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Dialectal Differentiation
Language change through time,
space, and circumstances
Credits: This presentation is created by Dr. A.P. Church. It may be
used for educational purposes on condition of acknowledgment. The
author acknowledges the use of maps provided by the Ancient WorldMapping center, http://www.unc.edu/awmc/, which he has modified for
the purpose of this presentation. Other sources used in the
presentation are acknowledged upon use.
http://www.unc.edu/awmc/http://www.unc.edu/awmc/ -
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InsitutionalLearning Outcomes:I Critical Thinking
(About where, when, why, and how language changes)
II Communication and Technology(Power point, WWW, and other electronic resources)
III Multicultural and Global Awareness
(The study of English and your English is a study of the socio-historicalcontexts of many cultures that have shaped varieties of English)
IV Aesthetic Appreciation(We can not appreciate literature without appreciating the language whichmakes literature possible, but the study of language also allows us toappreciate the various factors that shape its own form and content; thehistory of English is a history of extraordinary diversity, power, and beautyof language in a variety of social and historical contexts.)
V Discipline Content(Understanding English literatures requires understanding Englishlanguages)
These Outcomes are relevant to all of the English Program Outcomes because theydevelop knowledge and skills necessary for critically reading, writing, and thinkingabout language and literature.
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Language is constantly changing
A basic precept of this course is the idea that language isconstantly changing. Since this course is about the historyof the English language, our ultimate goal is to apply this
precept to English and study how it has been and is
changing through time, space, and circumstances.
But language is not just a system of vocal signs by which agroupof humans communicate, it is also a system of vocal signs
by which an individualcommunicates at different times,places, and circumstances. Before we look at the Englishlanguage historically, lets examine howyourlanguage has
been constantly changing.
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How hasyourlanguage changed?
Relevant to time?
When I was a child, I spake as a child, I understood as a child, I thought as a child: but when Ibecame a man, I put away childish things. (Apostle Paul, 1 Corinthians)
Relevant to space?
I am become a name;
For always roaming with a hungry heart
Much have I seen and known; cities of men
And manners, climates, councils, governments,
Myself not least, but honour'd of them all;
And drunk delight of battle with my peers,
Far on the ringing plains of windy Troy.
I am a part of all that I have met; (Tennyson, Ulysses)
Relevant to circumstances?
I must remind you that you are not to interrupt me if I speak in my accustomed manner. . . . Menof Athens, do not interrupt, but hear me; there was an agreement between us that you shouldhear me out. (Socrates, in Platos Apology)
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Language is shaped by time
The diachronicstudy of language is the study of howlanguage changes through time. It is the study
of historical change. Your language has
changed throughout time, and so has the
English language.
By studying the historical evidence of written
records, scholars have concluded that English, aWestern Germanic language, evolved over
thousands of years from a reconstructed Proto-
Indo-European Language (*PIE).
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PIE Time?
http://www.godecookery.com/twotarts/twotarts.html
14th Century English piemaking, courtesty of Monica Gaudio at
Godecookery.com; not exactly the pie we are looking for. The PIE we are
looking for is . . .
http://www.godecookery.com/twotarts/twotarts.htmlhttp://www.godecookery.com/twotarts/twotarts.html -
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Scholars disagree on the number of distinct language groups evolving out of PIE;
I follow Cable and Baugh, who mention eleven distinct groups: Germanic, Celtic,Balto-Slavic, Latin, Albanian, Hellenic, Hittite, Armenian, Tocharian, Iranian,
and Indian. Modern English evolves out of the West Germanic branch of the
Germanic group. The map approximates the location of descendents of these
language speakers today, but the languages evolved at different times since the
approximate date of PIE some 6000 years ago.
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Comparative study of PIE languages began with Sir William Jones, who was an
official of the British empire in the late 18th
century. Studying some of the oldestknown texts written in Sanskrit (an early form of Indian), Jones noticed there
were similarities between Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek. He theorized that they had
originated from a common mother language that has been lostthe Prototypical
Indo-European.
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Comparison of PIE Languages: to be
Sanskr it Latin Greek OE MnE
asmi sum eimi eom am
asi es ei eart are (art)
asti est esti is is
smas sumus esmen sindon are
stha estis esti sindon are
santi sunt eisi sindon are
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What similarities and differences do
you see in these forms?
Sanskr it Latin Greek OE MnE
asmi sum eimi eom am
asi es ei eart are (art)
asti est esti is is
smas sumus esmen sindon are
stha estis esti sindon are
santi sunt eisi sindon are
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Comparison of PIE Languages:
common wordsSanskr it Latin Greek OE MnE
pita pater pater fder father
bhratar frater phrater broer brother
mata mater mater modor mother
padam pedem poda fotu foot
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What similarities and differences do
you see in these forms?
Sanskr it Latin Greek OE MnE
pita pater pater fder father
bhratar frater phrater broer brother
mata mater mater modor mother
padam pedem poda fotu foot
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Oxford English Dictionary: Etymology
Etymology is the study of word origins. Many dictionaries willinclude an etymological explanation of a word to place it ina historical context. The most reliable source for Englishlanguage word origins is the OED. It demonstrates thehistory of the English word Father as follows:
[Com. Teut. and Aryan: OE.fdercorresponds to OFris.feder,fader, OS.fadar,fader(LG., Du. vader, vaar), OHG.fater(MHG. and mod.G. vater), ON.faer, -ir(Sw., Da.fader,far), Goth.fadar(found only Gal. iv. 6, the ordinaryword being atta):OTeut.fader:OAryanpater. whence Skr.
pitr, Gr. , L.pater, OIr. athir.
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Evidence for Language Change
From our personal experience we can observe
the differences in our language throughout
time from when we were children, teenagers,
and adults. Perhaps we have recordings or
videos of our speech from different periods
in our lives, or samples of our writing from
elementary school, high school, and college.We also have the testimony of adults who
knew and know us.
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Written Evidence
We dont have recordings or videosfrom hundreds or thousands of years
ago. Our evidence for observing the
change in historical languages comes
from written records of that language,
like the image of the first folio of
Beowulfmanuscript to the right.
We can see differences in PIE
languages by comparing the written
language of early historical records.
We can see how a language like
English has changed through the Old,
Middle, and Modern English periods
by comparing this written evidence:
Image of Beowulf MS, Cotton Vitellius A.xv., British
Museum.
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Lords Prayer Diachronically in English
Do you know the modern English version of this prayer? Ill recite it as you read
either the OE or ME version. What kinds of changes can you see in the four
hundred years that separate the Old and Middle English English periods?
Old English Period
Fder ure, u e eart on heofonum,
si in nama gehalgod.
Tobecume in rice.
Gewure in willa on eoran swa swa on
heofonum.
Urne gedghwamlican hlaf syle us to dg.And forgyf us ure gyltas, swa swa we
forgyfa urum gyltendum.
And ne geld u us on costnunge,
ac alys us of yfele. Solice.
Middle English Period
Oure fadir that art in heuenes,
halewid be thi name;
thi kyngdoom come to;
be thi wille don, in erthe as in heuene.
Yyue to vs this dai oure breed ouer othir
substaunce,and foryyue to vs oure dettis, as we foryyuen
to oure dettouris;
and lede vs not in to temptacioun, but
delyuere vs fro yuel.
Amen.
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Language is also shaped byspace
Space, in a sense, is geography. OED defines geography asthe description of the earth's surface, treating of itsform and physical features, its natural and politicaldivisions, the climate, productions, population, etc., of
the various countries. Throughout the term, we willexplore how these different geographical factorsinfluence change.
When speakers of a language move into a new space, they
often encounter features associated with the new regionwhich requires them to invent a new word or borrow aword from a different language.
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Although common words like father, mother, and brothermay not necessarily
change as a result of geography, we do know that unique features of ones
environment may result in different words being developed in differentlanguages. For instance, there were no words forjungle, mango, and crocodilein
the earliest Germanic and Slavic languages because the speakers of these
language groups lived in regions where there were no such things. Yet English
eventually acquired these words when it came into contact with languages that
had already found a need for them.
New Words for New Worlds
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Jungle, Desert, Forest?The OED explains that the word Jungle was borrowed into English
toward the end of the 18th century, but notice how even as it wasborrowed its meaning was changed to correspond to a geographicalfeature of the Indian Subcontinent that the English were notfamiliar with. The OED etymology of jungle is:
[a. Hindi and Marathijangaldesert, waste, forest, Skr.jangaladry, dry
ground, desert. The change in Anglo-Indian use may be comparedto that in the historical meaning of the word forestin its passagefrom a waste or unenclosed tract to one covered with wild wood. Inthe transferred sense ofjunglethere is app. a tendency to associateit with tangle.]
1. In India, originally, as a native word, Waste or uncultivated ground (=forest in the original sense); then, such land overgrown withbrushwood, long grass, etc.; hence, in Anglo-Indian use, a. Landovergrown with underwood, long grass, or tangled vegetation; also,the luxuriant and often almost impenetrable growth of vegetationcovering such a tract. b. with aand pl. A particular tract or pieceof land so covered; esp. as the dwelling-place of wild beasts.
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Languages, Dialects, and Registers
The variations that emerge over time among people speakingthe same language but in different regions result in whatwe call dialects. Eventually, dialectsmay becomerecognized as new languages. Dialects and languages aretypically associated with particular places.
Language also changes to meet the particular needs of a givensituation. When we change our language to function indifferent social settings, we speak in what are known asdifferent registers; these registers represent cultural
levelsand functional varietiesof English that we may useat work or school, when being formal or informal, orwhen speaking to a friend or a grandfather or aprofessor or policeman.
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Whats a Klinefelter?
Varieties of language that adapt to a contemporary time,place, and circumstance are considered synchronicrather thanhistorical or diachronic. For instance,spatial relationships may be intimate expressions of
a particular community. If you tell another BlueHawk that you saw some dude dressed like Busterat Klinefelter, or if on the Kaibab crew-net I warnsomeone: be advised; theres a widowmakerhanging on the yellowbelly at Shoot em up Dick,
whether or not we are understood depends on theextent our language has been shaped mutually bythe same time, space, and circumstances.
(Shoot em up What?!?!)Go Hawks! ! !
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Language changes in time and space
Just as yourlanguage has been changed by the peculiarities ofyour experiences in time and space, English has changedas a result of its contact with other places and cultures.From its origins as an Indo-European language, through
its development as a form of Germanic known asWestern Germanic into its earliest historical form calledOld English, Engl ish has been constantly changing.
From the earliest historical evidence, we also see that there
were many dialectical differences between the Anglo-Saxon tribes that arrived from different regions of theContinent to what was to become known as England.
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Dialects
David Burnley says the following about Dialects (from OldEnglish: A Multimedia History):
Dialects arise through the variation which is found in
languages according to the geographical locations inwhich they are spoken. Variation may occur at all levelsof analysis, and include variety in everything fromaccent to syntax and semantics. This basic conceptionseems simple enough, but precise definition is less easy.
Variation due to social and stylistic differences may notalways be easy to distinguish from purely geographicalones. And there are other uncertainties.
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Dialects
A dialect is distinguished from the more widespreadform of the language by a set of local variants, but it isoften difficult to identify a geographical area for thatdialect. As we travel across the country, variants tend to
be replaced at different points. A Durham dialect soundsmore like a North Yorkshire dialect than a SouthYorkshire dialect. It is usually dif f icul t to recognise aclear border.David Burnley
The dialectal differences of the Angles and the Saxons thatsettled in Northumbria and Wessex, respectively, maybe seen in the following comparison:
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Caedmons Hymn in Different Regions
of Anglo-Saxon England
Northumbrian Dialect Version
Nu scylun hergan hefaenricaes uard,
metuds maecti end his modgidanc,
uerc uuldurfadur, sue he uundra gihuaes,eci dryctin, or astelid.
He aerist scop aelda barnum
heben til hrofe, haleg scepen;
tha middungeard moncynns uard,
eci dryctin, fter tiadfirum foldu, frea allmectig
West Saxon Dialect Version
Nu sculon herigean heofonrices weard,
meotodes meahte and his modgeanc,
weorc wuldorfder, swa he wundra gehws,ece drihten, or onstealde.
He rest sceop eoran bearnum
heofon to hrofe, halig scyppend;
a middangeard moncynnes weard,
ece drihten, fter teodefirum foldan, frea lmihtig.
What differences can you see in the
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What differences can you see in the
Northumbrian and West Saxon
dialects of Caedmons Hymn?Northumbrian Dialect Version
Nu scylun hergan hefaenricaes uard,
metuds maecti end his modgidanc,
uerc uuldurfadur, sue he uundra gihuaes,
eci dryctin, or astelid.
He aerist scop aelda barnum
heben til hrofe, haleg scepen;
tha middungeard moncynns uard,
eci dryctin, fter tiad
firum foldu, frea allmectig
West Saxon Dialect Version
Nu sculon herigean heofonrices weard,
meotodes meahte and his modgeanc,
weorc wuldorfder, swa he wundra gehws,
ece drihten, or onstealde.
He rest sceop eoran bearnum
heofon to hrofe, halig scyppend;
a middangeard moncynnes weard,
ece drihten, fter teode
firum foldan, frea lmihtig.
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OE version of Caedmons Hymn
compared to a MnE Translation
Nu we sculon herigean heofonrices weard, Now we must praise the Protector of the heavenly kingdom,
meotodes meahte ond his modgeanc, the might of the Measurer and His mind's purpose,
weorc wuldorfder, swa he wundra gehws, the work of the Father of Glory, as He for each of the wonders,
ece drihten, or onstealde the eternal Lord, established a beginning.
He rest sceop eoran bearnum He shaped first for the sons of the Earth
heofon to hrofe, halig scyppend; heaven as a roof, the Holy Maker;
a middangeard moncynnes weard, then the Middle-World, mankind's Guardian,
ece drihten, fter teode the eternal Lord, made afterwards,
firum foldan, frea lmihtig. solid ground for men, the almighty Lord.
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What Have You Learned?
I hope that this brief introduction has helped youbegin to understand how time, place and
circumstance have influenced language
change. We call this process of change
Dialectal Differentiation.
Dialectal Differentiation is a term that refers to
the process by which language changes over
time and space and circumstance. It is alsoknown as language variation orlanguage
diversification.
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Dialectal Differentiation
In its broadest application, dialectal differentiationprovides an explanation for how new languagesor dialects emerge from a common language. Asa group or groups of speakers of a common
language become separated from other speakersof the same language, the process of changebegins as they are exposed to differentlanguages, dialects, and other stimuli that result
in changes in phonology, morphology, lexicology,etc. that differentiate them from their originallanguage group over time and distance.
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What else?
We also learned about how we can study a languagediachronicallyor synchronically, from historicalor contemporary perspectives.
We learned that there are differences betweenlanguages, dialects, and registers.
We will continue to study how English is a language
with many historical and contemporaryvarieties and how it has changed in morphology,phonology, lexicology, and orthography.
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Critical Thinking QuestionsPurpose: To think critically about why and how language and languages change.
Questions: What kinds of changes have taken place in English since its *PIE origins?How has western North Dakota shaped your dialect of English?
How does your language change when you are writing rather than speaking?
Do you have any other questions?
Evidence: What evidence to we have to answer the question?
Interpretations/Conclusions: How are we interpreting the evidence? What are ourconclusions?
Ideas, Concepts, Theories: Are there any particular theories or ideas that help us
understand the issue?
Assumptions: What assumptions or presuppositions do we have regarding the issue?
Implications/Consequences: If our interpretations or conclusions about the evidenceare correct, what are the implications and consequences of our thinking?
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Dialectal Differentiation
Language change through time,
space, and circumstances-The End-