Dietary reconstruction in Migration Period Central Germany: a carbon and nitrogen isotope study

ORIGINAL PAPER

Dietary reconstruction in Migration Period CentralGermany: a carbon and nitrogen isotope study

Corina Knipper & Daniel Peters & Christian Meyer &

Anne-France Maurer & Arnold Muhl & Bernd R. Schöne &

Kurt W. Alt

Received: 10 July 2012 /Accepted: 25 September 2012 /Published online: 10 October 2012# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2012

Abstract This study presents bone collagen carbon andnitrogen isotope data from the Migration Period cemeteries(fifth/sixth century AD) of Obermöllern and Rathewitz inCentral Germany. The human average δ13C ratios of −19.8±0.3 ‰ and δ15N ratios of 9.6±0.9 ‰ (n043) reflect a mixeddiet in a temperate C3-based ecosystem without significantdifference between the two sites. The average offset betweenhuman and faunal δ13C and δ15N values indicates a significantcontribution of plant food to the human diet that has differentisotope ratios from the forage of the animals. It furthermoresuggests the influence of land management on the δ15N val-ues. One adult male from Obermöllern stands out due to hiselevated nitrogen isotope ratio, body height, grave goods, andburial position. The collagen isotope data of this study arecomparable with data from other central European sites andconfirm rather stable communities with moderate variation inthe environmental conditions of arable land.

Keywords Central Germany . Cemetery . Diet . Stableisotopes . Carbon . Nitrogen

Introduction

The Migration Period (375/376–568 AD) was an eventfulhistorical episode between Classical Antiquity and the MiddleAges. Sporadic written sources provide glimpses of the ethno-genesis and movement of Germanic tribes (Pohl 2005, 2008),and archaeological research has documented numerous ceme-teries with remarkably richly furnished graves that indicate far-reaching interregional contacts. The first mention of the gens(people) of the Thuringians occurs in written sources of the latefourth century AD. The core territory of this multiethnic groupis Central Germany from the Thuringian Basin to the HarzMountains (Springer 2005; Theune 2005). After about 454AD, when they were freed from Hunnic sovereignty, theThuringians quickly evolved into one of the mightiestGermanic kingdoms outside the borders of the former RomanEmpire. With their far-reaching regime and alliances, theybecame the most powerful factor east of the Rhine against theexpanding Franconian Kingdom (Werner 1999, p. 750), whichdefeated them in 531AD (Springer 2005). Although the writtenrecord conveys crucial information on the history of politicalpower and events of victory and defeat, many aspects of dailylife were not recorded. One of these features that becameincreasingly accessible through stable isotope analyses in thelast decades is dietary composition. Such investigations alsoinclude first examples from the Migration Period and EarlyMiddle Ages (Hakenbeck et al. 2010; Schutkowski et al. 1999;Jørkov et al. 2010; Privat et al. 2002). They do not only allowfor a general characterization of the human diet (Ambrose1993; Katzenberg 2000), but can also inform about subsistencestrategies, land use patterns, and domestic animal management(Britton et al. 2008; Hamilton et al. 2009; Mulville et al. 2009).

C. Knipper (*) :C. Meyer :K. W. AltInstitute of Anthropology, University of Mainz,Colonel-Kleinmann-Weg 2,55099 Mainz, Germanye-mail: [email protected]

D. PetersInstitute of Prehistoric Archaeology, Free University of Berlin,Altensteinstraße 15,14195 Berlin, Germany

A.-F. Maurer : B. R. SchöneEarth System Science Research Center, Department of Appliedand Analytical Paleontology, Institute of Geosciences,University of Mainz,Johann-Joachim-Becher-Weg 21,55128 Mainz, Germany

A. MuhlState Office for Heritage Management and Archaeology/StateMuseum of Prehistory of Saxony-Anhalt,Richard-Wagner-Str. 9,06114 Halle (Saale), Germany

Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2013) 5:17–35DOI 10.1007/s12520-012-0106-3

This study presents bone collagen carbon and nitrogenstable isotope data from the cemeteries of Rathewitz andObermöllern in southern Saxony-Anhalt. Both sites date fromthe late fifth to the mid-sixth century AD and are rather typicalThuringian1 graveyards. Strontium isotope analysis demon-strated that only a few individuals were clearly nonlocal tothe sites (Knipper et al. 2012). This is in general agreementwith the historical sources that do not describe the Thuringiansas part of the important populationmovements of theMigrationPeriod (Springer 2005; Theune 2005). The primary aim of thisstudy is the characterization of the human dietary compositionin comparison to the domestic fauna and the exploration of age-related and sex-related patterns. Correlation between humanstable isotope data and grave furnishings helped to evaluatesocial differentiation within the burial communities. Gravegoods on their own have often been interpreted as measuresof social status and differentiation of the deceased, even thoughthey have always been chosen and deposited by the bereaved(Christlein 1973; Blaich 2009; Kleemann 2010; Brather 2005).

The present study stands in the wider context of an interdis-ciplinary research project on the historical Langobards (Tütkenet al. 2008; Maurer et al. 2012; Knipper et al. 2012). Writtensources (Jarnut 2009) andmaterial culture suggest close contactsbetween the Thuringians and the Langobards and discuss apossible Thuringian contribution to the Langobardian ethno-genesis in Moravia (Schmidt 1974; Tejral 2005; Droberjar2008; Quast 2010). The analyses provide datasets for twoThuringian cemeteries that are typical in terms of their size andarchaeological features (Schmidt 1996; Theune 2005). These laythe foundation for comparison to data from Langobardian burialcommunities inMoravia, Austria, and Pannonia that—as conclud-ed from written tradition—were much more likely to have beenaffected by the large-scale movements of the Migration Period(Tejral 2005; Rheinland 2008).

Carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis

Carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotope ratios2 of bonecollagen largely reflect the isotopic composition of the proteinportion of the consumer’s diet (Tieszen and Fagre 1993;Ambrose and Norr 1993; Jim et al. 2006; Kellner andSchoeninger 2007). A major reason for variation in δ13C inplants—the primary human food source—is the difference intheir photosynthesis pathways that causes clear distinctions

between C3 plants (most vegetation in temperate climates,including most food-relevant plants in preindustrial centralEurope) and C4 plants (tropical grasses and food-relevantplants such as millet, maize, and sorghum) (Cerling andHarris 1999; Ambrose 1993; Katzenberg 2000). Within theC3 regime, which dominates the central European arable andmammal forage crop spectrum during the Migration Period,δ13C varies with the extent of forest cover (“canopy effect”)(van der Merwe and Medina 1991; Drucker et al. 2008) andhumidity (Kohn 2010). Isotope fractionation also causes en-richment of the heavier isotopes along food chains. δ13Cvalues increase about 5 ‰ between plant food and the colla-gen of herbivores/primary consumers. The increase betweenbone collagen δ13C ratios of members of two adjacent trophiclevels is 0 to 2 ‰ (or 0.8–1.3 ‰ as a narrower estimate thatwill be used in the succeeding data analysis; Bocherens andDrucker 2003; Lee-Thorp 2008; Drucker and Henry-Gambier2005; Bocherens et al. 2011). With 3 to 5‰, the trophic leveleffect is larger in δ15N (Minagawa and Wada 1984; Hedgesand Reynard 2007), and there is some evidence that plant foodcomponents cause higher fractionation factors than protein-rich animal-derived sources (Robbins et al. 2005, 2010).Furthermore, anthropogenic influence on the soil, especiallyby manuring, may raise the baseline δ15N values (Bogaard etal. 2007; Fraser et al. 2011). This can reveal valuable infor-mation about land use and agricultural strategies, but may alsolead to an overestimation of the contribution of meat and dairyproducts to the human diet.

Investigated sites and sampled material

This study investigates human skeletal remains from the“Thuringian” cemeteries of Obermöllern and Rathewitz(Burgenlandkreis, southern Saxony-Anhalt) (Fig. 1). Bothsites date from the late fifth to the mid-sixth century AD andwere in use for only about three generations or for a maximumof 80 years (cf. Hansen 2004; Schmidt 1975; Theune 2008).

The cemetery of Obermöllern is the larger of the two sitesand consisted of 31 burials (Schmidt 1975). It was excavat-ed between 1925 and 1931 (Grimm 1953; Holter 1925) andfinally published in the 1970s (Schmidt 1975). Earlier an-thropological investigations of the skeletal remains (Holter1925; Müller 1961; Schott 1961) were reappraised usingcontemporary analytical standards (Knipper et al. 2012).Among the 27 human individuals for which skeletal remainswere preserved, 8 (29.6 %) are female/probably female and8 (29.6 %) are male/probably male. One (3.7 %) is an adultwhose sex could not be anthropologically determined, whilethe grave goods indicate female sex. Ten individuals(37.0 %) are children ranging from newborn to 14 years ofage. According to the grave goods, three of them wereprobably female, while one was male.

1 We use the names of historically mentioned cultural groups as generalreferences to their time period and distribution area or in case ofcitations in the same sense as the original authors. We do not implyany ethnic interpretation and are aware of the current researchconcerning this issue (Brather 2004).2 δ (‰) = [(Rsample/Rstandard) – 1] x 1000 (McKinney et al. 1950).R013C/12C for carbon and 15N/14N for nitrogen.

18 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2013) 5:17–35

The cemetery of Rathewitz was excavated in the 1950s(Schmidt 1975) and yielded 18 human burials, from whichskeletal remains of 16 individuals were preserved. In addition,the skeletons of a horse and a dog were unearthed. Ouranthropological analysis identified eight individuals (50 %)as female/probably female, seven (43.8 %) as male/probablymale, and one (6.3 %) as a child between 3 and 5 years of age.

Strontium isotope analysis identified very low propor-tions of clearly nonlocal individuals. Tooth enamel of oneburial (7.1 %) at Rathewitz and three individuals (12.5 %) atObermöllern had more radiogenic 87Sr/86Sr ratios than thelocal range of biologically available strontium (Knipper etal. 2012). However, it cannot be excluded that there aremore nonlocal individuals who originated from geologicallysimilar locations.

The carbon and nitrogen isotope study includes all humanburials with preserved skeletal remains (n043). Samples weretaken from ribs or from other skeletal elements in the rarecases of their absence. The human individuals investigatedand their anthropological characteristics, the skeletal elementssampled, as well as the results of the elemental and isotopeanalyses are listed in Table 1.

In addition to the human remains, this study includes 46faunal samples. Fifteen of them were recovered from thegrave fillings and are contemporary to the human bones

(Table 2). Due to the general scarcity of settlement remainsfrom the Migration Period and the absence of living placesin direct association with the investigated cemeteries, theonly available comparative samples of the fifth/sixth centuryAD are two bones from Naumburg (Müller 1980). In orderto increase the sample size, specimens from the Latèneperiod (Late Iron Age) site of Schönburg (Teichert 1964)and Iron Age pits and graves in Eulau (Dr. H.-J. Döhle,Halle, personal communication; dates based on ceramicstyles) were analyzed. These sites lie within 10 km fromthe cemeteries and are the chronologically closest compara-tives, although there is no overlap with the dates of thecemetery fauna (Fig. 1). The faunal samples included do-mestic cattle (Bos taurus), sheep (Ovis aries), goat (Caprahircus), horse (Equus caballus), pig (Sus domesticus), andchicken (Gallus gallus). Although age estimations on theoften isolated bone fragments are difficult, tooth eruptionstages or unfused epiphyses (where applicable) determinenine individuals (20 %) as between juvenile and subadultage, while the others show no indications of being youngerthan adult. Subadult individuals were included in the studyto increase the sample size from the overall rather smallfaunal bone assemblages. Depending on availability, faunalsamples were taken from cortical bone of different skeletalelements. Botanical samples were not available for analysis.

Fig. 1 Location of the studied cemeteries (rectangles) and archaeological sites that provided faunal remains for comparison (circles)

Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2013) 5:17–35 19

Tab

le1

Hum

anbo

necollagensamples

with

inform

ationon

archaeolog

icalcontext(grave),sexandage,skeletalelem

ent,collagenyield,

andresults

ofelem

entalandisotop

eanalysis(Srisotop

einform

ationfrom

Knipp

eret

al.20

12)

Sam

ple

Grave

Sex

Age

Skeletal

elem

ent

Collagen

yield(%

)%

N%

CC/N

atom

δ13Cin

‰

vs.VPDB

δ15N

in‰

vs.AIR

Com

ment

Oberm

öllern

OBMÖ

1.4

2Fem

ale

Mature

Rib

7.0

15.4

42.2

3.2

−19

.85

9.72

87Sr/86Srno

nlocal

OBMÖ

2.4

3Fem

ale?

Adu

ltRib

1.6

13.9

39.1

3.3

−20

.17

9.63

OBMÖ

3.2

4Indet.

Infans

I(0.5–1.5years)

Rib

4.9

13.8

38.1

3.2

−19

.91

11.21

OBMÖ

4.3

16Ind.

1Indet.

Infans

II(9–11

years)

Mandible

5.5

14.5

39.9

3.2

−19

.94

8.20

OBMÖ

5.3

16Ind.

2male?

Adu

ltSku

ll6.9

14.8

40.1

3.2

−19

.80

9.10

OBMÖ

6.3

6Fem

ale?

Mature–senile

Indet.

long

bone

4.3

14.6

40.3

3.2

−19

.62

9.54

Artificially

deform

edskull

OBMÖ

7.6

5Fem

ale?

Mature

Pelvis

7.5

15.6

42.9

3.2

−20

.11

8.73

Artificially

deform

edskull

OBMÖ

8.1

8Indet.

Infans

II(12–14

years)

Rib

5.5

14.9

40.8

3.2

−19

.83

8.08

OBMÖ

9.5

9Fem

ale

Adu

ltRib

7.7

12.8

35.1

3.2

−19

.90

8.82

OBMÖ

10.3

10Male

Mature

Rib

4.1

14.2

39.3

3.2

−19

.53

9.32

OBMÖ

11.4

11Male

Early

adult

Rib

1.6

14.3

41.0

3.4

−19

.77

9.68

OBMÖ

12.4

12Male

Lateadult

Rib

1.1

14.6

41.2

3.3

−19

.95

9.61

87Sr/86Srno

nlocal

OBMÖ

13.4

13Ind.

1Indet.

Infans

II(10–12

years)

Rib

6.6

15.1

41.6

3.2

−20

.01

8.81

OBMÖ

14.5

14Male

Adu

ltRib

4.1

14.3

39.1

3.2

−19

.93

11.60

87Sr/86Sr:relocatio

ndu

ring

child

hood

OBMÖ

15.3

17Indet.

Infans

I(2–4years)

Rib

5.8

15.7

43.3

3.2

−19

.93

9.66

OBMÖ

16.4

18Indet.

Infans

I(2–4years)

Rib

2.8

14.9

41.1

3.2

−20

.46

9.14

OBMÖ

18.4

20Indet.

Mature

Rib

6.1

14.9

41.1

3.2

−19

.91

9.56

87Sr/86Srno

nlocal

OBMÖ

19.2

19Indet.

Infans

II(8–14

years)

Rib

2.1

13.7

37.7

3.2

−19

.85

8.49

OBMÖ

20.3

23Fem

ale

Adu

ltMetacarpal

5.5

15.0

41.0

3.2

−19

.93

8.81

OBMÖ

22.4

22Fem

ale

Lateadult

Rib

4.5

13.9

38.7

3.2

−20

.03

8.98

OBMÖ

23.4

24Male

Early

adult

Rib

6.0

14.8

40.7

3.2

−19

.42

9.83

OBMÖ

24.1

28Male

Adu

ltRib

5.1

15.6

42.8

3.2

−19

.64

10.04

OBMÖ

25.4

29Indet.

Infans

I(1.5–2.5years)

Sku

ll4.6

13.7

38.5

3.3

−19

.43

11.40

OBMÖ

26.3

30Indet.

Infans

I(0.5–1.5years)

Sku

ll5.0

15.4

42.8

3.2

−19

.72

12.04

OBMÖ

27.5

31Male

Mature

Rib

6.1

15.0

41.1

3.2

−19

.40

9.27

OBMÖ

28.3

32Indet.

Infans

I(2–4years)

Rib

4.4

14.0

39.2

3.3

−19

.89

9.87

OBMÖ

30.1

13Ind.

2Fem

ale

Adu

ltSku

ll2.8

10.5

29.4

3.3

−20

.37

8.92

Rathewitz

RATH

1.4

1Male?

Mature

Rib

2.4

14.6

40.6

3.2

−19

.44

9.98

Artificially

deform

edskull?

RATH

2.5

2Male

Latemature–senile

Rib

3.3

12.3

34.6

3.3

−20

.07

9.12

RATH

3.4

3Fem

ale

Mature

Rib

6.0

14.9

40.8

3.2

−19

.57

9.85


Analytical methods

Sample preparation and analysis followed the method ofLongin (1971) with some modification (Brown et al. 1988;Oelze et al. 2011). Rib fragments were cut and the surfacesremoved with dental cutting and milling equipment. Between300 and 500 mg of each sample were demineralized in 10 ml0.5 N HCl at 4 °C for about 14 days, with regular shaking andan acid change after 1 week. After complete demineralization,the samples were rinsed at least five times with deionized waterand gelatinized for 48 h at 70 °C in 5 ml H2O with somemicroliters of 0.5 N HCl (pH 3). The insoluble portion wasseparated using Ezee-Filter™ separators (Elkay) and the liquidtransferred into Amicon© ultrafilters (Millipore; cutoff,<30 kDa) to concentrate the long-chained collagen molecules.The glycerol coating of the filters was removed prior to use byimmersion in deionized H2O overnight and centrifugation ofdeionized H2O, 0.1 mol NaOH, and three times deionized H2Ofor 10 min at 2,800 rpm. The concentrated “collagen” wasfrozen, lyophilized for 48 h, and analyzed. Duplicates of 1 to2 mg of each sample were weighed into tin capsules andcombusted to CO2 and N2 in an elemental analyzer (vario ELIII, Elementar Analytical Systems) coupled to an IsoPrimeHighPerformance Stable Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometer (VGInstruments). Isotope compositions are reported in δ notationin per mille relative to VPDB for carbon and AIR for nitrogen.The raw data were normalized using two-point calibrationsbased on USGS 40 and IAEA N2 for nitrogen and CH6 andCH7 for carbon (Paul et al. 2007). Measurement errors are lessthan ±0.2‰ for nitrogen and ±0.1 ‰ for carbon.

Results and discussion

Sample preservation

All samples met the established quality criteria for collagenfrom archaeological remains (DeNiro 1985; van Klinken1999; Nehlich and Richards 2009). Collagen yields variedbetween 1.1 and 7.7 % (average, 4.6±1.8 %3; n043) for thehuman bones and 0.6 and 7.1 % (average, 3.4±1.8 %; n0454)for the faunal remains. Nitrogen contents ranged between 10.5and 15.7 % (average, 14.4±1.0 %) for human remains andfrom 10.8 to 16.3 % (average, 14.3±1.4%) for faunal remains.Carbon contents varied from 29.4 to 43.3 % (average, 39.7±2.6 %) for human bones and from 30.5 to 44.8 % (average,39.9±3.8 %) for faunal bones. Atomic C/N ratios rangedbetween 3.1 and 3.4 for all samples. Because a considerableamount of collagen is lost due to ultrafiltration (Jørkov et al.

3 Variability is expressed as 1 SD.4 Excluding OBMÖ 40 with 9.6 %, which was prepared withoutultrafiltration.T

able

1(con

tinued)

Sam

ple

Grave

Sex

Age

Skeletal

elem

ent

Collagen

yield(%

)%

N%

CC/N

atom

δ13Cin

‰

vs.VPDB

δ15N

in‰

vs.AIR

Com

ment

RATH

4.4

5Fem

ale?

Lateadult–earlymature

Fem

ur5.1

15.2

40.9

3.1

−19

.69

8.22

RATH

5.1

6Fem

ale?

Adu

lt–mature

Rib

5.2

14.9

40.0

3.1

−20

.01

9.83

RATH

6.3

7Male?

Adu

lt–mature

Metatarsal

1.5

12.2

34.4

3.3

−20

.23

9.50

RATH

7.4

8Indet.

Infans

I(3–5years)

Sku

ll7.5

15.3

41.6

3.2

−19

.69

12.17

RATH

8.4

10Fem

ale

Adu

ltRib

6.3

14.4

38.4

3.1

−19

.88

9.61

RATH

9.5

11Fem

ale?

Adu

ltRib

1.8

14.7

40.8

3.2

−20

.10

10.23

87Sr/86Srno

nlocal

RATH

10.7

12Fem

ale

Lateadult–earlymature

Rib

2.7

13.3

37.6

3.3

−19

.94

9.32

RATH

11.3

14Male

Early

mature

Rib

4.0

14.8

39.9

3.1

−19

.75

9.93

RATH

12.4

15Fem

ale

Early

adult

Rib

5.6

15.3

41.6

3.2

−19

.58

8.65

RATH

13.2

16Fem

ale

Adu

ltRib

4.9

15.4

41.5

3.1

−20

.04

10.01

RATH

14.4

18Male

Adu

ltRib

3.1

13.5

36.8

3.2

−19

.58

9.11

RATH

15.6

17Male

Adu

ltHum

erus

5.3

14.9

40.1

3.1

−19

.90

9.49

RATH

16.3

19Male

Adu

ltRib

4.6

14.9

41.0

3.2

−19

.30

9.52


Tab

le2

Faunalcollagensamples

with

inform

ationon

archaeolog

icalcontext,chrono

logy

(HallstattD2:55

0–50

0BC;L

ateLatène:ca.third

tofirstcentury

BC;IronAge:eighthtofirstcentury

BC),

species,skeletal

elem

ent,andcommenton

sign

sof

beingyo

ungerthan

adultas

wellas

collagenyieldandresults

ofelem

entalandisotop

eanalysis

Nam

eInventory

number

Con

text

Chron

olog

ySpecies

Skeletalelem

entagecomment

Collagen

yield(%

)%

N%

CC/N

(atom)

δ13Cin

‰

vs.VPDB

δ15N

in‰

vs.AIR

Oberm

öllern

OBMÖ

29.1

25:686

pGrave

13Fifth/sixth

centuryAD

Equ

uscaba

llus

Hum

erus

2.1

13.2

37.2

3.3

−21

.43

5.57

OBMÖ

31.1

25:708

Grave

21Fifth/sixth

centuryAD

Ovisaries/Cap

rahircus

Metatarsus

Epiph

ysisun

fused

2.4

11.1

30.9

3.2

−20

.91

5.69

OBMÖ

32.1

31:135

0Grave

31Fifth/sixth

centuryAD

Gallusga

llus

Hum

erus

3.2

14.7

41.5

3.3

−20

.65

10.26

OBMÖ

33.1

31:134

8Grave

29Fifth/sixth

centuryAD

Susdo

mesticus

Metacarpu

sEpiph

ysisun

fused

5.5

14.7

40.7

3.2

−21

.18

7.45

OBMÖ

34.1

25:710

Grave

23Fifth/sixth

centuryAD

Susdo

mesticus

Metacarpu

sEpiph

ysisun

fused

6.4

14.8

40.8

3.2

−21

.63

6.49

OBMÖ

35.1

25:708

Grave

21Fifth/sixth

centuryAD

Susdo

mesticus

Pelvis

Acetabu

lum

not

fully

fused

4.7

15.1

41.4

3.2

−21

.37

5.74

OBMÖ

36.1

25:686

Grave

13Fifth/sixth

centuryAD

Bos

taurus

Lum

bar

vertebra

Vertebral

ring

epiphy

sisun

fused

4.1

15.2

41.6

3.2

−21

.73

7.54

OBMÖ

37.1

25:686

Grave

13Fifth/sixth

centuryAD

Bos

taurus

Maxilla

0.9

12.7

36.4

3.3

−21

.64

7.26

OBMÖ

38.1

25:714

hSettlementpit

HallstattD2

Ovisaries/Cap

rahircus

Maxilla

5.0

16.0

44.6

3.3

−21

.46

5.31

OBMÖ

39.1

25:714

hSettlementpit

HallstattD2

Susdo

mesticus

Maxilla

dp3anddp

4present,

M1erup

ted

3.8

15.5

44.0

3.3

−21

.39

6.32

OBMÖ

40.1

25:714

hSettlementpit

HallstattD2

Bos

taurus

Mandibu

ladp

4present,M1

inerup

tion

9.6

14.4

40.0

3.2

−20

.92

6.04

OBMÖ

41.1

25:714

hSettlementpit

HallstattD2

Bos

taurus

Sku

ll4.0

14.9

41.2

3.2

−20

.96

5.12

OBMÖ

42.1

25:714

hSettlementpit

HallstattD2

Bos

taurus

(?)

Tibia

(?)

7.1

15.2

41.6

3.2

−20

.82

7.08

Rathewitz

RATH

15.3

57:79a

Grave

17Fifth/sixth

centuryAD

Susdo

mesticus

Rib

4.0

12.7

34.5

3.2

−21

.84

5.73

RATH

17.1

56:284

Grave

16Fifth/sixth

centuryAD

Bos

taurus

Pelvis

1.0

13.1

37.5

3.3

−21

.95

3.92

RATH

18.1

56:283

aGrave

15Fifth/sixth

centuryAD

Bos

taurus

Pelvis

1.1

13.4

38.0

3.3

−21

.34

7.73

RATH

19.1

56:283

aGrave

15Fifth/sixth

centuryAD

Bos

taurus

(?)

Rib

5.1

13.7

37.2

3.2

−22

.09

5.38

RATH

20.1

56:282

Grave

14Fifth/sixth

centuryAD

Bos

taurus

(?)

Rib

5.0

14.3

39.5

3.2

−21

.75

5.37

RATH

21.1

56:283

aGrave

15Fifth/sixth

centuryAD

Equ

uscaba

llus

Calcaneus

2.8

11.0

30.6

3.2

−22

.57

4.40

RATH

22.1

57:80

Grave

18Fifth/sixth

centuryAD

Gallusga

llus

Sku

ll4.6

15.3

42.0

3.2

−20

.90

8.38

Schön

burg

SCHÖ

140

:219

aSettlementpit

LateLatène

Susdo

mesticus

Mandibu

la4.4

15.7

44.4

3.3

−21

.90

6.35

SCHÖ

240

:219

aSettlementpit

LateLatène

Susdo

mesticus

Hum

erus

4.8

15.6

43.4

3.2

−21

.23

6.50

SCHÖ

340

:219

aSettlementpit

LateLatène

Susdo

mesticus

Radius

2.1

10.8

30.5

3.3

−21

.52

6.76

SCHÖ

440

:221

aSettlementpit

LateLatène

Ovisaries/Cap

rahircus

Hum

erus

1.3

13.6

38.8

3.3

−22

.16

6.63

SCHÖ

540

:221

aSettlementpit

LateLatène

Susdo

mesticus

Mandibu

la1.8

14.0

41.2

3.4

−21

.90

6.41

SCHÖ

640

:255

dSettlementpit

LateLatène

Bos

taurus

Rib

5.6

15.9

43.8

3.2

−21

.93

6.01

SCHÖ

740

:255

dSettlementpit

LateLatène

Bos

taurus

Mandibu

la1.1

13.7

39.3

3.3

−22

.06

5.28

SCHÖ

840

:255

dSettlementpit

LateLatène

Susdo

mesticus

Hum

erus

2.0

14.0

40.0

3.3

−21

.83

8.17


Tab

le2

(con

tinued)

Nam

eInventory

number

Con

text

Chron

olog

ySpecies

Skeletalelem

entagecomment

Collagen

yield(%

)%

N%

CC/N

(atom)

δ13Cin

‰

vs.VPDB

δ15N

in‰

vs.AIR

SCHÖ

940

:255

dSettlementpit

LateLatène

Ovisaries/Cap

rahircus

Tibia

5.0

15.8

43.8

3.2

−20

.84

7.27

SCHÖ

1040

:255

dSettlementpit

LateLatène

Ovisaries/Cap

rahircus

Rib

5.9

16.3

44.8

3.2

−22

.12

6.18

SCHÖ

1140

:258

cSettlementpit

LateLatène

Susdo

mesticus

Mandibu

la5.0

15.2

42.4

3.3

−21

.54

7.91

SCHÖ

1240

:227

aSettlementpit

LateLatène

Equ

uscaba

llus

Tibia

3.4

14.8

41.0

3.2

−21

.52

6.43

SCHÖ

1340

:228

aSettlementpit

LateLatène

Equ

uscaba

llus

Scapu

la3.9

13.4

36.7

3.2

−22

.18

5.86

SCHÖ

1440

:230

aSettlementpit

LateLatène

Equ

uscaba

llus

Radius

1.2

12.7

36.3

3.3

−22

.22

6.21

Eulau

EULA

1D38

5/32

2Grave,feature18

72Iron

Age

Susdo

mesticus

Mandibu

laM1in

erup

tion

(age

approx

imately

1/4years)

3.7

14.2

39.0

3.2

−21

.60

5.93

EULA

2D38

5/32

2Grave,feature18

72Iron

Age

Ovisaries/Cap

rahircus

Tibia

2.2

15.1

42.3

3.3

−21

.09

6.00

EULA

3D38

5/32

2Grave,feature18

72Iron

Age

Ovisaries/Cap

rahircus

Tho

racic

vertebra

5.4

16.1

44.7

3.2

−21

.15

7.99

EULA

4D38

5/32

2Grave,feature18

72Iron

Age

Bos

taurus

Rib

2.0

15.1

41.7

3.2

−21

.40

5.58

EULA

5D38

5/32

2Grave,feature18

72Iron

Age

Bos

taurus

Rib

0.9

14.6

41.7

3.3

−21

.54

5.66

EULA

6D38

5/32

2Grave,feature18

72Iron

Age

Bos

taurus/Equ

uscaba

llus

Scapu

la1.2

13.4

38.2

3.3

−21

.97

4.17

EULA

7D38

5/32

2Grave,feature16

00Iron

Age

Equ

uscaba

llus

Hum

erus

0.6

12.5

35.7

3.3

−22

.18

6.26

EULA

8D38

5/32

2Feature

1733

Iron

Age

Ovisaries/Cap

rahircus

Mandibu

laM3in

erup

tion

4.7

15.7

43.8

3.3

−20

.75

5.79

EULA

9D38

5/32

2Feature

1733

Iron

Age

Ovisaries/Cap

rahircus

Scapu

la5.0

16.1

44.4

3.2

−21

.32

5.42

EULA

10D38

5/32

2Feature

1733

Iron

Age

Bos

taurus

Fem

ur5.0

15.7

43.9

3.3

−21

.21

Naumburg

NAUM

137

:362

bSettlementpit

Fifth/sixth

centuryAD

Susdo

mesticus

Fibula

1.1

13.3

37.6

3.3

−21

.51

6.34

NAUM

237

:357

bSettlementpit

Fifth/sixth

centuryAD

Equ

uscaba

llus

Mandibu

la0.9

12.3

35.1

3.3

−22

.27

6.48


2007), four faunal samples with collagen yields between 0.6and 1 %were included in the data analysis, although they haveto be treated with caution (van Klinken 1999).

Faunal samples

Stable isotope ratios of all faunal remains (Table 2) varybetween −22.57 ‰ (Equus) and −20.65 ‰ (Ovis) in δ13Cand 3.93 ‰ (Bos) and 10.26 ‰ (Gallus) in δ15N and aretypical for temperate C3 ecosystems (Schoeninger andDeNiro 1984). The isotope ratios of subadult individualsfall among those of the adults (Fig. 2). There is no distincttrophic level shift that results from breastfeeding of infantmammals (Jenkins et al. 2001; Balasse and Tresset 2002;Fuller et al. 2003; Pearson et al. 2010), which indicates thatthe sampled animals were already beyond this very youngage. Therefore, our data evaluation uses all faunal stableisotope ratios, including those of the subadult individuals.

The faunal assemblage analyzed comprises specimens fromthe Pre-Roman Iron Age and the fifth/sixth century AD.Student’s t tests on the normally distributed (Kolmogorov–Smirnov test) larger data groups of cattle and pig bonesrevealed no significant chronological differences of δ13C andδ15N of both species.5 The data ranges for horses and sheep/goats also overlap, even though sample sizes are too small forstatistical comparison.6 This implies similar husbandry andland use patterns among the studied time periods, although amore extensive dataset may reveal subtle variations more clear-ly. Therefore, the exploration of differences among the studiedanimal species combines all results, regardless of their timeperiod. Table 3 summarizes the δ13C and δ15N data, and Table 4lists the p values of the Student’s t test comparisons amongthem.

The δ13C and δ15N values of horse, sheep/goat, cattle,and pig collagen overlap widely. The only significant dif-ference occurs between the δ13C values for the horses (av-erage, −22.1±0.4 ‰) and all other domestic animal species(average, −21.5±0.4 ‰) and indicates varying nutritionalrequirements and food provision strategies. The averageδ13C value for horses is in the range of a slight “canopyeffect” (Drucker et al. 2008, 2011) that may have been

caused by dietary contribution from forested environments.Nevertheless, horses are typical grazers, and observations offree-ranging animals in present-day nature reserves withvarying ecological niches prove that they prefer feeding inopen habitats (Pratt et al. 1986). Forage from somewhatmore humid feeding grounds is a similarly plausible expla-nation for the slightly more negative carbon isotope ratios ofhorse collagen (Oelze et al. 2011; for humidity dependencyof plant δ13C values, cf. Kohn 2010; Diefendorf et al. 2010).This is supported by a present-day study of cattle hair thatrevealed, on average, 0.5 ‰ lower δ13C ratios in animalsthat fed on pastures on peat in comparison to those onmineral soils (Schnyder et al. 2006). In our study area, theriver valleys of the Saale and smaller streams, such as theWethau, Nautschke, or Hasselbach, are probable more humidfeeding grounds that may have beenmore important for feedingthe horses than other domestic animals. Nevertheless, the hors-es in our study have less negative δ13C values than cattle andespecially aurochs from England or Denmark for which forestor wetland pastures have been discussed (Lynch et al. 2008;Noe-Nygaard et al. 2005). Therefore, they rather reflect a mixof fodder from different habitats, possibly from awider range ofplaces than the other domestic animals. Burials of horses andmen in the same grave, furnishing with saddle, snaffle bits, orspurs in numerous Central European graves of the MigrationPeriod imply that the animals were personal belongings andmay have been fed very specifically (Steuer 2003). They wereprobably also used as transport animals, resulting in access tofodder from different locations, possibly with varyingstable isotope ratios. Finally, comparatively low carbonisotope ratios have also been found in horse collagenfrom other archaeological contexts, such as Roman andEarly Medieval Bavaria (Hakenbeck et al. 2010; Strott2006) as well as in Iron Age (Stevens et al. 2010) andAnglo-Saxon Britain (Privat et al. 2002). Hence, meta-bolic differences (Hamilton et al. 2009; Hedges 2003)between horses and the ruminant species have to beconsidered in addition to the environmental factors.

Domestic chicken revealed higher δ15N values thanmammals (cf. Table 3). Although the sample size is small,this is in agreement with other studies (Hakenbeck et al.2010; Cheung et al. 2012) and indicates their omnivorousdiet.

Pigs tend to have slightly higher average δ15N than theherbivorous species (Table 3), although Student’s t testcomparisons showed the offsets to be statistically insignifi-cant in the present study (Table 4). The difference betweenthe average δ15N value of pigs and all other herbivoresamples is 0.3 ‰, which is less pronounced than in otherpublished investigations (cf. Hamilton et al. 2009, Fig. 1;Mulville et al. 2009; Stevens et al. 2010), and in agreementwith late Roman to Early Medieval assemblages fromBavaria (Hakenbeck et al. 2010); this indicates that pigs

5 δ13C, cattle: Iron Age, average −21.38±0.44 (n09); fifth/sixth cen-tury AD, −21.75±0.26 (n06); p00.085; δ13C, pigs: Iron Age, average−21.63±0.26 (n07); fifth/sixth century AD, −21.51±0.25 (n05); p00.444; δ15N, cattle: Iron Age, average 5.97±0.65 (n09); fifth/sixthcentury AD, 6.20±1.54 (n06); p00.694; δ15N, pigs: Iron Age, average6.80±0.87 (n07); fifth/sixth century AD, 6.35±0.70 (n05); p00.367.6 δ13C, horse: Iron Age: min, −22.22; max, −21.52 (n04); fifth/sixthcentury AD: min, −22.75; max, −21.43 (n03); δ13C, sheep/goat: IronAge: min, −22.16; max, −20.75 (n08); fifth/sixth century AD, −20.91(n01); δ15N, horse: Iron Age: min, 5.86; max, 6.43 (n04); fifth/sixthcentury AD: min, 4.40; max, 6.48 (n03); δ15N, sheep/goat: Iron Age:min, 5.31; max, 7.99 (n08); fifth/sixth century AD, 5.59 (n01).


fed on a largely herbivorous diet. In contrast, samples fromthe Early Neolithic site of Karsdorf (5240–5000 BC; Oelzeet al. 2011) in the same area revealed somewhat higher δ15Nvalues in pigs (average δ15Npig07.8±0.4 vs. 6.6±0.8 ‰ inthis study), which suggests changing feeding and husbandrystrategies over time. Furthermore, δ13C values of the pigs inthis study (average, −21.6±0.3 ‰) show comparativelylittle variation and no distinction from the other speciesexcept for the horses (δ13Cpig average−all fauna average0

−0.02 ‰). There is no indication that pigs exploitedfood sources such as fungi that are not consumed byruminants and may lead to elevated δ13C ratios (Hamilton etal. 2009).

The overall similar stable isotope ratios for the domesticherbivore species of the Pre-Roman Iron Age and the fifth/sixth century AD, with the single exception of the horses,imply largely similar feeding strategies and little evidencefor different habitat use or distinct ecological niches.

Human samples

The isotope ratios of the human remains are given in Table 1and Fig. 2 in comparison to the fauna and in Fig. 3 sortedaccording to site, age, and sex. Overall, δ13C values rangefrom −20.5 to −19.3 ‰ (average, −19.8±0.3 ‰; n043) andδ15N values from 8.1 to 12.2 (average, 9.6±0.9 ‰; n043),with very little difference between the two cemeteries(Table 3).

Animal–human isotope spacing and its implicationsfor dietary reconstruction

The human bone collagen δ13C ratios are, on average, 1.7‰above the combined average of cattle, sheep/goat, and pigsand 2.2 ‰ above the average collagen carbon isotope ratiosof horses. Both values are higher than the typical trophiclevel enrichment of δ13C values of 0.8 to 1.3 ‰ (Drucker

Fig. 2 Stable isotopecomposition of human andfaunal bone collagen samples.Error bars from the means ofthe different species are 1 SD.Samples from animals that werebelow adult age (cf. agecomments in Table 2) arehighlighted with a gray circle.The shaded rectangles indicatedata ranges one trophic levelabove the domestic cattle, pigs,sheep/goat, and horses and arebased on the mean value ofeach species plus 0.8 to 1.3 ‰for δ13C and 3 to 5 ‰ to δ15N(calculations after Drucker andHenry-Gambier 2005;Bocherens et al. 2011)


and Henry-Gambier 2005; Bocherens et al. 2011) and at theupper limit of a wider, more conservative span of 0 to 2 ‰(Lee-Thorp 2008; Bocherens and Drucker 2003). Most hu-man δ13C values plot less negatively than expected for atrophic level shift along a food chain as inferred from theherbivore collagen data (gray rectangles in Fig. 2). Assuminga plant–herbivore collagen isotope shift of +5 ‰ (Bocherens2000, Fig. 4.1; Lee-Thorp 2008, with further references),average carbon isotope ratios of the plant forage would beapproximately −27.1 ‰ for horses and −26.5 ‰ for cattle,ovicaprids, and pigs, which is typical for C3 plants (Cerlingand Harris 1999; Kohn 2010). Possible explanations for hu-man plant food that has less negative δ13C values are a veryminor contribution of C4 plants, such as millet (Hakenbeck etal. 2010; Le Huray and Schutkowski 2005), or—more likely—isotope ratios of the major C3 plant component (commoncentral European cereals) that are slightly contrasting withforage. Although isotope measurements on archaeologicalbotanical macroremains are still scarce and none exist fromour study area and/or time period, some published data fromEuropean temperate environments revealed less negative δ13C

values for cereal grains than our estimations for the forage ofdomestic animals. Wheat and barley from the NeolithicAjdovska Jama cave in Slovenia yielded average δ13C ratiosof −25.0±0.5 ‰ (n012) and −25.9 ‰ (n06), respectively(Ogrinc and Budja 2005). Even less negative values have beenfound in Iron Age England with −22.2±1.1‰ for wheat (n020) and −23.0±1.1 ‰ (n015) for barley (Lightfoot andStevens 2012). A likely reason for slightly elevated δ13C ratiosin cereal-based food are systematic differences among variousparts of the plants, with, on average, about 1 to 2 ‰ higherδ13C values in the grains than in the flag leaf, stalk, or chaff(Merah et al. 2002). Furthermore, average δ13C values ofanimal forage may be generally lower because of probablecontributions of plants from more humid or forested habitats(Ferrio et al. 2003; Heaton 1999). Diverse land use patternsare also supported by rather variable strontium isotoperatios of domestic faunal teeth from the same archaeo-logical contexts as the presented collagen data. Theyindicate feeding grounds on different geological unitsthat may go along with variable environmental conditions(Maurer et al. 2012).

Table 3 Descriptive statistical summary of stable isotope data of domestic animal and human collagen samples

Bostaurus

Ovis aries/Capra hircus

Equuscaballus

Susdomesticus

Gallusgallus

Humantotal

OBMÖhuman

RATHhuman

OBMÖadult

RATHadult

n 15 9 7 12 2 43 27 16 17 15

δ15N Mean (‰) −21.5 −21.3 −22.1 −21.6 −20.8 −19.8 −19.9 −19.8 −19.8 −19.8

1σ (‰) 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3

Min (‰) −22.1 −22.2 −22.6 −21.9 −20.9 −20.5 −20.5 −20.2 −20.4 −20.2

Max (‰) −20.8 −20.7 −21.4 −21.2 −20.7 −19.3 −19.4 −19.3 −19.4 −19.3

Range (‰) 1.3 1.4 1.1 0.7 0.2 1.2 1.1 0.9 1.0 0.9

δ13C Mean (‰) 6.1 6.3 5.9 6.6 9.3 9.6 9.6 9.7 9.5 9.5

1σ (‰) 1.0 0.9 0.7 0.8 1.3 0.9 1.0 0.8 0.7 0.5

Min (‰) 3.9 5.3 4.4 5.7 8.4 8.1 8.1 8.2 8.7 8.2

Max (‰) 7.7 8.0 6.5 8.2 10.3 12.2 12.0 12.2 11.6 10.2

Range (‰) 3.8 2.7 2.1 2.4 1.9 4.1 4.0 3.9 2.9 2.0

Table 4 Summary of Student’s ttest results (p values) for thecomparison of δ13C and δ15Nvalues among domestic animalspecies

All datasets have been tested fornormal distribution using theKolmogorov–Smirnov test

Bos taurus Ovis aries/Capra hircus

Equuscaballus

Sus domesticus

δ13C

Bos taurus (n015) Not significant Significant Not significant

Ovis aries/Capra hircus (n09) 0.276 Significant Not significant

Equus caballus (n07) 0.011 0.008 Significant

Sus domesticus (n012) 0.710 0.187 0.006

δ15N

Bos taurus (n015) Not significant Not significant Not significant

Ovis aries/Capra hircus (n09) 0.650 Not significant Not significant

Equus caballus (n07) 0.700 0.395 Tendency

Sus domesticus (n012) 0.145 0.345 0.067


The δ15N values of the human adults are, on average,3.2 ‰ more positive than the combined averages of cattle,pigs, and sheep/goat (δ15N06.29±0.94 ‰) and indicate asignificant portion of herbivore meat in their diet in therange of one trophic level, which is typically given as a 3to 5 ‰ enrichment (Bocherens and Drucker 2003; Hedgesand Reynard 2007). Although direct evidence is rare, largeshares of animal-derived dietary components diverge some-what from general assumptions about Early Medieval diet,of which cereals are assumed to be a major component(Willerding 2003). The typical dominance of plant food

over meat and dairy products in nonindustrialized popula-tions is furthermore evident in a systematic study of 30ethnographic and historic groups from Europe and Asia(Ebersbach 2002, 2007). Plants commonly contribute morethan 85 % to their nutritional intake (median, 92 %). Amongthe plant foods, cereals are most important and usuallycomprise 60 to 85 % of the total diet (median, 74 %).Accordingly, the contribution of animal-derived productsis low overall (median, 8.1 %), and meat hardly adds morethan 5 %, even in communities with important cattle trac-tion. Yet, if only proteins are considered, plants contribute

Fig. 3 Stable isotopecomposition of human collagensamples from Rathewitz(circles) and Obermöllern(diamonds). The larger symbolsillustrate the mean values ofmale and female burials±1 SD.Nonlocal individuals (cf. Srisotope data in Knipper et al.2012) and women withartificially deformed skulls arehighlighted in gray. Individualsthat are mentioned in the textare labeled with their gravenumbers (O Obermöllern, RRathewitz)


most to the fulfillment of the nutritional requirements(Ebersbach 2002, pp. 119–130).

Because of these observations and the so far scarce directarchaeological information, it seems most plausible that thehuman δ15N values are influenced by factors other than theproportion of meat and dairy products, even if omnivore meat(chicken) with elevated δ15N values is considered. Muchmorelikely, the human collagen data also reflect anthropogenicinfluence on the worked soils due to agricultural practices,such as manuring or generally intensive land use over a longertime period (Bogaard et al. 2007; Fraser et al. 2011).Comparisons of δ15N between grains and the rachis revealed,on average, 2.4±0.8 ‰ higher values in the grains (Fraser etal. 2011). Therefore, the potential anthropogenic elevation ofδ15N values of cereals has more influence on the collagen ofhumans that consume the grains in comparison to domesticanimals that may feed on threshing refuse and straw.

Fish is also a dietary component which may contribute tothe elevation of the δ15N values. Its contribution to thehuman diet is, however, hard to estimate in the presentstudy. While the consumption of sea fish, with its elevatedδ15N and δ13C in comparison to C3 plants and herbivoremeat in a C3-based ecosystem (Barrett et al. 2011; Fischer etal. 2007), may have contributed to a wider herbivore–humanspacing of both isotope ratios than expected, significantcontribution of marine dietary sources seems unlikely be-cause the studied cemeteries are situated several hundredkilometers away from the ocean coast. Freshwater fish, onthe other hand, typically has δ13C values below −22 ‰(Dufour et al. 1999; Müldner and Richards 2005; Fischeret al. 2007). Therefore, significant contribution to the humandiet would not only result in elevated δ15N but also inlowered δ13C values. The latter is the opposite of what wefound (see above). Nevertheless, estimates of freshwaterfish consumption depend on the stable isotope ratios of theconsumed cereals. Both C3 cereals and millet are possiblesources of elevated δ13C values, though to a very differentextent, and outbalance the more negative δ13C ratios offreshwater fish.

Overall, these reflections on human–faunal isotope spac-ing indicate a significant contribution of foodstuff to thehuman diet that is not directly deducible from the faunalcollagen data. Most likely, these dietary components arecereals and other staple crops that grew on arable land underdifferent conditions than the animal forage. Therefore, anyquantitative estimate of the proportions of plant and animalfood in the human diet requires not only faunal, but alsofloral comparative data.

Relation of the human stable isotope data to sex and age

The adult women from Obermöllern have significantly low-er δ13C values than the men (female, −20.00±0.23 ‰, n08;

male, −19.68±0.22 ‰, n08; Student’s t test p00.012),while in Rathewitz, δ13C does not differ significantly be-tween sexes (female, −19.85±0.21 ‰, n08; male, −19.75±0.34 ‰, n07; p00.505). Most of the Sr isotope ratios areconsistent with the comparative data from the vicinity of thecemeteries (Knipper et al. 2012; Maurer et al. 2012).Nevertheless, some of the females may have come fromneighboring communities with slightly different environ-mental conditions of the arable lands, causing contrastingδ13C values, but overall comparable geological settings withsimilar isotope ratios of the biologically available strontium.Because of collagen turnover (Hedges et al. 2007), thishypothesis is only valid if the females joined the communi-ties only a few years prior to death.

The men from Obermöllern tend to have slightly highernitrogen isotope values than the women (female, 9.14±0.41 ‰; male, 9.81±0.79 ‰; p00.053), while the differ-ence is again insignificant in Rathewitz (female, 9.46±0.70 ‰; male, 9.52±0.34 ‰; p00.851). If one assumessimilar baseline data—or more specifically cereal speciesconsumption—and attributes the difference between thesexes primarily to the trophic level effect, these resultssuggest a somewhat larger share of high trophic level pro-tein, such as meat, in the diet of men from Obermöllern incomparison to women from this site. This is underlined bythe fact that the pregnancy effect—a potential cause oflower δ15N in female bone collagen—is only observableunder rare circumstances (Nitsch et al. 2010).

Even though the results may be influenced by the smallsample size, the presence of significant sex-related differencesin Obermöllern may point to more differentiated dietary prac-tices in Obermöllern than in Rathewitz. Archaeologically, gravefurnishing is overall richer, but also more homogeneous inObermöllern, with more evidence for long-distance contacts.

Age-specific differences are most clearly visible in the δ15Nvalues of the children from Obermöllern, with averages of11.55±0.44 ‰ (n03) for the newborns to 2-year-olds, 9.56±0.38‰ (n03) for the 2- to 4-year-olds, and 8.39±0.33‰ (n04) for the 8- to 14-year-old individuals. Although the samplesize is small, the older children and juveniles have loweraverage δ15N values than the adults (Fig. 3). If the data fromboth sites are combined, no significant age-specific differencesof δ15N and δ13C values have been detected among the adult tosenile males and females. If seen on the site level, sometendencies emerge, but due to the oftentimes very small samplesizes per category, the differences are not robust and sometimescontradictory between the two cemeteries.

Elevated δ15N values in young children result from con-sumption of maternal milk, which is enriched in the heavier15N isotope (Jay et al. 2008; Fuller et al. 2006; Jenkins et al.2001; Nitsch et al. 2011). The average difference of theaverage δ15N values between the youngest children and theadult women—the age group of their possible mothers—is


2.18‰, which is less than one trophic level, typically given as3 to 5‰ (Bocherens and Drucker 2003; Hedges and Reynard2007). The isotope ratios of the 2- to 4-year-old children plotamong the adults and suggest that, in Obermöllern, children ofthis age received significant amounts of complementary foodif they were not yet completely weaned.With δ15N012.17‰,the 3- to 5-year-old child from Rathewitz (RATH 7.4, grave 8)is unusual. Because the postcranial skeleton is not preservedand the skull is very fragmented, inferences about an extendednursing period due to some kind of disease are impossible.Enamel hypoplasia of the deciduous incisors indicates a peri-od of stress before birth, but not during the possibly delayedweaning period, that may also have been a decision of themother, as examples of late weaning in modern nonindustrialgroups illustrate (Sellen 2001). However, the sample wastaken from the skull which has a comparatively slow turnoverrate (skull, 1.8 %/a; rib, 4.7 %/a; Pate 1994, with furtherreferences). Therefore, the nursing signal may still have beenpreserved in this sample, while it is not visible anymore in theribs of the children fromObermöllern who died at a similar age.

Nitrogen isotope ratios of bone collagen of Infans IIchildren (approximately 7–14 years) and of postweaningtooth dentine that are below the average adult levels havebeen reported previously. They are considered to reflecthigher contributions of plant food in the diet of children incomparison to adults from the same communities (Eerkenset al. 2011; Fuller et al. 2010; Nitsch et al. 2011). Lack ofevidence for significant growth effects on δ15N in longbones of subadult individuals supports these conclusions(Waters-Rist and Katzenberg 2010; Waters-Rist et al.2011). On the other hand, there is also evidence of age-related diet–tissue spacing of δ15N values (reviewed inWaters-Rist and Katzenberg 2010) that has, for instance,been shown in feeding experiments on arctic foxes(Lecomte et al. 2011). These overall somewhat contradicto-ry conclusions suggest that age-specific patterns in humanpostweaning subadult individuals may not be attributableexclusively to their possibly limited access to dairy productsand meat.

An exceptional individual is the adult male ofObermöllern grave 14. His rib collagen yielded a δ15N valueof 11.60 ‰ which falls into the range of the nursing chil-dren. Taking the faunal data of the present study (averageδ15NSus, Bos, Capra/Ovis06.29±0.94 ‰) and assuming a frac-tionation factor of 3 to 5‰ per trophic level (Bocherens andDrucker 2003; Hedges and Reynard 2007), this value couldhardly have been achieved by consuming herbivore meat ormilk. A plausible explanation, however, is a significantproportion of omnivore meat with higher δ15N (e.g., chick-en) in his diet. His δ13C value of −19.93 ‰ almost matchesthe average of the whole adult population from Obermöllern(−19.8 ‰). Therefore, above-average consumption of ma-rine water or freshwater fish seems unlikely as this would

have caused differences in carbon isotope ratios (Barrett etal. 2011; Dufour et al. 1999; Robson et al. 2012; Fischer etal. 2007). In addition to his unusual dietary status, the manwas extraordinarily tall. His femur lengths of 530 mm (right)and 534 mm (left) are the largest among both communities,and this translates into an exceptional body height of about180 to 190 cm. Even among other larger Early Medievalburial communities, few individuals fall into this range, andaverage body heights are always much lower (Siegmund2010). Moreover, the rather large difference between theSr isotope ratios of his M1 and M3 tooth enamel suggestsa change of his location of residency during childhood, withindications of time spent away from Obermöllern in his laterchildhood and youth (Knipper et al. 2012). Because he didnot live beyond his adult years, his unusual N isotope ratiomay still result from access to different food sources awayfrom Obermöllern. The man was also buried about 15 m NEof the main group of graves. His grave goods included aknife, remains of a wooden bucket, a bone comb, andpottery, but no weaponry items, which were very commonamong male burials in the cemetery (Schmidt 1975).Overall, several archaeological and anthropological featurescharacterize him as special within his burial community. Hisexceptional body height and unusual dietary pattern mayreflect sociocultural or idiosyncratic factors working withinthe normal biological variation or, alternatively, a possiblepathological condition, affecting growth and metabolism.

Relation to grave goods, artificial skull deformation,and nonlocal origin

Most of the inhumations are very well equipped with objectsof jewelry and weaponry as well as ceramics and have beenonly slightly affected by later disturbances such as graverobbery. The grave goods comprise local “Thuringian”objects as well as artifacts that provide evidence for contactsacross Europe (Schmidt 1975; Knipper et al. 2012).Similarly to other Thuringian cemeteries (cf. Theune2005), grave furnishings are rather homogeneous and rich(Schmidt 2002; Behm-Blancke 1970; Kleemann 2010). Thenumbers and quality of weaponry or jewelry, vessels, tools,and food items, as well as total counts of objects and featuresof grave architecture reveal only slight indications of socialhierarchies. Overall, it is questionable whether the cemeteriesrepresent entire social and biological populations or rather aselection of individuals of comparatively high status.

The stable isotope ratios of similarly equipped burials,such as the females from Obermöllern who were entombedwith bow brooches (graves 9, 6, 13, 20, 22, and 23), spreadwidely within the data range for post-adult individuals of thesame sex. Among this group, graves 20 (δ15N09.56‰) and6 (δ15N09.54 ‰) are distinguished by multiple goldenpendants, while graves 9 (δ15N08.82 ‰) and 13 Ind. 2


(δ15N08.92‰) contained Nordic-influenced bow brooches.All of these items are indicators of high status, but do notshow any correlation with δ15N as a measure of consump-tion of meat and/or dairy products.

Social differentiation among the males is also hard toresolve because almost all of them were buried with fullweaponry equipment. Again, there is no obvious correlationwith δ15N values. For example, the male in Obermöllerngrave 16, which contained an especially valuable damask-decorated sword, has the lowest δ15N (9.10‰) value amongthe males of this cemetery. However, in agreement toexpectations, in Rathewitz, the males of graves 2 and 18,who were buried without weaponry revealed the lowestδ15N values (9.12 and 9.11 ‰, respectively) among theadult males.

In sum, grave furnishings, grave constructions, chrono-logical indicators, or stable isotope values do not show anyclear clusters within the adult individuals that would indi-cate social groups. Instead, the archaeological and isotopeinformation points to wealthy, egalitarian, and integrativeburial communities, with possible gender distinction in ac-cess to dairy products and meat.

The female individuals of Obermöllern graves 5 and 6 aswell as possibly the male of Rathewitz grave 1 have artifi-cially deformed skulls, a feature that has been generallyinterpreted as indication of Hunnic influence and nonlocalorigin (reviewed in Hakenbeck 2009; Alt 2006). In agree-ment with their Sr isotope ratios, which fall into the localrange, the carbon and nitrogen data of the two women plotwell among the other samples from the site (Fig. 3). Thecombination of an atypical deposition of the S-shapedbrooches and artificial skull deformation of the burial ingrave 5 has been suggested to be an indication of nonlocalorigin of the woman (Schafberg and Schwarz 2001).However, this is rather questionable (cf. Knipper et al.2012, p. 309, with further references; Bemmann 2009).Based on the isotope data, which fall into commonEuropean ranges, residential relocation of the two womenand the man cannot be excluded, but there is also no distinctpositive evidence for it. This is in agreement with Sr isotopedata of burials with artificial skull deformations in earlyMedieval Bavaria (Schweissing and Grupe 2000). Carbonand nitrogen isotope analysis shows, however, that, espe-cially in the cemetery of Altenerding, some women withskull modifications consumed different food from most ofthe population, a possible indication of nonlocal origin(Hakenbeck et al. 2010). Yet, archaeological and historicalperspectives may offer a simple explanation of this differ-ence. The Thuringians that are mentioned in the fifth cen-tury written sources were allies of the Huns, who werefamous for the fashion of skull deformation. The distribu-tion of artificially deformed skulls concentrates in CentralGermany and can be interpreted as a local “Thuringian”

adoption of a fashion of earlier foreign elites (cf.Hakenbeck 2009, Fig. 5.2; Theune 2005). In Bavaria,though, the historical background is different, and individ-uals with artificially deformed skulls are more likely to benonlocal (Theune 2005). Accordingly, “Thuringian” influ-ence and immigrations into the “Bajuvarian” region havebeen frequently discussed (von Freeden 1996).

In addition to the already mentioned male ofObermöllern grave 14, who may have changed his placeof residency during childhood, strontium isotope analysisidentified burials 2, 12, and 20 in Obermöllern and grave11 in Rathewitz as nonlocals (Knipper et al. 2012).Among the adults, the poorly equipped grave 11 fromRathewitz has relatively high δ15N and low δ13C values(Table 1; Fig. 3). Nevertheless, the measurement is soclose to the main data distribution that it does not pointto considerable access to different food sources. The lightstable isotope ratios of all other nonlocal individuals arenot distinct from those of the locals. However, theirmobility was recorded in their teeth during childhood,whereas the stable C and N isotopes of their bonecollagen reflect the diet of their last years of life.Therefore, these people who reached late adult to senile agesmay have lived in Obermöllern for decades after their arrivaland thus recorded the “common” dietary signal. There is noevidence for an isotopically distinct earlier diet or for anycontinuation of dietary habits and preferences that may havedistinguished them from the local individuals.

Comparison to contemporary sites

Comparisons to other, roughly contemporaneous centralEuropean sites help to characterize the dietary compositionof the burial communities of Obermöllern and Rathewitz.Much research has so far been conducted in Bavaria, wherethe Late Roman to Early Medieval cemeteries of Klettham,Altenerding, and Straubing-Bajuwarenstrasse (Hakenbecket al. 2010) as well as Unterigling, Kelheim, and Zeholfing(Strott 2006) have been investigated. Further evidencecomes from the Early Medieval Alpine cemetery ofVolders, Austria (McGlynn 2007) and from Weingarten insouthwest Germany (Schutkowski et al. 1999). The averageδ13C and δ15N values of adult individuals from the centralGerman cemeteries plot well within the ranges of the othersites (Fig. 4). Furthermore, the comparatively low standarddeviations (SD) point to rather homogeneous diets in thetwo burial communities, while variation in other sites isprimarily due to the consumption of C4 plants, such asmillet, by some individuals (Hakenbeck et al. 2010;Schutkowski et al. 1999) or a reflection of environmentalvariation in an Alpine environment (McGlynn 2007). Thisfits well with the small number of outliers among the Srisotope ratios from the Central German cemeteries (Knipper


et al. 2012) and gives further indication of rather stablepopulations subsisting on local dietary sources.

Conclusions

Carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios of human and faunalbone collagen from two central German “Thuringian” burialcommunities of the fifth/sixth century AD reflect a mixeddiet in a temperate C3-based ecosystem. The widely over-lapping isotope ratios of the faunal collagen point to largelysimilar feeding strategies of the domestic animals, with thepossible exception of horses. Isotope spacing between fau-nal and human samples exceeds one trophic level in δ13Cand is in the range of about one trophic level in δ15N. Thisindicates a major plant component of the human diet—mostlikely cereals—that had higher carbon and nitrogen isotoperatios than the forage of the domestic animals. Especially inObermöllern, significantly higher δ13C and δ15N ratios inmen in comparison to women indicate a larger contributionof animal-derived foodstuffs. The light stable isotope ratiosof the nonlocal individuals, as determined by Sr isotopeanalysis (Knipper et al. 2012), differ little from the spectrum

of the locals, and there is no indication of continuing specialdietary habits while living in the Obermöllern and Rathewitzcommunities. The only exception is the adult male ofObermöllern grave 14. He was not only exceptionally tall,but was buried in some distance from the other intermentsand lacks items of weaponry. His elevated collagen δ15Nratio attests to a significantly different diet, with possiblyhigher shares of omnivore meat, such as chicken, while theδ13C ratios do not argue for significant contributions ofmarine water or freshwater fish. The finding complementsstudies in Bavaria and other regions which also revealedsmall numbers of individuals with stable isotope ratios thatdiffered significantly from the main data distributions of theburial communities and have been interpreted as an indicationof nonlocal origins or special social status (cf. Hakenbeck etal. 2010). Age-specific data distributions among the childrenreflect nursing of the newborns, significant contribution ofsupplementary food in the 2- to 4-year-olds, and either highershares of plant food or metabolically caused lower nitrogenisotope ratios in the older children. Most graves were veryrichly equipped with valuable grave goods, and neither thegrave goods or furnishing nor the stable isotope data revealgroups that can be attributed to social differences. Instead,both lines of evidence point to an overall wealthy and ratherhomogeneous group. There are no clear correlations betweenespecially rich grave furnishings and hints on a different dietwith higher portions of meat and/or dairy products.Comparisons to other central European Late Roman to EarlyMedieval cemeteries indicate that the dietary composition ofthe Rathewitz and Obermöllern communities was typical fortheir time period. In agreement with strontium isotope enameldata (Knipper et al. 2012), small deviations in C and N isotoperatios confirm rather stable groups with little variation in theenvironmental conditions of farmed plots.

Although the comparison with faunal collagen offersinsights into past food webs, land use, and potential agri-cultural practices, stable isotope analyses on botanicalremains (cf. Bogaard et al. 2007; Fraser et al. 2011;Lightfoot and Stevens 2012) have the potential to discloseeven more detailed and specific information. Direct meas-urements on contemporaneous cereal grains would allow anapplication of mixing models (Drucker and Henry-Gambier2005; Phillips et al. 2005; Phillips and Koch 2002;Bocherens et al. 2006) to quantify the contribution ofplant-derived and animal-derived food or fish to the humandiet. The present level of analysis, however, reflects thedietary habits of both burial communities and lays a foun-dation for future studies of cemeteries in Austria, Moravia,and Pannonia in order to shed light on the history of the“Langobards” and the role of the “Thuringian” as an impor-tant group with which they were in contact and whosecontribution to the “Langobardian” ethnogenesis is histori-cally debated.

Fig. 4 Mean±1 SD δ13C and δ15N values of adult human collagenfrom the early medieval cemeteries of Obermöllern (n017) and Rathe-witz (n015) in comparison to the adult individuals from the Bavariansites of Altenerding (n067), Klettham (n010), and Straubing-Bajuwarenstrasse (n095) (Hakenbeck et al. 2010), Unterigling (n017), Kelheim (n032), and Zeholfing (n011) (Strott 2006; only datawith atomic C/N below 3.6 considered), the Austrian site of Volders(n0103) (McGlynn 2007), and Weingarten (n036) in southwest Ger-many (Schutkowski et al. 1999). The dietary composition of the centralGerman burial communities is well comparable to contemporary sitesin other regions


Acknowledgments We thank the State Office for Heritage Manage-ment and Archaeology/State Museum of Prehistory of Saxony-Anhalt,especially R.Mischker, for the access to the human skeletal remains. H.-J.Döhle made the faunal samples available and provided archaeozoologicaldeterminations. I. Rietig, W. Dindorf, and M. Müller helped substantiallywith sample preparation and isotope analysis and Uta von Freeden andFriedrich Lüth provided valuable archaeological information. We aregrateful to Amy Bogaard and Lynn E. Fisher for the valuable commentson the manuscript. This research was supported by the German Ministryof Education and Science (projects 01 UA 0806A and 01 UA 0806B),which is gratefully acknowledged.

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Dietary reconstruction in Migration Period Central Germany: a carbon and nitrogen isotope study

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