Digital network lecturer2

DIT

Dar es Salaam institute of Technology (DIT)

ETU 08102

Digital Networks

Ally, J

[email protected]

DIT

IP Network

What we have today is beyond any of the inventors’

imagination …

InterNetwork Millions of end points (you, me, and toasters)

connected across a mesh of links Many end points can be addressed by numbers Many others lie behind a virtual end point

Many networks form a bigger network

The overall structure called the Internet With a capital I Defined as a network of networks

Organizing the Giant StructureNetworks are complex! many “pieces”:

hosts routers links of various

media applications protocols hardware software

Question:

Is there any hope of organizing structure

of network?

Turn to analogies in air travel

A series of steps

ticket (purchase)

baggage (check)

gates (load)

runway takeoff

airplane routing

ticket (complain)

baggage (claim)

gates (unload)

runway landing

airplane routing

airplane routing

ticket (purchase)

baggage (check)

gates (load)

runway (takeoff)

airplane routing

departureairport

arrivalairport

intermediate air-trafficcontrol centers

airplane routing airplane routing

ticket (complain)

baggage (claim

gates (unload)

runway (land)

airplane routing

ticket

baggage

gate

takeoff/landing

airplane routing

Layering of Airline Functionality

Layers: each layer implements a service layers communicate with peer layers rely on services provided by layer below

Internet Protocol Stack

Application: supporting network applications FTP, SMTP, HTTP

Transport: host-host data transfer TCP, UDP

Network: routing of datagrams from source to destination IP, routing protocols

Link: data transfer between neighboring network elements PPP, Ethernet, WiFi, Bluetooth

Physical: bits “on the wire”

application

transport

network

link

physical

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Legacy Network Architecture

DataData(TCP / UDP)(TCP / UDP)

DataData(TCP / UDP)(TCP / UDP)

VoiceVoiceVoiceVoiceVideoVideoVideoVideo

Computer Comm.Computer Comm. Human Comm.Human Comm.

Photonic Network (WDM)Photonic Network (WDM)Photonic Network (WDM)Photonic Network (WDM)

Network LayerNetwork Layer

Data Link LayerData Link Layer

Physical LayerPhysical Layer

SONET / SDHSONET / SDHSONET / SDHSONET / SDHATMATMATMATM

IP IP v4 / v6v4 / v6IP IP v4 / v6v4 / v6 SS-7SS-7SS-7SS-7 DedicatedDedicatedDedicatedDedicated

ＯＩＦＯＩＦＯＩＦＯＩＦ

Photonic Network Interface Photonic Network Interface Photonic Network Interface Photonic Network Interface

OIF: Optical Internetworking Forum

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Network Architecture from Today

Photonic Network (WDM)Photonic Network (WDM)Photonic Network (WDM)Photonic Network (WDM)

Data Link LayerData Link Layer

Physical LayerPhysical Layer

SONET / SDHSONET / SDHSONET / SDHSONET / SDHATMATMATMATMＯＩＦＯＩＦＯＩＦＯＩＦPhotonic Network Inter face Pho tonic Network Inter face Photonic Network Inter face Photonic Network Inter face

Ｅｔｈｅｒｎｅｔ　（Ｅｔｈｅｒｎｅｔ　（ as a standard interfaceas a standard interface ））

IP IP v4 / v6v4 / v6IP IP v4 / v6v4 / v6Network LayerNetwork Layer

VoiceVoiceVoiceVoiceVoiceVoiceVoiceVoiceDataData

(TCP / UDP)(TCP / UDP)DataData

(TCP / UDP)(TCP / UDP)VideoVideoVideoVideo

DedicatedDedicatedDedicatedDedicated

VOIPVOIP L3-VPNL3-VPNL2-VPNL2-VPN

Network ApplicationNetwork Application

VPN: Virtual Private Network

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Structure of IP Network

End station

End station

End station

End station

Segment; Ethernet Switching

Ethernet SW

Segment; Ethernet Switching

Ethernet SW

Ethernet SW

1) Ethernet Switches conform Ethernet switching segments - “Mac-address” are in use only in each segment 2) Routers & IP-functions in each end station realize routing plane - “IP-address” are in use over inter-segment routing

IP IP IP IP IP IP IP IP

IP IP IP IP IP IP IP IP

Router Router

IP IP

Router Router

IP

3) TCP in end station control the quality and flow of the session

TCP TCP TCP TCP

TCP TCP TCP TCP TCP TCP TCP TCP

TCP TCP TCP TCP

TCP session

4) Applications in end stations communicate each other over TCP

Apl.Apl.Apl.Apl.

SocketSocket Apl.Apl.Apl.Apl.

SocketSocket

Apl.Apl.Apl.Apl.

SocketSocket

Apl.Apl.Apl.Apl.

SocketSocket

Application session

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Evolution of IP Network Improving the capacity of network

Transmission Speed: Ethernet Switching capacity: Ethernet Switch Routing capacity: Routing Engine

Re-constructing the network Management System based on IP-plane

MPLS & G-MPLS Services on IP Network

VPN IP Telephony

NGN (Next Generation Network)

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Network and Host AddressingUsing the IP address of the destination network, a router can deliver a packet to the correct network.

When the packet arrives at a router connected to the destination network, the router uses the IP address to locate the particular computer connected to that network.

Accordingly, every IP address has two parts.

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Network Layer Communication PathA router forwards packets from the originating network to the destination network using the IP protocol. The packets must include an identifier for both the source and destination networks.

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Internet AddressesIP Addressing is a hierarchical structure. An IP address combines two identifiers into one number. This number must be a unique number, because duplicate addresses would make routing impossible. The first part identifies the system's network address. The second part, called the host part, identifies which particular machine it is on the network.

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IP Address Classes

Address Class

Number of Networks

Number of Hosts per Network

A 126 16,777,214

B 16,384 65,534

C 2,097,152 254

IP addresses are divided into classes to define the large, medium, and small networks.Class A addresses are assigned to larger networks. Class B addresses are used for medium-sized networks.Class C for small networks.

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Identifying Address Classes

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Network and Host DivisionEach complete 32-bit IP address is broken down into a network part and a host part. A bit or bit sequence at the start of each address determines the class of the address. There are 5 IP address classes.

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Class A AddressesThe Class A address was designed to support extremely large networks, with more than 16 million host addresses available. Class A IP addresses use only the first octet to indicate the network address. The remaining three octets provide for host addresses.

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Class B AddressesThe Class B address was designed to support the needs of moderate to large-sized networks. A Class B IP address uses the first two of the four octets to indicate the network address. The other two octets specify host addresses.

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Class C AddressesThe Class C address space is the most commonly used of the original address classes. This address space was intended to support small networks with a maximum of 254 hosts.

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Class D AddressesThe Class D address class was created to enable multicasting in an IP address. A multicast address is a unique network address that directs packets with that destination address to predefined groups of IP addresses. Therefore, a single station can simultaneously transmit a single stream of data to multiple recipients.

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Class E AddressesA Class E address has been defined. However, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) reserves these addresses for its own research. Therefore, no Class E addresses have been released for use in the Internet.

Converting Between Decimal Numbers and Binary

In any given octet of an IP address, the 8 bits can be defined as follows:

To convert a decimal number into binary

187 = 10111011 = 128+32+16+8+2+1, 224 = 11100000 = 128+64+32 To convert a binary number into decimal

10101010 = 128+32+8+2 = 170, 11110000 = 128+64+32+16 = 240 The IP address 138.101.114.250 is represented in binary as

10001010.01100101.01110010.11111010 The subnet mask of 255.255.255.192 is represented in binary as

11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000

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27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

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IP Address RangesThe graphic below shows the IP address range of the first octet both in decimal and binary for each IP address class.

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Finding the Network Address with ANDing

By ANDing the Host address of 192.168.10.2 with 255.255.255.0 (its network mask) we obtain the network address of 192.168.10.0

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Network Address

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Public IP AddressesUnique addresses are required for each device on a network.

Originally, an organization known as the Internet Network Information Center (InterNIC) handled this procedure.

InterNIC no longer exists and has been succeeded by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA).

No two machines that connect to a public network can have the same IP address because public IP addresses are global and standardized.

All machines connected to the Internet agree to conform to the system.

Public IP addresses must be obtained from an Internet service provider (ISP) or a registry at some expense.

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Private IP AddressesPrivate IP addresses are another solution to the problem of the impending exhaustion of public IP addresses. As mentioned, public networks require hosts to have unique IP addresses.

However, private networks that are not connected to the Internet may use any host addresses, as long as each host within the private network is unique.

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Introduction to SubnettingSubnetting a network means to use the subnet mask to divide the network and break a large network up into smaller, more efficient and manageable segments, or subnets.

With subnetting, the network is not limited to the default, Class A, B, or C network masks and there is more flexibility in the network design.

Subnet addresses include the network portion, plus a subnet field and a host field. The ability to decide how to divide the original host portion into the new subnet and host fields provides addressing flexibility for the network administrator.

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The 32-Bit Binary IP Address

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Numbers That Show Up In Subnet Masks (Memorize Them!)

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Addressing with Subnetworks

Subnet Example 1The DIT has purchased the class C address 216.21.5.0 and want to use it for five (5) networks.Determine the number of networks and convert to binary

5 in binary is 00000101

We need to borrow 3 bits from host and use them as network bitsReserve bits in subnet mask and find your increment

Subnet mask for class C

255.255.255.0 = 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000

The new subnet mask for class C (Add 3 bits in host octet)

255.255.255.224 = 11111111.11111111.11111111.11100000

The increment is 100000 = 32 Use increment to find your network ranges

216.21.5.0 – 216.21.5.31, 216.21.5.32 – 216.21.5.63

216.21.2.64 – 216.21.5.95 ….. 216.21.5.192 – 216.21.5.223

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Subnet Example 2The DIT has purchased the class C address 195.5.20.0 and want to use it for fifty (50) networks.Determine the number of networks and convert to binary




255.255.255.0 = 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000


255.255.255.252 = 11111111.11111111.11111111.11111100


195.5.20.0 – 195.5.20.3, 195.5.20.4 – 195.5.20.7

195.5.20.8 – 195.5.20.11 …. 195.5.20.248 – 195.5.20.251

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Subnet Example 3The DIT has purchased the class B address 150.5.0.0 and want to use it for 100 networks.Determine the number of networks and convert to binary



Subnet mask for class B

255.255.0.0 = 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000

The new subnet mask for class B (Add 7 bits in host octet)

255.255.254.0 = 11111111.11111111.11111110.00000000


150.5.0.0 – 150.5.1.255, 150.5.2.0 – 150.5.3.255

150.5.4.0 – 150.5.5.255, …. 150.5.252.0 – 150.5.253.255

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Subnet Example 4The DIT has purchased the class A address 10.0.0.0 and want to use it for 500 networks.Determine the number of networks and convert to binary

500 in binary is 0111110100


Subnet mask for class A

255.0.0.0 = 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000

The new subnet mask for class A (Add 9 bits in host octet)

255.255.128.0 = 11111111.11111111.10000000.00000000


10.0.0.0 – 10.0.127.255, 10.0.128.0 – 10.0.255.255

10.1.0.0 – 10.1.127.255, 10.1.128.0 – 10.1.255.255 ……..

10.254.128.0 – 10.254.255.255DIT

Exercise 11. (C) 200.1.1.0, Break into 40 networks

2. (C) 199.9.10.0, Break into 14 networks

3. (B) 170.50.0.0, Break into 1000 networks

4. (A) 12.0.0.0, Break into 25 networks

Also determine the total number of hosts per networks

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Host Example 1DIT has purchased class C address 216.21.5.0 and would like to use it to create networks of 30 hosts each Determine the number of hosts and convert to binary


We need to save 5 bits for host, use 3 bits remain for networkReserve bits in subnet mask and find your increment


255.255.255.0 = 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000


255.255.255.224 = 11111111.11111111.11111111.11100000


216.21.5.0 – 216.21.5.31, 216.21.5.32 – 216.21.5.63

216.21.2.64 – 216.21.5.95 ….. 216.21.5.224 – 216.21.5.255

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Host Example 2The DIT has purchased the class C address 195.5.20.0 and want to use it for 50 hosts each.Determine the number of hosts and convert to binary


We need to save 6 bits from host, use 2 bits remain for networkReserve bits in subnet mask and find your increment


255.255.255.0 = 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000


255.255.255.192 = 11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000


195.5.20.0 – 195.5.20.63, 195.5.20.64 – 195.5.20.127

195.5.20.128 – 195.5.20.191, 195.5.20.192 – 195.5.20.255

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Host Example 3The DIT has purchased the class B address 150.5.0.0 and want to use it for 500 hosts each.Determine the number of hosts and convert to binary

500 in binary is 0111110100

We need to save 9 bits from host, use 7 bits remain for network Reserve bits in subnet mask and find your increment

Subnet mask for class B

255.255.0.0 = 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000

The new subnet mask for class B (Add 7 bits in host octet)

255.255.254.0 = 11111111.11111111.11111110.00000000


150.5.0.0 – 150.5.1.255, 150.5.2.0 – 150.5.3.255

150.5.4.0 – 150.5.5.255, …. 150.5.252.0 – 150.5.253.255

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Host Example 4The DIT has purchased the class A address 10.0.0.0 and want to use it for 100 networks.Determine the number of hosts and convert to binary


We need to save 7 bits from host, use 17 bits remain for network Reserve bits in subnet mask and find your increment

Subnet mask for class A

255.0.0.0 = 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000

The new subnet mask for class A (Add 17 bits in host octet)

255.255.225.128 = 11111111.11111111.10000000.00000000


10.0.0.0 – 10.0.127.255, 10.0.128.0 – 10.0.255.255

10.1.0.0 – 10.1.127.255, 10.1.128.0 – 10.1.255.255 ……..

10.254.128.0 – 10.254.255.255DIT

Exercise 21. (C) 200.1.1.0, Break into networks of 40 hosts

each

2. (C) 199.9.10.0, Break into networks of 12

hosts each

3. (B) 170.50.0.0, Break into networks of 1000

hosts each

4. (A) 12.0.0.0, Break into networks of 100 hosts

each

Also determine the total number of networks

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Exercise 3 1) The host has an IP and mask address of

192.168.1.127 and 255.255.255.224

respectively. What is the network address of

the host, and state that if the IP address of the

host is assigned correct.

2) The host has an IP, mask and gateway

address of 172.16.68.65, 255.255.255.240

and 172.16.68.62 respectively, is connected to

the network router of IP and mask address of

172.16.68.62 and 255.255.255.240 respectively.

Determine that if the above configuration is correct. DIT

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Why not IPv4 IPv4 has been extremely successful. It is beginning to show its age as the internet

grows. In order to meet the challenges of the rapidly

growing internet, new features and scalability measures will be needed.

IPv6 is an evolutionary step to the current IPv4.

It uses the best of IPv4 and takes into account all of the lessons that have been learned over the years of its use.

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IPv6 Development History

1991: Work starts on next generation Internet protocols More than 6 different proposals were developed

1993: IETF forms IPng Directorate To select the new protocol by consensus

1995: IPv6 selected Evolutionary (not revolutionary) step from IPv4

1996: 6Bone started 1998: IPv6 standardized Today: Initial products and deployments

Necessity for IPv6 Addresses 32-bit addressing structure of IPv4 provides only

4,294,967,296 IP numbers In order to use this address space more efficiently,

technologies such as CIDR, DHCP, Pvt IP, NAT etc. were developed

These interim solutions helped only to postpone exhaustion of IPv4 address space.

Exponential growth of Internet, Wireless Subscribers and deployment of NGN Technology etc. demand still a large amount of address space

IPv6 is meticulously designed to correct some problems of IPv4 and to provide various enhancements with respect to security, routing addresses, auto configuration, mobility and Quality of Service (QoS) etc.

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Larger IP Address Space IPv4 address space is 32 bits long

4,294,967,296 possible hosts

New types of devices need to be addressed Mobile/wireless devices Desktop devices

NAT works, but is not ideal

IPv6 address space is 128 bits long 340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456 possible

hosts= 67 billion billion addresses per cm2 of the planet surface

End-to-end addressing No need for Network Address Translation (NAT)

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New Rationale behind IPv6 IP Everywhere for Data, Voice, Audio, Video

integration ~300 millions Mobile Phone Users in 1998, 700 millions

in 2004 3G will support IP 1 billion Cars in 2010 with GPS & Yellow Page services PDA’s, Toaster’s, Fridges, ...

Emerging Internet Countries China, India, Russia, … Internet in every school,...

New Technologies/Applications for Home users Cable, xDSL, Wireless,...

IPv6 deployment The existing pool of IPv4 addresses is expected to be

exhausted by August-2012 All service providers and other stakeholders will gradually

transit to IPv6 in a phased manner The co-existence of IPv4 & Ipv6 will be there for some

more years to come. There are 2 operating situations –

(a) IPv6 nodes have to communicate with IPv4 nodes.

This problem is solved using Dual Stack technique.

(b) Isolated islands of IPv6 will have to communicate

with each other using the widely available IPv4

networks. This problem is solved using Tunneling

technique.

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IPv6 Main Features Expanded Address Space Header Format Simplification Improved host and router discovery Auto-configuration Multi-Homing Class of Service/Multimedia support Improved Mobile IP support Authentication and Privacy Capabilities No more broadcast Multicast Anycast

IPv6 Address Syntax IPv6 address in binary form

0010000000000001000011011011100000000000000000000010111100111011

0000001010101010000000001111111111111110001010001001110001011010

Divided along 16-bit boundaries 0010000000000001 0000110110111000 0000000000000000 0010111100111011

0000001010101010 0000000011111111 1111111000101000 1001110001011010

Each 16-bit block is converted to hexadecimal and delimited with colons

2001:0DB8:0000:2F3B:02AA:00FF:FE28:9C5A Suppress leading zeros within each block

2001:DB8:0:2F3B:2AA:FF:FE28:9C5A

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IPv6 Packet Header IPv4 header fields

are very detailed. Some of the

information is rarely used or poorly defined. Example: Type of

Service Other information is

no longer needed. Example: Header

Checksum IPv6 has a

simplified header with only the minimum number of necessary fields.

IPv4 Header

IPv6 Header

IHLIHL Type of ServiceType of Service

OptionsOptions

Total LengthTotal Length

IdentificationIdentification FlagsFlags FragmentFragment OffsetOffset

ProtocolProtocol Header ChecksumHeader Checksum

Source Address

Destination Address

PaddingPadding

TrafficTraffic ClassClass Flow LabelFlow Label

Payload LengthPayload Length Next HeaderNext Header Hop LimitHop Limit

Source AddressSource Address

Destination AddressDestination Address

VersionVersion

Time to LiveTime to Live

VersionVersion

IPv6 Packet Header (2) Version - A 4-bit field, set to the number six for

IPv6 Traffic Class - Also called priority. Similar to the

type of service (ToS) field in IPv4, this 8-bit field describes relative priority and is used for quality of service (QoS)

Flow Label - The 20-bit flow label allows traffic to be tagged so that it can be handled faster, on a per-flow basis; this field can also be used to associate flows with traffic classes

Payload Length - This 16-bit field is the length of the data in the packet.

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IPv6 Packet Header (3) Next Header - Like the protocol field in the IPv4 header,

this 8-bit field indicates how the fields after the IPv6 basic header should be interpreted.

It could indicate that the following field is (TCP) or

(UDP) transport layer information, or it could indicate

that an extension header is present. Hop Limit - Similar to the time to live (TTL) field of IPv4,

this 8-bit field is decremented by intermediate routers and, to prevent looping, the packet is discarded and a message is sent back to the source if this field reaches zero

Source Address and Destination Address - These 128-bit fields are the IPv6 source and destination addresses of the communicating devices.

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IPv6 Addressing IPv6 Addressing rules are covered by multiples

RFC’s Architecture defined by RFC 2373

Address Types are : Unicast : One to One (Global, Link local, Site local,

Compatible) Anycast : One to Nearest (Allocated from Unicast) Multicast : One to Many No Broadcast Address -> Use Multicast Reserved

A single interface may be assigned multiple IPv6 addresses of any type (unicast, anycast, multicast)

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IPv6 Addressing (Cont.) Prefix Format (PF) Allocation

PF = 0000 0000 : Reserved PF = 0000 001 : Reserved for OSI NSAP Allocation (see

RFC 1888), so far only way to embedded E.164 addresses (VoIP)

PF = 0000 010 : Reserved for IPX Allocation (under Study)

PF = 001 : Aggregatable Global Unicast Address PF = 1111 1110 10 : Link Local Use Addresses PF = 1111 1110 11 : Site Local Use Addresses PF = 1111 1111 : Multicast Addresses Other values are currently Unassigned (approx. 7/8th of

total)

All Prefix Formats have to have EUI-64 bits Interface ID But Multicast

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IPv6 Addressing Examples Global unicast address(es) is :

2001:304:101:1::E0:F726:4E58, subnet is 2001:304:101:1::0/64

link-local address is FE80::E0:F726:4E58

Unspecified Address is 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0 or ::

Loopback Address is 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:1 or ::1

Group Addresses (Multicast) is FF02::9 for RIPv6

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Text Representation of IPv6 Addresses

“Preferred” form: 1080:0:FF:0:8:800:200C:417A

Compressed form: FF01:0:0:0:0:0:0:43

becomes FF01::43 IPv4-compatible: 0:0:0:0:0:0:13.1.68.3

or ::13.1.68.3 RFC 2732: Preferred format for literal IPv6

address in URL

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Benefits of IPv6 Addresses Enough for stable, unique addresses for all

devices Note: stable does not mean permanent! Allow continued growth of the Internet (for

centuries to come) Restore end-to-end transparency of the Internet

Additional benefits: Plug-and-play (no need for configuration servers) Verifiable end-to-end packet integrity (no need for

NATs) Simpler mobility (no need for “foreign agent”

function)

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Configuring Interface IDs There are several choices for configuring the

interface ID of an address: Manual configuration DHCPv6 (configures whole address) Automatic derivation from MAC address or other

hardware serial number Pseudo-random generation (for client privacy)

The latter two choices enable “serverless” or “stateless” autoconfiguration, when combined with high-order part of the address learned via Router Advertisements

EUI-64 Interface ID ExampleHost A has the MAC address of 00-AA-00-3F-2A-1C

1. Convert MAC address to EUI-64 format

00-AA-00-FF-FE-3F-2A-1C

2. Complement the U/L bit (seventh bit of first byte)

The first byte in binary form is 00000000. When

the seventh bit is complemented, it becomes

00000010 (0x02).

02-AA-00-FF-FE-3F-2A-1C

3. Convert to colon hexadecimal notation

::2AA:FF:FE3F:2A1C

Link-local address for node with the MAC address of 00-

AA00-3F-2A-1C is FE80::2AA:FF:FE3F:2A1CDIT

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An example of IPv6 addressesLAN: 3ffe:b00:c18:1::/64

Ethernet0

MAC address: 0060.3e47.1530

router# show ipv6 interface Ethernet0Ethernet0 is up, line protocol is up

IPv6 is enabled, link-local address is FE80::260:3EFF:FE47:1530Global unicast address(es):

2001:410:213:1:260:3EFF:FE47:1530, subnet is 2001:410:213:1::/64Joined group address(es):

FF02::1:FF47:1530FF02::1FF02::2

MTU is 1500 bytes

interface Ethernet0ipv6 address 2001:410:213:1::/64 eui-64

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IPv4-IPv6 Co-Existence/Transition A wide range of techniques have been identified and

implemented, basically falling into three categories: Dual-stack techniques, to allow IPv4 and IPv6 to co-

exist in the same devices and networks Tunneling techniques, to avoid order dependencies

when upgrading hosts, routers, or regions Translation techniques, to allow IPv6-only devices to

communicate with IPv4-only devices

Expect all of these to be used, in combination

RFC 2893, Transition Mechanisms for IPv6 Hosts and Routers, August 2000.

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Native IPv6-Only Backbone

Requires: IPv4 over IPv6

Tunnels for IPv4 traffic

Hardware forwarding for IPv6

Network managementover IPv6

IPv6 Intranet

IPv4 Tunnel

IPv4/v6 IntranetMobile IPv6

IPv4 Intranet

IPv6 Intranet

Translating Gateway

Translating Gateway

IPv6 Backbone

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Dual Stack IPv4-IPv6 Backbone

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Diversity of Today's Available Mobile Devices

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Thanks!

Technology changes but communication lasts.

Digital network lecturer2

Education

Transcript of Digital network lecturer2