An Investigation of Late Upper Paleolithic and Epipaleolithic Hunter-Gatherer Subsistence and Settlement Patterns in Central PortugalbyJonathan Adams HawsA dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements forthe degree ofDoctor of Philosophy(Anthropology)at theUNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON2003An Investigation of Late Upper Paleolithic and Epipaleolithic Hunter-GathererSubsistence and Settlement Patterns in Central PortugalJonathan Adams HawsUnder the supervision of Professor T. Douglas PriceAt the University of Wisconsin-MadisonThis study investigates the nature of Upper Paleolithic hunter-gatherer subsistenceand settlement patterns in central Portugal. The primary research goal is to test the BroadSpectrum Revolution model which is the predominate explanatory framework used byarchaeologists in the region. Previous models characterized evidence of diachronic changesin subsistence as an indication of increased resource intensification, specialization anddiversification during the Late Upper Paleolithic. In Iberia, archaeologists characterizeintensification as the extraction of greater amounts of energy from the same resource.Specialization is seen through the occurrence of sites whose function centers around specifictasks and the focus on limited numbers of resource types.The goal of this dissertation is to show that the main components of the Broad SpectrumRevolution model, resource intensification and diversification, did not suddenly appearat the beginning of the Holocene, but that they have a much greater time depth. It isargued here that dietary diversity is part of our evolutionary heritage as omnivorousprimates and shifts between generalized and specialized diets reflect local climatic andenvironmental conditions, not a directional trend in human adaptation.To test this model, archaeofaunal assemblages from two Late Upper Paleolithic cavesin central Portugal were analyzed. In addition, plant exploitation was addressed by usingthe regional archaeological record, paleoenvironmental reconstruction and expectationsfrom evolutionary ecology. The assemblages from Lapa do Picareiro and Lapa do Suorepresent the best samples that date to the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene. Each sitehas multicomponent occupations allowing the study of diachronic trends in resource useacross the Pleistocene-Holocene transition. Results show that intensified use of smallgame animals, especially rabbit, occurred much earlier than the end of the Pleistocene. Inaddition, no discernible trend towards dietary diversification was found. Diets werediverse during the entire Upper Paleolithic sequence in Iberia. It is argued that theappearance of marine resource use at the end of the Pleistocene reflects changes in sealevel that have severely altered the archaeological record. The transport of marine resourcesinland during the Early Upper Paleolithic shows that coastal resource use occurred muchearlier.ivFor my Mom and DadvIt is not the critic who counts; not the man who points outhow the strong man stumbles, or where the doer of deeds couldhave done them better. The credit belongs to the man who isactually in the arena, whose face is marred by dust and sweatand blood; who strives valiantly; who errs, and comes shortagain and again; because there is not effort without error andshortcoming; but who does actually strive to do the deeds; whoknows the great enthusiasms, the great devotions; who spendshimself in a worthy cause, who at the best knows in the endthe triumphs of high achievement and who at the worst. if hefails, at least fails while daring greatly, so that his place shallnever be with those cold and timid souls who know neithervictory nor defeat.-- Theodore Roosevelt, excerpt from his Speech at theSorbonne, Paris, France April 23, 1910viAcknowledgementsMany people inspired, assisted and facilitated this dissertation. It really began withmy first exposure to Paleolithic archaeology as an undergraduate at the University ofArizona. The classes I took from Arthur Jelinek, John Olsen, Stanley Olsen, and MaryEllen Morbeck on Paleolithic archaeology and paleoanthropology sparked my interest inthis period of human prehistory. I never wavered too far off course despite numeroustemptations to explore other avenues.Most of these temptations came to me in graduate school at the University ofWisconsin-Madison. A wise man once said to me that choosing the right graduate schoolwas as important as choosing the right woman to marry. I have no doubt that I made thecorrect decision. The influence of all of my faculty was most rewarding and I wish tothank all of them: T. Douglas Price, James Stoltman, Mark Kenoyer, Henry Bunn, GaryFeinman and Herb Maschner. They exposed me to the fascinating world of past humanbehavior through numerous interesting and stimulating seminars and courses. I amextremely grateful to them for passing on their knowledge and appreciation of the past.Unfortunately, I never had the pleasure of taking courses from Sissel Schroeder and JasonYeager but I wish to thank them as well.I would also like to thank the members of my dissertation committee for all of thetime they put in to reading and commenting on a previous draft. T. Douglas Price, MarkKenoyer, Henry Bunn, Sissel Schroeder and William Aylward helped make this a betterwork with their kind, thoughtful and creative suggestions. They made what might havebeen a stressful period truly pleasureable.viiThere are numerous institutions who helped make this work possible by giving meopportunities and funding to continue research. The University of Wisconsin and itsAnthropology department provided travel grants that enabled me to go to Portugal toexplore my dissertation research. The Portuguese government supported the excavationof Lapa do Picareiro through its grants to Nuno Bicho, without which most of my researchwould not have been possible. Geochron Laboratories supported the radiocarbon datingfor the site, Lapa do Suo. The National Museum of Archaeology in Portugal kindly gavepermission to study materials and to take samples for further analyses. I thank all of theseinstitutions. A long time ago I begged on to the final year of a project on Upper Paleolithicarchaeology directed by Anthony Marks and Joo Zilho in Portugal. It changed my lifeimmeasurably. Without that first opportunity to work in Portugal, none of this wouldhave happened and I am greatly appreciative. I thank Jeff Shokler for encouraging me tocontact Tony Marks to get started. While on that project, I met Nuno Bicho whom I havehad the greatest pleasure of working with ever since. The subsequent project he beganled to this dissertation. Many rewarding personal and professional contacts wereestablished during this last decade.On a more personal level I wish to thank many people whom I worked, played andbecame friends with. I am not really sure where to begin because there are so many tothank. I would first like to acknowledge and thank all of my graduate school colleaguesand friends.Jeff Shokler and I shared many conversations on Portugal, archaeology and food. Iviiithank him and Sherrie for feeding me wonderful food over the years.Brian Hoffman and Matt Thomas have been great friends. I always enjoy our lunchesand hours of conversation.I would like to give special thanks to my advisor, Doug Price for allowing me to growinto the person I am. Without your support and guidance through the years I wouldnever have made it this far.Nuno Bicho and I have worked and played together in Portugal for over 10 years. Ithas been one of the most unimaginably wonderful experiences to explore Portugal withhim. I cannot possibly thank you enough and look forward to what I know will be manyyears of friendship and further collaborative work.I also thank Byran Hockett for what has turned out to be a beautiful professional andpersonal relationship. Much of the intellectual quality of this dissertation is due to him.Our collaborative work has been extremely rewarding. I value our work and friendshipimmeasurably.I would also thank Maria Joo Valente for her generosity in allowing me to study partof the Lapa do Suo collection. It has led to a warm and enduring friendship. Much of mywork in Portugal was made possible by Maria Joo and her in-laws, the Martins family.In addition Antonio Faustino Carvalho and Francisco Almeida became good friends andcolleagues over the years. Joo Zilho and Katia Arajo helped me in many ways and Iconsider them friends and colleagues. I would also thank Paul Thacker for numerousconversations and idea sharing about Portuguese archaeology.It seems like Chris Fisher, Kiki Gilderhus, Mike Galaty, Caroline Funk and I haveixbeen the best of friends forever. We have shared so many warm and fun experiences andstimulating intellectual conversations. Since they have moved on I made fast friends withDavid Meiggs, Susan Reslewic, Shawn Murray, Brad Chase and Kelly Knudson. I love allof you and thank you from the bottom of my heart for being my friends and helping mealong the way.Lastly, I would like to thank my entire family for their love and support. If not forthem I would never have done this. My sister Ann and my parents, Bob and Penny, gaveme everything I really need in life: love.xTable of ContentsChapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1Part I: Theoretical frameworks for reconstructing subsistence and settlementpatterns, explaining subsistence change and past application on the IberianPeninsula .............................................................................................................................. 15Chapter 2: Theoretical frameworks for hunter-gatherer subsistence and settlementpattern studies ..................................................................................................................... 15 Site Catchment Analysis ......................................................................................................... 16 Forager/Collector Model ....................................................................................................... 17 Predictive models .................................................................................................................... 18 Optimal Foraging Models ...................................................................................................... 24 Diet Breadth.............................................................................................................................. 25 Patch Choice ............................................................................................................................. 27 Central Place ............................................................................................................................. 28 Discussion ................................................................................................................................. 30 Nutritional ecology and human dietary choice .................................................................. 332.1 Explanations for subsistence change ................................................................................ 38Chapter 3: A regional perspective on Upper Paleolithic Iberia: a comparison ofCantabria, Mediterranean Spain and Portugal ............................................................. 463.1 Archaeological applications of economic models in Spain ........................................... 46 Cantabria................................................................................................................................... 47 Mediterranean Spain ............................................................................................................... 523.2 Central Portugal ................................................................................................................... 62 Subsistence................................................................................................................................ 69 Settlement ................................................................................................................................. 72Part II: Prehistoric diet and subsistence................................................................................76Chapter 4: A Western Mediterranean perspective on Upper Paleolithic plantconsumption ........................................................................................................................ 814.1 Plant use by prehistoric Mediterranean hunter-gatherers ............................................ 814.2 Plant resources in Iberia ..................................................................................................... 85 Present-day climate and vegetation in Portugal ................................................................. 854.3 Late Pleistocene/ Early Holocene Portugal ................................................................... 102 Climate change and paleoenvironment ............................................................................. 1034.4 Modeling economic and nutritional utility of plants ................................................... 124 Pine nuts.................................................................................................................................. 129 Acorns ..................................................................................................................................... 132xi5.1 History of investigation .................................................................................................... 146 Pleistocene faunas.................................................................................................................. 1455.2 Prey behavioral ecology.................................................................................................... 1505.3 Lapa do Picareiro ............................................................................................................... 156 Faunal Remains ...................................................................................................................... 164 Taphonomy............................................................................................................................. 172 Skeletal element representation and butchery patterns................................................... 183 Discussion ............................................................................................................................... 2105.4 Lapa do Suo.......................................................................................................................213 Faunal analysis for Lapa do Suo.........................................................................................219 Rabbits ..................................................................................................................................... 222 Avifauna.................................................................................................................................. 236 Aquatic fauna......................................................................................................................... 239 Discussion............................................................................................................................... 2395.5 Additional fauna-bearing Final Upper Paleolithic and Epipaleolithic sites inPortuguese Estremadura ........................................................................................................ 241 Gruta do Caldeiro ................................................................................................................ 242 Bocas, Casal Papagaio, Pena da Mira ................................................................................. 248 Lapa dos Coelhos ................................................................................................................... 253 Buraca Grande & Buraca Escura ......................................................................................... 2535.6 Discussion ........................................................................................................................... 2545.7 The broader regional context ........................................................................................... 258Chapter 6: Towards an understanding of Late Pleistocene/ Early Holocenesubsistence and settlement in central Portugal .......................................................... 272Summary................................................................................................................................... 293References Cited ...................................................................................................................... 299 Nutritional utility .................................................................................................................. 1384.5 Discussion ........................................................................................................................... 141Chapter 5: Upper Paleolithic faunal exploitation in central Portugal .......................... 1461Chapter 1: IntroductionThis study utilizes archaeological data to test the efficacy of the Broad SpectrumRevolution (BSR) model in central Portugal during the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene.It explores the relationships between humans and their surrounding environment in anevolutionary ecological framework that encompasses traditional paleoeconomic models,optimal foraging theory and nutritional ecology. The Late Upper Paleolithic andEpipaleolithic diet, subsistence and settlement patterns of central Portugal are examinedthrough paleoenvironmental data and detailed studies of archaeofaunal assemblagesthrough taphonomic lenses. The goal of this dissertation is to show that the maincomponents of the Broad Spectrum Revolution model, resource intensification anddiversification, did not suddenly appear at the beginning of the Holocene, but that theyhave a much greater time depth. It is argued here that dietary diversity is part of ourevolutionary heritage as omnivorous primates and shifts between generalized andspecialized diets reflect local climatic and environmental conditions, not a directional trendin human adaptation.Archaeologists have long characterized the Pleistocene/Holocene transition as aboundary across which human societies underwent dramatic changes that ultimately ledto the transition to agriculture. These include the intensification and diversification of thehuman subsistence base and increased sedentism, seen by greater logistical mobility, largerresidential site size and the appearance of cemeteries. The most significant aspects of pre-agriculture human subsistence diversification are the worldwide increase in the exploitation2of small game and aquatic resources and more intensive use of plant foods, especiallyseeds and nuts (Binford 1968; Flannery 1969; Hayden 1981; Bailey and Parkington 1988;Kuhn and Stiner 2001). Flannery (1969) characterized this global trend as a Broad SpectrumRevolution in human diet. Ultimately, this dietary shift is thought to result from humanpopulation pressure on resources. As population increased in the Late Pleistocene, peoplewere forced to incorporate new food items into their diet that were previously ignored.Increasingly, archaeologists are pushing the exploitation of small game, aquatic resourcesand plants further back in time (Erlandson 2001; Stiner 2000). Recently, Stiner et al. (2000)have modified the Broad Spectrum Model to account for the discrepancy between thearchaeological evidence and the expectations of the original model. An alternativeexplanation to the nature and timing of small game, aquatic and plant resource exploitationhas been offered by Hockett and Haws (2002, in press). In this approach, dietary diversityis seen as a hallmark of human adaptation not the result of progressive trends due togradual population increase. Because these developments occurred on a global scale,information from a wide range of geographic and environmental contexts is required inorder to better understand them (Straus 1996). The focus here is on the Iberian Peninsula(Figure 1.1).On the Iberian Peninsula, the overwhelming majority of the research on subsistence/settlement patterns during the Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene comes from Cantabriaand Mediterranean Spain (Aura Tortosa & Prez Ripoll 1995; Bailey 1983; Bailey andDavidson 1983; Clark 1983a, 1983b; Conkey 1980; Moure-Romanillo 1995; Straus 1986,1987;Straus and Clark 1986; Villaverde and Martinez Valle 1995; Villaverde et al. 1998). This3o +oo kmPortugaSpanlranceAndorraataunyaVaencaAndaucaAenteoAgarveGacaAsturasantabraAragonNurcaGbratarNedterranean SeaAtantc OceanR. TeoR. DouroR. EbroR. JucarNoroccolgure +.+: Nap o the lberan PennsuaEstremadura N4research was facilitated by good faunal and other organic preservation in caves androckshelters. Diachronic changes in subsistence and settlement patterns are characterizedby gradual diversification and intensification of the subsistence base from the Solutreanthrough the Mesolithic (Clark 1987; Clark and Straus 1986; Clark and Yi 1983; Straus 1992).Clark and Straus (1986) explained subsistence change as a result of demographic expansionand resource stress, largely based on the faunal record of red deer specialization and theincrease in shellfish use at La Riera cave, thus supporting the population pressure theoryand the Broad Spectrum Revolution model for the Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene(Binford 1968; Clark and Straus 1986; Cohen 1977; Earle 1980; Hassan 1981; Neeley andClark 1993). In Mediterranean Spain, researchers have observed a similar Late Pleistocenetrend of intensified rabbit, red deer and ibex exploitation (Aura and Villaverde 1995; Auraand Prez Ripoll 1992, 1995; Aura et al. 1998, 2002; Villaverde and Martnez Valle 1992,1995; Villaverde et al. 1997, 1998). In this region however, there is evidence of plant andmarine resources in archaeological sites dated to the Middle Paleolithic in Gibraltar(Finlayson et al. 2000). Coastal and plant resources are also apparent in the Upper Paleolithiclevels of the Cueva de Nerja. This suggests the Broad Spectrum Revolution model maynot fit the data from Mediterranean Spain.One of the areas of visible post-Pleistocene shifts towards coastal resource use isthe central region of Portugal (Binford 1968; Clark 1952). Large shell middens dated tothe Early Holocene near the Tejo estuary have been known for almost 150 years. Theirappearance is thought to result from human dietary and settlement shifts coinciding withthe global pattern described as the Broad Spectrum Revolution. However, Portugal has5received comparatively less attention, yet remains the most appealing sub-region on thepeninsula to study the long-term changes outlined above. Initial investigation into thePaleolithic of Portuguese Estremadura began in the 19th century by the geologists, CarlosRibeiro and Joaquim Filipe Nery Delgado (Bicho 1993; Zilho 1993). Their work, and thatof the Servios Geologcos, resulted in the discovery and excavation of many UpperPaleolithic sites (Zilho 1993). Numerous caves were excavated around the turn of thecentury by Vieira Natividade and others from the Servios Geolgicos in the area betweenthe coast and Serra de Candeeiros. The region was then largely ignored until the 1930sand 1940s, when Manuel Heleno excavated sites near Cambelas (Torres Vedras) and inthe Rio Maior valley. Perhaps the greatest impact on Portuguese Paleolithic archaeologycame from the work of George Zbyszewski and Henri Breuil. Using the fossile-directeurapproach to typology and chronology, Breuil classified the Portuguese Upper Paleolithicin the same terms as the classic French core area. Despite differences between the tworegions, the sequence of Aurignacian (33-25,000 bp), Gravettian (25-22,000 bp), Solutrean(22-17,000 bp), and Magdalenian (17-10,000 bp) is used to the present day to organize theUpper Paleolithic. Epipaleolithic (10-8,000 bp) has been added to this repertoire to classifysites dated to the Early Holocene which are still characteristic of the Final Upper Paleolithic(Bicho 1996; but see Vierra 1995 for a different scheme). The regional cultural chronologyis provided in Table 1.1.Interest in the Late Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic waned until the 1980s, whenresearch begun by Joo Zilho, Jos Morais Arnaud, and David Lubell contributedsignificant information on the prehistory of central Portugal (Arnaud, 1993; Bicho, 1993b;6Tabe +.+: utura dvsons or late Pestocene/Eary Hoocene southwestEuropeSouthwest lranceNorthern Span(Vasco-antabra)Nedterranean SpanPortugaNesothc(Sauveterran)o,ooo-,