Difference between Organized and Unorganized Crude … TO PHARMACOGNOSY.pdf · Difference between...

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Introduction to

Pharmacognosy

Difference between Organized and Unorganized Crude drugs

Factors affecting cultivation:

1. Altitude, temperature and humidity

2. Rainfall and irrigation

3. Soil and soil fertility

4. Fertilizers

5. Pests and pest control

No. Organized crude drugs Unorganized crude drugs 1. As the term indicates these are

organs of plants or animals and are made up cells or definite structures. These drugs are named as flowers, seeds, fruits, insects, etc.

These are derived from parts of plant or animal by some process of extraction and followed by purification, if necessary. E.g. juices, extracts, resins, etc.

2. These are solid in nature. These are solid, semisolid or liquids in nature. E.g. oils, gums and balsams.

3. Botanical or zoological terminology can be used to describe these drugs.

Such terminology is inadequate to describe them, but has to look for their physical characters, such as the solubility in various solvents, density, optical rotation, refractive index, etc. whichever is applicable.

4. Microscopic characters are one of the important criteria for the identification of organized drugs. Example: digitalis, cinchona, clove, jalap, ephedra etc.

Chemical tests and physical standards are confirmatory tests. Example: aloe, agar, colophony, opium, castor oil, pepsin, etc.



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Introduction to

Pharmacognosy

MODE OF ACTION OF SOME PESTICIDES:

Chemical compound Biological effect Effect on Animals

1. Organophosphorous compds inhibition of acetyl cholinesterase And carbomates

2. Chlorinated hydrocarbons and Neurotoxication Pyrethroids

3. Nicotinoids Inhibition of neuromuscular Junction

Effect on plants 4. Carbamates, substituted ureas, Inhibition of photosynthesis

triazines 5. Carbamates Inhibition of oxidative

phosphorylation 6. 2,4-D; 2,4,5-T Hormone analogs

7. Metals, sulphur Unknown causes

8. 3-amino-1,2,4-triazole Inhibition of chlorophyll synthesis 9. Chlorinated aliphatic Inhibition of pantothenate

hydrocarbon synthesis

Culture medium:

1. Inorganic salts: ammonium, boric acid, zinc, manganese, molybdenum,

copper.

2. Vitamins: thiamine, pyridoxine, nicotinic acid.

3. Carbon sources: sucrose, glucose.

4. Growth regulators: naphthalene acetic acid, dichlorophenoxy acetic acid.

5. Organic supplements: yeast extract, malt extract, coconut milk.



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Introduction to

Pharmacognosy

PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS:

Auxins:

Auxins are generally used in plant cell culture at a concentration range of 0.01-10.0 mg/L.

When added inappropriate concentrations they may regulate cell elongation, tissue swelling, cell division, formation of adventitious roots, and inhibition of adventitious and axillary shoot formation, callus initiation and growth, and induction of embryogenesis.

Class Function Auxin Indole-3-butyric

acid

Adventitious root formation( high conc)

α-naphthhalene

acetic acid

Adventitious shoot formation( low conc)

α-naphthalene acetic

acid, k-salt

Introduction of somatic embryos

2,4-D(solutions) Cell division

p-

chlorophenoxyacetic

acid

Callus formation and growth

Piclorma Inhibition of axillary buds

Dicamba Inhibition of root elongation

Cytokinins: Cytokinins are generally used in plant cell culture at a concentration range

of 0.1-10.0 mg/L. When added inappropriate concentrations they may regulate cell division,

stimulate auxiliary and adventitious shoot proliferation, regulate differentiation, inhibit root formation, activate RNA synthesis, and stimulate protein and enzyme activity.



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Introduction to

Pharmacognosy

Class Function Cytokinins 6-benzylamino

purine

Adventitious shoot formation

6-(γ,γ-

dimethylallylamino)

purine

Inhibition of root formation

2iP-2HCl Promotes cell division

Kinetin Modulates callus initiation and growth

Thidiazuron(TDZ) Stimulates of axillary bud breaking and

growth

Zeatin Inhibition of shoot elongation

Zeatin Riboside Inhibition of leaf senescence

Gibberellins: Gibberellins are generally used to promote stem elongation, flowering, and

breaking dormancy of seeds, buds, corms, and bulbs. There are over 90 forms of gibberellins, but GA3 is the most commonly

used form. Compounds like paclobutrazol and ancymidol inhibit the synthesis of Gibberellins.

Class Product name Function

Gibberellins Gibberellic

acid(GA3)

Stimulates shoot elongation

Release seeds, embryos, and apical

buds from dormancy

GA4/7 Inhibits a adventitious root formation



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Introduction to

Pharmacognosy

Abscisic Acid:

Abscisic Acid (ABA) plays a role in dormancy development in embryos, buds

and bulbs, and in leaf abscission. When used in tissue culture, ABA inhibits the growth of shoots and the

germination of embryos. Fluridone may inhibit ABA synthesis.

Class Product name Function Abscisic acid Abscisic acid Stimulates bulb and tuber formation

Stimulates the maturation of embryos Promotes the start of dormancy, leaf abscision

Polyamines: Polyamines are compounds that occur in high levels within plants and are

used in tissue culture media at concentrations of 10-1000 mM. Polyamines may enhance regeneration of roots, shoots and embryos, delay

or prevent senescence, and regulate flowering.

Class Product name Function Polyamines Putrescine

Spermidine Promotes adventitious root formation Promotes somatic embryogenesis Promotes shoot formation



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Introduction to

Pharmacognosy

DRUG EVALUATION:

1. MORPHOLOGICAL OR ORGANOLEPTIC EVALUATION: It refers to evaluation of drugs by colour, odour, taste, size, shape and

special features like touch. Texture etc.

These studies resulted due to impressions on organs of senses.

Example: wavy shape of Rauwolfia

Pungent taste of Capsicum

Brown colour of Cinnamon

2. MICROSCOPIC EVALUATION: (A) Leaf constants:

Palisade ratio: is defined as average number of palisade cells beneath

each epidermal cell.

Vein-islet number: is defined as the number of vein-islets per sq.mm of

the leaf surface midway between the midrib and the margin.

Vein-termination number: is defined as the number of veinlet

terminations per sq.mm of the leaf surface midway between midrib and

margin.

Stomatal index: is the percentage which the number of stomata form to

the total number of epidermal cells.

S.I= S/E+S*100

Where, S= no. of stomata per unit area

E= no. of epidermal cells in the same unit area

(B) Trichomes:

1). Covering trichomes:

(a) Unicellular:



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Introduction to

Pharmacognosy

1. Lignified trichomes Nux-vomica 2. Short, sharply pointed, curved Cannabis

3. Large, conical, unicellular Lobelia 4. Short, conical, unicellular Tea, Buchu

5. Strongly waved, thick walled Yerba santa

(b) Multicellular – unbranched trichomes:

(i) Uniseriate:

1. Bi –cellular, conical Datura 2. Three celled- long Stramonium

3. Three to four celled long Digitalis 4. Four to five celled long Belladonna

(ii) Biseriate: Calendula officinalis

(iii) Multiseriate: Male fern

(c) Multicellular- branched trichomes:

1. Stellate Hammamelis, Helicteris-isora

2. Peltate Humulus 3. Candelabra Verbascum Thapsus

4. T shaped trichomes

Artemisia, Pyrenthrum

2. Glandular trichomes:

(a) Unicellular glandular trichomes:

Example: Piper, Betel, Vasaka

(b) Multicellular glandular trichomes:

1. Trichomes with unicellular head and unicellular stalk

Digitalis purpurea

2. Unicellular head and uniseriate multicellular stalk

Digitalis thapsi, Belladonna



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Introduction to

Pharmacognosy

3. Multicellular head, multicellular, biseriate stalk

Santonica and plants of Compositae

4. Unicellular stalk and biseriate head

Digitalis purpurea

5. Short stalk with secreting head formed of rosette or clud shaped cells

Menthe species

6. Trichomes with multicellular, multiseriate and a rosette of secretory cells

Cannabis sativa

7. Multicellular multiseriate head and multicellular uniseriate stalk

Indian hemp and tobacco

(c) Hydathode (special type of trichome):

These are organs of absorption or secretion of water

developed in certain plants.

Example: Piper betal, London pride, etc.

(C) Stomata : Definition:

Function: primary function is gaseous exchange and the secondary function

is transpiration.

Types:

1. Paracytic /Rubiaceous/Parallel- celled stomata: this type of stomata

comprises two guard cells covered by two subsidiary cells, the long axes

of which are parallel to that of stoma.

Example: Coca and Senna leaves



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Introduction to

Pharmacognosy

2. Diacytic/caryophyllaceous/cross-celled stomata: the guard cells are

covered by two subsidiary cells, but the arrangement of subsidiary cells

on the guard cell is at angle to that of stoma.

Example: Peppermint, Spearmint, Vasaka

3. Anisocytic/Cruciferous/Unequal-celled stomata: two guard cells are

covered by three subsidiary cells, but one is markedly smaller than the

other two.

Example: Belladonna, Datura

4. Anomocytic/Ranunculaceous/Irregular-celled stomata: stoma is

surrounded by varying number of subsidiary cells resembling other

epidermal cells.

Example: Bachu, Digitalis, Lobelia.

5. Actinocytic/radiate-celled stomata: the two guard cells are surrounded

by a circle of radiating subsidiary cells.

(D) QUANTITATIVE MICROSCOPY:

LYCOPODIUM SPORE METHOD:

This analytical technique is used when chemical and other

methods of evaluation of crude drugs fail as accurate measures of

quantity.

It is inexpensive.

A powder drug is evaluated by this technique , if it contains

i) Well defined particles which may be counted

ii) Single layered cells or tissues, the area of which may be traced

under suitable magnification and actual area calculated



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Introduction to

Pharmacognosy

iii) The objects of uniform thickness, the length of which can be

measured under suitable magnification and actual area

calculated.

The percentage purity of an powdered ginger is calculated by using

following equation,

NxWx94,000x100/SxMxP=% PURITY OF DRUG

WHERE,

N= No. of starch grains in 26 fields

W=weight of lycopodium taken

S= No. of lycopodium spores in the same 25 fields

M= weight in mg of sample, at 105˚c

P= 2,86,000 in case of ginger grains powder

3. CHEMICAL EVALUATION:

A) Phytochemical investigations: of plant material for its

phytochemical behavior involve four different stages:

1. The procurement of raw material and quality control.

2. Extraction, purification and characterization of the pharmaceutical

interest and in process quality control.

3. Investigation of biosynthetic pathways to particular compounds and

4. Quantitative evaluation.

B) Preliminary Phytochemical Screening: Successive solvent extraction:

Sublimation:



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Introduction to

Pharmacognosy

C) Quantitative chemical Examination: 1. Detection of Alkaloids

2. Detection of Carbohydrate and glycosides

3. Detection of Phytosterols

4. Detection of fixed oils and fats

5. Detection of Saponins

6. Detection of Phenolic compounds and tannins

7. Detection of Proteins and free amino acids

8. Detection of Gums and mucilage

9. Detection of Volatile oils

4. PHYSICAL EVALUATION: 1) Moisture content

2) Viscosity

3) Melting point

4) Solubility

5) Optical rotation

6) Refractive index

7) Ash values and extractive:

a) Ash content

b) Extractives

1. Water soluble extractives

2. Alcohol soluble extractives

3. Ether soluble extractives

4. Volatile oil content

5. Foreign organic matter



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Introduction to

Pharmacognosy

5. BIOLOGICAL EVALUATION:

When the estimation of potency of crude drug or its preparation is done by

means of its effect on living organisms like bacteria, fungal growth or animal

tissue or entire animal, is known as bioassay.

Biological testing of herbal drugs:

a) Hepatoprotective activity

b) Hypoglycemic activity

c) Anti fertility testing

i) Protocols for anti-fertility activity in female rats

ii) Antispermatogenic activity in male rats

iii) Spermicidal activity

d) Anti-inflammatory activity

e) Neuro pharmacological activity

f) Anti-insect activity



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Introduction to

Pharmacognosy

GENETICS:

MUTATION: is a random, undirected inheritable variation in genotype

caused by an alteration in the nucleotide sequence at some point of

DNA resulting from error in chromosomal replication or exposure to

certain chemical, physical or physiological agent.

Types of mutation:

1. Chromosomal mutation:

Also called as chromosomal aberration.

There are changes in the number and arrangement of genes in

the chromosomes.

2. Spontaneous mutation:

Mutation which occurs due to some unknown reason from

nature.

This has been observed in some plants, bacteria, viruses etc.

3. Induced mutation:

Also called as artificial mutation.

Mutation can also be induced by artificial means with certain

reagents called mutagens and are called induced mutations.

The chemical mutagens are nitrogen mustard, formaldehyde,

nitrous acid, 5-bromo uracil, manganese chloride etc.

4. Point mutation:

The changes with a gene of DNA molecule cause point

mutation.



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Introduction to

Pharmacognosy

It is permanent and heritable.

Polyploidy: when the organism contains more than two genomes, it is

called polyploidy.

It is of two types:

1. Autoploids: those polyploids, which are derived by multiplication

of chromosomes of a single species.

2. Alloploids: those polyploids, which are derived by hybridization

between two species-followed by multiplication of chromosomes.

Polyploidy can be induced by various means. They are,

1) Cell regeneration

2) Physical agents: x-rays, centrifugation, temperature and shock.

3) Chemical agents: colchicines, veratrine, mercuric chloride etc.

Chemodemes:

It is also known as chemical races.

Chemodemes are regarded as a group of plants of a species

which have identical morphological charecters, but differ in their

chemical nature.

The chemical characters of chemodemes are hereditary.

Eg; chemodemes have been reported in digitalis purpurea and D.

lanta. In former, the races or strains identified are streptoside,

digitoxin and digipurpurin. These chemical races in D.purpurea



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Introduction to

Pharmacognosy

yield different proportions of glycosides obtain from digitoxin and

gitoxin. Depending on content of Lanatoside A & C, the chemical

races in D .lanata are D. lanta Ehrb, Chemovarieties A & C.

Surface sterilizing agents:

- Sodium hypochlorite (1-2%)

- Bromine water (1-2%)

- Hydrogen peroxide (10-12%)

- Mercuric chloride (0.1-1%)

- Silver nitrate (1%)



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Introduction to

Pharmacognosy

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