptiveness may take the form of process substitutions or process innovations which radically improve industry-specific dimensions of merit. Christensen and Raynor (2003) introduce a further form of disruptive innovations, namely disruptive busi-ness model innovations, which represent the implementation of fundamentally dif-ferent business models in an existing business.

We argue that digital technologies may reflect in all of these definitions of dis-ruptive innovation. They may represent new-to-the-world product innovations, dis-locate existing processes, and open up entirely new business models. As resumed in a recent study by Li et al. (2017), e-commerce for instance is defined as a disruptive technology (Johnson 2010) which involves significant changes to an organization’s culture, business processes, capabilities, and markets (Zeng et al. 2008; Cui and Pan 2015).

Corporate entrepreneurship (CE) on the other side is a multi-dimensional con-cept at the intersection of entrepreneurship and strategic management in existing organizations (Zahra 1996; Hitt et al. 2001; Dess et al. 2003). We adopt the concep-tualization proposed by Guth and Ginsberg (1990, p. 5), who argue that corporate

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entrepreneurship deals with two phenomena ‘(1) the birth of new businesses within existing organizations, i.e. internal innovation or venturing, and (2) the transforma-tion of organizations through renewal of the key ideas on which they are built, i.e. strategic renewal.’ Particularly the aspect of strategic renewal in corporate entrepre-neurship, also labelled as strategic change, revival, transformation (Schendel 1990), reorganization, redefinition (Zahra 1993), or organizational renewal (Stopford and Baden-Fuller 1994), provides a promising interface to digital transformation. As stated by Covin and Miles (1999, p. 50), corporate entrepreneurship ‘revitalizes, reinvigorates and reinvents’—processes also required for digital transformation. Various authors have stated that corporate entrepreneurship is a vehicle to improve competitive positioning and transform corporations (Schollhammer 1982; Miller 1983; Khandwalla 1987; Guth and Ginsberg 1990; Naman and Slevin 1993; Lump-kin and Dess 1996). Considering the disruptive nature of many current digital tech-nologies, we believe that organizations need to fundamentally renew and redefine the key ideas of their business in order to fully exploit the potential of digitization and eventually achieve successful transformation. The literature places particular attention on the role of middle managers as the locus of corporate entrepreneurship (Burgelman 1983, Floyd and Wooldridge 1999). Concluding, we will review the research on corporate entrepreneurship and identify those contributions which we believe may offer valuable knowledge regarding actor-driven internal renewal and change processes in the light of digital transformation.

Our review of the literature on digital transformation, technological disrup-tion and corporate entrepreneurship is conducted in a two-step approach. First, we review, analyze and synthesize existing articles on digital transformation. Then, in a second step we supplement these findings be simultaneously reviewing the litera-ture stream on technological disruption and corporate entrepreneurship. We believe a separate analysis and contrasting of the research streams is appropriate for two reasons: first, it provides the reader with more clarity on the status quo of digital transformation knowledge and prevents the confusion of concepts emerging from different literature fields. Second, white spots and opportunities for future research regarding digital transformation become much more visible in such a structured approach.

3 Research methodology

A systematic review is a type of literature review that applies an explicit algorithm and a multi-stage review strategy in order to collect and critically appraise a body of research studies (Mulrow 1994; Pittaway et al. 2004; Crossan and Apaydin 2010).


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This transparent and reproducible process is ideally suited for analyzing and struc-turing the vast and heterogeneous literature on digital transformation. In conducting our review, we followed the guidelines of Tranfield et al. (2003) and the recommen-dations of Denyer and Neely (2004, p. 133)1 as well as Fisch and Block (2018) in order to ensure a high quality of the review.

The nature of our review is both scoping and descriptive (Rowe 2014; Paré et al. 2015) as we aim to provide an initial indication of the potential size and nature of the available literature as well as to summarize and map existing findings from digi-tal transformation research. By developing opportunities for future research, our review further contributes to the advancement of this field and stimulates theory development.

For the purpose of data collection, we exclusively limit our focus on peer-reviewed academic journals as recommended by McWilliams et al. (2005). Thus, we opted to exclude work in progress, conference papers, dissertations, or books. First, based on discussion among the authors and the reading of a few highly-cited papers, we designed our search criteria using combinations of keywords containing ‘digital* AND transform*’, ‘digital* AND disrupt*’, ‘digitalization’, and ‘digitiza-tion’. Then, we manually searched each issue of each volume of the leading jour-nals in the management2 and IS field (AIS Basket of eight).3 In addition, we run our search query against five different electronic databases: Business Source Pre-mier (EBSCO), Scopus, Science Direct, Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI), and Google Scholar. We used all years available and only included articles referring to business, management, or economics in order to exclude irrelevant publications. We abstained from including digital innovation in our search (the only exception in our sample is a recent literature review by Kohli and Melville (2019), in order to capture consolidated insights). Although we realize that it is a hot topic in IS research at the moment (e.g. Fichman et al. 2014; Nambisan et al. 2017; Yoo et al. 2010, 2012), we aim to concentrate our focus on papers dealing with digital transformation on a broader level (firm and industry), rather than with transitions within innovation management.

Our first search query was conducted mid 2017 and yielded an initial sample of 1722 publications. This very large sample was mainly due to the broad ambiguity of the terms ‘digital’ and ‘disrupt’. Given these broad search parameters, we anticipated that only a small fraction of this very large sample would prove to be of substantive relevance to us. To select these relevant articles for our final sample, we performed

2 The search included Academy of Management Journal, Administrative Science Quarterly, Entrepre-neurship Theory and Practice, Journal of Management Studies, Strategic Management Journal.3 The search included European Journal of Information Systems, Information Systems Journal, Infor-mation Systems Research, Journal of the Association for Information Systems, Journal of Information Technology, Journal of Management Information Systems, Journal of Strategic Information Systems, MIS Quarterly, MISQ Executive.

1 The development of clear and precise aims and objectives; pre-planned methods; a comprehensive search of all potentially relevant articles; the use of explicit, reproducible criteria in the selection of arti-cles; an appraisal of the quality of the research and the strength of the findings; a synthesis of individual studies using an explicit analytic framework; and a balanced, impartial and comprehensible presentation of the results.

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a predefined and structured multi-step selection process (similar to the approach of Siebels and Knyphausen-Aufseß 2012; Vom Brocke et al. 2015) and defined specific criteria for inclusion (Templier and Paré 2015). The filters during our selection pro-cess included (1) scanning the titles, (2) reading abstracts, (3) removing duplicates, (4) full reading and in-depth analysis of the remaining papers, and finally (5) cross-referencing and backward searching by looking through the bibliographies of the most important articles to find additional relevant work. The initial pool was split in half between two panelists who separately performed the scanning of titles, analysis of abstracts and removal of duplicates. After these early steps, the sample could be narrowed down to 155 articles. As we arrived at step 4 “full reading and in-depth analysis of the remaining papers”, both panelists read and independently classified each of the remaining 155 studies. During this process, papers qualified for the final sample if they satisfied three requirements: (1) articles were required to have their primary focus and contribution within digital transformation research or digitally-induced organizational transformation (e.g. a vast number of papers inadequately captured the topic of digital transformation as they primarily focused on business model innovation), (2) articles needed to be based on a sound theoretical foundation and therefore not primarily practitioner oriented (such as articles that offer popular recommendations to business leaders on how to survive digital transformation), (3) papers that were not addressing digital transformation at an organizational level (e.g. the rise of home-based online businesses by entrepreneurs) were dismissed. When-ever disagreements emerged regarding the inclusion or classification of an article, we engaged in discussion and tried to resolve the issue together to make our selec-tion rules more reliable. We updated the review in the autumn of 2018 for any arti-cles that had appeared between then. Following this approach, 58 studies passed all five selection steps and were included in our final sample.

Within this sample, conceptual articles (27) and case studies (20) are dominant. Roughly 60% of the articles stem from the IS literature, while 40% cover a broader management perspective of digital transformation. While the reviewed papers span a time frame from 2001 to 2018, approximately eighty-percent of articles were pub-lished within the past 5 years, indicating the relative novelty of digital transforma-tion as a research discipline. The distribution of our sample according to journals is provided in Table 4 of “Appendix”.

Upon the recommendation of Webster and Watson (2002), our categorization and analysis of the literature was concept-centric. First, to facilitate analysis and build a basis for our initial coding, each selected paper was reviewed to determine the fol-lowing database information.

(1) Article title, (2) outlet, (3) research methodology, (4) sample, (5) region, and (6) key findings (see full database in Table 5 of “Appendix”). Next, we started cod-ing our sample, adopting elements of the approach introduced by Corley and Gioia (2004). We began by identifying initial concepts in the data and grouping them into provisional categories and first order concepts (open coding). Then, we engaged in axial coding (Locke 2001) and searched for relationships and common patterns between and among these provisional categories, which allowed us to assemble them into second order themes. Finally, we assigned these second order themes to aggregate dimensions, representing the highest level of abstraction in our coding. In


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sum, reviewing and analyzing the extant literature, 194 coded insights were gener-ated within the field of digital transformation: 61 first order concepts, nine second order themes, and two aggregate dimensions. The nine second order themes repre-sent core themes across the papers, which finally constitute two aggregate dimen-sions: technology and actor. In conclusion, we define digital transformation as actor-driven organizational transformation triggered by the adoption of technology-driven digital disruptions. The result of the coding process is a high-level inductive map of the core themes in digital transformation research (Fig. 1).

4 Results

The reviewed studies from our sample provide a rich body of knowledge regarding the specific contextual factors of digital transformation. This may be beneficial to both researchers and practitioners enabling a more comprehensive understanding of the peculiarities of digital transformation (in comparison to previous technology-driven transformations).

4.1 Macro‑level findings

On a macro level, the central observation emerging from our review is that both tech-nology- and actor-centric aspects take center stage within this debate. This is also reflected in various definitions of digital transformation provided in the sample. For example, Lanzolla and Anderson (2008) represent the technology-centric side and emphasize the diffusion of digital technologies as an enabler for transformation. Such digital technologies may include big data, mobile, cloud computing or search-based applications (White 2012). Similarly, Hess et al. (2016) note that digital transformation is ‘concerned with the changes digital technologies can bring about in a company’s business model, which result in changed products or organizational structures or in the

Pace of Change & Time to Market

Distributed Value Creation & Capture

Technology Capability& Integration

Consumer & other Stakeholder Interface

Market Environment & Rules of Competition

Company Culture

Transformative Leadership

Managerial & Organizational Capabilities

Work Environment

Second Order Themes Aggregate Dimensions Second Order Themes

ActorTechnology

Fig. 1 Digital transformation high-level thematic map emerging from the analysis of the literature

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automation of processes’ (p. 124). However, Hess et al. (2016) also highlight the role of actors (e.g. managers) in promoting transformation processes, while facing the chal-lenge of simultaneously balancing the exploration and exploitation of resources. Lead-ers must have trust in the value and benefits of new IT technologies and support their implementation (Chatterjee et al. 2002).

In total, we find an almost even distribution of papers studying the two dimensions of technology and actor: 33% are technology-centric, 34% are actor-centric, and 33% of papers cover both technology and actor. However, within these two dimensions we observe a rather uneven distribution of articles by second order themes. On the tech-nology-centric side, we find that understanding the implications of digital technologies on the consumer interface and market environment are highly active research streams. In comparison, understanding the pace of change in times of digital transformation and its direct impact on incumbents is so far comparably understudied. On the actor-centric side, our review reveals a very dominant focus on leadership and capabilities in a digi-tal context, while in contrast company culture and work environment thus far received less recognition. We also find that the status-quo of digital transformation literature is rather diverse, in a sense that papers discuss topics across various categories of our thematic map and are therefore not restricted nor focused to a specific unit of analy-sis. The vast majority of articles is related to adjacent topics of digital transformation underpinning its nature as a diverse and broad field of research while again indicating its emerging nature.

In addition, we observe some degree of diversity in the theoretical foundations drawn upon. Different theories are applied by several authors to capture the context of digital transformation, e.g. alignment view, configuration theory, resource-based view, dynamic capabilities, organizational learning theory, network view or business process reengineering. It would be interesting to use other theoretical angles, for example from the literature on corporate entrepreneurship and technological disruption, in order to increase theoretical diversity. Such an exchange with different fields of research would broaden the scope of the field and help bridging an ivory divide. Finally, from a meth-odological perspective, we observe that actor-centric papers primarily use case studies while technology-centric studies at this point are pre-eminently conceptual. In general, the literature is scarce regarding quantitative empirical evidence. We see this as a strong indicator for the early stage of digital transformation research.

4.2 Micro‑level findings: the technology‑centric side of the equation

In the following, we present and discuss the most important findings of the second order themes within the technology-centric dimension. In Fig. 2 we provide a thematic map for this dimension and in Table 1 a brief summary including illustrative quotes.

4.2.1 Pace of change and time to market

In times of digital transformation, the speed of technological change is dispropor-tionally accelerating with new digital capabilities being rolled out every year. The technological capability of applications such as the Internet of Things (IoT), big


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Tabl

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rder

them

e

Tech

nolo

gy-d

rive

nPa

ce o

f cha

nge

and

time

to m

arke

tIn

crea

sed

spee

d of

dec

isio

n m

ak-

ing,

pro

duct

laun

ches

, con

veni

-en

ce o

f new

bus

ines

s for

mat

ion,

tim

e-to

-mar

ket

‘Tec

hnol

ogy

has a

llow

ed fi

rms

to sp

eed

up d

ecis

ions

that

oth

-er

wis

e m

ight

be

slow

ed d

ue to

in

form

atio

n flo

ws u

p an

d do

wn

the

hier

arch

y’ (B

hara

dwaj

et a

l. 20

13, p

. 476

)

Gro

ver a

nd K

ohli

(201

3) a

nd

Mor

eau

(201

3)

‘The

clo

ud a

nd a

ll so

rts o

f pla

t-fo

rms h

ave

revo

lutio

nize

d ho

w

to se

t up

and

run

a bu

sine

ss.

Inno

vativ

e id

eas c

an b

e re

aliz

ed

in d

ays,

and

the

corr

espo

ndin

g bu

sine

ss se

t up

alm

ost “

over

-ni

ght”

‘ (Ve

y et

al.

2017

, p. 2

3)Te

chno

logy

cap

abili

ty a

nd in

tegr

a-tio

nEx

pone

ntia

l adv

ance

men

ts in

the

pric

e/pe

rform

ance

cap

abili

ty,

dem

ater

ializ

atio

n of

tang

ible

pr

oduc

ts, a

gile

and

scal

able

dig

i-ta

l inf

rastr

uctu

re fo

r sea

mle

ss

tech

nolo

gy in

tegr

atio

n

‘Dig

ital p

rodu

cts a

nd se

rvic

es

emer

ge a

s sub

stitu

tes f

or

esta

blis

hed

offer

ings

. The

y off

er

supe

rior p

erfo

rman

ce a

nd h

ighe

r be

nefit

s to

cons

umer

s and

bus

i-ne

sses

than

thei

r phy

sica

l/ana

log

coun

terp

arts’

(Loe

bbec

ke a

nd

Pico

t 201

5, p

. 153

)

Cha

et a

l. (2

015)

, Dre

mel

et a

l. (2

017)

, Eve

ns (2

010)

, Gün

ther

et

al.

(201

7), H

ess e

t al.

(201

6),

Koh

li an

d Jo

hnso

n (2

011)

, Koh

li an

d M

elvi

lle (2

019)

, Lyy

tinen

et

al.

(201

6), R

ayna

and

Stri

ukov

a (2

016)

, Res

ca e

t al.

(201

3), S

ebas

-tia

n et

al.

(201

7) a

nd S

ia e

t al.

(201

6)‘D

ata

stora

ge c

apab

ilitie

s and

co

mpu

ting

spee

d ha

ve e

nabl

ed

data

col

lect

ion

at a

n un

prec

e-de

nted

scal

e’ (N

g an

d W

aken

-sh

aw 2

017,

p. 1

3)


1 3

Tabl

e 1

(con

tinue

d)

Agg

rega

te d

imen

sion

Seco

nd o

rder

them

esEx

ampl

es o

f firs

t ord

er c

once

pts

Illus

trativ

e qu

otes

Exam

ples

of o

ther

sour

ces a

ddre

ss-

ing

the

seco

nd-o

rder

them

e

‘Int

ensi

ve in

tera

ctiv

e di

gita

l con

-ne

ctiv

ity to

the

outs

ide

requ

ires

inte

grat

ion

betw

een

the

outs

ide

and

insi

de o

f the

ent

erpr

ise

that

go

es b

eyon

d th

e tra

ditio

nal E

RP

and

supp

ly c

hain

man

agem

ent

inte

grat

ion

para

digm

’ (El

Saw

y et

al.

2016

), p.

142

Con

sum

er a

nd o

ther

stak

ehol

der

inte

rface

sC

o-cr

eatio

n of

pro

duct

s and

ser-

vice

s with

cus

tom

ers,

cons

umer

be

havi

or, c

onsu

mer

kno

wle

dge,

co

nsum

er a

naly

sis,

mul

ti-si

ded

digi

tal p

latfo

rms e

limin

ate

inte

r-m

edia

ting

func

tion,

info

rmat

ion

ubiq

uity

rais

es e

xpos

ure

of le

ad-

ers t

o st

akeh

olde

rs

‘IoT

app

licat

ions

will

be

mos

tly

focu

sed

on c

o-cr

eatio

n an

d co

m-

mun

ities

… F

or in

stan

ce, P

hilip

s in

dica

ted

the

use

of c

o-cr

eatio

n as

type

of c

usto

mer

rela

tions

hip

for t

heir

IoT

prod

uct ‘

Hue

’, si

nce

custo

mer

s can

des

ign

thei

r ow

n lig

ht re

cipe

s’ (D

ijkm

an e

t al.

2015

, p. 6

77)

Bha

radw

aj e

t al.

(201

3), E

l Saw

y et

al.

(201

6), E

vens

(201

0),

Gra

nado

s and

Gup

ta (2

013)

, H

agbe

rg e

t al.

(201

6), I

ves e

t al.

(201

6), L

eong

et a

l. (2

017)

, Llo

pis

et a

l. (2

004)

, Loe

bbec

ke a

nd P

icot

(2

015)

, Maj

chrz

ak e

t al.

(201

6),

Ng

and

Wak

ensh

aw (2

017)

, Pa

gani

(201

3), S

ebas

tian

et a

l. (2

017)

, Set

ia e

t al.

(201

3), S

ia

et a

l. (2

016)

, Vey

et a

l. (2

017)

, and

W

eill

and

Woe

rner

(201

5)‘I

n th

e ne

w d

igita

l mar

ketp

lace

, co

nsum

ers a

re u

sing

mob

ile,

inte

ract

ive

tool

s to

beco

me

inst

ant e

xper

ts o

n pr

oduc

t and

se

rvic

e off

erin

gs’ (

Ber

man

201

2,

p. 1

6)

1 3


Tabl

e 1

(con

tinue

d)

Agg

rega

te d

imen

sion

Seco

nd o

rder

them

esEx

ampl

es o

f firs

t ord

er c

once

pts

Illus

trativ

e qu

otes

Exam

ples

of o

ther

sour

ces a

ddre

ss-

ing

the

seco

nd-o

rder

them

e

‘If a

lead

er a

t any

leve

l doe

s not

un

ders

tand

how

to u

se th

e di

gita

l w

orld

and

its a

ccom

pany

ing

instr

umen

tatio

n, a

nd if

they

do

not u

nder

stan

d th

e po

wer

that

it

has o

n th

eir r

elat

ions

hips

with

th

eir s

take

hold

ers…

then

they

w

ill b

e se

rious

ly le

ft be

hind

’ (B

enni

s 201

3, p

. 635

)Te

chno

logy

-dri

ven

Dist

ribut

ed v

alue

cre

atio

n an

d ca

ptur

eVa

lue

crea

tion

and

capt

ure

are

driv

en a

nd c

o-cr

eate

d in

net

-w

orks

with

mul

tiple

par

tner

s, va

lue

is a

lway

s shi

fting

and

a

mov

ing

targ

et

‘As m

ore

prod

ucts

and

serv

ices

be

com

e di

gita

l and

con

nect

ed,

netw

ork

effec

ts b

ecom

e th

e ke

y di

ffere

ntia

tor a

nd d

river

of v

alue

cr

eatio

n’ (B

hara

dwaj

et a

l. 20

13,

p. 4

75)

Ber

man

(201

2), E

l Saw

y et

al.

(201

6), L

oebb

ecke

and

Pic

ot

(201

5), M

att e

t al.

(201

5), N

g an

d W

aken

shaw

(201

7), P

agan

i (2

013)

, Ray

na a

nd S

triuk

ova

(201

6) a

nd S

ebas

tian

et a

l. (2

017)

‘In

mul

ti-si

ded

plat

form

mar

kets

, va

lue

is n

ot c

reat

ed in

the

trans

form

atio

n of

goo

ds, b

ut in

th

e m

edia

tion

of th

ese

good

s be

twee

n di

ffere

nt k

inds

of u

sers

, w

ho p

ay fo

r acc

ess t

o th

e ne

t-w

ork…

in v

alue

net

wor

ks, v

alue

is

co-

crea

ted

and

reve

nues

are

sh

ared

am

ongs

t all

parti

cipa

nts’

(E

vens

201

0, p

. 53)


1 3

Tabl

e 1

(con

tinue

d)

Agg

rega

te d

imen

sion

Seco

nd o

rder

them

esEx

ampl

es o

f firs

t ord

er c

once

pts

Illus

trativ

e qu

otes

Exam

ples

of o

ther

sour

ces a

ddre

ss-

ing

the

seco

nd-o

rder

them

e

‘Dig

ital b

usin

ess w

ill b

e dr

iven

in

its n

ext p

hase

s by

valu

e ar

chite

ctur

es ra

ther

than

bus

ines

s m

odel

s’ (K

een

and

Will

iam

s 20

13, p

. 646

)M

arke

t env

ironm

ent a

nd ru

les o

f co

mpe

titio

nD

ynam

ics o

f bus

ines

s env

iron-

men

t, in

ter-c

onne

cted

bus

ines

s in

fras

truct

ures

, em

erge

nce

of

inno

vatio

n ne

twor

ks, c

ross

-in

dustr

y co

mpe

titio

n, e

rosi

on

of p

rope

rty ri

ghts

, kno

wle

dge

hete

roge

neity

, dem

and

harm

o-ni

zatio

n

‘The

sim

ulta

neou

s inc

reas

e in

en

viro

nmen

tal t

urbu

lenc

e, th

e re

quis

ite sp

eed

of o

rgan

izat

iona

l ch

ange

, and

the

inte

nsifi

ed u

biq-

uity

of d

igita

l tec

hnol

ogie

s are

sp

awni

ng a

phe

nom

enon

that

is

mes

sy, c

ompl

ex, a

nd c

haot

ic’ (

El

Saw

y et

al.

2010

, p. 8

35)

Bha

radw

aj e

t al.

(201

3), D

rem

el

et a

l. (2

017)

, Eve

ns (2

010)

, Gro

ver

and

Koh

li (2

013)

, Koh

li an

d Jo

hn-

son

(201

1), L

eong

et a

l. (2

017)

, Lo

ebbe

cke

and

Pico

t (20

15),

Lyyt

-in

en e

t al.

(201

6), M

ajch

rzak

et a

l. (2

016)

, Mar

kus a

nd L

oebb

ecke

(2

013)

, Maz

zei a

nd N

oble

(201

7),

Mith

as e

t al.

(201

3), R

ayna

and

St

riuko

va (2

016)

and

Sia

et a

l. (2

016)

‘As d

igita

l int

erco

nnec

tivity

be

com

es v

irtua

lly u

biqu

itous

, it

over

com

es p

hysi

cal b

arrie

rs a

nd

enab

les t

he p

ossi

bilit

y of

reac

h-in

g m

ore

peop

le a

nd o

f bui

ldin

g a

netw

ork

base

d on

inte

rests

ra

ther

than

on

geog

raph

ical

loca

-tio

n’ (L

anzo

lla a

nd A

nder

son

2008

, p. 7

6)

1 3


Tabl

e 1

(con

tinue

d)

Agg

rega

te d

imen

sion

Seco

nd o

rder

them

esEx

ampl

es o

f firs

t ord

er c

once

pts

Illus

trativ

e qu

otes

Exam

ples

of o

ther

sour

ces a

ddre

ss-

ing

the

seco

nd-o

rder

them

e

‘The

new

kid

on

the

bloc

k ca

n co

me

“out

of t

he b

lue”

, fro

m

anyw

here

—it

does

not

hav

e to

be

a w

ell-k

now

n co

mpe

titor

in y

our

indu

stry’

(Vey

et a

l. 20

17, p

. 23)

‘Tw

o-th

irds o

f res

pond

ents

sa

id th

ey w

ere

expe

rienc

ing

a hi

gh le

vel o

f thr

eat …

from

en

terp

rises

in o

ther

indu

strie

s th

at h

ave

exist

ing

rela

tions

hips

w

ith th

eir c

usto

mer

s’ (W

eill

and

Woe

rner

201

5, p

. 32)


1 3

data, cloud computing, and mobile technologies significantly increases the overall pace of change. For example, entire industries, like the newspaper business, have been transformed and digitized within a very short period of time (Karimi and Wal-ter 2015). Further, the cloud and online platforms have revolutionized the process and pace of turning an innovative idea into a business (Vey et al. 2017). Today, innovative ideas can be realized within days and companies set-up literally ‘over-night’. In this sense, in the digital world striving for a ‘first-mover advantage’ due to a ‘winner takes it all’ environment has become more important for incumbent firms (Grover and Kohli 2013) as they have much less time to respond to such threats and should not give away first-mover advantages too easily.

Moreover, pure digital companies like Facebook, Google or Amazon have sub-stantially raised the overall time to market and speed of product launches (Bharad-waj et al. 2013). With continuous improvements in hardware, software and connec-tivity, these companies set the pace for a tightly timed series of product launches. Thus, firms in the hybrid world (digital and physical) are being put under enormous pressure to also accelerate their product introductions. In a digitally transformed market, the control of speed of product development and launches is increasingly transferred to an ‘ecosystem of innovation’ in the sense of a network of actors with complementary products and services (Bharadwaj et al. 2013).

4.2.2 Technology capability and integration

The technological capability and power of digital transformation applications, such as for example the Internet of Things (IoT), big data, cloud computing, and mobile technologies, is in terms of computing power, data storage and information distri-bution in many cases significantly higher than in previous technology-driven trans-formations. Earlier business transformations were mostly concerned about introduc-ing internal management information systems such as enterprise resource planning (ERP) or customer relationship management (CRM). These transformations were usually limited to improvements to business processes within firm boundaries (see Ash and Burn 2003; Kauffman and Walden 2001 in: Li et al. 2017). But today, cross-boundary digital technologies such as IoT devices (Ng and Wakenshaw 2017), 3D printing (Rayna and Striukova 2016), and big data analytics (Dremel et al. 2017), drive transformations that go far beyond internal process optimizations as they potentially induce drastic changes to business models (Rayna and Striukova 2016), organizational strategy (Bharadwaj et al. 2013), corporate culture (El Sawy et al. 2016; Dremel et al. 2017; Sia et al. 2016), and entire industry structures (Kohli and Johnson 2011).

Further, the review confirms that the role and significance of data itself is chang-ing profoundly and that personal data has become one of the most powerful assets in the digital era (Ng and Wakenshaw 2017). In fact, we believe the impact of the massive increase in quantity and quality of data generated every day (Bharadwaj et al. 2013) and the game changing power of big data analytics (Günther et al. 2017) are yet to be fully experienced and understood by society, economy and academics.

With regards to the process of dematerialization of tangible products and objects (e.g. CDs, books, machinery etc.), triggered by the transformative

1 3


capabilities of digital technologies, the most notable insight is that intriguingly, in many cases the digital substitutes, for example e-books, offer superior perfor-mance and higher customer benefits than their physical counterparts (Loebbecke and Picot 2015). This, for example, is in contrast to the assumptions provided by Christensen (1997) more than 20 years ago, arguing that new disruptive technolo-gies usually provide different values from mainstream technologies and are often initially inferior to mainstream technologies, therefore only serving niche markets in the beginning.

Finally, regarding technology integration, the current state of research empha-sizes the importance of flexible IT (Cha et al. 2015), new enterprise platforms (El Sawy et al. 2016), and a strong and scalable operational backbone (Sebastian et al. 2017) as part of an agile digital infrastructure. The old paradigms of tech-nology integration are not effective any more. However, in a second step we need to reach a more comprehensive understanding of ‘how’ and ‘where’ the integra-tion of technology and transformation activities should be embedded within the organizational architectures of incumbent firms.

4.2.3 Consumer and other stakeholder interface

With regards to the customer interface, which is currently receiving the high-est levels of attention by scholars, we conclude that there is some solid research particularly on changes in consumer behavior (Berman 2012; El Sawy et al. 2016; Ives et al. 2016; Lanzolla and Anderson 2008), consumer preferences (Vey et al. 2017) and consumer knowledge (Berman 2012; Granados and Gupta 2013). Firstly, our review confirms that in the new digital marketplace, consum-ers behave differently than before, and traditional marketing techniques may not apply anymore. Today there are myriad choices to easily gather information about products and services far before the actual purchase. For instance, customer buy-ing decisions are increasingly influenced by online customer-to-customer interac-tion via platforms and social media, where users share products feedbacks, upload home video clips, or publish blog entries (Berman 2012). In this sense, digital technologies are also transforming firms’ customer-side operations (Setia et al. 2013) and customer engagement strategies (Sebastian et al. 2017). For example, reaching out to customers in a digital environment requires digital omnichannel marketing, including e.g. social media, mobile apps, and augmented reality (El Sawy et al. 2016). Secondly, we may note that digital technologies increasingly reduce the information asymmetries between sellers and buyers (Granados and Gupta 2013). In this sense, information ubiquity (Vey et al. 2017) and instant access to data via mobile technologies (Berman 2012) profoundly change the long-established seller–customer relationship. And thirdly, the current literature raises awareness for the emergence of multi-sided business models. While in the ‘old’ world, intermediaries were matching sellers and buyers, in the digital mar-ket place, intermediation increasingly takes place through the establishment of multi-sided digital platforms and networks (Bharadwaj et al. 2013; Evens 2010; Pagani 2013).


1 3

4.2.4 Distributed value creation and value capture

The review of the literature reveals that the value chain has become far more distrib-uted in times of digital transformation—particularly value creation and value cap-ture. Two major changes can be observed here: (1) digital technologies offer oppor-tunities to customers to co-create products with the manufacturer, e.g. via digital platforms (El Sawy et al. 2016; Ng and Wakenshaw 2017), and (2) on an inter-firm level value is increasingly co-created and captured in a series of partnerships in a value network (Evens 2010). As Bharadwaj et al. (2013) argue, network effects are the key differentiator and driver of value creation and capture in a digital world. The focus of value creation is therefore shifting from value chain to value networks. For this purpose, companies like Google are experimenting with multi-sided business models. In such a multilayered business model, a company gives away certain prod-ucts or services in one layer to capture value at a different layer (Bharadwaj et al. 2013). Google is giving away its Android operating system for free and captures value via the ability to control advertising on every phone that uses Android.

In more general terms, we may conclude that control of value in the digital world is less and less determined by R&D capabilities, competitors, or industry bounda-ries. Instead the buyer, not the seller, determines the dimensions of value that matter (Keen and Williams 2013). Therefore, businesses need to engage with their custom-ers at every point in the process of value creation (Berman 2012). Also, the strong impact of digital technologies on incumbent’s value chains imply some degree of deviation from the classical and often analog core business. For example, new product-related competencies, platform capabilities or value architectures will be required. And, incumbents must prepare for new forms of monetization in the digi-tized marketplace.

4.2.5 Market environment and rules of competition

This is a rather broad and diverse categorization in our review, as it comprises technology-driven changes in the market environment. After consumer-centric aspects this research stream received the most attention by scholars in the review (on the technology-centric side). In sum, the current state of literature recognizes three major developments. First, digital transformation redefines, blurs and even dissolves existing industry boundaries which may lead to cross-industry competi-tion (Sia et al. 2016; Weill and Woerner 2015). Dominant industry logics (Sabatier et al. 2012) apparently do not work anymore in times of digital transformation. The ‘new kid on the block can come out of the blue’ (Vey et al. 2017, p. 23) and even individuals can become competitors as 3D Printing is expected to lead to a sharp increase in competition from SMEs and individual entrepreneurs (Rayna and Striu-kova 2016). And with the emergence of multi-sided business models also incum-bents are starting to disrupt new markets (Weill and Woerner 2015). For instance, Google is disrupting the mobility sector with its self-driving car subsidiary Waymo, while Amazon has introduced AmazonFresh as a grocery delivery service which is seen as a potentially tough competitor to supermarkets. Second, with the emergence of digital platforms, networks, and ecosystems the market infrastructure becomes

1 3


increasingly interconnected (Grover and Kohli 2013; Majchrzak et al. 2016; Markus and Loebbecke 2013). In a broader sense, we see a shift from controlling or par-ticipating in a linear value chain to operating in an ecosystem or network (Weill and Woerner 2015). As different types of innovation networks with different cogni-tive and social translations regarding knowledge emerge, novel properties of digital infrastructure in support of each network are required. Digital technologies therefore increase innovation network knowledge heterogeneity (Lyytinen et al. 2016). Third, the free flow of digital goods precipitates an erosion of property rights and higher risks of imitation (Loebbecke and Picot 2015).

4.3 Micro‑level findings: the actor‑centric side of the equation

In the following, we present and discuss the most important findings of the second order themes within the actor-centric dimension. In Fig. 3 we provide a thematic map for this dimension and in Table 2 a brief summary including illustrative quotes.

4.3.1 Transformative leadership

Understanding the impact of digital transformation on leadership and management behavior is a very active and prioritized research focus. In total, 23 papers in our review explore this aspect. First and foremost, research calls for a shift in the tradi-tional view of IT strategy as being subordinate to business strategy (El Sawy et al. 2016). In the course of the past two decades information technologies have sur-passed their subordinate role as administrative ‘back office’ assets and evolved into an essential element of corporate strategy building. Thus, incumbents should align IT and business strategies on equal terms and fuse them into ‘digital business strat-egy’ (Bharadwaj et al. 2013).

Also, emphasis is placed on the changing nature of leadership itself, caused by digital transformation. Such changes may include rapid optimization of top man-agement decision-making processes enabled by instant access to information and expansive data sets (Mazzei and Noble 2017), new communication principles (Ben-nis 2013; Granados and Gupta 2013), or changes in leadership education (Sia et al. 2016). Further, there is consensus that senior management requires a new digital mindset in order to captain their company’s digital transformation journey. There-fore, incumbents should also rethink their leadership education practices. In the past, leadership programs have been primarily about leadership and communication skills. But in times of digital transformation, executives must become ‘tech vision-aries’ and develop their transformative powers. For example, Sia et al. (2016) have conducted a case study on an Asian bank that uses hackathons to educate their senior managers. Media transparency and exposure are further key challenges of digitiza-tion where top managers may require some additional education. Given the ubiquity of information and the speed of online data dissemination (via mobile phones, viral effects of social media etc.), leaders today are significantly more exposed publicly than their analog predecessors. Therefore, according to Bennis (2013) leadership


1 3

Act

or-

driv

en

Tran

sfor

mat

ive

lead

ersh

ip

Lead

ers m

ust i

nteg

rate

fu

nctio

nal I

T st

rate

gy a

nd

busi

ness

stra

tegy

(B

hara

dwaj

et a

l. 20

13)

Lead

ers i

n th

e di

gita

l era

are

sign

ifica

ntly

m

ore

expo

sed

publ

icly

than

thei

r ana

log

pred

eces

sors

(Ben

nis 2

013)

Dig

ital t

rans

form

atio

n de

man

ds

chan

ges i

n le

ader

ship

edu

catio

n

(Sia

et a

l. 20

16)

Man

ager

ial &

or

gani

zatio

nal

capa

bilit

ies

Org

aniz

atio

nal l

evel

: cha

lleng

e to

m

anag

e th

e am

bide

xter

ity o

f an

alog

and

dig

ital c

apab

ilitie

s (e

.g. S

ebas

tian

et a

l. 20

17)

Som

e st

udie

s sug

gest

to a

dopt

the

theo

ry o

f dyn

amic

cap

abili

ties (

e.g.

Li

et a

l. 20

17; Y

eow

et a

l. 20

18)

Man

ager

ial l

evel

: muc

h fa

ster

stra

tegy

and

im

plem

enta

tion

cycl

e is

nee

ded

to c

ope

with

pac

e of

dig

ital t

rans

form

atio

n(D

anie

l & W

ilson

200

3)

Com

pany

cu

lture

Incu

mbe

nts n

eed

to d

evel

op th

eir

info

rmat

ic c

ultu

re to

an

info

rmat

iona

l cu

lture

(Llo

pis e

t al.

2004

)

Dig

ital t

rans

form

atio

n de

man

ds a

dat

a-sh

arin

g an

d da

ta-d

riven

cor

pora

te c

ultu

re

(Dre

mel

et a

l. 20

17).

Dig

ital t

rans

form

atio

n m

ay tr

igge

r cul

tura

l con

flict

be

twee

n yo

unge

r and

com

para

bly

inex

perie

nced

di

gita

l em

ploy

ees a

nd o

lder

but

mor

e ex

perie

nced

pr

e-di

gitiz

atio

n em

ploy

ees (

Kohl

i & J

ohns

on 2

011)

Wor

ken

viro

nmen

t

Dig

ital i

nter

conn

ectiv

ity d

isso

lves

trad

ition

al

hier

arch

ical

wor

k st

ruct

ures

and

rout

ines

and

en

able

s the

em

erge

nce

of c

ross

-loca

tion

team

s(L

oebb

ecke

& P

icot

201

5, W

hite

201

2)

A d

igita

l wor

kpla

ce b

ecom

es

inev

itabl

e to

att

ract

‘bor

n di

gita

l’ em

ploy

ees

(El S

awy

et a

l. 20

16)

Dig

itiza

tion

may

eff

ectiv

ely

lead

to

a gr

owin

g sk

ills g

ap b

etw

een

pre-

digi

tizat

ion

wor

kers

and

rece

ntly

hi

red

digi

tally

savv

y em

ploy

ees

(Koh

li an

d Jo

hnso

n 20

11)

Com

plex

ity o

f dig

ital t

rans

form

atio

n le

ads t

o em

erge

nce

of C

hief

Dig

ital

Off

icer

pos

ition

(Dre

mel

et a

l. 20

17;

Tum

bas e

t al.

2017

)

Org

aniz

atio

nal l

earn

ing

is

key

for d

igita

l inn

ovat

ion

(Koh

li &

Mel

ville

201

8)

Fig.

3

Them

atic

map

for a

ctor

-driv

en th

emes

in d

igita

l tra

nsfo

rmat

ion

liter

atur

e

1 3


Tabl

e 2

Sum

mar

y of

em

erge

nt th

emes

from

the

digi

tal t

rans

form

atio

n lit

erat

ure:

the

acto

r-driv

en si

de

Agg

rega

te d

imen

sion

Seco

nd o

rder

them

esEx

ampl

es o

f firs

t ord

er c

once

pts

Illus

trativ

e qu

otes

Exam

ples

of o

ther

sour

ces a

ddre

ssin

g th

e se

cond

-ord

er th

eme

Acto

r-dr

iven

Tran

sfor

mat

ive

lead

ersh

ipTr

ansf

orm

atio

nal l

eade

rshi

p, fu

sion

be

twee

n fu

nctio

nal I

T str

ateg

y an

d bu

sine

ss st

rate

gy, l

eade

rshi

p ed

ucat

ion,

nat

ure

of le

ader

ship

, em

erge

nce

of C

hief

Dig

ital O

ffice

rs

‘Tra

nsfo

rmat

iona

l lea

ders

hip

is

prop

osed

as a

sign

ifica

nt a

ntec

eden

t of

e-b

usin

ess a

dopt

ion…

Tra

ns-

form

atio

nal l

eade

rshi

p fir

st pl

ays

a ke

y ro

le in

cha

ngin

g ch

arac

teris

-tic

s of c

ultu

re a

nd th

en fa

cilit

ates

e-

busi

ness

ado

ptio

n’ (A

los-

Sim

o et

al.

2017

, p. 3

82)

Ben

nis (

2013

), C

ha e

t al.

(201

5), C

hat-

terje

e et

al.

(200

2), E

l Saw

y et

al.

(201

6), G

erth

and

Pep

pard

(201

6),

Gra

nado

s and

Gup

ta (2

013)

, Hu

et a

l. (2

016)

, Koh

li an

d M

elvi

lle (2

019)

, Ll

opis

et a

l. (2

004)

, Loe

bbec

ke a

nd

Pico

t (20

15),

Maz

zei a

nd N

oble

(2

017)

, Rig

by e

t al.

(201

6), R

indo

va

and

Kot

ha (2

001)

, Sia

et a

l. (2

016)

, Si

ngh

and

Hes

s (20

17) a

nd Y

eow

et

al.

(201

8)‘W

hen

impl

emen

ting

a di

gita

l tra

ns-

form

atio

n pr

ojec

t, it

is im

porta

nt to

ha

ve d

irect

pol

icin

g by

top

man

age-

men

t and

solid

con

grue

nce

betw

een

a fir

m’s

bus

ines

s goa

ls a

nd it

s IT

deve

lopm

ent s

trate

gy, n

ot ju

st co

unt

IT p

roje

cts a

s add

ition

al jo

bs fo

r the

M

IS d

epar

tmen

t’ (L

iu e

t al.

2011

, p.

173

9)‘T

he n

eces

sary

dig

ital t

rans

form

atio

n re

quire

s new

role

s, su

ch a

s a c

hief

di

gita

l offi

cer (

CD

O),

and

orga

niza

-tio

nal s

truct

ures

to b

e es

tabl

ishe

d’

(Dre

mel

et a

l. 20

17, p

. 82)


1 3

Tabl

e 2

(con

tinue

d)

Agg

rega

te d

imen

sion

Seco

nd o

rder

them

esEx

ampl

es o

f firs

t ord

er c

once

pts

Illus

trativ

e qu

otes

Exam

ples

of o

ther

sour

ces a

ddre

ssin

g th

e se

cond

-ord

er th

eme

Man

ager

ial a

nd o

rgan

iza-

tiona

l cap

abili

ties

Man

ager

ial c

apab

ilitie

s, or

gani

za-

tiona

l cap

abili

ties

‘Org

aniz

atio

ns c

an p

rom

ote

digi

tal

trans

form

atio

n th

roug

h bu

ildin

g th

e dy

nam

ic m

anag

eria

l cap

abili

ties

of th

eir t

op m

anag

emen

t’ (L

i et a

l. 20

17, p

. 4)

Ber

man

(201

2), D

anie

l and

Wils

on

(200

3), E

l Saw

y et

al.

(201

0, 2

016)

, G

rana

dos a

nd G

upta

(201

3), K

arim

i an

d W

alte

r (20

15),

Koh

li an

d M

elvi

lle (2

019)

, Rin

dova

and

Kot

ha

(200

1), S

ands

tröm

(201

6), S

ebas

tian

et a

l. (2

017)

, Set

ia e

t al.

(201

3),

Sing

h an

d H

ess (

2017

), Sv

ahn

et a

l. (2

017)

, Wei

ll an

d W

oern

er (2

015)

‘It i

s cru

cial

for fi

rms t

o us

e ex

istin

g re

sour

ces a

nd c

apab

ilitie

s to

mee

t cu

stom

er d

eman

ds w

hen

impl

e-m

entin

g di

gita

l tra

nsfo

rmat

ion’

(Liu

et

al.

2011

, p. 1

739)

‘We

argu

e th

at in

form

atio

n te

chno

l-og

y in

vestm

ents

and

cap

abili

ties

influ

ence

firm

per

form

ance

thro

ugh

a no

mol

ogic

al n

etw

ork

of th

ree

sig-

nific

ant o

rgan

izat

iona

l cap

abili

ties

(agi

lity,

dig

ital o

ptio

ns, a

nd e

ntre

-pr

eneu

rial a

lertn

ess)

and

stra

tegi

c pr

oces

ses (

capa

bilit

y-bu

ildin

g,

entre

pren

euria

l act

ion,

and

coe

volu

-tio

nary

ada

ptat

ion)

’ (Sa

mba

mur

thy

et a

l. 20

03, p

. 237

)

1 3


Tabl

e 2

(con

tinue

d)

Agg

rega

te d

imen

sion

Seco

nd o

rder

them

esEx

ampl

es o

f firs

t ord

er c

once

pts

Illus

trativ

e qu

otes

Exam

ples

of o

ther

sour

ces a

ddre

ssin

g th

e se

cond

-ord

er th

eme

Acto

r-dr

iven

Com

pany

cul

ture

Cul

tura

l cha

nge,

con

flict

, org

aniz

a-tio

nal l

earn

ing

‘In

the

past,

our

lead

ersh

ip p

rogr

am

has b

een

all a

bout

lead

ersh

ip sk

ills,

com

mun

icat

ion

skill

s. W

e sc

rapp

ed

all o

f tha

t and

our

lead

ersh

ip p

ro-

gram

now

is a

ll ab

out h

acka

thon

s’

(Sia

et a

l. 20

16, p

. 109

)

Alo

s-Si

mo

et a

l. (2

017)

, Dre

mel

et a

l. (2

017)

, El S

awy

et a

l. (2

016)

, Llo

pis

et a

l. (2

004)

, Sch

uchm

ann

and

Seuf

ert (

2015

), Ve

y et

al.

(201

7)

‘Sim

ilarly

, a la

rge

num

ber o

f on-

site

te

chni

cal c

ontra

ct w

orke

rs o

r ser

-vi

ce p

rovi

ders

may

cau

se c

onfli

ct

betw

een

two

cultu

res—

thos

e w

ho

unde

rsta

nd te

chno

logy

and

thos

e w

ho u

nder

stan

d th

e bu

sine

ss’

(Koh

li an

d Jo

hnso

ns 2

011,

p. 1

53)

‘Lea

rnin

g is

ofte

n ne

cess

ary

(alth

ough

not

suffi

cien

t) fo

r dig

ital

inno

vatio

n. F

or e

xam

ple,

in th

e ca

se

of e

xter

nally

ado

pted

IS, k

now

ledg

e dr

ives

opp

ortu

nity

sens

ing,

whi

ch

in tu

rn d

rives

exp

erim

enta

tion

and

subs

eque

nt in

nova

tion’

(Koh

li an

d M

elvi

lle 2

019,

p. 6

)W

ork

envi

ronm

ent

Dig

ital w

orkp

lace

, wor

k str

uctu

res

and

rout

ine,

skill

s gap

‘Fou

r tec

hnol

ogie

s in

parti

cula

r are

ra

pidl

y sh

apin

g th

e fu

ture

of c

orpo

-ra

te IT

and

the

way

that

wor

k w

ill

be u

nder

take

n: M

obile

, Big

dat

a,

Clo

ud c

ompu

ting,

Sea

rch-

base

d ap

plic

atio

ns’ (

Whi

te 2

012,

p. 2

10)

Cha

et a

l. (2

015)

, Han

sen

and

Sia

(201

5), K

ohli

and

John

son

(201

1),

Schu

chm

ann

and

Seuf

ert (

2015

), Se

ufer

t and

Mei

er (2

016)

, Vey

et a

l. (2

017)


1 3

Tabl

e 2

(con

tinue

d)

Agg

rega

te d

imen

sion

Seco

nd o

rder

them

esEx

ampl

es o

f firs

t ord

er c

once

pts

Illus

trativ

e qu

otes

Exam

ples

of o

ther

sour

ces a

ddre

ssin

g th

e se

cond

-ord

er th

eme

‘As m

ore

‘bor

n di

gita

l’ yo

unge

r em

ploy

ees e

nter

the

wor

kfor

ce w

ith

diffe

rent

val

ues,

they

will

hav

e di

f-fe

rent

exp

ecta

tions

of t

he w

orkp

lace

in

term

s of fl

exib

ility

of l

ocat

ion

and

wor

king

hou

rs, s

ophi

stica

tion

of m

obile

onl

ine

acce

ss, a

nd th

e ex

tent

to w

hich

the

wor

kpla

ce e

nvi-

ronm

ent i

s ‘hu

man

ized

’ (El

Saw

y et

al.

2016

, p. 1

43)

‘With

dig

itiza

tion

and

big

data

ana

-ly

tics c

ross

-loca

tion

team

s em

erge

, an

d tra

ditio

nal h

iera

rchi

cal w

ork

struc

ture

s dis

solv

e an

d tra

nsfo

rm

into

incr

easi

ngly

flex

ible

, in-

hous

e an

d ne

twor

ked

struc

ture

s acr

oss

loca

tions

’ (Lo

ebbe

cke

and

Pico

t 20

15, p

. 151

)

1 3


in the digital era needs to be learned through embracing transparency and adaptive capacity (specifically resilience as the ability to rebound from problems and crisis).

Finally, the vast extent and complexity of digital transformation leads to the emergence of an additional position at the top management level—the Chief Digital Officer (Dremel et al. 2017; Tumbas et al. 2017). Given the immense challenges of digital transformation and the claim for a new mindset and different skills, CEOs or even CIOs are conceivably not the best match (Singh and Hess 2017). Particularly not if they are expected to drive digital transformation in addition to their original tasks.

4.3.2 Managerial and organizational capabilities

Our analysis suggests that in order to effectively drive digital transformation addi-tional and refined capabilities are required—both managerial and organizational (Li et al. 2017)—in comparison to the analogue world.

At the managerial level, for one thing, a much faster strategy and implementation cycle is needed to cope with the pace of digital transformation (Daniel and Wilson 2003). The turbulent and ever-changing digital environment is forcing managers to make decisions and implement strategies significantly faster than they had been pre-viously required to. In order to study managerial capabilities in the context of digital transformation, some studies have adopted the theory of dynamic capabilities (Dan-iel and Wilson 2003; Li et al. 2017; Yeow et al. 2018) as introduced by Teece et al. (1997), Teece (2007, 2014). In particular, results indicate that dynamic capabilities may support the refinement of digital strategy and are therefore not separate from alignment, but on the contrary have the potential to enact and guide the process of aligning.

At the organizational level, one of the most intriguing challenges for incumbents will be to manage the ambidexterity of capabilities in terms of analog and digital capabilities. Firms need to incorporate ‘old’ and ‘new’ capabilities into their organi-zational structure in a complementary and not impeding way. In addition, capabili-ties in two further areas are of particular importance to many firms. First, capabili-ties to implement and operate in networks (Bharadwaj et al. 2013), platforms (Li et al. 2017; Sebastian et al. 2017), and ecosystems (El Sawy et al. 2016; Weill and Woerner 2015). Depending on contextual factors like for example their industry or business model, companies must learn to take advantage of network effects in terms of complementary capabilities while also learn how to become more of an ecosystem rather than continue managing value chains. Second, in the digital era it is essential to develop sensing capabilities, such as entrepreneurial alertness and environmental scanning (Kohli and Melville 2019), in order to identify new ideas and critically evaluate, design, modify and eventually deliver new business models (Berman 2012; Daniel and Wilson 2003).

4.3.3 Company culture

Digital transformation is not exclusively a technology-driven challenge but requires deep cultural change. Everyone within the organization must be prepared with an


1 3

adaptive skill set and digital know-how. Two major insights can be identified within the existing literature. First, digital transformation demands a data-sharing and data-driven corporate culture (Dremel et al. 2017). Data as such must be recognized much more as a valuable resource and an enabler to become a digital enterprise. This will require higher operational transparency in daily-business and work-routines and a data-sharing mindset among employees. In this sense, incumbents need to develop their informatic culture to an informational culture (Llopis et al. 2004). In comparison to an informatic culture, an informational culture values IT as a core element of strategic and tactical decisions and clearly understands the financial and transformative poten-tial of digital technologies. Second, digital transformation may trigger cultural conflict between younger and comparably inexperienced digital employees and older but more experienced pre-digitization employees (Kohli and Johnson 2011). Management is well advised to prevent that two different cultures arise within the same organization—a group of employees who understand digital technologies and those who have a long-standing track record in the traditional business but are technologically lagging behind. Facilitating a learning friendly culture (Kohli and Melville 2019) and publicly affirm-ing support and trust by the executive level may effectively mitigate such a potential cultural divide.

4.3.4 Work environment

Our review reveals that digital transformation is changing the daily work environment in incumbent firms in terms of work structures (Hansen and Sia 2015; Loebbecke and Picot 2015), job roles, and workplace requirements (White 2012). For example, digi-tal interconnectivity enables the emergence of flexible and networked cross-location teams across the entire geographical company map. In this context, traditional hier-archical work structures dissolve and new opportunities emerge beyond company boundaries, such as the integration of external freelancers (Loebbecke and Picot 2015). Also, the implementation of a digital workplace becomes inevitable. Particularly for ‘born digital’ younger employees a digitally well-equipped workplace may represent a major criterion for their choice of employer (El Sawy et al. 2016). According to White (2012), a digital workplace must be adaptive, compliant, imaginative, predictive, and location-independent.

However, the most notable insight in this perspective is that—in addition to a poten-tial cultural divide—digitization may effectively lead to a growing skills gap between pre-digitization workers and recently hired digitally savvy employees (Kohli and John-son 2011). In fact, while digital technologies significantly help to optimize and acceler-ate many work processes and thereby increase productivity, incumbents must be aware that many employees might not keep pace with this digital high-speed train and feel left behind. It is unclear how such a tradeoff is considered and how firms could handle related conflicts.

1 3


5 Avoiding an ivory tower: drawing on existing knowledge from adjacent research fields

We assume that pre-existing knowledge on corporate transformation processes in general is partly already available and may provide implications for digital transfor-mation. Therefore, at this point in our review, we aim to stimulate a theoretical dis-cussion by identifying potential white spots abstracted from adjacent research fields. For this purpose, we additionally reviewed 28 studies from the literature on techno-logical disruption (to gain technology-centric input) and 32 papers from corporate entrepreneurship (to expand the actor-centric view). By this, we supplement the pre-dominantly IS-based digital transformation literature with a broader management perspective. First, by reviewing the literature on disruptive innovations we hope to derive implications regarding technology adoption and integration. Burdened with the legacy of old technology, bureaucratic structures and core rigidities (Leonard-Barton 1992), incumbents may face major challenges in this respect during their digital transformation journey. Second, we expect corporate entrepreneurship to add a more holistic perspective on firm-internal aspects during the process of transfor-mation, such as management contribution or the impact of knowledge and learning.

We rigorously conducted the same review and analysis process as for our digital transformation sample. A database and concept matrix (Webster and Watson 2002) for the sample on technological disruption and corporate entrepreneurship are pro-vided in Tables 6 and 7 of “Appendix”. The data structures, which summarize the second order themes for both the actor-centric and technology-centric dimension of these additional research fields are illustrated in Figs. 5 and 6 of “Appendix”. Within the main body of this article, we only draw attention toward three key implications (Fig. 4). In the following, we provide a brief synthesis of these implications and their grounding in the respective literature. In a second step, we transfer and apply these implications to the context of digital transformation and integrate them into an agenda for future research opportunities.

5.1 Insights from technological disruption

Existing knowledge from the adoption of disruptive technologies suggests that in order to successfully integrate, commercialize or develop disruptive tech-nologies incumbents need to create organizations that are independent from but interconnected in one way or another with the mainstream business (Bower and Christensen 1995). The reasons for this are manifold. For example, managers are encouraged to protect disruptive technologies from the processes and incen-tives that are targeted to serve established customers. Rather, disruptive innova-tions should be placed in separate new organizations that work with future cus-tomers for this technology (Bower and Christensen 1995; Gans 2016). Further, separation potentially helps to unravel the discord between viewing disruptive innovations as a threat or an opportunity. Exempted from obligations to a parent company, separate ventures are more likely to perceive a novel technology as an


1 3

Seco

nd O

rder

The

mes

Ag

greg

ate D

imen

sion

s Se

cond

Ord

er T

hem

es

Pace

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e to

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ket

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Valu

e C

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izat

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ent

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pect

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atur

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dica

tes

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ent

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ial

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ing

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ing

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ent

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izat

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rate

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ion

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cted

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rans

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hem

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Fig.

4

Expa

ndin

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ap w

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rpor

ate

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pren

eurs

hip

1 3


opportunity (Gilbert and Bower 2002). And lastly, a freestanding business also enables local adaptation and increased sensitivity to changes in the environment (Hill and Rothaermel 2003).

5.2 Insights from corporate entrepreneurship

Our review of the corporate entrepreneurship literature identifies two major implications that have not been (adequately) considered in digital transformation research yet.

First, the literature indicates that middle management plays a crucial role in redefining a firm’s strategic context and by this driving organizational trans-formation. A middle management perspective has thus far been completely neglected in digital transformation research. We see this as a major gap, since the middle layers of management are ‘where the action is’ (Floyd and Wooldridge 1999, p. 124). Top management should control the level and the rate of change and ensure that entrepreneurial activities correspond to their strategic vision (Burgelman 1983), but middle managers at the implementation level are the driv-ing force and key determinant behind organizational transformation. However, on the downside, middle managers may also represent a major barrier to organiza-tional change (Thornberry 2001). Typically, managers have the task to minimize risks, make sure everything is compliant to the rules and perform their functional roles. Thus, middle managers usually have the most to lose from radical changes and are therefore often the least likely to be entrepreneurial or to support transfor-mations (Thornberry 2001). In order to solve middle and operational manager’s risk-awareness and unleash their entrepreneurial spirit, research suggests encour-aging autonomous behavior (Shimizu 2012). In sum, reviewing the literature on corporate entrepreneurship raises our awareness for the impact of hierarchy and management levels on organizational transformation (Hornsby et al. 2009).

Second, a closer cooperation and regular exchange between incumbents and start-ups in order to accelerate entrepreneurial transformation is proposed (Engel 2011; Kohler 2016). Incumbents should recognize start-up companies as a source of external innovation and develop suitable models for collaboration (e.g. corporate accelerators). In particular, incumbents are advised to implement three common best practices from successful start-ups in order to facilitate transformation: (1) work-ing in small omni-functional teams, (2) goal-driven rapid development instead of bureaucratic processes, and (3) field-level exploration of market potential instead of complex and tedious quantitative models (Engel 2011). In addition, corporate entrepreneurship underlines the importance of organizational learning as a vehicle to drive and shape cultural transformation (Dess et al. 2003; Floyd and Wooldridge 1999; Zahra 2015). We come to understand that learning, and in fact also knowledge management, are intimately tied to the concept of organizational transformation. A culture of learning and knowledge drives experimentation, encourages the develop-ment of an adaptive skill set, reshapes competitive positioning, and opens the minds of employees to new realities (Zahra et al. 1999).


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6 Opportunities for future research

Based on the cross-disciplinary perspectives from reviewing the literature on digital transformation, technological disruption and corporate entrepreneurship, we propose opportunities for future research on digital transformation. Using our thematic map as a lens to view future research opportunities, we focus on the two dimensions of technology and actor. For the technology-centric dimension we expand on the structural and operational integration of digital technologies and organizational transformation initiatives as well as gaining a deeper under-standing of the pace of technological transformation. For the actor-centric dimen-sion we address three topics: we start at the leadership level by emphasizing the relevance of middle management in digital transformation, after that we refer to the potential skills gap and threat of an employee divide in incumbent organi-zations induced by digital technologies, and finally we move beyond organiza-tional boundaries to turn toward the potential benefits and drawbacks of cooperat-ing with start-ups and pure digital companies to boost transformation. For each area, we propose a set of research questions. Altogether, the agenda is organized around five guiding topics (Table 3).

6.1 Integration of digital transformation within organizational structures and activities in incumbent firms

Our review of the literature on digital transformation reveals a knowledge gap regarding this topic. However, we do gain some interesting cross-disciplinary insights from technological disruption at this point. In fact, as already discussed, studies on technological disruption indicate that in order to successfully inte-grate, commercialize or develop disruptive technologies incumbents need to cre-ate organizations that are completely independent from but interconnected in one way or another with the mainstream business (Bower and Christensen 1995; Gans 2016; Gilbert and Bower 2002; Hill and Rothaermel 2003).

Thus, the question arises as to how incumbents should incorporate their digital transformation activities. Several options and interesting questions arise in this matter that future research may investigate on:

• Which forms of organizational architecture are most suitable for digital trans-formation? Seamless integration of digital technologies requires building an agile and scalable digital infrastructure that enables continuous scalability of new initiatives (Sia et al. 2016). For example, Resca et al. (2013) suggest a platform-based organization. In addition, digital transformation demands a new kind of enterprise platform integration (El Sawy et al. 2016). Given the high intensity of interactive digital connectivity between the outside and inside of a company, traditional enterprise platforms (like ERP) and the ‘old’ supply chain management integration paradigm are in many cases not the most suitable solution anymore. Therefore, flexible IT is a key transformation

1 3


Tabl

e 3

Inte

grat

ive

agen

da fo

r fut

ure

rese

arch

on

digi

tal t

rans

form

atio

n

Rese

arch

topi

cC

orre

spon

ding

seco

nd o

rder

them

eSo

urce

Exem

plar

y Re

sear

ch Q

uesti

ons

Inte

grat

ion

of d

igita

l tra

nsfo

rmat

ion

with

in o

rgan

i-za

tiona

l str

uctu

res a

nd a

ctiv

ities

in in

cum

bent

fir

ms

Tech

nolo

gy C

apab

ility

and

Inte

grat

ion

Revi

ew o

f: D

T, T

D‘H

ow, w

hen,

and

why

are

diff

eren

t for

ms o

f org

ani-

zatio

nal a

rchi

tect

ure

mos

t sui

tabl

e/de

trim

enta

l for

di

gita

l tra

nsfo

rmat

ion?

’ (e.

g. p

latfo

rm-b

ased

, flex

-ib

le IT

, ope

n in

nova

tion)

‘Whe

n an

d w

hy is

it a

n ad

vant

age/

disa

dvan

tage

to

star

t dig

ital t

rans

form

atio

n in

a n

ew o

rgan

izat

ion

whi

ch is

com

plet

ely

inde

pend

ent f

rom

trad

ition

al

busi

ness

, as s

ugge

sted

by te

chno

logi

cal d

isru

ptio

n re

sear

ch?

Und

er w

hat c

ircum

stan

ces a

nd w

hy d

o sp

ill-o

ver-e

ffect

s to

the

pare

nt o

rgan

izat

ion

happ

en/

not h

appe

n?’

‘How

, whe

n, a

nd w

hy d

o in

cum

bent

s ben

efit f

rom

ta

king

a ‘l

et a

hun

dred

flow

ers b

loom

’ phi

loso

phy

by st

artin

g di

gita

l ini

tiativ

es a

cros

s all

divi

sion

s si

mul

tane

ously

and

loca

lly to

enc

oura

ge b

road

ex

perim

enta

tion?

’‘H

ow, w

hen,

and

why

do

incu

mbe

nts b

enefi

t fro

m

taki

ng a

‘lau

nch,

lear

n, p

ivot

’ app

roac

h by

star

ting

with

a p

ilot t

rans

form

atio

n pr

ojec

t in

a sm

alle

r m

arke

t or s

ubsi

diar

y?’

Pace

of d

igita

l tra

nsfo

rmat

ion

Pace

of C

hang

e an

d Ti

me

to M

arke

tRe

view

of:

DT

‘Wha

t are

the

para

met

ers t

hat d

efine

the

pace

of

chan

ge?’

‘Why

do

indu

strie

s ado

pt to

dig

ital t

rans

form

atio

n at

a

diffe

rent

spee

d? W

hat a

re th

e pa

ram

eter

s tha

t defi

ne

whe

ther

an

indu

stry

is m

ore

or le

ss tr

ansf

orm

ativ

e?’

The

role

of m

iddl

e m

anag

emen

t in

digi

tal t

rans

for-

mat

ion

Tran

sfor

mat

ive

Lead

ersh

ipRe

view

of:

DT,

CE

‘It m

ay b

e as

sum

ed th

at in

a ‘d

igita

lly tr

ansf

orm

ed’

com

pany

, the

role

of m

iddl

e m

anag

ers t

rans

form

s in

term

s of i

dent

ity a

nd jo

b ta

sks.

Wha

t is p

reci

sely

ch

angi

ng?

How

and

why

do

mid

dle

man

ager

s rea

ct

to th

ese

chan

ges?

’


1 3

Tabl

e 3

(con

tinue

d)

Rese

arch

topi

cC

orre

spon

ding

seco

nd o

rder

them

eSo

urce

Exem

plar

y Re

sear

ch Q

uesti

ons

‘Wha

t kin

d of

resp

onsi

bilit

ies a

nd fu

nctio

ns in

mid

dle

man

agem

ent h

iera

rchy

are

requ

ired

to a

ccel

erat

e di

gita

l tra

nsfo

rmat

ion?

’ (e.

g. b

usin

ess-

proc

ess m

an-

agem

ent l

ayer

s or c

entra

l adm

inist

ratio

n pl

atfo

rms

that

can

be

shar

ed a

cros

s mul

tiple

initi

ativ

es)

The

role

of m

iddl

e m

anag

emen

t in

digi

tal t

rans

for-

mat

ion

Tran

sfor

mat

ive

Lead

ersh

ipRe

view

of:

DT,

CE

‘Whi

ch m

inds

et a

nd d

igita

l lite

racy

do

mid

dle

man

ag-

ers n

eed

to d

rive

digi

tal t

rans

form

atio

n pr

oces

ses?

H

ow, w

hen,

and

why

are

mid

dle

man

ager

s mot

i-va

ted/

not m

otiv

ated

to d

rive

digi

tal t

rans

form

atio

n?’

‘How

and

why

is d

igita

l tra

nsfo

rmat

ion

affec

ting

the

inte

rface

of t

he to

p m

anag

emen

t tea

m a

nd m

iddl

e m

anag

ers?

’‘W

hat i

s the

impa

ct o

f dig

ital t

rans

form

atio

n on

the

over

all i

mpo

rtanc

e of

the

mid

dle

man

agem

ent

laye

r?G

row

ing

skill

s gap

and

thre

at o

f an

empl

oyee

div

ide

Wor

k En

viro

nmen

tRe

view

of:

DT

‘How

, whe

n an

d w

hy a

re in

cum

bent

s abl

e/un

able

to

miti

gate

a g

row

ing

skill

s gap

and

em

ploy

ee d

ivid

e in

the

face

of d

igita

l tra

nsfo

rmat

ion?

How

cou

ld

diffe

rent

leve

ls o

f kno

wle

dge

and

expe

rienc

e re

sid-

ing

with

in d

iffer

ent e

mpl

oyee

s be

inte

grat

ed in

the

cont

ext o

f dig

ital t

rans

form

atio

n?’

‘How

are

incu

mbe

nts a

ble/

unab

le to

inco

rpor

ate

old

and

new

cap

abili

ties s

imul

tane

ously

with

in th

eir

orga

niza

tion

to m

aste

r the

cha

lleng

e of

tech

nolo

gi-

cal a

mbi

dext

erity

?’

1 3


Tabl

e 3

(con

tinue

d)

Rese

arch

topi

cC

orre

spon

ding

seco

nd o

rder

them

eSo

urce

Exem

plar

y Re

sear

ch Q

uesti

ons

‘Who

in th

e co

mpa

ny is

man

agin

g th

e de

velo

pmen

t an

d tra

nsfo

rmat

ion

of sk

ills a

nd h

ow, w

heng

and

w

hy d

oes t

hat i

mpa

ct o

utco

mes

of d

igita

l tra

nsfo

r-m

atio

n?’ (

e.g.

HR

, sen

ior l

eade

rshi

p, IT

div

isio

n,

func

tiona

l tea

ms,

empl

oyee

s etc

.)C

oope

ratio

n w

ith st

artu

ps a

nd p

ure

tech

com

pani

es

to a

ccel

erat

e di

gita

l tra

nsfo

rmat

ion

Com

pany

Cul

ture

Revi

ew o

f: D

T, C

E‘W

hat a

re th

e co

nstit

uent

pill

ars o

f a d

igita

l cul

ture

w

hich

for e

xam

ple

can

be o

bser

ved

in su

cces

sful

st

art-u

ps?’

‘Wha

t are

the

bene

fits o

f em

ploy

ee e

xcha

nge

pro-

gram

s with

tech

nolo

gy c

ompa

nies

and

star

t-ups

to

scal

e-up

dig

ital s

kills

?’

DT

digi

tal t

rans

form

atio

n, T

D te

chno

logi

cal d

isru

ptio

n, C

E co

rpor

ate

entre

pren

eurs

hip


1 3

resource in the digital world (Cha et al. 2015). Pursuing an open innovation approach might be another alternative for incumbents.

• When and why is it an advantage/disadvantage to start digital transformation in a new organization which is completely independent from traditional business, as suggested by technological disruption research? Under what circumstances and why do spill-over-effects to the parent organization happen/not happen?? For example, Ravensburger AG, a German toy and jigsaw puzzle company, founded Ravensburger Digital GmbH as a subsidiary in 2009. The purpose of the subsidiary was to become the firm’s digital competence center. In 2017, the digital subsidiary was reincorporated in the parent organization as a digital unit with the goal to apply their digital knowledge to transform the traditional busi-ness segments. We call for more qualitative case study research devoted to this question to develop our understanding in this topic.

• How, when, and why do incumbents benefit from adopting a ‘let a hundred flowers bloom’ philosophy versus taking a ‘launch, learn, pivot’ approach? In the first scenario, a company would start its digital initiatives across all divi-sions simultaneously and locally to encourage broad experimentation. Such an approach was adopted by AmerisourceBergen Corp., an American drug whole-sale company. The company is convinced that digital transformation is a matter of culture that needs to be established across the entire organization. For this purpose, it implemented agile project teams throughout the entire enterprise, of which each focused on different aspects. On the downside, companies follow-ing such a broad approach may risk losing focus and at some point, the various initiatives may start competing against each other. Hence, we believe it is crucial to have a big picture in mind and accordingly allocate resources and attention very thoughtfully. Alternatively, incumbents may start with a pilot transforma-tion project in a smaller market or subsidiary. Arguably, a major advantage is the opportunity to assure that customers are happy with the transformation results and everything is working out well before starting the large roll out in other mar-kets. And it provides incumbents time to fine-tune their initiatives. For example, American medical company Alcon premiered their initial transformation efforts in Brazil before ramping up their rollout in 27 further countries.

6.2 Pace of digital transformation

The rapid pace of technological change is perhaps the most defining characteristic of digital transformation in distinction to previous IT-enabled transformations. Yet, as this topic is only addressed by four papers in our sample it is still to be studied in more depth. For example, there is consensus among the studies that the pace of change has accelerated significantly, however the parameters that define the pace of change remain yet to be defined. Further, we are informed that some industries like the newspaper business have been digitally transformed within a very short period of time (Karimi and Walter 2015), while other branches are still under transforma-tion or are yet to be converted. We posit two exemplary research questions regarding the pace of digital transformation:

1 3


• What are the parameters that define the pace of change? Our review reveals that the speed of product launches (Bharadwaj et al. 2013) and the time it takes to turn an idea into a business (Vey et al. 2017) are two potential indicators, but we certainly need to obtain a more comprehensive conceptualization at this point.

• Why do industries adopt to digital transformation at a different speed? For exam-ple, consider front-runner industries like the media or publishing versus late-comers such as oil and gas. In this specific case, the easiness to dematerialize and digitize the product portfolio is certainly a main reason. However, other indus-tries are less obvious, and we would like to invite future research to investigate upon these conditions. What are the parameters that define whether an industry is more or less transformative?

6.3 The role of middle management in digital transformation

We have learned from our review of the corporate entrepreneurship literature that middle managers are the locus of organizational transformation in incumbent firms (Floyd and Wooldridge 1999; Hornsby et al. 2002, 2009; Shimizu 2012). While top management controls the level and rate of change, middle managers are in charge of execution (Burgelman 1983). Hence, one may conclude that middle managers are the kingpin of digital transformation. Yet, there is not a single paper in our sample that covers a middle management perspective in digital transformation. We believe that this subject has been highly neglected in research to this point and deserves far more attention in future. Several topics are particularly interesting:

• How and why is digital transformation affecting the role, tasks and identity of middle managers? How and why do middle managers react to these changes? Based on our review, we expect a deep change in the nature of middle manage-ment’s role and influence in a ‘digitally transformed’ company ranging from administration to leadership aspects. Middle managers require a new attitude as they move from directing and controlling stable processes and people at the mid-dle of hierarchy to managing resources and connecting people in the middle of networks. In addition, middle managers in the digital era must step up to their role of supporting, enabling, and coaching people to use the available digital tools. They are expected to facilitate the organization.

• What kind of new responsibilities and functions in middle management hierar-chy are required to accelerate digital transformation? The odds are that change fatigue might grow on employees and digital transformation may start faltering. For this purpose, horizontal functions such as business-process management lay-ers or central administration platforms may be implemented (McKinsey & Com-pany 2017). They could be shared across multiple initiatives within the organiza-tion and help to accelerate transformation.

• Which mindset and digital literacy do middle managers need to be the driving force behind digital transformation? How, when, and why are middle managers motivated/not motivated to drive transformation? Research on corporate entre-preneurship emphasizes that middle managers are often the least likely to sup-


1 3

port change as they are inherently risk-averse, hardly entrepreneurial and very attached to their functional routines (Thornberry 2001). In addition, middle man-agers may easily get stressed about their ‘sandwich’ position in-between senior management and the operational level. So how can we expect middle managers to be the speedboat of digital transformation? Also, incumbents need to carefully evaluate the existing digital skills and literacy of their middle managers. How comfortable do they feel with digital tools, social media, the cloud and similar trends? They may not fulfill their coaching and leadership role if they heavily struggle with technology in the first place.

• How and why is digital transformation affecting the interface of the top manage-ment team (TMT) and middle managers? The relationship between the TMT and middle managers is a very special and important relationship which significantly affects both strategy formulation and the quality of implementation. Middle managers are the organizational ‘linking pins’ between top and operational level and thus heavily rely on a good exchange with their superiors. To what extent and in which ways does digital transformation affect this special leader–follower relationship? How are digital technologies changing the speed and quality of information exchange? What is the impact on the inter-personal level?

• What is the impact of digital transformation on the overall importance of the middle management layer? Since the 1950s, research indicates the decline of middle managers in terms of both numbers and influence (Dopson and Stewart 1993; Leavitt and Whisler 1958; Pinsonneault and Kraemer 1997). The shift in emphasis from planning and controlling to speed and flexibility is severely affecting the assumedly ‘slow’ middle. Are middle managers afraid that digital technologies will replace most of their traditional tasks and functions, e.g. com-municating and monitoring strategy? Will digitalization naturally empower lower level operational managers at the bottom and consequently eliminate the middle layer?

6.4 A growing skills gap and threat of an employee divide

Given the complexity and explosive pace of digital technologies, there is a threat of a growing skills gap between pre-digitization workers and recently hired digitally savvy employees (Kohli and Johnsons 2011). A couple of topics are particularly interesting for future research:

• How, when and why are incumbents able/unable to mitigate a growing skills gap and employee divide in the face of digital transformation? Given the increased complexity of digital technologies, traditional IT trainings may not be effective anymore. In a similar vein, how could different levels of knowledge and experi-ence residing within different employees be integrated in the context of digital transformation? Future research might examine the mechanisms required for facilitating or hindering such an integration.

• How and when are incumbents able/unable to incorporate ‘old’ and ‘new’ capa-bilities within their organization? On the one hand firms need to develop new

1 3


capabilities to continuously transform their business, while on the other hand they must leverage their existing knowledge and skills in order to maintain their existing operations. Thus, for the time of transformation incumbents need to develop multi-ple, often inconsistent competencies simultaneously. In this context, how do firms ensure not to lose focus while mastering the challenge of ambidexterity in times of digital transformation?

• Who in the company is managing the development and transformation of skills (e.g. HR, senior leadership, IT division, functional teams, employees etc.), and how and why does that impact outcomes of digital transformation? This question is not addressed by current research at all. However, according to a survey (Capgemini Consulting 2013) this lack of alignment with digital strategy is rather worrisome. Responsibilities for skills transformation and development in times of digitization need to be clearly defined and allocated. Empirical academic research in this direc-tion might be helpful to understand the status-quo in incumbent firms regarding this issue.

6.5 Cooperation with startups and pure tech companies to accelerate digital transformation

Corporate entrepreneurship proposes a closer cooperation and regular exchange between incumbents and start-ups in order to accelerate entrepreneurial transformation (Engel 2011; Kohler 2016). In fact, start-ups are often perceived as the forerunners of digital transformation. They are praised for faster innovation capabilities, higher levels of agility, a culture of risk-taking, and supremely digitized processes and workflows. In contrast, incumbents have more experience, access to capital, established brand trust and a huge customer base. Hence, a cooperation between start-ups and incumbents may be beneficial for both parties. In addition, non-tech incumbents may also consider cooperating with pure digital players which are beyond their start-up phase but are important knowledge carriers in digital matters. Two topics are particularly interesting:

• Assuming that successful start-ups have a good digital culture—what are the con-stituent pillars of such a digital culture? And how could incumbents incorporate these “best practices” and “lessons learned”?

• What are the benefits of employee exchange programs with technology companies or start-ups to scale-up digital skills? For example, in early 2008 consumer goods giant Procter and Gamble and Google have been swapping two dozen employees in an effort to foster creativity, exchange thoughts on online advertisement and strengthen their mutual relationship. This program worked very well for both sides.

7 Limitations and conclusion

Our review is not without limitations. First, the specific objectives and nature of our filtering process applied during the review naturally come with a certain selection bias. For example, data collection, analysis and interpretation remain


1 3

influenced by the subjective assessments of the researchers. Also, despite being the common rule within systematic literature reviews, searching exclusively in peer-reviewed academic journals might have omitted some relevant research con-tained in books or dissertations. However, by means of a rigorous and transparent search process, an as complete as possible review sample was collected and ana-lyzed subsequently. Second, using a high-level thematic map for such a complex multi-dimensional phenomenon like digital transformation highlights particular connections while it potentially fails to capture others. Specifically, critics may point to the lack of analytical depth within each second order theme. However, we believe that within the limited scope of a review our broad thematic descrip-tion nevertheless adds value to the advancement of this field and should rather be seen as a holistic starting point for future research to dive deeper into the charac-teristics of sub-themes of digital transformation. Finally, we are aware that our focus on the organizational level of digital transformation within the private sec-tor does not fully capture the implications of digital transformation for our soci-ety, as it also occurs at various other levels, such as the individual level or public sector. As such, future researchers may apply alternative approaches to review and synthesize the existing literature on digital transformation. For example, in contrast to our inductive method to code and analyze our sample, it may also be interesting to apply a more deductive and pre-structured method, in particular when focusing on a deeper understanding of the sub-themes emerging from our analysis. Accordingly, future research could benefit from adopting a phenome-non-based research strategy as proposed by von Krogh et al. (2012).

Concluding, our paper contributes to the extant discussion by consolidating, map-ping and analyze the existing research on digital transformation, sharing important macro- and microlevel observations in the literature and proposing corresponding future research directions. Emerging from our review of 58 studies, we develop a thematic map which identifies technology and actor as the two aggregate dimensions of digital transformation and that elaborates on the predominant contextual concepts (second order themes) within these dimensions. From a macrolevel perspective, we observe that the status-quo of digital transformation literature is rather diverse, in a sense that papers discuss topics across various clusters and concepts. Further, we find some degree of diversity in the theoretical foundations drawn upon as well as confirm that the existing literature in general is scarce regarding quantitative empiri-cal evidence. Another important contribution of our paper is bringing different lenses together by integrating knowledge from related disciplinary areas outside IS management, such as technological disruption and corporate entrepreneurship. With our review, we hope to provide a comprehensive and solid foundation for the on-going discussions on digital transformation and to stimulate future research on this exciting topic.

Acknowledgements Open Access funding provided by Projekt DEAL.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Com-mons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article

1 3


are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creat iveco mmons .org/licen ses/by/4.0/.

Appendix

See Tables 4, 5, 6 and 7 and Figs. 5 and 6.

Table 4 Distribution of sample across journals

Journal ABS 2015 ranking

Quantity

MIS Quarterly 4* 13MISQ Executive 2 10Journal of Strategic Information Systems 4 3Information Systems Journal 3 3International Journal of Information Management – 3International Journal of Advanced Corporate Learning – 3Technological Forecasting and Social Change 3 2Management Decision 2 2Business Horizons 2 2Academy of Management Journal 4* 1Journal of Management Information Systems 4* 1Information Systems Research 4* 1International Journal of Research in Marketing 4 1Harvard Business Review 3 1MIT Sloan Management Review 3 1European Journal of Information Systems 3 1Industrial Management and Data Systems 2 1Business and Information Systems Engineering 2 1Business Strategy Review 1 1Journal of Theoretical and Applied Electronic Commerce Research 1 1Strategy and Leadership – 1Business Information Review – 1Human Systems Management – 1International Journal of Arts Management – 1International Journal of Retail and Distribution Management – 1Journal of Media Business Studies – 1

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/


1 3

Tabl

e 5

Dat

abas

e-di

gita

l tra

nsfo

rmat

ion

sam

ple

(58

Stud

ies,

in a

lpha

betic

al o

rder

)

Aut

hors

(yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Alo

s-Si

mo

et a

l. (2

017)

Indu

stria

l Man

agem

ent a

nd D

ata

Syste

ms

Qua

ntita

tive

(181

incu

mbe

nt fi

rms)

Spai

nEm

piric

al re

sults

pro

vide

sign

ifica

nt

evid

ence

that

ada

ptiv

e cu

lture

is

the

vehi

cle

by w

hich

tran

sfor

ma-

tiona

l lea

ders

pos

itive

ly in

fluen

ce

digi

tal t

rans

form

atio

nB

enni

s (20

13)

MIS

Qua

rterly

Con

cept

ual

U.S

Info

rmat

ion

ubiq

uity

in a

dig

ital

wor

ld ra

ises

exp

osur

e of

lead

ers

to th

e pu

blic

. Thu

s, eff

ectiv

e le

ader

ship

in a

dig

ital w

orld

nee

ds

to b

e le

arne

d th

roug

h em

brac

ing

info

rmat

ion-

driv

en tr

ansp

aren

cy

and

adap

tive

capa

city

Ber

man

(201

2)St

rate

gy a

nd L

eade

rshi

pC

once

ptua

lU

.STh

e ar

ticle

iden

tifies

cha

ngin

g co

nsum

er b

ehav

ior a

nd c

onsu

mer

kn

owle

dge

abou

t pro

duct

s and

ser-

vice

offe

rings

due

to d

igita

l tec

h-no

logi

es. I

n th

is n

ew m

arke

tpla

ce,

busi

ness

es n

eed

to e

ngag

e w

ith

thei

r cus

tom

ers a

t eve

ry p

oint

in

the

proc

ess o

f val

ue c

reat

ion

and

furth

erm

ore

deve

lop

capa

bilit

ies

to d

esig

n an

d de

liver

new

bus

ines

s m

odel

s

1 3


Tabl

e 5

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Bha

radw

aj e

t al.

(201

3)M

IS Q

uarte

rlyC

once

ptua

lU

.SFo

ur k

ey th

emes

are

iden

tified

to

gui

de th

e th

inki

ng o

n di

gita

l bu

sine

ss st

rate

gy a

nd h

elp

prov

ide

a fr

amew

ork

to d

efine

the

next

ge

nera

tion

of in

sigh

ts. T

he fo

ur

them

es a

re (1

) the

scop

e of

dig

ital

busi

ness

stra

tegy

, (2)

the

scal

e of

di

gita

l bus

ines

s stra

tegy

, (3)

the

spee

d of

dig

ital b

usin

ess s

trate

gy,

and

(4) t

he so

urce

s of b

usin

ess

valu

e cr

eatio

n an

d ca

ptur

e in

dig

i-ta

l bus

ines

s stra

tegy

. The

aut

hors

de

fine

digi

tal b

usin

ess s

trate

gy a

s th

e fu

sion

of I

T str

ateg

y an

d bu

si-

ness

stra

tegy

Cha

et a

l. (2

015)

Man

agem

ent D

ecis

ion

Cas

e stu

dy (1

0 ca

ses—

5 fir

ms t

hat

repo

rted

succ

essf

ul IT

-ena

bled

O

T an

d 5

that

repo

rted

less

suc-

cess

ful)

Aus

tralia

This

stud

y de

velo

ps a

n in

tegr

ativ

e m

odel

of I

T-en

able

d or

gani

-za

tiona

l tra

nsfo

rmat

ion

(OT)

. Sp

ecifi

cally

, thr

ee im

porta

nt fi

nd-

ings

are

pro

vide

d. F

irst,

flexi

ble

IT

and

polic

ies w

ere

foun

d to

be

key

trans

form

atio

n re

sour

ces.

Seco

nd,

train

ing,

team

wor

k, le

ader

ship

, an

d pr

ojec

t ow

ners

hip

wer

e id

enti-

fied

as k

ey tr

ansf

orm

atio

n ca

pa-

bilit

ies.

Third

, stra

tegi

c ou

tcom

es

such

as r

espo

nsiv

enes

s, cu

stom

er

satis

fact

ion,

and

bus

ines

s sco

pe

wer

e su

gges

ted

as k

ey tr

ansf

orm

a-tio

n ou

tcom

es


1 3

Tabl

e 5

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Cha

tterje

e et

al.

(200

2)M

IS Q

uarte

rlyQ

uant

itativ

e (6

2 co

mpa

nies

from

va

rious

indu

strie

s)U

.STh

is p

aper

dra

ws u

pon

insti

tutio

nal

theo

ry a

nd th

e co

ncep

tual

lens

of

struc

turin

g an

d m

etas

truct

urin

g ac

tions

to e

xpla

in th

e im

porta

nce

of th

ree

fact

ors—

top

man

agem

ent

cham

pion

ship

, stra

tegi

c in

vest-

men

t rat

iona

le, a

nd e

xten

t of

coor

dina

tion—

in a

chie

ving

hig

her

leve

ls o

f Web

ass

imila

tion

with

in

an o

rgan

izat

ion

Dan

iel a

nd W

ilson

(200

3)Eu

rope

an Jo

urna

l of I

nfor

mat

ion

Syste

ms

Cas

e stu

dy (1

3 m

anag

ers f

rom

5

orga

niza

tions

with

in th

e do

mai

n of

e-b

usin

ess t

rans

form

atio

n)

U.K

This

stud

y id

entifi

es e

ight

dist

inct

dy

nam

ic c

apab

ilitie

s ass

ocia

ted

with

e-b

usin

ess t

rans

form

atio

n.

Thes

e ca

pabi

litie

s fal

l int

o tw

o gr

oups

. One

gro

up is

ass

ocia

ted

with

the

need

for i

nnov

atio

n du

e to

the

char

acte

ristic

s of t

he

e-bu

sine

ss e

nviro

nmen

t, w

hile

the

seco

nd g

roup

rela

tes t

o th

e ne

ed to

in

corp

orat

e or

inte

grat

e e-

busi

ness

in

the

exist

ing

oper

atio

ns o

f the

bu

sine

ss

1 3


Tabl

e 5

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Dijk

man

et a

l. (2

015)

Inte

rnat

iona

l Jou

rnal

of I

nfor

ma-

tion

Man

agem

ent

Mix

ed m

etho

ds (1

1 in

terv

iew

s w

ith Io

T in

form

ants

and

an

onlin

e su

rvey

with

103

IoT

prof

essi

onal

s)

Inte

rnat

iona

lIo

T ap

plic

atio

ns w

ill su

ppor

t the

co-

crea

tion

of p

rodu

cts a

nd se

rvic

es

with

cus

tom

ers a

nd st

reng

then

cu

stom

er re

latio

nshi

p. T

hus,

the

mos

t im

porta

nt b

uild

ing

bloc

ks

that

con

stitu

te a

n Io

T bu

sine

ss

mod

el a

re th

e va

lue

prop

ositi

on,

custo

mer

rela

tions

hips

and

key

pa

rtner

ship

sD

rem

el e

t al.

(201

7)M

IS Q

uarte

rly E

xecu

tive

Cas

e stu

dy (A

UD

I AG

)G

erm

any

The

auth

ors f

ocus

on

the

topi

c of

bi

g da

ta a

naly

tics a

s an

enab

ler

of a

tran

sfor

mat

ion

that

can

lead

to

com

petit

ive

adva

ntag

e. T

he

artic

le il

lustr

ates

how

Aud

i driv

es

digi

taliz

atio

n to

war

ds h

arne

ssin

g di

gita

l opp

ortu

nitie

s in

digi

tal

busi

ness

mod

els a

nd d

ata-

driv

en

serv

ices

in a

thre

e-st

age

jour

ney

of in

crea

sing

ly st

rate

gic

big

data

an

alyt

ics.

The

auth

ors c

oncl

ude

with

five

lear

ning

s with

act

iona

ble

guid

ance

for s

enio

r exe

cutiv

es o

n ho

w e

nter

pris

es c

an e

volv

e to

war

d di

gitiz

atio

n th

roug

h in

crea

sing

ly

effec

tive

use

of d

ata

and

anal

ytic

s


1 3

Tabl

e 5

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

El S

awy

et a

l. (2

016)

MIS

Qua

rterly

Exe

cutiv

eC

ase

study

(LEG

O)

Den

mar

kTh

is p

aper

des

crib

es th

e de

cade

-lo

ng jo

urne

y of

LEG

O to

tra

nsfo

rm in

to a

dig

ital l

eade

r w

ith p

rodu

cts,

mar

ketin

g, a

nd

its IT

pla

tform

. Am

ong

othe

rs,

the

auth

ors a

rgue

that

dig

ital t

rans

-fo

rmat

ion

dem

ands

a n

ew k

ind

of

ente

rpris

e pl

atfo

rm in

tegr

atio

n, a

ne

w d

igita

l wor

kpla

ce, a

nd a

dif-

fere

nt k

ind

of p

eopl

e m

inds

etEl

Saw

y et

al.

(201

0)In

form

atio

n Sy

stem

s Res

earc

hC

once

ptua

lU

.STh

e co

ncep

t of d

igita

l eco

dyna

mic

s is

pre

sent

ed a

nd d

efine

d as

the

holis

tic c

onflu

ence

am

ong

envi

-ro

nmen

tal t

urbu

lenc

e, d

ynam

ic

capa

bilit

ies a

nd IT

syste

ms—

and

thei

r fus

ed d

ynam

ic in

tera

ctio

ns

unfo

ldin

g as

an

ecos

yste

mEv

ens (

2010

)Jo

urna

l of M

edia

Bus

ines

s Stu

dies

Con

cept

ual

Bel

gium

Dig

itiza

tion

blur

s bou

ndar

ies

betw

een

prev

ious

ly d

istin

ct a

cces

s ne

twor

ks a

nd te

chno

logi

es (i

n m

edia

, tel

ecom

mun

icat

ion

and

com

putin

g), a

nd a

ffect

s ind

ustry

ar

chite

ctur

es a

nd b

usin

ess m

odel

s w

ithin

the

med

ia e

cosy

stem

. W

ith th

e em

erge

nce

of m

ulti-

med

ia p

latfo

rms,

valu

e in

the

digi

tal b

road

casti

ng in

dustr

y is

be

ing

grad

ually

mor

e cr

eate

d th

roug

h th

e es

tabl

ishm

ent o

f val

ue

netw

orks

1 3


Tabl

e 5

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Ger

th a

nd P

eppa

rd (2

016)

Bus

ines

s Hor

izon

sC

once

ptua

lU

.S. a

nd G

erm

any

The

pape

r pre

sent

s five

maj

or c

ause

s fo

r Chi

ef In

form

atio

n O

ffice

r (C

IO) d

erai

lmen

t: (1

) mis

un-

ders

tand

ing

the

trans

ition

, (2)

am

bigu

ity in

defi

ning

IT su

cces

s, (3

) am

bigu

ity in

role

exp

ecta

tions

, (4

) poo

r rel

atio

nshi

p m

anag

emen

t w

ith p

eers

, and

(5) p

ushi

ng c

hang

e at

the

wro

ng p

ace.

CEO

s mus

t re

cogn

ize

the

valu

e an

d co

ntrib

u-tio

n th

at a

CIO

can

brin

g an

d ac

tivel

y en

gage

with

the

CIO

and

w

ith a

ll di

gita

l mat

ters

to c

reat

e an

en

viro

nmen

t tha

t ena

bles

succ

ess-

ful d

igita

l tra

nsfo

rmat

ion


1 3

Tabl

e 5

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Gra

nado

s and

Gup

ta (2

013)

MIS

Qua

rterly

Con

cept

ual

U.S

The

artic

le a

ddre

sses

mar

ket t

rans

-pa

renc

y re

late

d to

the

disc

losu

re

of in

form

atio

n ou

tsid

e th

e bo

unda

-rie

s of t

he e

nter

pris

e. T

he a

utho

rs

cont

end

that

ther

e is

a g

reat

er n

eed

for a

tran

spar

ency

stra

tegy

in a

di

gita

l env

ironm

ent.

They

arti

cu-

late

the

info

rmat

iona

l ele

men

ts o

f an

effe

ctiv

e tra

nspa

renc

y str

ateg

y an

d so

me

of th

e str

ateg

ic o

ptio

ns

arou

nd it

(dis

clos

ing,

dist

ortin

g,

bias

ing,

and

con

ceal

ing)

. Fur

ther

, it

is a

rgue

d th

at d

igita

l tec

h-no

logi

es in

crea

sing

ly re

duce

the

info

rmat

ion

asym

met

ries b

etw

een

selle

rs a

nd b

uyer

sG

rove

r and

Koh

li (2

013)

MIS

Qua

rterly

Con

cept

ual

U.S

This

arti

cle

prop

ose

that

a fi

rm’s

di

gita

l bus

ines

s stra

tegy

mus

t ba

lanc

e its

syste

m—

softw

are,

pr

oces

s, an

d in

form

atio

n—vi

sibi

l-ity

with

the

abili

ty to

app

ropr

iate

va

lue

from

such

syste

ms.

Thro

ugh

a vi

sibi

lity-

valu

e fr

amew

ork

the

auth

ors i

llustr

ate

the

trade

offs

invo

lved

in m

akin

g th

ese

choi

ces.

Furth

er, t

he h

igh

pace

of d

igita

l tra

nsfo

rmat

ion

incr

ease

s the

ove

r-al

l spe

ed-to

-mar

ket

1 3


Tabl

e 5

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Gün

ther

et a

l. (2

017)

Jour

nal o

f Stra

tegi

c In

form

atio

n Sy

stem

sSy

stem

atic

lite

ratu

re re

view

(67

pape

rs o

n bi

g da

ta v

alue

real

iza-

tion)

Net

herla

nds

This

in-d

epth

syste

mat

ic re

view

of

IS li

tera

ture

on

big

data

iden

ti-fie

s six

deb

ates

cen

tral t

o ho

w

orga

niza

tions

real

ize

valu

e fro

m

big

data

, at d

iffer

ent l

evel

s of

anal

ysis

. Bas

ed o

n th

is re

view

, tw

o so

cio-

tech

nica

l fea

ture

s of b

ig

data

that

influ

ence

val

ue re

aliz

a-tio

n ar

e id

entifi

ed: p

orta

bilit

y an

d in

terc

onne

ctiv

ity. T

he a

utho

rs

argu

e, in

pra

ctic

e, o

rgan

izat

ions

ne

ed to

con

tinuo

usly

real

ign

wor

k pr

actic

es, o

rgan

izat

iona

l mod

els,

and

stak

ehol

der i

nter

ests

in o

rder

to

reap

the

bene

fits f

rom

big

dat

a


1 3

Tabl

e 5

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Hag

berg

et a

l. (2

016)

Inte

rnat

iona

l Jou

rnal

of R

etai

l and

D

istrib

utio

n M

anag

emen

tC

once

ptua

lSw

eden

Dig

italiz

atio

n tra

nsfo

rms t

he fo

llow

-in

g fo

ur e

lem

ents

of t

he re

taile

r-co

nsum

er in

terfa

ce: (

1) re

taili

ng

exch

ange

s (in

a n

umbe

r of w

ays

and

in v

ario

us fa

cets

of e

xcha

nge,

in

clud

ing

com

mun

icat

ions

, tra

ns-

actio

ns, a

nd d

istrib

utio

n), (

2) th

e na

ture

of r

etai

l offe

rings

(blu

rred

di

stinc

tions

bet

wee

n pr

oduc

ts

and

serv

ices

, wha

t con

stitu

tes

the

actu

al o

fferin

g an

d ho

w it

is

pric

ed),

(3) r

etai

l set

tings

(whe

re

and

whe

n re

taili

ng ta

kes p

lace

), an

d (4

) the

act

ors w

ho p

artic

ipat

e in

reta

iling

(i.e

. ret

aile

rs a

nd c

on-

sum

ers,

amon

g ot

her p

artie

s)H

anse

n an

d Si

a (2

015)

MIS

Qua

rterly

Exe

cutiv

eC

ase

study

(Hum

mel

, a (D

anis

h/G

erm

an sp

orts

and

fash

ion

prod

-uc

ts c

ompa

ny)

Den

mar

k an

d G

erm

any

Four

maj

or le

sson

s lea

rned

can

be

der

ived

rega

rdin

g di

gita

l om

nich

anne

l stra

tegi

es fr

om

study

ing

the

digi

tal t

rans

form

atio

n jo

urne

y of

Hum

mel

: (1)

em

brac

e ch

anne

l par

tner

s in

the

omni

chan

-ne

l stra

tegy

, (2)

reco

gniz

e th

at a

su

cces

sful

om

nich

anne

l stra

tegy

re

quire

s dee

p ch

ange

, (3)

leve

rage

th

e str

ateg

ic ro

le o

f the

Chi

ef D

ig-

ital O

ffice

r (C

DO

), an

d (4

) evo

lve

the

role

of t

he C

IO in

ena

blin

g an

om

nich

anne

l stra

tegy

1 3


Tabl

e 5

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Hes

s et a

l. (2

016)

MIS

Qua

rterly

Exe

cutiv

eC

ase

study

(3 G

erm

an m

edia

com

-pa

nies

: Pro

Sieb

enSa

t.1 M

edia

SE

; Mitt

elba

yeris

che

Verla

g A

G;

Rav

ensb

urge

r AG

)

Ger

man

yTh

e ar

ticle

pro

pose

s 11

strat

egic

qu

estio

ns fo

r man

ager

s con

front

ed

with

dig

ital t

rans

form

atio

n, a

ll gr

oupe

d al

ong

the

follo

win

g fo

ur

dim

ensi

ons o

f dig

ital t

rans

form

a-tio

n, a

s sug

geste

d by

the

auth

ors:

us

e of

tech

nolo

gies

, cha

nges

in

valu

e cr

eatio

n, st

ruct

ural

cha

nges

an

d fin

anci

al a

spec

tsH

u, H

uang

et a

l. (2

016)

Inte

rnat

iona

l Jou

rnal

of I

nfor

ma-

tion

Man

agem

ent

Cas

e stu

dy (R

ed C

olla

r Gro

up, a

C

hine

se su

it m

anuf

actu

rer)

Chi

naTh

is c

ase

study

pro

vide

s thr

ee m

ajor

le

sson

s lea

rned

rega

rdin

g co

rpo-

rate

ent

repr

eneu

rshi

p in

tim

es o

f di

gitiz

atio

n: (1

) cor

pora

te e

ntre

-pr

eneu

rshi

p is

evi

dent

in d

iffer

ent

stag

es d

urin

g an

org

aniz

atio

n’s

trans

form

atio

n in

to a

dig

ital e

co-

syste

m, (

2) th

e fu

ndam

enta

l goa

l of

org

aniz

atio

nal t

rans

form

atio

n lie

s in

the

cons

truct

ion

of a

dig

ital

ecos

yste

m, a

nd (3

) the

dev

elop

-m

ent o

f suc

h a

digi

tal e

cosy

stem

is

a pr

oces

s of c

o-ev

olut

ion,

in te

rms

of th

e co

mpl

ex in

terp

lay

betw

een

com

petit

ive

and

coop

erat

ive

busi

-ne

ss st

rate

gies


1 3

Tabl

e 5

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Ives

et a

l. (2

016)

MIS

Qua

rterly

Exe

cutiv

eC

once

ptua

lU

.SIo

T te

chno

logi

es e

nabl

e di

rect

real

-tim

e cu

stom

er re

latio

nshi

ps. A

lso,

in

cum

bent

s mus

t be

aggr

essi

ve in

pu

rsui

ng th

e ad

vant

ages

of d

igita

l da

ta st

ream

ing

via

the

Inte

rnet

of

Thi

ngs (

IoT)

, sin

ce th

ey h

ave

man

y ad

vant

ages

ove

r sta

rtups

, su

ch a

s the

abi

lity

to le

vera

ge

thei

r lar

ger s

cale

and

scop

e, g

ive

custo

mer

s gre

ater

ass

uran

ces o

f se

curit

y an

d re

liabi

lity,

and

take

ad

vant

age

of th

e tru

st an

d br

and

loya

lty th

ey h

ave

alre

ady

esta

b-lis

hed

with

cus

tom

ers

Kar

imi a

nd W

alte

r (20

15)

Jour

nal o

f Man

agem

ent I

nfor

ma-

tion

Syste

ms

Qua

ntita

tive

(136

resp

onse

s fro

m

seni

or e

xecu

tives

from

the

new

spap

er in

dustr

y th

roug

h a

web

surv

ey)

U.S

Empi

rical

resu

lts su

gges

t tha

t fir

st-or

der d

ynam

ic c

apab

ilitie

s th

at a

re c

reat

ed b

y ch

angi

ng,

exte

ndin

g, o

r ada

ptin

g a

firm

’s

exist

ing

reso

urce

s, pr

oces

ses,

and

valu

es a

re p

ositi

vely

ass

ocia

ted

with

bui

ldin

g di

gita

l pla

tform

ca

pabi

litie

s, an

d th

at th

ese

capa

-bi

litie

s im

pact

the

perfo

rman

ce o

f re

spon

se to

dig

ital d

isru

ptio

n

1 3


Tabl

e 5

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Kee

n an

d W

illia

ms (

2013

)M

IS Q

uarte

rlyC

once

ptua

lU

.STh

e ar

ticle

arg

ues t

hat d

igita

l bu

sine

ss st

rate

gy w

ill b

e dr

iven

by

val

ue a

rchi

tect

ures

rath

er

than

bus

ines

s mod

els.

In d

igita

l bu

sine

ss, t

he b

uyer

det

erm

ines

va

lue

and

valu

e is

a fu

nctio

n of

th

e ch

oice

spac

e ra

ther

than

the

prod

uct o

r ser

vice

. As s

uch,

val

ue

is a

lway

s shi

fting

and

a m

ovin

g ta

rget

Koh

li an

d Jo

hnso

n (2

011)

MIS

Qua

rterly

Exe

cutiv

eC

ase

study

(Enc

ana

Oil

and

Gas

In

c.: m

ultip

le in

terv

iew

s with

ke

y IS

and

bus

ines

s lea

ders

in

the

perio

d fro

m 2

009-

2010

)

U.S

Two

maj

or in

sigh

ts a

re p

rovi

ded

in th

e ar

ticle

. Firs

t, in

dustr

ies

with

non

-phy

sica

l pro

duct

s may

di

gitiz

e th

eir p

rodu

ctio

n an

d su

p-pl

y ch

ain

proc

esse

s to

gain

gre

ater

vi

sibi

lity

Seco

nd, f

rom

a w

ork

envi

ronm

ent

pers

pect

ive

digi

tizat

ion

may

lead

to

a g

row

ing

skill

s gap

bet

wee

n pr

e-di

gitiz

atio

n em

ploy

ees a

nd

rece

ntly

hire

d di

gita

lly sa

vvy

empl

oyee

s


1 3

Tabl

e 5

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Koh

li an

d M

elvi

lle (2

019)

Info

rmat

ion

Syste

ms J

ourn

alSy

stem

atic

lite

ratu

re re

view

(161

ar

ticle

s on

digi

tal i

nnov

atio

n)U

.STh

e au

thor

s und

erto

ok a

syste

mat

ic

revi

ew o

f the

dig

ital i

nnov

atio

n lit

erat

ure

acco

rdin

g to

a th

eore

tical

fr

amew

ork

com

pris

ing

7 di

men

-si

ons:

initi

atio

n; d

evel

opm

ent;

impl

emen

tatio

n; e

xplo

itatio

n;

the

role

of t

he e

xter

nal c

ompe

ti-tiv

e en

viro

nmen

t; ro

le o

f int

erna

l or

gani

zatio

nal e

nviro

nmen

t; an

d pr

oduc

t, se

rvic

e, a

nd p

roce

ss o

ut-

com

es. F

rom

a m

acro

per

spec

tive,

th

ey id

entif

y un

even

cov

erag

e of

re

sear

ch st

ream

s, bo

th d

iver

sity

an

d di

ffusi

vene

ss, a

nd k

now

ledg

e an

d le

arni

ng a

s an

unde

rlyin

g co

ncep

tual

pill

ar. S

ever

al a

reas

of

futu

re re

sear

ch a

re p

ropo

sed

Lanz

olla

and

And

erso

n (2

008)

Bus

ines

s Stra

tegy

Rev

iew

Con

cept

ual

U.K

The

pape

r res

earc

hed

curr

ent

trans

form

atio

ns in

med

ia, t

elec

om-

mun

icat

ions

and

tech

nolo

gy c

om-

pani

es a

nd id

entifi

es th

ree

spec

ific

trend

s—di

gita

l int

erac

tions

, dig

ital

distr

ibut

ion

and

ubiq

uito

us d

igita

l re

ach

1 3


Tabl

e 5

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Leon

g et

al.

(201

7)In

tern

atio

nal J

ourn

al o

f Inf

orm

a-tio

n M

anag

emen

tC

ase

study

(16

in-d

epth

sem

i-str

uctu

red

inte

rvie

ws w

ith

exec

utiv

es a

nd e

mpl

oyee

s fro

m

FinT

ech

star

t-up

007f

enqi

)

Chi

naD

igita

l tra

nsfo

rmat

ion

is d

isru

ptin

g ev

en h

ighl

y re

gula

ted

mar

kets

su

ch a

s ban

king

and

fina

nce.

The

de

velo

pmen

t of a

n ec

osys

tem

-ba

sed

busi

ness

mod

el th

at c

onsi

sts

of n

ot o

nly

lend

ing

serv

ices

, but

al

so th

e sp

endi

ng a

nd e

arn-

ing

chan

nels

, may

ope

n up

new

re

venu

e str

eam

s whi

le lo

wer

ing

oper

atio

nal r

isks

Li e

t al.

(201

7)In

form

atio

n Sy

stem

s Jou

rnal

Qua

litat

ive

(7 C

hine

se S

MEs

on

the

Alib

aba

digi

tal p

latfo

rm)

Chi

naB

ased

on

qual

itativ

e re

sear

ch o

n se

ven

Chi

nese

SM

Es, a

pro

cess

m

odel

is d

eriv

ed th

at a

ims t

o de

scrib

e an

d ex

plai

n ho

w S

ME

entre

pren

eurs

, with

supp

ort

from

a d

igita

l pla

tform

serv

ice

prov

ider

, driv

e di

gita

l tra

nsfo

rma-

tion

thro

ugh

man

ager

ial c

ogni

tion

rene

wal

, man

ager

ial s

ocia

l cap

ital

deve

lopm

ent,

busi

ness

team

bui

ld-

ing,

and

org

aniz

atio

nal c

apab

ility

bu

ildin

gLi

u et

al.

(201

1)M

anag

emen

t Dec

isio

nC

ase

study

(17

inte

rvie

ws w

ith

repr

esen

tativ

e fro

m C

BC

Ban

k)Ta

iwan

The

study

dem

onstr

ates

that

man

ag-

ing

digi

tal t

rans

form

atio

n ca

n be

ch

alle

ngin

g, a

nd th

at aw

aren

ess

of, a

nd p

repa

redn

ess f

or, a

naly

sis

of b

oth

the

reso

urce

s/ca

pabi

lity

and

exte

rnal

dem

ands

thro

ugh

the

reso

urce

fit p

ersp

ectiv

e ar

e ne

cess

ary


1 3

Tabl

e 5

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Llop

is e

t al.

(200

4)H

uman

Sys

tem

s Man

agem

ent

Cas

e stu

dy (T

elef

onic

a G

roup

)Sp

ain

Thre

e le

sson

s lea

rned

can

be

deriv

ed fr

om T

elef

onic

a’s o

rgan

i-za

tiona

l tra

nsfo

rmat

ion

tow

ards

a

digi

tal c

ultu

re: (

1) le

ader

ship

has

a

key

role

thro

ugho

ut th

e en

tire

proc

ess,

(2) i

t is d

ifficu

lt to

ada

pt

the

curr

ent b

udge

t sch

eme

to

the

finan

cing

of i

nter

net-r

elat

ed

initi

ativ

es, a

nd (3

) effo

rts m

ust b

e co

ncen

trate

d on

cus

tom

ers a

nd

thei

r tra

inin

g to

use

tech

nolo

gyLo

ebbe

cke

and

Pico

t (20

15)

Jour

nal o

f Stra

tegi

c In

form

atio

n Sy

stem

sC

once

ptua

lG

erm

any

The

auth

ors e

xpec

t dig

itiza

tion

and

big

data

ana

lytic

s to

hit k

now

l-ed

ge-b

ased

bus

ines

s mod

els a

nd

cogn

itive

wor

kers

as h

ard

as n

on-

know

ledg

e bu

sine

ss m

odel

s and

m

anua

l wor

kers

. Als

o, d

igiti

zatio

n br

eaks

dow

n tra

ditio

nal h

iera

rchi

-ca

l wor

k str

uctu

res a

nd tr

ansf

orm

s th

em in

to fl

exib

le n

etw

orke

d str

uctu

res a

cros

s loc

atio

ns

1 3


Tabl

e 5

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Lyyt

inen

et a

l. (2

016)

Info

rmat

ion

Syste

ms J

ourn

alC

once

ptua

lU

.STh

is a

rticl

e co

nsid

ers h

ow th

e ‘n

ew

mat

eria

lity’

affo

rded

by

digi

tal

tech

nolo

gies

affe

cts o

rgan

iza-

tiona

l and

inte

r-org

aniz

atio

nal

know

ledg

e-re

late

d ca

pabi

litie

s to

inno

vate

with

pro

duct

s. It

prop

oses

a fr

amew

ork

of d

igita

l pr

oduc

t inn

ovat

ion

netw

orks

and

ex

plor

es so

me

char

acte

ristic

s of

digi

tal i

nfor

mat

ion

infr

astru

ctur

es

that

can

supp

ort h

ighl

y di

gitiz

ed

form

s of i

nnov

atio

n ne

twor

ks.

Furth

er, t

he a

utho

rs a

rgue

that

th

e m

ovem

ent t

owar

ds a

narc

hic

form

s of i

nnov

atio

n ne

twor

ks is

an

inev

itabl

e jo

urne

y fo

r org

aniz

a-tio

ns th

at w

ant t

o em

brac

e th

e ge

nera

tive

capa

city

of d

igita

lly

indu

ced

prod

uct i

nnov

atio

n


1 3

Tabl

e 5

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Maj

chrz

ak e

t al.

(201

6)M

IS Q

uarte

rlyC

once

ptua

lU

.SIn

thei

r int

rodu

ctor

y co

mm

enta

ry to

a

MIS

Q S

peci

al Is

sue,

the

auth

ors

disc

uss f

our m

ajor

impl

icat

ions

for

rese

arch

ers i

nter

este

d in

soci

etal

an

d bu

sine

ss c

hang

e in

the

cont

ext

of in

form

atio

n an

d co

mm

unic

atio

n te

chno

logi

es (I

CTs

): re

sear

cher

s (1

) sho

uld

expa

nd th

eir d

efini

tions

of

theo

ry to

incl

ude

theo

ries o

f the

pr

oble

m a

nd th

eorie

s of t

he so

lu-

tion,

(2) e

xplic

itly

defin

e th

e IC

T ar

tifac

t, in

clud

e aff

orda

nces

and

co

nstra

ints

, and

exp

licitl

y ex

amin

e th

e un

inte

nded

con

sequ

ence

s of

the

ICT

artif

act,

(3) c

onsi

der

emer

gent

dig

ital d

esig

ning

as a

re

plac

emen

t for

org

aniz

atio

ns,

(4) c

oupl

e re

sear

ch fi

ndin

gs w

ith

publ

ic p

olic

y an

d re

gula

tion

rec-

omm

enda

tions

whe

re re

leva

ntM

arku

s and

Loe

bbec

ke (2

013)

MIS

Qua

rterly

Con

cept

ual

U.S

. and

Ger

man

yM

arku

s and

Loe

bbec

ke d

evel

op

the

notio

n of

the

larg

er u

nit o

f an

alys

is a

s a b

usin

ess c

omm

unity

to

acc

omm

odat

e th

e po

ssib

ility

of

over

lapp

ing

ecos

yste

ms w

ith m

ul-

tiple

orc

hestr

ator

s. Th

is b

rings

into

pl

ay th

e no

tion

of a

com

mun

ity

plat

form

that

is ta

ilore

d fo

r use

by

all m

embe

rs o

f a c

omm

unity

1 3


Tabl

e 5

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Mat

t et a

l. B

enlia

n (2

015)

Bus

ines

s and

Info

rmat

ion

Syste

ms

Engi

neer

ing

Con

cept

ual

Ger

man

yD

igita

l tra

nsfo

rmat

ion

strat

egie

s ha

ve a

cro

ss-f

unct

iona

l cha

rac-

ter a

nd n

eed

to b

e al

igne

d w

ith

othe

r fun

ctio

nal a

nd o

pera

tiona

l str

ateg

ies.

Giv

en th

e ra

ther

rece

nt

appe

aran

ce o

f DT

strat

egie

s, fu

r-th

er e

vide

nce

is n

eede

d as

to h

ow

this

alig

nmen

t can

be

cond

ucte

d in

pra

ctic

e. F

urth

er, t

he a

rticl

e pr

opos

es th

at d

igita

l tec

hnol

ogie

s im

ply

sign

ifica

nt c

hang

es in

val

ue

crea

tion

Maz

zei a

nd N

oble

(201

7)B

usin

ess H

oriz

ons

Con

cept

ual

U.S

The

auth

ors d

evel

op a

fram

ewor

k w

hich

pro

pose

s thr

ee ti

ers o

f val

ue

crea

tion

due

to b

ig d

ata

phen

om-

enon

: (1)

dat

a as

a to

ol to

impr

ove

prob

lem

solv

ing

and

deci

sion

m

akin

g, (2

) dat

a as

an

indu

stry,

w

ith sp

in-o

ffs a

nd n

ew v

entu

res

spec

ializ

ed o

n bi

g da

ta, a

nd (3

) da

ta a

s a st

rate

gy fo

r com

pani

es b

y bu

ildin

g da

ta re

sour

ces t

o de

velo

p in

nova

tive

busi

ness

mod

els


1 3

Tabl

e 5

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Mith

as e

t al.

(201

3)M

IS Q

uarte

rlyQ

uant

itativ

e (4

00 fi

rms a

nd 1

225

firm

-yea

r obs

erva

tions

from

19

99 to

200

6)

U.S

Find

ings

impl

y th

at d

igita

l bus

ines

s str

ateg

y is

not

sole

ly a

mat

ter

of o

ptim

izin

g fir

m o

pera

tions

in

tern

ally

or o

f res

pond

ing

to o

ne

or tw

o fo

cal c

ompe

titor

s, bu

t als

o ar

ises

strik

ingl

y fro

m aw

aren

ess

and

resp

onsi

vene

ss to

the

digi

tal

busi

ness

com

petit

ive

envi

ronm

ent

Mor

eau

(201

3)In

tern

atio

nal J

ourn

al o

f Arts

M

anag

emen

tC

once

ptua

lFr

ance

The

case

stud

y sh

ows t

hat d

igiti

za-

tion

mat

ches

the

char

acte

ristic

s of

disr

uptiv

e in

nova

tion

as d

escr

ibed

in

the

liter

atur

e. It

exp

lain

s why

es

tabl

ishe

d fir

ms i

nitia

lly p

aid

little

hee

d to

an

inno

vatio

n le

adin

g to

a p

rodu

ct (d

igita

l mus

ic fi

les)

th

at is

che

aper

and

low

er-q

ualit

y th

an th

eir e

xisti

ng p

rodu

ct (C

Ds)

an

d ill

-sui

ted

to th

eir m

ains

tream

co

nsum

ers

Ng

and

Wak

ensh

aw (2

017)

Inte

rnat

iona

l Jou

rnal

of R

esea

rch

in M

arke

ting

Con

cept

ual

U.K

Dat

a sto

rage

cap

abili

ties a

nd c

om-

putin

g sp

eed

have

ena

bled

dat

a co

llect

ion

at a

n un

prec

eden

ted

scal

e. M

oreo

ver,

digi

tizat

ion

and

IoT

appl

icat

ions

are

cha

ngin

g th

e ro

le a

nd si

gnifi

canc

e of

dat

a its

elf

(dat

a as

a se

rvic

e). T

hus,

in th

e di

gita

l era

, per

sona

l dat

a is

the

mos

t pow

erfu

l yet

con

tent

ious

as

pect

of I

oT

1 3


Tabl

e 5

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Paga

ni (2

013)

MIS

Qua

rterly

Qua

litat

ive

blac

k-bo

x m

odel

ling

(45

indu

stry

expe

rts fr

om 1

5 le

adin

g co

mpa

nies

in E

urop

e an

d th

e U

nite

d St

ates

from

200

0 to

200

8)

Inte

rnat

iona

lTh

is st

udy

show

s tha

t in

orde

r to

surv

ive

in a

n in

crea

sing

ly u

ncer

-ta

in a

nd c

ompl

ex e

nviro

nmen

t, th

e fir

m h

as to

tran

sfor

m it

s org

ani-

zatio

nal i

ntel

ligen

ce in

to a

new

re

latio

nal i

ntel

ligen

ce, e

nact

ing

an

open

com

mun

icat

ion

proc

ess w

ith

its st

akeh

olde

rsR

ayna

and

Stri

ukov

a (2

016)

Tech

nolo

gica

l For

ecas

ting

and

Soci

al C

hang

eC

once

ptua

lFr

ance

and

U.K

3D p

rintin

g te

chno

logi

es h

ave

the

pote

ntia

l to

chan

ge th

e w

ay b

usi-

ness

mod

el in

nova

tion

is c

arrie

d ou

t, by

ena

blin

g ad

aptiv

e bu

sine

ss

mod

els a

nd b

y br

ingi

ng th

e ‘r

apid

pr

otot

ypin

g’ p

arad

igm

to b

usin

ess

mod

el in

nova

tion

itsel

f. Fu

rther

, th

e au

thor

s arg

ue th

at d

igiti

za-

tion

lead

s to

‘dem

ater

ializ

atio

n’

by tu

rnin

g ta

ngib

le o

bjec

ts in

to

inta

ngib

le o

nes


1 3

Tabl

e 5

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Resc

a et

al.

(201

3)Jo

urna

l of T

heor

etic

al a

nd A

pplie

d El

ectro

nic

Com

mer

ce R

esea

rch

Cas

e stu

dy (M

idbl

ue p

roje

ct)

Italy

A th

eore

tical

fram

ewor

k is

pro

pose

d th

at c

ombi

nes t

hree

per

spec

tives

. Fi

rst,

the

impo

rtanc

e of

dig

ital

arch

itect

ures

in th

e m

odal

ities

th

roug

h w

hich

firm

s org

aniz

e fo

r in

nova

tion

is st

ress

ed. S

econ

d,

orga

niza

tion

as a

pla

tform

out

lines

a

scen

ario

for g

ener

atin

g m

ultip

le

orga

niza

tiona

l for

ms b

ased

on

reco

mbi

natio

n of

exi

stent

re

sour

ces,

rout

ines

and

tran

sac-

tions

. Thi

rd, d

igita

l pla

tform

s ar

e se

en a

s det

erm

inan

t too

ls fo

r a

dem

ater

ializ

atio

n pr

oces

s tha

t co

nsen

ts to

reco

mbi

ne th

e fa

ctor

s of

pro

duct

ion

for a

chie

ving

a

com

petit

ive

adva

ntag

eR

igby

et a

l. (2

016)

Har

vard

Bus

ines

s Rev

iew

Con

cept

ual

U.S

Agi

le m

etho

ds su

ch a

s scr

um,

kanb

an, a

nd le

an d

evel

opm

ent

are

spre

adin

g be

yond

IT to

oth

er

func

tions

. In

thei

r con

cept

ual

pape

r, th

e au

thor

s arg

ue th

at th

e co

ncep

t of a

gilit

y m

ay b

e a

usef

ul

appr

oach

to c

reat

e a

new

gen

era-

tion

of sk

illed

gen

eral

man

ager

s fo

r the

dig

ital e

ra

1 3


Tabl

e 5

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Rin

dova

and

Kot

ha (2

001)

Aca

dem

y of

Man

agem

ent J

ourn

alC

ase

study

(Yah

oo! a

nd E

xcite

)U

.STh

is st

udy

repr

esen

ts a

n ea

rly a

ppli-

catio

n of

dyn

amic

cap

abili

ties

in th

e co

ntex

t of e

-bus

ines

s. Th

e fin

ding

s sug

gest

that

dig

itiza

tion

dem

ands

con

tinuo

us c

ompa

ny-

wid

e tra

nsfo

rmat

ions

(lab

elle

d as

‘con

tinuo

us m

orph

ing’

). C

ontin

uous

mor

phin

g is

an

impo

r-ta

nt m

echa

nism

for r

enew

ing

com

petit

ive

adva

ntag

e in

tran

sien

t en

viro

nmen

tsSa

mba

mur

thy

et a

l. (2

003)

MIS

Qua

rterly

Con

cept

ual

U.S

This

pap

er in

trodu

ces a

theo

retic

al

pers

pect

ive

whi

ch h

ighl

ight

s thr

ee

impo

rtant

dyn

amic

cap

abili

ties

(dig

ital o

ptio

ns, a

gilit

y, a

nd e

ntre

-pr

eneu

rial a

lertn

ess)

and

thre

e str

ateg

ic p

roce

sses

(cap

abili

ty-

build

ing,

ent

repr

eneu

rial a

ctio

n,

and

coev

olut

iona

ry a

dapt

atio

n)

with

in th

e no

mol

ogic

al n

etw

ork

of

influ

ence

s tha

t med

iate

bet

wee

n IT

in

vestm

ents

and

cap

abili

ties a

nd

firm

per

form

ance


1 3

Tabl

e 5

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Sand

ström

(201

6)Te

chno

logi

cal F

orec

astin

g an

d So

cial

Cha

nge

Cas

e stu

dy (2

5 in

terv

iew

s with

key

in

divi

dual

s who

hav

e be

en in

ch

arge

of s

hifti

ng th

e he

arin

g ai

d in

dustr

y to

war

ds 3

D p

rintin

g)

Inte

rnat

iona

lTr

ansi

tion

to 3

D p

rintin

g is

par

tially

as

soci

ated

with

com

pete

nce

destr

uctio

n, m

eani

ng th

at fi

rms

need

to d

evel

op n

ew sk

ill se

ts.

Whi

le it

is im

porta

nt to

do

so a

t an

ear

ly p

oint

, firs

t mov

ers f

aced

ex

tens

ive

tech

nolo

gica

l unc

er-

tain

ty. W

aitin

g un

til th

e do

min

ant

desi

gn a

nd re

duce

d un

certa

inty

th

eref

ore

seem

s to

be a

n im

porta

nt

succ

ess f

acto

rSc

huch

man

n an

d Se

ufer

t (20

15)

Inte

rnat

iona

l Jou

rnal

of A

dvan

ced

Cor

pora

te L

earn

ing

Cas

e stu

dy (1

1 ba

nkin

g or

gani

za-

tions

)G

erm

any

The

pape

r ide

ntifi

es o

rgan

izat

iona

l le

arni

ng a

s an

enab

ler f

or d

igita

l tra

nsfo

rmat

ion.

Con

clud

ingl

y,

succ

essf

ul d

igita

l tra

nsfo

rmat

ion

begi

ns w

ith u

nder

stan

ding

dig

ital

cons

umer

beh

avio

r, pr

efer

ence

s an

d ch

oice

s. It

then

lead

s to

maj

or

cons

umer

-cen

tric

chan

ges w

ithin

th

e or

gani

zatio

n th

at a

ddre

ss th

ese

need

s

1 3


Tabl

e 5

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Seba

stian

et a

l. (2

017)

MIS

Qua

rterly

Exe

cutiv

eC

ase

study

(25

med

ium

and

larg

e co

mpa

nies

)U

.STh

is a

rticl

e de

scrib

es fi

ndin

gs fr

om

a stu

dy o

f 25

com

pani

es th

at w

ere

emba

rkin

g on

dig

ital t

rans

form

a-tio

n jo

urne

ys. T

he a

utho

rs id

entif

y tw

o di

gita

l stra

tegi

es—

custo

mer

en

gage

men

t and

dig

itize

d so

lu-

tions

—th

at p

rovi

de d

irect

ion

for a

di

gita

l tra

nsfo

rmat

ion.

Tw

o te

ch-

nolo

gy-e

nabl

ed a

sset

s are

ess

entia

l fo

r exe

cutin

g th

ose

strat

egie

s: a

n op

erat

iona

l bac

kbon

e an

d a

digi

tal

serv

ice

plat

form

Setia

et a

l. (2

013)

MIS

Qua

rterly

Qua

ntita

tive

(70

bran

ches

of a

la

rge

Indi

an b

ank)

Indi

aTh

e au

thor

s sho

w h

ow in

form

a-tio

n qu

ality

act

s as a

key

dig

ital

reso

urce

and

a c

ritic

al a

ntec

ed-

ent t

o cu

stom

er-s

ide

dyna

mic

ca

pabi

litie

s tha

t ena

ble

a ra

pid

sens

e-an

d-re

spon

d to

cus

tom

er

need

s. Th

is st

udy

prov

ides

insi

ghts

fo

r how

loca

l bus

ines

s pro

cess

es

and

digi

tal d

esig

n ca

n in

fluen

ce

an e

nter

pris

e’s c

usto

mer

-sid

e re

spon

se c

apab

ilitie

s and

dig

ital

busi

ness

stra

tegy


1 3

Tabl

e 5

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Seuf

ert a

nd M

eier

(201

6)In

tern

atio

nal J

ourn

al o

f Adv

ance

d C

orpo

rate

Lea

rnin

gC

once

ptua

lSw

itzer

land

Dig

ital t

rans

form

atio

n re

quire

s not

on

ly g

ener

al sk

ills a

nd a

ttitu

des.

Thes

e sk

ills a

nd a

ttitu

des h

ave

to b

e ap

plie

d an

d us

ed in

the

spec

ific

func

tions

and

pro

fes-

sion

al d

omai

ns th

at c

onsti

tute

the

orga

niza

tion.

Dig

ital t

rans

form

a-tio

n em

erge

s whe

n us

age

enab

les

inno

vatio

n an

d cr

eativ

ity th

at th

en

lead

s to

sign

ifica

nt c

hang

e—at

the

indi

vidu

al o

r org

aniz

atio

nal l

evel

Sia

et a

l. (2

016)

MIS

Qua

rterly

Exe

cutiv

eC

ase

study

(12

inte

rvie

ws w

ith

exec

utiv

es fr

om a

larg

e A

sian

ba

nk)

Sing

apor

eD

igita

l bus

ines

s stra

tegy

dem

ands

str

ong

lead

ersh

ip, t

he c

ontin

uous

na

viga

tion

of th

e dy

nam

ic a

nd

emer

ging

dig

ital l

ands

cape

, and

an

agile

and

scal

able

“co

re”.

In a

ddi-

tion,

cha

nges

in le

ader

ship

pro

-gr

ams t

owar

ds th

e di

gita

l con

text

ca

n be

obs

erve

d (e

.g. p

artic

ipat

ion

in h

acka

thon

s, e-

foru

ms)

Sing

h an

d H

ess (

2017

)M

IS Q

uarte

rly E

xecu

tive

Cas

e stu

dy (1

0 in

terv

iew

s with

ex

ecut

ives

and

Chi

ef D

igita

l O

ffice

rs fr

om 6

com

pani

es)

Ger

man

yTh

e ca

se sh

ows t

hat d

igiti

zatio

n le

ads t

o th

e es

tabl

ishm

ent o

f new

ro

les i

n th

e C

-sui

te su

ch a

s tha

t of

the

Chi

ef D

igita

l Offi

cer (

CD

O).

The

CD

O n

eeds

a so

lid b

lend

of

dig

ital/I

T co

mpe

tenc

es a

nd

man

agem

ent s

kills

. How

ever

, the

au

thor

s arg

ue th

at th

is p

ositi

on

may

be

a te

mpo

rary

phe

nom

enon

1 3


Tabl

e 5

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Svah

n et

al.

(201

7)M

IS Q

uarte

rlyC

ase

study

(Vol

vo C

ars)

Swed

enTh

is c

ase

study

illu

strat

es d

igita

l in

nova

tion

at V

olvo

Car

s. It

spec

if-ic

ally

show

s the

par

adox

es V

olvo

ex

perie

nced

whi

le tr

ansi

tioni

ng to

th

e op

en c

onne

cted

car

initi

a-tiv

e, w

hich

ext

erna

lizes

softw

are

deve

lopm

ent o

f app

licat

ions

fo

r the

veh

icle

. In

gene

ral,

the

case

show

s tha

t inc

umbe

nts m

ay

face

four

com

petin

g co

ncer

ns a

s th

ey e

mbr

ace

digi

tal i

nnov

atio

n:

inno

vatio

n ca

pabi

lity,

inno

vatio

n fo

cus,

inno

vatio

n co

llabo

ratio

n,

inno

vatio

n go

vern

ance

Tum

bas e

t al.

(201

7)M

IS Q

uarte

rly E

xecu

tive

Qua

litat

ive

(35

inte

rvie

ws w

ith

Chi

ef D

igita

l Offi

cers

from

var

i-ou

s sec

tors

)

Liec

hten

stein

Resu

lts fr

om th

is q

ualit

ativ

e ar

ticle

su

gges

t thr

ee g

ener

al ty

pes o

f C

DO

s (di

gita

l acc

eler

ator

, dig

ital

mar

kete

r and

dig

ital h

arm

oniz

er)

whi

ch re

sult

from

diff

eren

t rea

sons

fo

r est

ablis

hing

the

role

. Fur

ther

, th

e au

thor

s ide

ntify

spec

ific

dom

ains

whe

re su

cces

sful

CD

Os

build

dig

ital c

apab

ilitie

s and

eac

h of

thes

e do

mai

ns is

a fo

cal d

omai

n fo

r one

of t

he id

entifi

ed C

DO

ty

pes:

dig

ital i

nnov

atio

n, d

ata

ana-

lytic

s, an

d cu

stom

er e

ngag

emen

t


1 3

Tabl

e 5

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Vey

et a

l. (2

017)

Inte

rnat

iona

l Jou

rnal

of A

dvan

ced

Cor

pora

te L

earn

ing

Con

cept

ual

Switz

erla

ndFa

cilit

atin

g a

lear

ning

frie

ndly

cu

lture

by

usin

g di

ffere

nt p

illar

s is

a w

ay to

gen

erat

e in

nova

tion

and

to se

cure

the

exist

ence

of

orga

niza

tions

in ti

mes

of d

igita

l tra

nsfo

rmat

ion.

For

this

pur

pose

, ne

w ro

les a

nd a

ctio

n ar

eas f

or

Lear

ning

and

Dev

elop

men

t (L&

D)

prof

essi

onal

s em

erge

, suc

h as

ch

ange

age

nts a

nd c

onsu

ltant

s, or

in

nova

tion

labs

Wei

ll an

d W

oern

er (2

015)

MIT

Slo

an M

anag

emen

t Rev

iew

Con

cept

ual

U.S

The

auth

or id

entifi

es a

shift

from

co

ntro

lling

or p

artic

ipat

ing

in a

lin

ear v

alue

cha

in to

ope

ratin

g in

an

eco

syste

m. E

cosy

stem

s offe

r gr

eate

r cus

tom

er c

hoic

e, e

nhan

ced

custo

mer

val

ue a

nd b

ette

r cus

-to

mer

exp

erie

nce.

Incu

mbe

nts

shou

ld e

ngag

e in

ope

n ec

osys

-te

ms b

ased

on

rela

tions

hips

with

co

mpl

emen

tary

or e

ven

com

pet-

ing

serv

ices

to o

wn

the

custo

mer

re

latio

nshi

p

1 3


Tabl

e 5

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Whi

te (2

012)

Bus

ines

s Inf

orm

atio

n Re

view

Con

cept

ual

U.K

Dig

ital t

rans

form

atio

n re

quire

s the

in

trodu

ctio

n of

dig

ital w

orkp

lace

s. A

dig

ital w

orkp

lace

mus

t be

adap

-tiv

e, c

ompl

iant

, im

agin

ativ

e, p

re-

dict

ive,

and

loca

tion-

inde

pend

ent.

The

adop

tion

of d

igita

l wor

kpla

ces

need

s to

be in

itiat

ed b

y se

nior

m

anag

emen

tYe

ow e

t al.

(201

8)Jo

urna

l of S

trate

gic

Info

rmat

ion

Syste

ms

Cas

e stu

dy (L

ongi

tudi

nal c

ase

study

of s

ports

wea

r com

pany

H

umm

els)

Den

mar

kEm

piric

al e

vide

nce

is p

rovi

ded

that

as

an

orga

niza

tion

shift

s tow

ards

a

digi

tal s

trate

gy, m

isal

ignm

ents

be

twee

n th

e em

erge

nt st

rate

gy a

nd

reso

urce

s giv

e ris

e to

tens

ion.

Thi

s ca

se st

udy

resu

lted

in th

e de

velo

p-m

ent o

f an

alig

ning

pro

cess

mod

el

that

is c

ompr

ised

of t

hree

pha

ses

(exp

lora

tory

, bui

ldin

g, a

nd e

xten

d-in

g) a

nd g

ener

aliz

able

org

aniz

a-tio

nal a

ligni

ng a

ctio

ns th

at fo

rm

the

orga

niza

tion’

s sen

sing

, sei

zing

, an

d tra

nsfo

rmin

g ca

paci

ties


1 3

Tabl

e 6

Dat

abas

e—te

chno

logi

cal d

isru

ptio

n an

d co

rpor

ate

entre

pren

eurs

hip

sam

ple

(28

and

32 st

udie

s res

pect

ivel

y, in

alp

habe

tical

ord

er)

Aut

hors

(Yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Tech

nolo

gica

l dis

rupt

ion

(28

stud

ies)

And

erso

n an

d Tu

shm

an (1

990)

Adm

inist

rativ

e Sc

ienc

e Q

uarte

rlyQ

uant

itativ

e (L

ongi

tudi

nal d

ata

acro

ss th

ree

U.S

. ind

ustri

es:

cem

ent,

airp

lane

s, m

ini-c

ompu

ter)

U.S

This

pap

er e

mpi

rical

ly e

xplo

res w

hen

and

how

dom

inan

t des

igns

em

erge

fro

m te

chno

logi

cal d

isco

ntin

uitie

s an

d w

hich

firm

s pio

neer

dom

inan

t de

sign

s. Th

e au

thor

s arg

ue th

at a

br

eakt

hrou

gh in

nova

tion

inau

gu-

rate

s an

era

of fe

rmen

t in

whi

ch

com

petit

ion

amon

g va

riatio

ns o

f the

or

igin

al b

reak

-thro

ugh

culm

inat

es

in th

e se

lect

ion

of a

sing

le d

omin

ant

confi

gura

tion

of th

e ne

w te

chno

logy

Ber

gek

et a

l. (2

013)

Rese

arch

Pol

icy

Cas

e stu

dy (T

wo

sets

of c

ompa

ra-

tive

indu

stry

case

s with

var

ious

co

mpa

nies

and

exp

erts

)

Inte

rnat

iona

lC

reat

ive

accu

mul

atio

n re

quire

s fir

ms t

o ha

ndle

a tr

iple

cha

lleng

e of

sim

ulta

neou

sly (1

) fine

-tuni

ng

and

evol

ving

exi

sting

tech

nolo

gies

at

a ra

pid

pace

, (2)

acq

uirin

g an

d de

velo

ping

new

tech

nolo

gies

and

re

sour

ces a

nd (3

) int

egra

ting

nove

l an

d ex

istin

g kn

owle

dge

into

supe

-rio

r pro

duct

s and

solu

tions

1 3


Tabl

e 6

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(Yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Ber

man

et a

l. (2

016)

Stra

tegy

and

Lea

ders

hip

Con

cept

ual

Inte

rnat

iona

lTo

succ

essf

ully

gui

de in

nova

tions

, co

mpa

nies

shou

ld in

vesti

gate

op

portu

nitie

s to

expl

oit n

ew a

nd

emer

ging

tech

nolo

gies

or b

usin

ess

mod

els,

or a

pply

exi

sting

tech

nolo

-gi

es in

new

way

s, an

d lo

ok a

t oth

er

indu

strie

s for

idea

s. To

do

so, t

he

auth

ors s

ugge

st us

ing

pred

ictiv

e an

d co

gniti

ve a

naly

tics t

o in

vesti

gate

ne

w tr

ends

, ide

ntify

new

cus

tom

er

segm

ents

and

mak

e sm

arte

r bus

i-ne

ss d

ecis

ions

Bow

er a

nd C

hrist

ense

n (1

995)

Har

vard

Bus

ines

s Rev

iew

Con

cept

ual

U.S

The

pape

r arg

ues t

hat i

n or

der t

o su

cces

sful

ly c

omm

erci

aliz

e an

d de

velo

p di

srup

tive

tech

nolo

gies

in

cum

bent

s nee

d to

cre

ate

orga

niza

-tio

ns th

at a

re c

ompl

etel

y in

depe

nd-

ent f

rom

the

mai

nstre

am b

usin

ess.

Onc

e a

spin

off

has b

ecom

e co

m-

mer

cial

ly v

iabl

e in

a n

ew m

arke

t, it

shou

ld n

ot b

e in

tegr

ated

into

the

mai

nstre

am o

rgan

izat

ion


1 3

Tabl

e 6

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(Yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Dan

neel

s (20

04)

Jour

nal o

f Pro

duct

Inno

vatio

n M

anag

emen

tC

once

ptua

lU

.STh

e au

thor

cha

lleng

es th

e fin

ding

s pr

opos

ed b

y C

hrist

ense

n (1

997)

, w

ho a

rgue

s tha

t inc

umbe

nts t

end

to fa

lter w

hen

face

d w

ith d

isru

p-tiv

e te

chno

logi

es. W

ith re

fere

nce

to o

ther

stud

ies,

the

auth

or a

rgue

s th

at in

cum

bent

s wer

e m

ore

likel

y to

surv

ive

in th

e lo

ng te

rm. F

utur

e re

sear

ch n

eeds

to a

ddre

ss w

hat t

he

char

acte

ristic

s are

of i

ncum

bent

s th

at d

o no

t fai

lD

aSilv

a et

al.

(201

3)Te

chno

logy

Ana

lysi

s and

Stra

tegi

c M

anag

emen

tC

ase

study

(Sal

esfo

rce,

Am

azon

Inc.

an

d Si

ebel

Sys

tem

s)U

.SFi

ndin

gs su

gges

t dis

rupt

ive

tech

nol-

ogy

per s

e is

not

the

reas

on fo

r the

co

llaps

e of

larg

e co

rpor

atio

ns, b

ut

rath

er th

e fa

ilure

to a

dapt

or c

reat

e ne

w b

usin

ess m

odel

s to

inco

rpor

ate

nove

l tec

hnol

ogy

Dow

nes a

nd N

unes

(201

3)H

arva

rd B

usin

ess R

evie

wC

once

ptua

lU

.STo

surv

ive

“big

-ban

g” d

isru

ptio

ns

such

as n

ew d

igita

l pla

tform

s, in

cum

bent

s nee

d to

dev

elop

new

to

ols t

o de

tect

radi

cal c

hang

e in

the

offing

, new

stra

tegi

es to

slow

dow

n di

srup

ters

, new

way

s to

leve

rage

ex

istin

g as

sets

in o

ther

mar

kets

, an

d a

mor

e di

vers

ified

app

roac

h to

in

vestm

ent

1 3


Tabl

e 6

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(Yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Gan

s (20

16)

MIT

Slo

an M

anag

emen

t Rev

iew

Con

cept

ual

Can

ada

Incu

mbe

nts m

ay d

evel

op th

ree

strat

e-gi

es in

resp

onse

to te

chno

logi

cal

disr

uptio

n w

ithin

thei

r ind

ustry

: (1

) atta

ck b

y in

vesti

ng in

the

new

di

srup

tive

tech

nolo

gy, (

2) c

oope

rate

w

ith o

r acq

uire

the

mar

ket e

ntra

nt,

and

(3) h

avin

g cr

itica

l ass

ets t

hat

entra

nts l

ack

and

thus

may

buy

tim

e fo

r the

incu

mbe

nt fi

rmG

awer

and

Cus

uman

o (2

014)

Jour

nal o

f Pro

duct

Inno

vatio

n M

anag

emen

tC

once

ptua

lU

.K. a

nd U

.SIn

dustr

y pl

atfo

rms f

acili

tate

the

gen-

erat

ion

of a

pot

entia

lly v

ery

larg

e nu

mbe

r of c

ompl

emen

tary

inno

va-

tions

by

tapp

ing

into

the

inno

vativ

e ca

pabi

litie

s of m

any

exte

rnal

act

ors,

and

func

tion

as a

tech

nolo

gica

l fo

unda

tion

at th

e he

art o

f inn

ovat

ive

busi

ness

eco

syste

ms.

In th

is se

nse,

th

ey g

uide

tech

nolo

gica

l inn

ovat

ion

traje

ctor

ies a

nd st

imul

ate

inno

vatio

n on

com

plem

ents


1 3

Tabl

e 6

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(Yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Ger

stner

et a

l. (2

013)

Adm

inist

rativ

e Sc

ienc

e Q

uarte

rlyQ

uant

itativ

e (7

2 C

EOs f

rom

33

U.S

. ph

arm

aceu

tical

com

pani

es)

U.S

Bas

ed o

n a

sam

ple

of 7

2 C

EOs f

rom

U

.S. p

harm

aceu

tical

s, th

is st

udy

prov

ides

evi

denc

e th

at n

arci

ssist

ic

CEO

s of e

stab

lishe

d fir

ms w

ill b

e re

lativ

ely

aggr

essi

ve in

thei

r ado

p-tio

n of

tech

nolo

gica

l dis

cont

inui

ties.

How

ever

, the

effe

ct o

f a C

EO’s

nar

-ci

ssis

m o

n or

gani

zatio

nal o

utco

mes

w

ill b

e m

oder

ated

by

audi

ence

en

gage

men

t—th

e de

gree

to w

hich

ob

serv

ers v

iew

a p

heno

men

on a

s no

tew

orth

y an

d pr

ovoc

ativ

e. W

hen

audi

ence

eng

agem

ent i

s hig

h,

narc

issi

stic

CEO

s will

ant

icip

ate

wid

espr

ead

adm

iratio

n fo

r the

ir bo

ld a

ctio

ns a

nd th

us w

ill in

vest

espe

cial

ly a

ggre

ssiv

ely

in a

dis

con-

tinuo

us te

chno

logy

Gilb

ert a

nd B

ower

(200

2)H

arva

rd B

usin

ess R

evie

wC

once

ptua

lU

.SW

hen

incu

mbe

nts a

re b

eing

thre

at-

ened

by

a di

srup

tive

inno

vatio

n,

the

auth

ors s

ugge

st to

(1) s

epar

ate

busi

ness

ope

ratio

ns fo

r bet

ter

perfo

rman

ce, (

2) in

vest

in st

ages

, (3

) cul

tivat

e ou

tsid

e pe

rspe

ctiv

e,

(4) a

ppoi

nt a

n ac

tive

inte

grat

or,

(5) m

odul

ariz

e in

tegr

atio

n, a

nd (6

) co

nsid

er a

cqui

sitio

ns

1 3


Tabl

e 6

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(Yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Gün

zel a

nd H

olm

(201

3)In

tern

atio

nal J

ourn

al o

f Inn

ovat

ion

Man

agem

ent

Cas

e stu

dy (1

2 in

-dep

th in

terv

iew

s w

ith k

ey in

form

ants

from

thre

e D

anis

h ne

wsp

aper

s)

Den

mar

kTh

ere

is a

nee

d to

dist

ingu

ish

betw

een

front

-end

and

bac

k-en

d bu

sine

ss

mod

el in

nova

tion

proc

esse

s, an

d to

re

cogn

ize

the

impo

rtanc

e of

org

ani-

zatio

nal l

earn

ing

whe

n in

cum

bent

s ar

e fa

ced

with

dis

rupt

ive

tech

nolo

-gi

esH

abta

y an

d H

olm

én (2

014)

Inte

rnat

iona

l Jou

rnal

of E

ntre

pre-

neur

ship

and

Inno

vatio

n M

anag

e-m

ent

Mix

ed m

etho

ds (8

8 str

ateg

ic b

usi-

ness

uni

ts)

Sout

h A

fric

aIn

cum

bent

s on

aver

age

can

succ

eed

with

dis

rupt

ive

mar

ket-i

nnov

atio

n by

bei

ng m

arke

t orie

ntat

ed (M

O),

leve

ragi

ng p

rior c

ore

com

pete

nces

an

d in

tegr

atin

g th

e di

srup

tive

inno

-va

tion

unde

r the

sam

e bu

sine

ss u

nit

that

is re

spon

sibl

e fo

r tra

ditio

nal

busi

ness

esH

ill a

nd R

otha

erm

el (2

003)

Aca

dem

y of

Man

agem

ent R

evie

wC

once

ptua

lU

.STh

e au

thor

s ide

ntify

a n

umbe

r of f

ac-

tors

that

hel

p to

exp

lain

incu

mbe

nt

perfo

rman

ce in

mar

kets

shak

en b

y a

radi

cal t

echn

olog

ical

inno

va-

tion.

The

se in

clud

e am

ong

othe

rs

inve

stmen

t in

basi

c re

sear

ch to

rais

e aw

aren

ess o

f em

erge

nt te

chno

logi

es,

the

legi

timiz

atio

n an

d in

stitu

tion-

aliz

atio

n of

aut

onom

ous a

ctio

n,

and

the

crea

tion

of a

stan

d-al

one

divi

sion

to c

omm

erci

aliz

e a

radi

cal

tech

nolo

gy


1 3

Tabl

e 6

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(Yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Hol

m e

t al.

(201

3)In

tern

atio

nal J

ourn

al o

f Tec

hnol

ogy

Man

agem

ent

Cas

e stu

dy (T

wo

Dan

ish

med

ia

com

pani

es: J

P/Po

litik

ens H

us a

nd

Ber

lings

ke M

edia

)

Den

mar

kFi

ndin

gs su

gges

t tha

t a m

ore

nuan

ced

view

and

bal

ance

d un

ders

tand

ing

of th

e te

rm ‘o

penn

ess’

with

rega

rds

to b

usin

ess m

odel

s is n

eede

d. Y

et,

this

stud

y co

nfirm

s tha

t the

bus

ines

s m

odel

is a

use

ful c

once

ptua

l and

an

alyt

ical

dev

ice

that

can

be

used

w

hen

study

ing

the

inte

rrel

atio

ns

betw

een

tech

nolo

gica

l dis

cont

inui

-tie

s and

bus

ines

s mod

el a

djus

tmen

tJo

hnso

n et

al.

(200

8)H

arva

rd B

usin

ess R

evie

wC

once

ptua

lU

.STh

is st

udy

prop

oses

five

stra

tegi

c ci

rcum

stan

ces t

hat o

ften

requ

ire

busi

ness

mod

el in

nova

tion

(BM

I):

(1) t

he o

ppor

tuni

ty to

add

ress

th

roug

h di

srup

tive

inno

vatio

n th

e ne

eds o

f lar

ge g

roup

s, (2

) the

op

portu

nity

to c

apita

lize

on a

bra

nd-

new

tech

nolo

gy b

y w

rapp

ing

a ne

w

busi

ness

mod

el a

roun

d it

(App

le

and

MP3

pla

yers

) or t

he o

ppor

tuni

ty

to le

vera

ge a

teste

d te

chno

logy

by

brin

ging

it to

a w

hole

new

mar

ket,

(3) t

he o

ppor

tuni

ty to

brin

g a

job-

to-b

e-do

ne fo

cus w

here

one

doe

s no

t yet

exi

st, (4

) the

nee

d to

fend

off

low

-end

dis

rupt

ers,

and

(5) t

he

need

to re

spon

d to

a sh

iftin

g ba

sis

of c

ompe

titio

n

1 3


Tabl

e 6

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(Yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Koe

n et

al.

(201

0)Re

sear

ch-T

echn

olog

y M

anag

emen

tC

ase

study

(7 c

ase

studi

es: 4

suc-

cess

ful a

nd 3

uns

ucce

ssfu

l bus

i-ne

ss m

odel

inno

vatio

n pr

ojec

ts

at A

DM

, Con

ocoP

hilli

ps, a

nd

New

ell-R

ubbe

rmai

d)

U.S

The

case

stud

ies i

dent

ify fi

ve k

ey

dile

mm

as th

at c

ompa

nies

face

in

purs

uing

bus

ines

s mod

el in

nova

-tio

n: (1

) par

adox

ical

lead

ersh

ip,

(2) o

rgan

izat

iona

l com

plex

ity, (

3)

inno

vatio

n m

anag

emen

t app

roac

h,

(4) fi

nanc

ial u

ncer

tain

ty, a

nd (5

) pr

ior k

now

ledg

e an

d ex

perie

nces

of

team

mem

bers

Lavi

e (2

006)

Aca

dem

y of

Man

agem

ent R

evie

wC

once

ptua

lU

.STh

e pa

per p

rese

nts a

mod

el o

f cap

a-bi

lity

reco

nfigu

ratio

n, in

tegr

atin

g th

e Sc

hum

pete

rian

pers

pect

ive

on

tech

nolo

gica

l dis

cont

inui

ties w

ith

the

dyna

mic

cap

abili

ties l

itera

ture

to

expl

ain

the

resp

onse

s of i

ncum

bent

s to

tech

nolo

gica

l cha

nge.

The

aut

hor

iden

tifies

subs

titut

ion,

evo

lutio

n,

and

trans

form

atio

n as

thre

e m

echa

-ni

sms o

f cap

abili

ty re

confi

gura

tion

Luca

s and

Goh

(200

9)Jo

urna

l of S

trate

gic

Info

rmat

ion

Syste

ms

Cas

e stu

dy (K

odak

)U

.SK

odak

’s m

iddl

e m

anag

ers,

cultu

re

and

rigid

, bur

eauc

ratic

stru

ctur

e hi

nder

ed a

fast

resp

onse

to n

ew

tech

nolo

gy w

hich

lead

to a

80%

de

clin

e in

its w

orkf

orce

, los

s of

mar

ket s

hare

, a tu

mbl

ing

stock

pr

ice,

and

sign

ifica

nt in

tern

al

turm

oil


1 3

Tabl

e 6

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(Yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Oba

l (20

13)

Indu

stria

l Mar

ketin

g M

anag

emen

tQ

uant

itativ

e (1

34 IT

man

ager

s)U

.SEv

iden

ce is

giv

en, t

hat p

re-e

xisti

ng,

inte

rorg

aniz

atio

nal t

rust

deve

lope

d by

cus

tom

ers w

ith in

cum

bent

s has

a

posi

tive

influ

ence

on

the

adop

tion

and

diffu

sion

of d

isru

ptiv

e te

chno

l-og

y by

est

ablis

hed

firm

svo

n Pe

chm

ann

et a

l. (2

015)

Indu

stria

l and

Cor

pora

te C

hang

eQ

ualit

ativ

e (R

enau

lt’s Z

E In

itiat

ive,

a

prog

ram

to d

evel

op a

nd m

arke

t EV

tech

nolo

gy—

obse

rvat

ion

over

a

7-ye

ar p

erio

d)

Fran

ceTh

e ar

ticle

pro

pose

s thr

ee m

anag

e-m

ent l

ever

s for

syste

mic

and

dis

rup-

tive

inno

vatio

n sc

ale-

up: a

uton

o-m

ous s

pann

ing

units

, a p

ortfo

lio o

f vi

able

loca

l sys

tem

s, an

d co

ncur

rent

pl

atfo

rm m

anag

emen

tRo

y an

d Sa

rkar

(201

6)St

rate

gic

Man

agem

ent J

ourn

alQ

uant

itativ

e (D

atab

ase

of 1

41 E

uro-

pean

, Jap

anes

e, a

nd U

.S. r

obot

m

anuf

actu

rers

from

197

8 to

198

7)

Inte

rnat

iona

lTh

e stu

dy e

xplo

res t

he re

latio

nshi

p be

twee

n a

firm

’s o

rgan

izat

ion

and

its a

bilit

y to

face

a ra

dica

l tec

hno-

logi

cal c

hang

e. It

is su

gges

ted

that

, du

ring

such

a c

hang

e, th

e pr

esen

ce

of b

oth

in-h

ouse

ups

tream

kno

wl-

edge

and

dow

nstre

am m

arke

t lin

k-ag

es, w

ithin

a fi

rm’s

bou

ndar

y, h

as

its a

dvan

tage

s. Ev

iden

ce is

giv

en

that

tech

nolo

gica

lly p

re-a

dapt

ed

incu

mbe

nts w

ith in

-hou

se u

sers

ar

e m

ore

likel

y to

be

able

to m

ake

a tra

nsiti

on to

the

new

tech

nolo

gi-

cal p

arad

igm

eve

n if

it is

radi

cal i

n na

ture

1 3


Tabl

e 6

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(Yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Saba

tier e

t al.

(201

2)Te

chno

logi

cal F

orec

astin

g an

d So

cial

Cha

nge

Cas

e stu

dy (2

2 in

terv

iew

s with

ex

perts

from

the

drug

indu

stry

from

200

8 to

200

9)

Inte

rnat

iona

lIn

mat

ure

indu

strie

s exp

erie

ncin

g str

ong

disc

ontin

uitie

s and

hig

h te

chno

logi

cal u

ncer

tain

ty, e

ntra

nts’

bu

sine

ss m

odel

s ini

tially

tend

to

fit in

to th

e in

dustr

y’s e

stab

lishe

d do

min

ant l

ogic

and

its v

alue

cha

ins

rem

ain

unch

ange

d. B

ut a

s new

te

chno

logi

es e

volv

e, a

nd u

ncer

tain

ty

decr

ease

s, di

srup

tive

busi

ness

m

odel

s em

erge

, cha

lleng

ing

dom

i-na

nt in

dustr

y lo

gics

and

resh

apin

g es

tabl

ishe

d va

lue

chai

nsSh

augh

ness

y (2

016)

Stra

tegy

and

Lea

ders

hip

Con

cept

ual

U.S

In th

e di

gita

l era

, man

y fir

ms h

ave

focu

sed

on te

chno

logy

as t

he so

urce

of

dis

rupt

ive

inno

vatio

n. H

owev

er,

with

the

arriv

al o

f the

pla

tform

age

th

e so

urce

of d

isru

ptiv

e in

nova

tion

is n

ow th

e or

gani

zatio

nal f

orm

. The

pl

atfo

rm is

a n

ew w

ay to

org

aniz

e w

ealth

-cre

atin

g ac

tivity


1 3

Tabl

e 6

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(Yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Tong

ur a

nd E

ngw

all (

2014

)Te

chno

vatio

nC

ase

study

(18

in-d

epth

inte

rvie

ws

with

key

par

ticip

ants

invo

lved

in

the

“Slid

e-In

Ele

ctric

Roa

d Sy

stem

” pr

ojec

t)

Swed

enTo

surv

ive

durin

g te

chno

logy

shift

s, fir

ms n

eed

to m

aste

r the

com

plex

ity

of “

doub

le a

mbi

dext

erity

,” i.e

., no

t ju

st th

e am

bide

xter

ity to

sim

ulta

ne-

ously

foste

r inc

rem

enta

l and

radi

cal

inno

vatio

n, b

ut a

lso

the

ambi

dext

er-

ity to

sim

ulta

neou

sly a

dvan

ce b

oth

tech

nolo

gica

l and

bus

ines

s mod

el

inno

vatio

n. S

peci

fical

ly, w

hen

deve

lopi

ng n

ew te

chno

logy

con

sid-

ered

dis

cont

inuo

us, b

usin

ess m

odel

as

pect

s nee

d to

be

brou

ght i

nto

the

anal

ysis

ear

ly o

nTu

shm

an a

nd A

nder

son

(198

6)A

dmin

istra

tive

Scie

nce

Qua

rterly

Qua

ntita

tive

(Lon

gitu

dina

l dat

a ac

ross

3 U

.S. i

ndus

tries

: cem

ent,

airp

lane

s, m

ini-c

ompu

ter)

U.S

The

study

em

piric

ally

dem

onstr

ates

th

at te

chno

logy

evo

lves

thro

ugh

perio

ds o

f inc

rem

enta

l cha

nge

punc

tuat

ed b

y te

chno

logi

cal

brea

kthr

ough

s tha

t eith

er e

nhan

ce

or d

estro

y th

e co

mpe

tenc

e of

firm

s in

an

indu

stry.

It is

furth

er sh

own

that

whi

le c

ompe

tenc

e-de

stroy

ing

disc

ontin

uitie

s are

initi

ated

by

new

firm

s and

are

ass

ocia

ted

with

in

crea

sed

envi

ronm

enta

l tur

bule

nce,

co

mpe

tenc

e-en

hanc

ing

disc

ontin

ui-

ties a

re in

itiat

ed b

y ex

istin

g fir

ms

and

are

asso

ciat

ed w

ith d

ecre

ased

en

viro

nmen

tal t

urbu

lenc

e

1 3


Tabl

e 6

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(Yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Vecc

hiat

o (2

017)

Tech

nolo

gica

l For

ecas

ting

and

Soci

al C

hang

eC

ase

study

(Mot

orol

a an

d N

okia

: in

terv

iew

s with

inte

rnal

and

ext

er-

nal i

nfor

man

ts)

U.S

. and

Fin

land

Resu

lts sh

ow th

at a

prim

ary

reas

on

why

incu

mbe

nts f

ail t

o id

entif

y ne

w

mar

kets

in th

e fa

ce o

f dis

rupt

ive

tech

nolo

gies

and

ther

efor

e lo

se

thei

r lea

ders

hip

is th

e in

abili

ty to

re

cogn

ize

eith

er th

e ris

ing

‘soc

ial’

mar

ket,

whe

re c

usto

mer

s use

pr

oduc

ts fo

r ful

fillin

g th

eir n

eed

for

frie

ndsh

ip, o

r the

‘este

em’ m

arke

t, w

here

cus

tom

ers u

se p

rodu

cts f

or

fulfi

lling

thei

r nee

d fo

r ach

ieve

men

tY

u an

d H

ang

(201

0)In

tern

atio

nal J

ourn

al o

f Man

age-

men

t Rev

iew

sLi

tera

ture

revi

ewSi

ngap

ore

In th

is p

aper

, a re

flect

ive

revi

ew o

f th

e ex

tant

lite

ratu

re o

n di

srup

tive

inno

vatio

n th

eory

is p

rese

nted

. Se

ven

pote

ntia

l fut

ure

rese

arch

di

rect

ions

are

iden

tified

with

in th

is

rese

arch

dom

ain.

In a

dditi

on, p

oten

-tia

l int

egra

tions

with

oth

er re

sear

ch

field

s suc

h as

ope

n in

nova

tion

and

othe

rs, f

urth

er re

sear

ch o

n st

art-u

p fir

ms a

nd re

sear

ch m

etho

dolo

gy a

re

disc

usse

d


1 3

Tabl

e 6

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(Yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Cor

pora

te E

ntre

pren

eurs

hip

(32

Stud

ies)

Ahu

ja a

nd M

orris

Lam

pert

(200

1)St

rate

gic

Man

agem

ent J

ourn

alQ

uant

itativ

e (1

07 fi

rms b

ased

on

pate

ntin

g ac

tiviti

es b

etw

een

1980

an

d 95

)

Inte

rnat

iona

lTh

ree

orga

niza

tiona

l pat

holo

gies

in

hibi

t bre

akth

roug

h in

vent

ions

in

larg

e co

rpor

atio

ns: (

1) th

e fa

mili

ar-

ity tr

ap—

favo

ring

the

fam

iliar

, (2)

th

e m

atur

ity tr

ap—

favo

ring

the

mat

ure,

and

(3) t

he p

ropi

nqui

ty

trap—

favo

ring

sear

ch fo

r sol

utio

ns

near

to e

xisti

ng so

lutio

nsB

irkin

shaw

(199

7)St

rate

gic

Man

agem

ent J

ourn

alM

ixed

met

hods

(39

sepa

rate

initi

a-tiv

es in

6 su

bsid

iarie

s of m

ultin

a-tio

nal c

orpo

ratio

ns)

Can

ada

Entre

pren

eurs

hip

at th

e su

bsid

iary

le

vel h

as th

e po

tent

ial t

o en

hanc

e lo

cal r

espo

nsiv

enes

s, w

orld

wid

e le

arni

ng a

nd g

loba

l int

egra

tion

Bur

gelm

an (1

983)

Man

agem

ent S

cien

ceC

once

ptua

lU

.SB

urge

lman

iden

tifies

CE

with

the

auto

nom

ous s

trate

gic

beha

vior

loop

m

odel

. Mid

dle

leve

l man

ager

s pla

y a

cruc

ial r

ole

in th

is th

roug

h th

eir

supp

ort f

or a

uton

omou

s stra

tegi

c in

itiat

ives

ear

ly o

n, b

y co

mbi

n-in

g th

ese

with

var

ious

cap

abili

ties

disp

erse

d in

the

firm

’s o

pera

ting

syste

m, a

nd b

y co

ncep

tual

izin

g str

ateg

ies f

or n

ew a

reas

of b

usin

ess.

Top

man

agem

ent’s

crit

ical

con

tribu

-tio

n co

nsist

s in

strat

egic

reco

gniti

on

and

supp

ort r

athe

r tha

n pl

anni

ng

1 3


Tabl

e 6

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(Yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Che

n an

d N

adka

rni (

2017

)A

dmin

istra

tive

Scie

nce

Qua

rterly

Qua

ntita

tive

(129

SM

Es)

Chi

naRe

sults

con

firm

that

CEO

s’ te

mpo

ral

lead

ersh

ip—

how

they

man

age

the

tem

pora

l asp

ects

of t

op m

anag

e-m

ent t

eam

s’ a

ctiv

ities

—m

edia

tes

the

rela

tions

hip

betw

een

thei

r te

mpo

ral d

ispo

sitio

ns a

nd c

orpo

rate

en

trepr

eneu

rshi

p—fir

ms’

inno

va-

tion,

cor

pora

te v

entu

ring,

and

str

ateg

ic re

new

al a

ctiv

ities

. Als

o,

CEO

s’ ti

me

urge

ncy

is p

ositi

vely

re

late

d to

thei

r tem

pora

l lea

ders

hip,

w

hich

in tu

rn is

pos

itive

ly re

late

d to

co

rpor

ate

entre

pren

eurs

hip

Cor

bett

et a

l. (2

013)

Jour

nal o

f Pro

duct

Inno

vatio

n M

anag

emen

tLi

tera

ture

revi

ew (8

pub

licat

ions

fro

m th

e C

E do

mai

n)U

.SFi

ndin

gs fr

om th

e re

view

ed li

tera

ture

in

dica

te th

at (1

) TM

T di

vers

ity a

nd

TMT

netw

ork

size

are

pos

itive

ly

asso

ciat

ed w

ith a

firm

’s p

ursu

it of

CE,

whi

le (2

) TM

T si

ze h

as a

ne

gativ

e eff

ect o

n C

E, p

artic

ular

ly

unde

r hig

her l

evel

s of p

erce

ived

te

chno

logi

cal u

ncer

tain

tyC

ovin

and

Mile

s (19

99)

Entre

pren

eurs

hip

Theo

ry a

nd

Prac

tice

Con

cept

ual

U.S

A ty

polo

gy is

pre

sent

ed o

f the

form

s in

whi

ch c

orpo

rate

ent

repr

eneu

rshi

p is

ofte

n m

anife

sted:

sust

aine

d re

gen-

erat

ion,

org

aniz

atio

nal r

ejuv

ena-

tion,

stra

tegi

c re

new

al, a

nd d

omai

n re

defin

ition


1 3

Tabl

e 6

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(Yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Des

s et a

l. (2

003)

Jour

nal o

f Man

agem

ent

Con

cept

ual

U.S

This

arti

cle

iden

tifies

four

maj

or

issu

es sc

hola

rs c

an p

ursu

e to

furth

er

the

unde

rsta

ndin

g ab

out C

E: (1

) th

e va

rious

form

s of C

E (fo

llow

ing

the

typo

logy

of C

ovin

and

Mile

s 19

99),

(2) t

heir

impl

icat

ions

for

orga

niza

tiona

l lea

rnin

g, (3

) the

role

of

lead

ersh

ip a

nd so

cial

exc

hang

e in

the

CE

proc

ess,

and

(4) t

he

inte

rnat

iona

lizat

ion

of C

E. T

he

auth

ors a

dopt

org

aniz

atio

nal l

earn

-in

g th

eory

as a

mea

ns o

f int

egra

ting

thei

r dis

cuss

ion

and

high

light

ing

the

pote

ntia

l con

tribu

tions

of C

ED

ushn

itsky

and

Len

ox (2

005)

Rese

arch

Pol

icy

Qua

ntita

tive

(Pan

el o

f 228

9 U

.S.

publ

ic fi

rms d

urin

g th

e pe

riod

1969

–199

9)

U.S

Cor

pora

te v

entu

re c

apita

l (C

VC

) pr

ogra

ms m

ay b

e in

strum

enta

l in

har

vesti

ng in

nova

tions

from

en

trepr

eneu

rial v

entu

res a

nd th

us

an im

porta

nt p

art o

f a fi

rm’s

ove

rall

inno

vatio

n str

ateg

yEn

gel (

2011

)Re

sear

ch-T

echn

olog

y M

anag

emen

tC

once

ptua

lU

.STh

e au

thor

s arg

ue th

at th

e m

ost

disr

uptiv

e in

nova

tions

are

thos

e th

at

go b

eyon

d te

chni

cal d

isco

very

to

embr

ace

busi

ness

mod

el in

nova

-tio

ns th

at d

isru

pt su

pply

cha

ins,

disi

nter

med

iate

incu

mbe

nts,

and

crea

te n

ew m

arke

ts

1 3


Tabl

e 6

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(Yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Floy

d an

d W

oold

ridge

(199

9)En

trepr

eneu

rshi

p Th

eory

and

Pr

actic

eC

once

ptua

lU

.STh

e stu

dy in

tegr

ates

con

cept

s fro

m

know

ledg

e th

eory

and

soci

al n

et-

wor

k th

eory

into

the

CE

deba

te a

nd

high

light

s the

impo

rtanc

e of

a m

id-

leve

l man

agem

ent p

ersp

ectiv

e in

th

e C

E pr

oces

s. It

furth

er o

ffers

an

inte

grat

ive

mod

el th

at e

xpla

ins h

ow

orga

niza

tions

ove

rcom

e in

ertia

in

the

capa

bilit

y de

velo

pmen

t pro

cess

Gut

h an

d G

insb

erg

(199

0)St

rate

gic

Man

agem

ent J

ourn

alC

once

ptua

lU

.STh

e to

pic

of C

E en

com

pass

es tw

o ty

pes o

f phe

nom

ena

and

the

proc

esse

s sur

roun

ding

them

: (1)

th

e bi

rth o

f new

bus

ines

ses w

ithin

ex

istin

g or

gani

zatio

ns, i

.e. i

nter

nal

inno

vatio

n or

ven

turin

g; a

nd (2

) th

e tra

nsfo

rmat

ion

of o

rgan

izat

ions

th

roug

h re

new

al o

f the

key

idea

s on

whi

ch th

ey a

re b

uilt,

i.e.

stra

tegi

c re

new

alH

orns

by e

t al.

(200

2)Jo

urna

l of B

usin

ess V

entu

ring

Qua

ntita

tive

expl

orat

ory

fact

or

anal

ysis

(Int

ervi

ews w

ith 7

61 m

id-

dle

man

ager

s in

17 o

rgan

izat

ions

)

U.S

This

stud

y id

entifi

es fi

ve in

tern

al

orga

niza

tiona

l fac

tors

that

influ

ence

m

iddl

e m

anag

ers t

o fo

ster e

ntre

pre-

neur

ial a

ctiv

ity w

ithin

est

ablis

hed

com

pani

es: (

1) m

anag

emen

t sup

-po

rt, (2

) wor

k di

scre

tion/

auto

nom

y,

(3) r

ewar

ds/re

info

rcem

ent,

(4) t

ime

avai

labi

lity,

and

(5) o

rgan

izat

iona

l bo

unda

ries


1 3

Tabl

e 6

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(Yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Hor

nsby

et a

l. (2

009)

Jour

nal o

f Bus

ines

s Ven

turin

gQ

uant

itativ

e (4

58 m

anag

ers f

rom

di

ffere

nt le

vels

and

com

pani

es)

U.S

The

pos.

rela

tions

hip

betw

een

man

a-ge

rial s

uppo

rt an

d en

trepr

eneu

rial

actio

n is

mor

e po

sitiv

e fo

r sen

ior

and

mid

dle

leve

l man

ager

s tha

n it

is fo

r low

er- (

first)

leve

l man

ager

s. A

lso,

the

pos.

rela

tions

hip

betw

een

wor

k di

scre

tion

and

entre

pren

euria

l ac

tion

is m

ore

posi

tive

for s

enio

r an

d m

iddl

e le

vel m

anag

ers t

han

it is

for fi

rst-l

evel

man

ager

s. Th

ese

findi

ngs s

ugge

st th

at m

anag

eria

l le

vel p

rovi

des a

stru

ctur

al a

bilit

y to

“m

ake

mor

e of

” or

gani

zatio

nal

fact

ors t

hat s

uppo

rt C

EIr

elan

d et

al.

(200

9)En

trepr

eneu

rshi

p Th

eory

and

Pr

actic

eC

once

ptua

lU

.STh

e pa

per o

utlin

es a

mod

el o

f th

e an

tece

dent

s, el

emen

ts, a

nd

outc

omes

of C

E as

an

iden

tifiab

le

strat

egy.

To

poss

ess s

uch

a str

ateg

y,

firm

s mus

t sig

nific

antly

dis

play

the

thre

e fo

unda

tiona

l ele

men

ts o

f an

entre

pren

euria

l stra

tegi

c vi

sion

, a

pro-

entre

pren

eurs

hip

orga

niza

tiona

l ar

chite

ctur

e, a

nd e

ntre

pren

euria

l pr

oces

ses a

nd b

ehav

ior a

s exh

ibite

d th

roug

hout

the

orga

niza

tion.

The

ou

tcom

es o

f CE

strat

egy

incl

ude

the

deve

lopm

ent o

f com

petit

ive

capa

bil-

ities

and

stra

tegi

c re

posi

tioni

ng

1 3


Tabl

e 6

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(Yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Kar

imi a

nd W

alte

r (20

16)

Long

Ran

ge P

lann

ing

Qua

ntita

tive

(148

resp

onse

s fro

m

the

new

spap

er in

dustr

y th

roug

h a

web

surv

ey)

U.S

Whi

le a

uton

omy,

risk

-taki

ng, a

nd

proa

ctiv

enes

s hav

e po

sitiv

e as

soci

a-tio

ns w

ith th

e ex

tent

of a

dopt

ion

of d

isru

ptiv

e bu

sine

ss m

odel

in

nova

tion,

inno

vativ

enes

s doe

s not

. Fu

rther

, dis

rupt

ive

busi

ness

mod

el

inno

vatio

n ad

optio

n ha

s a n

on-li

near

as

soci

atio

n w

ith b

usin

ess m

odel

pe

rform

ance

Koh

ler (

2016

)B

usin

ess H

oriz

ons

Qua

litat

ive

(40

inte

rvie

ws w

ith

man

ager

s of c

orpo

rate

acc

eler

ator

s an

d st

artu

p te

ams)

U.S

To le

vera

ge st

artu

ps’ i

nnov

atio

n an

d to

mak

e co

rpor

ate

acce

lera

tors

an

effec

tive

part

of a

firm

’s o

vera

ll in

nova

tion

strat

egy,

man

ager

s nee

d to

syste

mat

ical

ly a

nd th

ough

tfully

co

nsid

er th

e de

sign

dim

ensi

ons o

f pr

opos

ition

, pro

cess

, peo

ple,

and

pl

ace


1 3

Tabl

e 6

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(Yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Kur

atko

et a

l. (2

014)

Bus

ines

s Hor

izon

sC

once

ptua

lU

.STh

ere

are

four

key

impl

emen

tatio

n is

sues

that

mos

t cor

pora

tions

are

no

t rec

ogni

zing

or r

espo

ndin

g to

eff

ectiv

ely

whe

n try

ing

to p

rom

ote

corp

orat

e en

trepr

eneu

rshi

p: (1

) un

ders

tand

ing

wha

t typ

e of

inno

va-

tion

is b

eing

soug

ht, (

2) c

oord

inat

-in

g m

anag

eria

l rol

es, (

3) e

ffect

ivel

y us

ing

oper

atin

g co

ntro

ls, a

nd (4

) pr

oper

ly tr

aini

ng a

nd p

repa

ring

indi

vidu

als.

Toge

ther

, the

se fo

ur

issu

es, i

f und

ersto

od a

nd a

ppro

-pr

iate

ly a

ddre

ssed

, hel

p cr

eate

an

effec

tive

inno

vativ

e ec

osys

tem

w

ithin

the

orga

niza

tion

Lant

and

Mez

ias (

1990

)St

rate

gic

Man

agem

ent J

ourn

alC

ompu

ter s

imul

atio

n m

odel

U.S

The

pape

r pro

pose

s tha

t the

con

cept

of

CE

can

be b

ette

r und

ersto

od b

y vi

ewin

g it

thro

ugh

the

lens

of a

n or

gani

zatio

nal l

earn

ing

pers

pect

ive.

Th

is le

arni

ng fr

amew

ork

is u

sed

in

conc

eptu

aliz

ing

both

the

cont

ent

and

leve

l of e

ntre

pren

eurs

hip.

Thr

ee

type

s of e

ntre

pren

euria

l stra

tegi

es

are

repr

esen

ted

by th

ree

diffe

rent

pa

ttern

s of s

earc

h be

havi

or: fi

xed,

im

itativ

e, a

nd a

dapt

ive.

Firm

s with

ad

aptiv

e str

ateg

ies d

o le

ss w

ell o

ver

the

long

run

than

firm

s with

imita

-tiv

e str

ateg

ies,

unde

r con

ditio

ns o

f hi

gh e

nviro

nmen

tal a

mbi

guity

1 3


Tabl

e 6

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(Yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Ling

et a

l. (2

008)

Aca

dem

y of

Man

agem

ent J

ourn

alQ

uant

itativ

e (C

EOs a

nd m

embe

rs o

f th

eir T

MTs

in 1

52 S

MEs

)U

.STh

e stu

dy p

rovi

des e

mpi

rical

ev

iden

ce th

at tr

ansf

orm

atio

nal

CEO

s infl

uenc

e TM

Ts’ b

ehav

iora

l in

tegr

atio

n, ri

sk p

rope

nsity

, dec

en-

traliz

atio

n of

resp

onsi

bilit

ies,

and

long

-term

com

pens

atio

n an

d th

at

thes

e TM

T ch

arac

teris

tics i

mpa

ct

corp

orat

e en

trepr

eneu

rshi

pM

ario

n et

al.

(201

2)IE

EE T

rans

actio

ns o

n En

gine

erin

g M

anag

emen

tM

ixed

met

hods

(Pen

nsyl

vani

a an

d M

assa

chus

etts

Sm

all B

usin

ess

Dev

elop

men

t Cen

ters

& In

c.

Mag

azin

e)

U.S

This

stud

y em

piric

ally

reve

als t

hat

succ

essf

ul st

art-u

ps u

se c

erta

in

best

prac

tices

in u

niqu

e w

ays.

They

in

nova

te w

ith “

hype

r-agi

lity”

and

im

plem

ent (

1) sm

all o

mni

func

-tio

nal t

eam

s with

no

func

tiona

l bo

unda

ries,

(2) g

oal-d

riven

rapi

d de

velo

pmen

t of t

echn

olog

y ra

ther

th

an p

roce

ss g

uide

d m

etho

ds, a

nd

(3) i

nstin

ctiv

e ex

plor

atio

n of

mar

ket

pote

ntia

l rat

her t

han

quan

titat

ive

anal

ysis


1 3

Tabl

e 6

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(Yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Mey

er e

t al.

(199

0)St

rate

gic

Man

agem

ent J

ourn

alC

once

ptua

lU

.SB

ased

on

a hi

storic

al a

naly

sis o

f the

ho

spita

l ind

ustry

, thi

s pap

er c

lass

i-fie

s mod

els o

f org

aniz

atio

nal c

hang

e ac

cord

ing

to th

e pr

imar

y m

ode

of

chan

ge (c

ontin

uous

or d

isco

ntin

u-ou

s) a

nd th

e pr

imar

y le

vel a

t whi

ch

chan

ge o

ccur

s (or

gani

zatio

n or

in

dustr

y) to

yie

ld fo

ur b

asic

type

s of

cha

nge:

ada

ptat

ion,

met

amor

-ph

osis

, evo

lutio

n, a

nd re

volu

tion.

Th

ese

type

s infl

uenc

e or

gani

za-

tions

’ ada

ptiv

e re

spon

ses,

shap

e in

dustr

ies’

com

petit

ive

struc

ture

s, an

d co

nstra

in re

sear

cher

s’ m

etho

ds

of in

quiry

Nas

on e

t al.

(201

5)Sm

all B

usin

ess E

cono

mic

sLi

tera

ture

revi

ew (1

57 a

rticl

es o

n C

E)U

.STh

e lit

erat

ure

revi

ew id

entifi

es

how

size

con

fers

CE

com

petit

ive

adva

ntag

es v

ia sl

ack

reso

urce

s and

re

sour

ce st

ruct

urin

g pr

oces

ses,

but d

isad

vant

ages

via

bur

eauc

ratic

str

uctu

res a

nd re

sour

ce b

undl

ing.

A

war

e of

thes

e w

eakn

esse

s, th

e au

thor

s sug

gest

that

smal

l firm

s are

m

ore

likel

y to

util

ize

CE

for g

row

th

to o

verc

ome

liabi

litie

s of s

mal

lnes

s, w

hile

larg

e fir

ms a

re m

ore

likel

y to

ut

ilize

CE

for l

earn

ing

to o

verc

ome

liabi

litie

s of i

nerti

a

1 3


Tabl

e 6

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(Yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Pelto

la (2

012)

Bus

ines

s Hor

izon

sC

ase

study

(Int

ervi

ew w

ith th

e m

an-

agin

g di

rect

or o

f a F

inni

sh B

2B

mar

ketin

g se

rvic

es fi

rm)

Finl

and

Rega

rdin

g th

e im

plem

enta

tion

of a

C

E str

ateg

y, th

e fo

llow

ing

less

ons

can

be d

raw

n fro

m th

e ca

se st

udy:

(1

) firm

s mus

t ana

lyze

thei

r hist

ory

and

thei

r cur

rent

way

of d

oing

bus

i-ne

ss, (

2) e

mpl

oyee

s mus

t und

er-

stan

d w

hat t

he fi

rms s

tand

s for

, now

an

d in

the

futu

re, (

3) e

mpl

oyee

role

s sh

ould

be

reor

gani

zed

and

rede

-fin

ed to

mee

t lon

g-te

rm b

usin

ess

dem

ands

, and

(4) i

n or

der t

o ex

pand

th

e en

tire

mar

ket,

coop

erat

ions

w

ith c

ompe

titor

s mig

ht b

e w

orth

co

nsid

erin

gSh

imiz

u (2

012)

Org

aniz

atio

n Sc

ienc

eC

once

ptua

lJa

pan

Alth

ough

an

incr

easi

ng d

egre

e of

au

tono

my

amon

g m

iddl

e an

d op

erat

iona

l man

ager

s has

pos

itive

eff

ects

on

CE,

too

muc

h au

tono

my

is h

arm

ful t

o th

e su

cces

s of C

E by

un

expe

cted

ly e

ncou

ragi

ng o

ppor

-tu

nisti

c be

havi

ors a

nd d

ecre

asin

g pe

rcei

ved

fairn

ess (

incr

easi

ng

perc

eive

d un

fairn

ess)


1 3

Tabl

e 6

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(Yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Thor

nber

ry (2

001)

Euro

pean

Man

agem

ent J

ourn

alC

once

ptua

lU

.STh

e au

thor

pro

pose

s var

ious

obs

tacl

es

to a

succ

essf

ul im

plem

enta

tion

of c

orpo

rate

ent

repr

eneu

rshi

p in

es

tabl

ishe

d co

mpa

nies

, inc

ludi

ng

supe

rfici

al to

p le

ader

ship

com

mit-

men

t, un

certa

inty

abo

ut th

e fir

m’s

C

E ob

ject

ives

, and

low

ent

repr

e-ne

uria

l lev

els o

f mid

dle

man

ager

sTu

rner

and

Pen

ning

ton

(201

5)Sm

all B

usin

ess E

cono

mic

sQ

uant

itativ

e (S

urve

y da

ta c

olle

cted

fro

m 2

00 fr

anch

isee

s of o

ne la

rge

U.S

. org

aniz

atio

n)

U.S

Resu

lts d

emon

strat

e ho

w k

now

ledg

e sh

arin

g an

d or

gani

zatio

nal l

earn

ing

are

asso

ciat

ed w

ith th

e m

otiv

a-tio

n, o

ppor

tuni

ty, a

nd a

bilit

y to

act

w

ithin

the

corp

orat

e en

trepr

eneu

rial

cont

ext

Turr

ó et

al.

(201

4)Te

chno

logi

cal F

orec

astin

g an

d So

cial

Cha

nge

Qua

ntita

tive

(718

.758

obs

erva

tions

fro

m th

e G

loba

l Ent

repr

eneu

rshi

p M

onito

r (G

EM) d

atab

ase

from

20

04–2

008)

Inte

rnat

iona

l (6

2 di

ffere

nt

coun

tries

)

Find

ings

hig

hlig

ht th

e im

pact

of t

he

envi

ronm

enta

l fac

tors

on

orga

ni-

zatio

nal i

nnov

atio

n, sp

ecifi

cally

on

CE.

Var

iabl

es su

ch a

s liv

ing

in a

n en

trepr

eneu

rial c

ultu

re a

nd m

edia

ex

posu

re (i

nfor

mal

fact

ors)

, and

the

num

ber o

f pro

cedu

res n

eces

sary

to

cre

ate

a ne

w b

usin

ess o

r acc

ess

to fi

nanc

e (fo

rmal

fact

ors)

, app

ear

to b

e si

gnifi

cant

for C

E. M

oreo

ver,

info

rmal

fact

ors b

ehav

e as

mod

era-

tors

bet

wee

n fo

rmal

fact

ors a

nd C

E

1 3


Tabl

e 6

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(Yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Urb

ano

and

Turr

ó (2

013)

Inte

rnat

iona

l Ent

repr

eneu

rshi

p an

d M

anag

emen

t Jou

rnal

Qua

ntita

tive

(339

.071

obs

erva

tions

fro

m th

e G

loba

l Ent

repr

eneu

rshi

p M

onito

r (G

EM) d

atab

ase

from

the

year

s 200

4–20

08)

Inte

rnat

iona

l (9

diff

eren

t Eu

rope

an

coun

tries

)

The

resu

lts sh

ow th

at in

tern

al fa

c-to

rs (r

esou

rces

and

cap

abili

ties

fact

ors)

pla

y a

mor

e im

porta

nt

role

than

ext

erna

l fac

tors

(for

mal

an

d in

form

al in

stitu

tions

). In

oth

er

wor

ds, e

duca

tion

leve

l, kn

owin

g ot

her e

ntre

pren

eurs

and

bei

ng a

ble

to id

entif

y bu

sine

ss o

ppor

tuni

ties

posi

tivel

y aff

ect C

E. O

n th

e ot

her

hand

, env

ironm

enta

l fac

tors

, suc

h as

a fe

ar o

f fai

lure

, the

effe

ct o

f th

e m

edia

and

the

num

ber o

f day

s re

quire

d to

star

t a b

usin

ess,

are

not

sign

ifica

nt fa

ctor

sZa

hra

(199

6)A

cade

my

of M

anag

emen

t Jou

rnal

Qua

ntita

tive

(127

For

tune

500

co

mpa

nies

)U

.STh

e stu

dy’s

arg

umen

t is t

hat e

xecu

tive

stock

ow

ners

hip

and

long

-term

in

stitu

tiona

l ow

ners

hip

are

posi

tivel

y re

late

d to

CE,

and

that

th

e as

soci

atio

n of

ow

ners

hip

and

gove

rnan

ce w

ith C

E is

mod

er-

ated

by

the

leve

l of t

echn

olog

ical

op

portu

nitie

s tha

t exi

st in

the

firm

’s

maj

or in

dustr

y


1 3

Tabl

e 6

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(Yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Zahr

a (2

015)

Smal

l Bus

ines

s Eco

nom

ics

Con

cept

ual

U.S

Bot

h fo

rmal

and

info

rmal

CE

activ

i-tie

s are

alw

ays n

eede

d to

indu

ce

inno

vatio

n, ri

sk ta

king

, and

pro

ac-

tiven

ess i

nto

com

pani

es’ o

pera

tions

. A

lso,

hub

s are

cru

cial

with

in th

e stu

dy a

nd p

ract

ice

of C

E—bo

th

form

al a

nd in

form

al. T

hey

conn

ect

indi

vidu

als a

cros

s lev

els a

nd a

cros

s or

gani

zatio

nal b

ound

arie

s, an

d th

ey

capi

taliz

e on

the

skill

s and

tale

nts

of th

e m

embe

rs o

f int

erna

l and

ex

tern

al n

etw

ork

Zahr

a an

d C

ovin

(199

5)Jo

urna

l of B

usin

ess V

entu

ring

Qua

ntita

tive

(Lon

gitu

dina

l ana

lysi

s (7

-yea

r-per

iod)

of 2

4 m

ediu

m-

size

d m

anuf

actu

ring

firm

s, 39

ch

emic

al c

ompa

nies

, and

45

Fortu

ne 5

00 in

dustr

ial fi

rms)

U.S

The

resu

lts fr

om th

is e

mpi

rical

stud

y su

gges

t tha

t CE

has a

pos

itive

im

pact

on

finan

cial

mea

sure

s of

com

pany

per

form

ance

. Spe

cific

ally

, th

e re

sults

indi

cate

that

CE

appe

ars

to b

e a

parti

cula

rly e

ffect

ive

strat

e-gi

c pr

actic

e am

ong

firm

s ope

ratin

g in

hos

tile

busi

ness

setti

ngs

1 3


Tabl

e 6

(con

tinue

d)

Aut

hors

(Yea

r)O

utle

tM

etho

dolo

gy (s

ampl

e)Re

gion

Key

find

ings

Zahr

a et

al.

(199

9)En

trepr

eneu

rshi

p Th

eory

and

Pr

actic

eC

once

ptua

lU

.STh

is p

aper

arg

ues t

hat f

orm

al a

nd

info

rmal

CE

activ

ities

can

enr

ich

a co

mpa

ny’s

per

form

ance

by

crea

t-in

g ne

w k

now

ledg

e th

at b

ecom

es

a fo

unda

tion

for b

uild

ing

new

co

mpe

tenc

ies o

r rev

italiz

ing

exist

-in

g on

es. T

he k

now

ledg

e-cr

eatio

n pr

oces

s with

in C

E ac

tiviti

es a

nd

the

subs

eque

nt st

rate

gic

use

of th

is

know

ledg

e ar

e tig

htly

link

ed to

th

e fir

m’s

lear

ning

and

unl

earn

ing

proc

esse

s


1 3

Tabl

e 7

Con

cept

mat

rix: c

ateg

oriz

atio

n of

tech

nolo

gica

l dis

rupt

ion

and

corp

orat

e en

trepr

eneu

rshi

p sa

mpl

e (2

8 an

d 32

stud

ies r

espe

ctiv

ely)

Arti

cles

Met

hodo

logy

Jour

nal

Tech

nolo

gy-c

entri

cA

ctor

-cen

tric

Pace

of

Cha

nge

and

Tim

e to

M

arke

t

Tech

nolo

gy

Cap

abili

ty

and

Inte

gra-

tion

Con

sum

er

and

othe

r St

akeh

olde

r In

terfa

ce

Dist

rib-

uted

Val

ue

Cre

atio

n an

d C

aptu

re

Mar

ket

Envi

ronm

ent

and

Rule

s of

Com

petit

ion

Tran

sfor

ma-

tive

Lead

er-

ship

Man

ager

ial

and

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

Cap

abili

ties

Com

-pa

ny

Cul

ture

Wor

k En

viro

n-m

ent

Tech

nolo

gica

l Dis

rupt

ion

(28

Stud

ies)

1. A

nder

son

and

Tush

-m

an (1

990)

Qua

ntita

tive

ASQ

xx

x

2. B

erge

k et

al.

(201

3)

Cas

e stu

dyR

Px

x

3. B

erm

an

et a

l. (2

016)

Con

cept

ual

S&L

xx

xx

x

4. B

ower

and

C

hris

-te

nsen

(1

995)

Con

cept

ual

HB

Rx

xx

5. D

anne

els

(200

4)C

once

ptua

lJP

IMx

6. D

aSilv

a et

al.

(201

3)

Cas

e stu

dyTA

SMx

xx

7. D

owne

s an

d N

unes

(2

013)

Con

cept

ual

HB

Rx

xx

8. G

ans

(201

6)C

once

ptua

lM

IT S

MR

xx

1 3


Tabl

e 7

(con

tinue

d)

Arti

cles

Met

hodo

logy

Jour

nal

Tech

nolo

gy-c

entri

cA

ctor

-cen

tric

Pace

of

Cha

nge

and

Tim

e to

M

arke

t

Tech

nolo

gy

Cap

abili

ty

and

Inte

gra-

tion

Con

sum

er

and

othe

r St

akeh

olde

r In

terfa

ce

Dist

rib-

uted

Val

ue

Cre

atio

n an

d C

aptu

re

Mar

ket

Envi

ronm

ent

and

Rule

s of

Com

petit

ion

Tran

sfor

ma-

tive

Lead

er-

ship

Man

ager

ial

and

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

Cap

abili

ties

Com

-pa

ny

Cul

ture

Wor

k En

viro

n-m

ent

9. G

awer

and

C

usum

ano

(201

4)

Con

cept

ual

JPIM

x

10. G

erstn

er

et a

l. (2

013)

Qua

ntita

tive

ASQ

x

11. G

ilber

t an

d B

ower

(2

002)

Con

cept

ual

HB

Rx

x

12. G

ünze

l an

d H

olm

(2

013)

Cas

e stu

dyIJ

IMx

xx

13. H

abta

y an

d H

ol-

mén

(201

4)

Mix

ed m

eth-

ods

IJEI

Mx

x

14. H

ill a

nd

Roth

aerm

el

(200

3)

Con

cept

ual

AM

Rx

x

15. H

olm

et

al.

(201

3)

Cas

e stu

dyIJ

TMx

xx

x

16. J

ohns

on

et a

l. (2

008)

Con

cept

ual

HB

Rx


1 3

Tabl

e 7

(con

tinue

d)

Arti

cles

Met

hodo

logy

Jour

nal

Tech

nolo

gy-c

entri

cA

ctor

-cen

tric

Pace

of

Cha

nge

and

Tim

e to

M

arke

t

Tech

nolo

gy

Cap

abili

ty

and

Inte

gra-

tion

Con

sum

er

and

othe

r St

akeh

olde

r In

terfa

ce

Dist

rib-

uted

Val

ue

Cre

atio

n an

d C

aptu

re

Mar

ket

Envi

ronm

ent

and

Rule

s of

Com

petit

ion

Tran

sfor

ma-

tive

Lead

er-

ship

Man

ager

ial

and

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

Cap

abili

ties

Com

-pa

ny

Cul

ture

Wor

k En

viro

n-m

ent

17. K

oen

et a

l. (2

010)

Cas

e stu

dyRT

Mx

x

18. L

avie

(2

006)

Con

cept

ual

AM

Rx

19. L

ucas

an

d G

oh

(200

9)

Cas

e stu

dyJS

ISx

x

20. O

bal

(201

3)Q

uant

itativ

eIM

Mx

21. v

on P

ech-

man

n et

al.

(201

5)

Qua

litat

ive

ICC

x

22. R

oy a

nd

Sark

ar

(201

6)

Qua

ntita

tive

SMJ

x

23. S

aba-

tier e

t al.

(201

2)

Cas

e stu

dyTF

SCx

xx

24. S

haug

h-ne

ssy

(201

6)

Con

cept

ual

S&L

xx

x

1 3


Tabl

e 7

(con

tinue

d)

Arti

cles

Met

hodo

logy

Jour

nal

Tech

nolo

gy-c

entri

cA

ctor

-cen

tric

Pace

of

Cha

nge

and

Tim

e to

M

arke

t

Tech

nolo

gy

Cap

abili

ty

and

Inte

gra-

tion

Con

sum

er

and

othe

r St

akeh

olde

r In

terfa

ce

Dist

rib-

uted

Val

ue

Cre

atio

n an

d C

aptu

re

Mar

ket

Envi

ronm

ent

and

Rule

s of

Com

petit

ion

Tran

sfor

ma-

tive

Lead

er-

ship

Man

ager

ial

and

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

Cap

abili

ties

Com

-pa

ny

Cul

ture

Wor

k En

viro

n-m

ent

25. T

ongu

r an

d En

g-w

all (

2014

)

Cas

e stu

dyTe

chno

vx

x

26. T

ush-

man

and

A

nder

son

(198

6)

Qua

ntita

tive

ASQ

xx

x

27. V

ecch

iato

(2

017)

Cas

e stu

dyTF

SCx

x

28. Y

u an

d H

ang

(201

0)

Revi

ewIJ

MR

xx

xx

Cor

pora

te e

ntre

pren

eurs

hip

(32

Stud

ies)

1. A

huja

and

M

orris

La

mpe

rt (2

001)

Qua

ntita

tive

SMJ

x

2. B

irkin

-sh

aw

(199

7)

Mix

ed m

eth-

ods

SMJ

3. B

urge

lman

(1

983)

Con

cept

ual

MS

xx


1 3

Tabl

e 7

(con

tinue

d)

Arti

cles

Met

hodo

logy

Jour

nal

Tech

nolo

gy-c

entri

cA

ctor

-cen

tric

Pace

of

Cha

nge

and

Tim

e to

M

arke

t

Tech

nolo

gy

Cap

abili

ty

and

Inte

gra-

tion

Con

sum

er

and

othe

r St

akeh

olde

r In

terfa

ce

Dist

rib-

uted

Val

ue

Cre

atio

n an

d C

aptu

re

Mar

ket

Envi

ronm

ent

and

Rule

s of

Com

petit

ion

Tran

sfor

ma-

tive

Lead

er-

ship

Man

ager

ial

and

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

Cap

abili

ties

Com

-pa

ny

Cul

ture

Wor

k En

viro

n-m

ent

4. C

hen

and

Nad

karn

i (2

017)

Qua

ntita

tive

ASQ

x

5. C

orbe

tt et

al.

(201

3)

Revi

ewJP

IMx

6. C

ovin

an

d M

iles

(199

9)

Con

cept

ual

ET&

Px

7. D

ess e

t al.

(200

3)C

once

ptua

lJO

Mx

x

8. D

ushn

it-sk

y an

d Le

nox

(200

5)

Qua

ntita

tive

RP

x

9. E

ngel

(2

011)

Con

cept

ual

RTM

xx

xx

10. F

loyd

an

d W

ool-

drid

ge

(199

9)

Con

cept

ual

ET&

Px

xx

11. G

uth

and

Gin

sber

g (1

990)

Con

cept

ual

SMJ

xx

1 3


Tabl

e 7

(con

tinue

d)

Arti

cles

Met

hodo

logy

Jour

nal

Tech

nolo

gy-c

entri

cA

ctor

-cen

tric

Pace

of

Cha

nge

and

Tim

e to

M

arke

t

Tech

nolo

gy

Cap

abili

ty

and

Inte

gra-

tion

Con

sum

er

and

othe

r St

akeh

olde

r In

terfa

ce

Dist

rib-

uted

Val

ue

Cre

atio

n an

d C

aptu

re

Mar

ket

Envi

ronm

ent

and

Rule

s of

Com

petit

ion

Tran

sfor

ma-

tive

Lead

er-

ship

Man

ager

ial

and

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

Cap

abili

ties

Com

-pa

ny

Cul

ture

Wor

k En

viro

n-m

ent

12. H

orns

by

et a

l. (2

002)

Qua

ntita

tive

JBV

xx

x

13. H

orns

by

et a

l. (2

009)

Qua

ntita

tive

JBV

x

14. I

rela

nd,

Cov

in a

nd

Kur

atko

(2

009)

Con

cept

ual

ET&

Px

x

15. K

arim

i an

d W

alte

r (2

016)

Qua

ntita

tive

LRP

x

16. K

ohle

r (2

016)

Qua

litat

ive

BH

x

17. K

urat

ko

et a

l. (2

014)

Con

cept

ual

BH

xx

18. L

ant a

nd

Mez

ias

(199

0)

Com

p.

Sim

ul.

SMJ

x

19. L

ing

et a

l. (2

008)

Qua

ntita

tive

AM

Jx


1 3

Tabl

e 7

(con

tinue

d)

Arti

cles

Met

hodo

logy

Jour

nal

Tech

nolo

gy-c

entri

cA

ctor

-cen

tric

Pace

of

Cha

nge

and

Tim

e to

M

arke

t

Tech

nolo

gy

Cap

abili

ty

and

Inte

gra-

tion

Con

sum

er

and

othe

r St

akeh

olde

r In

terfa

ce

Dist

rib-

uted

Val

ue

Cre

atio

n an

d C

aptu

re

Mar

ket

Envi

ronm

ent

and

Rule

s of

Com

petit

ion

Tran

sfor

ma-

tive

Lead

er-

ship

Man

ager

ial

and

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

Cap

abili

ties

Com

-pa

ny

Cul

ture

Wor

k En

viro

n-m

ent

20. M

ario

n et

al.

(201

2)

Mix

ed m

eth-

ods

TEM

xx

x

21. M

eyer

et

al.

(199

0)

Con

cept

ual

SMJ

x

22. N

ason

et

al.

(201

5)

Revi

ewSB

Ex

x

23. P

elto

la

(201

2)C

ase

study

BH

xx

24. S

him

izu

(201

2)C

once

ptua

lO

Sx

25. T

horn

-be

rry

(200

1)

Con

cept

ual

EMJ

x

26. T

urne

r an

d Pe

n-ni

ngto

n (2

015)

Qua

ntita

tive

SBE

x

27. T

urró

et

al.

(201

4)

Qua

ntita

tive

TFSC

xx

1 3


Tabl

e 7

(con

tinue

d)

Arti

cles

Met

hodo

logy

Jour

nal

Tech

nolo

gy-c

entri

cA

ctor

-cen

tric

Pace

of

Cha

nge

and

Tim

e to

M

arke

t

Tech

nolo

gy

Cap

abili

ty

and

Inte

gra-

tion

Con

sum

er

and

othe

r St

akeh

olde

r In

terfa

ce

Dist

rib-

uted

Val

ue

Cre

atio

n an

d C

aptu

re

Mar

ket

Envi

ronm

ent

and

Rule

s of

Com

petit

ion

Tran

sfor

ma-

tive

Lead

er-

ship

Man

ager

ial

and

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

Cap

abili

ties

Com

-pa

ny

Cul

ture

Wor

k En

viro

n-m

ent

28. U

rban

o an

d Tu

rró

(201

3)

Qua

ntita

tive

IEM

Jx

x

29. Z

ahra

(1

996)

Qua

ntita

tive

AM

Jx

30. Z

ahra

(2

015)

Con

cept

ual

SBE

xx

31. Z

ahra

an

d C

ovin

(1

995)

Qua

ntita

tive

JBV

xx

32. Z

ahra

et

al.

(199

9)

Con

cept

ual

ET&

Px

xx


1 3

Fig. 5 Data structure for the technology-centric dimension of technological disruption

1 3


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