DHARMA ART BOOK
Transcript of DHARMA ART BOOK
FROMEMPTINESSTOFORMANDBACK
anintroductiontotheartoftheDharma
JoanDePaoli&TonyBernhard
TableofContents
Introduction...................................................................1
EarlyImages...................................................................3
InfluenceofCulturalInfluence....................................27
Architecture.................................................................49
ArtofZen....................................................................67
ModernDharmaArt.....................................................91
INTRODUCTION
InthetwentyfivehundredyearssincetheawakeningofShakyamuniBuddha,followershavebeenstudyinghisteachingsandpracticingthepathheprescribedineffortsatrealizingtheBuddha’sinsightandputtinganendtothesufferingthatseemstocomealongwiththeconditionofbeingalive.
Any historical review of Buddhist philosophy and practice over the centuries will reveal substantialdevelopmentandchange.
AstheBuddha’steachingsspreadfromtheBuddha’shomelandinnortheasternIndia,practitionerscametoemphasizeonefeatureoranotherofhisteachingsinaccordancewiththedifferentculturalinterestsandpredispositionsoftheirparentcivilizations.Today,aswiththeBurmese,Chinese,Japanese,andTibetans,WEarealsoseeingtheheartoftheBuddha’steachingsadapttotheculturalconditionsinthewest.
ForyearsafterthedeathoftheBuddha,noimagesinhumanformweremadeindeferencetohisrequest.Heclearlystatedthathewasnotadietyandfearedthatanimageinhislikenessmightbecomesubjecttoidolworship.
So,forseveralhundredyears,theBuddha’steachingswererepresentedbyfootprints,dharmawheels,pillarsandnumericalreferencestothetriplegemoftheBuddha,thedharmaandthesangha(thecommunityoftheBuddha’sfollowers).
Later,whenimagesoftheBuddhacametoberegardedprimarilyasremindersoftheawakenedbeing,theBuddhaandhisstorywereportrayedintheuniqueaestheticstyleofindividualcultures.Muchaswestern,ChristianartadorningthewallsofcathedralsinthewestrecountedthestoryofJesus,narrativeimagesandstylizediconographydepictingtheBuddhaandinterpretinghislifeandteachingsappearedintheeast.
Over theyears,when reflectingon theBuddha’s insightand teachings, artists andcraftsmenhavebeenas articulate in translating the Buddha’s insight as have anyone engaging in conventional writing andcommentary. Sculptors, painters and architects aswell as gardeners, potters and such ritual leaders asteamastershavepointedtoaspectsofthedharmainwaysunavailabletomoreconventionalinterpreters:displayingthedemeanoroftheBuddhainatranscendentmentalstatebecamethepointofmanycommonlyrecognizedrenditionsofthesittingBuddha
Artistic stylesmovedwithartistsandartisanswho traveledalongwithadventurersandslowlymigratingpopulations.Artisticstylesmixedas teachings tookroot innewculturalsoilandhybrid formsgrewandtransformed.
Representationsofburialmounds,forexample,whichwereknownasstupaswereoriginallydesignedbyarchitectsinIndiatocreateasacredspacefordevoteestopracticethedharmabysimplecircumamabulationofthemound.
Onthetopsoftheearliestofthesestupas,artisanswereerectingornamentalfinialsthatrepresentedtheBuddha’senlightenedmindinthesamewayasdidthebulgingprotuberanceatoptheheadsofstatuesofthebuddhahimself.
Later, in Japan, this symbolismevolved intopagodaswhichon theirown stood for thepresenceof theenlightenedmind.
Today, the interpenetrationofcontemporarycultures isbringingandmixingalldharma traditions in thewest,andthecomminglingofartisticstylesandtraditionsismirroringthecombinationofteachingsfromthevarioustraditionsintonewdharmaformations.
ThehistoryofdharmaartreflectsthedevelopmentofBuddhistthoughtandexperienceoverthepasttwenty-fivehundredyears.
ThisbookisdesignedasanorientationtothistraditionandasastartingpointforinvestigatingthedharmathroughthegatewayofartistswhocelebrateandexplicatetheBuddha’steachingsthroughtheirindividualandculturalaestheticexpression.
1
EARLYIMAGES
TherewerenoimagesmadeoftheBuddhaduringhislifetimesowehavenocontemporaneously-createdvisualrecordofwhathelookedlike.
Thiswas—perhapstosomeextent—intentional:
Concernedthatimagesofhimselfmightdistractpeoplefromtheirownpursuitofawakening,theBuddhadiscouragedthecreationoficonswhichwouldrepresenthimself.
ThefirstobjectsandimagesthatrepresentedtheBuddhaandhisteachingsappeartohavebeencreatedroughlyahundredandfiftyyearsaftertheBuddha’spassingduringthereignofKingAshoka.
The King erected pillars in various parts of the kingdom that were cappedwith symbolic objects andinscribed with images that referenced the Buddha, the Dharma--his teachings--and the Sangha--hiscommunityofmonks.
Amongtheearliestofsuchsignificant,symboliccreationswerestupasorsymbolicburialmoundsrecalling,orrepresenting,theburialmoundoftheBuddha.
Inaddition to remindingusof theBuddhaandhis teachings, such stupasprovideda focus forwalkingmeditationwhichwasrituallypracticedbyproceedingclockwisearoundthemound.
Noneoftheornamentationassociatedwithearlystupas,itshouldbenoted,containanydirectrepresentationoftheBuddha.
Bythe2ndcenturyofthecommonera,philosophersoftheMahayanatraditionarrivedatthenotionthatartworkcouldfunctionasareminderoftheDharma,oftheBuddha’steachings,andnotnecessarilyasafocusforworship.
Thiswas helped alongwith thematurationof theMahayana ideaof shunyata; voidness; emptiness... aqualitythatcan’tpossiblybedirectlyrepresented.
Consequently,wentthethought,sincenorepresentationcouldeverbemistakenforthehighestrealizationofBuddha-mind,itbecamepermissibletocreateimagesthatcouldfunctiontorecallthedharmaandkeepitinmind.
ThefirstimagesofthepersonageoftheBuddhaappearedaroundthe2ndcenturyofthecommoneraduringtheKushanDynastyandthereignofKingKanishka.
Imagesfromthattimearefoundattwoprinciplesites:Mathura(southofDeli)andGhandarainthenorthnearPeshawar.
Artisticstylesdifferedbetweentheseregions
InbothregionscraftspeopleappliedtheirexistingpracticesandsensibilitiestothetaskofcreatingimagesoftheBuddha.
Mathuranproductions,coming fromfurthersouth,and thus less influencedby thecraftsmenwhocamealongwithAlexanderthegreat,grewoutofthenativeIndianyogictraditionsandemphasizedsomesensualaspectsofthebody.
ThisemphasisreflectedthetraditionalYogicinterestinthelifeforceandthebreathastheymanifestinthebody.
Mathurancarvingswerecharacteristicallydoneinredsandstone.
On theotherhand, theGhandaran images from northern India includemanyGraeco-RomanelementswhichhadbeentakenupbycraftsmenandusedintheregionsincethetimeofAlexandertheGreatandtheinfluxofEuropeancraftspeoplewhocamewithhim.
Thisfirstsetofimageswillbringusuptothosecreatedinthe4thcenturyofthecommonera.
3
WhentheBuddhasatundertheBodhiTreetwenty-fivehundredyearsago,andawakenedtothe
waythingsactuallyare,heissaidtohavefirstexplainedhisnewunderstandingtofiveascetics
withwhomhehadbeenpreviouslypracticingforseveralyears.
Thisfirstteaching,whichsetinmotiontheentiresubsequenthistoryofBuddhism,ischaracterized
asthemomentatwhichtheWheeloftheDharma–theadvancementofTheBuddha’steachings
throughouttheworld–wasinitiallysetinmotion.
SincetheBuddhahadaskedthattherebenoimagesofhimselfashewasnotadietyofanykind,
artisansseeking todisplay theDharma in theirownmanner,usedsymbolswhich include the
wheeltorefertohisteachings.
Thiswheelwascarvedseveralcenturiesbeforethecommoneraandreflectsamixtureofcontent
andstylethatistypicalofthecraftsmenofthetime.Suchartisansoftenworkedforavarietyof
patronsandusedmanycommoniconsinassemblingtheircreations.
ThiswheelisasymbolfromtheJaintradition,anasceticreligioussectthatwasprominentatthe
timeoftheBuddha.
Thepiecehasornamentalearthspirits–whoweredrawnfromindigenous,animisttraditionsof
thetime–holdingupthewheel.Thismannerofmixingstyleandcontentfromdifferenttraditions
affectsmanyoftheearlyartisticworksinspiredbythedharma.
Over time, thewheelevolved intoaprinciplesymbol for theDharma itselfandyouwillfind
imagesofwheelsinmanyearlyworks.
Thewheel, as it later became a common Buddhist symbol, eventually standardized at eight
spokeswhichreferredtothedistinct,butnotseparate,elementsoftheeightfoldpath.
4
Less than a few hundred years after the Buddha’s passing, the Indian KingAshoka became a
followerofhispathofawakening.Althoughhedidn’trequirehissubjectstofollowtheDharma
Pathalongwithhim,hedidattempttoruleaccordingtohisunderstandingofthedharmaandhe
constructedmanypublicmonumentsencouragingpeopleinthedirectionofthedharma.
Thisornamentisknownasacapital,andthisparticularoneoncecrownedapillarthatAshoka
onceplacedinacitysquareinSarnath,India.
Aswiththewheel,theimageofalionwasusedasareferencetotheBuddha.Itmayhaveoriginated
withthedescriptionoftheBuddha’senlightenmentasa‘lion’sroar’orinthedescriptionsofthe
Buddhaashavinga‘lion’torso.
Noticethattherearewheelsandanoxonthepedestaljustbelowthelions,andthatallarearising
fromthepetalsofastylizedlotusflower.
Atthattime,wheelswerefrequentlyassociatedwiththesymbolismofthePersiansundisc,radiating
inalldirections.InthecontextoftheBuddha’steachings,wheelsalsowereassociatedwiththe
‘wheelofthelaw’orthedharmateachingsthemselves,teachingswhichwereoftencomparedwith
thepurelotusflowerofenlightenmentgrowingoutofthemudofoureverydayexperience.
Finally, the stylizedqualityof the lions – theyaren’t crafted to lookphysically like a real lion
–reflectstheinfluenceofPersianideasonthecraftsmenofthetimewhousedthevisuallanguage
inwhichtheyweretrained.
5
Thismoundiscalledastupa.ThisoneislocatedatSanchiinIndia.Thecomplex
surrounding it is the first example of an architectural complex relating to the
Buddhaandhisteachings.
RepresentingtheBuddha’sburialmound,suchsstructuresaremodeledafterthe
moundsthatwerecreatedwhen,afterthedeathofaholyman,thesittingbody
wascoveredwithearth.
ThisparticularstupawasconstructedduringthereignofKingAshokainthe3rd
centuryBCE.Therailings,gatewaysandtheelementatopthestupaitself–called
thefinial–wereaddedafewhundredyearslater
6
This is one of the four gateways
whichwereaddedsubsequenttothe
construction of the original stupa.
The gatewayswere built as part of
thesurroundingwall,eachgateway
facing one of the four directions.
One finds a rich array of symbols
thatwereusedatthetimetoreferto
theBuddhaandhisteachings.
Among the various elements appearing on thise
gateways can be found such things as images of
the bodhi tree under which the Buddha achieved
hisenlightenment; thechair fromwhichhe taught
andwheels referring to thewheel of the law, the
dharma.
It’s interesting to note that craftsmen at this time
werestillincludingimagesfromtheearlieranimistic
religions, examples of which are the dwarfs
who were traditional earth spirits holding up the
superstructure.
Thisisadetailoftheeastgateway.
The mixture of symbolism on structures
throughout the stupa complex shows the
integration of the native spiritual traditions
alongwiththeemergingsymbolicvocabulary
usedtorefer tothedharmateachingsof the
Buddha.
7
Thisgardenstoneisagoodexampleofthekindofobliquelysymbolicartisticreferences
thatweremadetotheBuddhainthefirstcenturiesafterhispassing.
This stonewas created around the 2nd century of the common era and is located at
theMahabodhiTempleinBodhGaya,India,thesitewheretheBuddhaissaidtohave
achievedhisawakeningandrealizedNirvana.
TheideaofusingafootprinttorepresenttheBuddhamightinitiallyhaveoriginatedwith
thewalkingmeditationpracticestaughtbytheBuddha.Inanycase,bythetimethisstone
wascreated,itrepresentedafootprintleftbytheBuddhaashepassedthroughtheworld
Symbolically,suchafootprintwouldbethedharma,thebodhyoftheBuddha’steachings
whichhaveimprintedthemselvesontheworldforthe2500yearssincehewashere.
Noticethepresenceofthedharmawheeletchedintothemiddleofthefootprint.
Footprintsandwheelswereamonganumberofso-called‘aniconic’imagesofthetime,
called‘aniconic’becausetheydidn’tdirectlydepict–theywerenotan‘icon’oranimage
of–theBuddhahimself.
Thisoneisetchedinblueshistanditstextureconveysthegrainy,organicfeelingofearth
itselfinwhichtheBuddhamighthaveleftaprintofhisfoot.
8
ThisstonewithitsdoublefootprintisalsolocatedattheMahabodhiTempleinBodhGaya
andwascreatedduringthesametimeframeasthesinglefootprintinthelastimage.
This stone presents some additional symbolic content in addition to the footprints
themselves.Noticearoundtheedgeofthisstoneareengravedthepetalsofalotusflower
–lotusesgrowinpondsandinmudandthelotuscametosymbolizethepuredharma
mindemergingfromthemudofexistence.
Overtime,thewheelitselfevolvedtobecomeahighlydevelopedsymbolofthewheelof
thedharma,andheretheroundstoneitselfmightserveasareminderofthewheelofthe
law,thewheelofthedharma.
AswithmostsuchartifactsreferringtotheBuddhaandhisteachingsduringthistimeframe
thisstoneisn’tsigned.
These objectswere created for the purposeof prompting the observer to recollect the
dharmaratherthanadmiringthehandiworkofparticularartists.
9
OnceimagesoftheBuddhabegantobemade,theyappearedinthecontext
ofstorytelling,recountingincidentsfromhislife.
This stonepanelwascraftedduring theKushanperiod in India.The relief
sculptureisassignedtothefirstorsecondcenturyofthecommonera.
The image here depicts one of themiracle-birth stories of the Buddha in
whichtheyoungBuddha-to-beisbeingbornfromhismother’sside.
Manyreligioustraditionshavesuchmiracle-birthstories.
TheportrayalofthiskindofscenefromtheBuddha’slifebecameanearly
practiceamongthecraftsmenofthetimeandtheyoftendrewfromcommon
mythologyfortheirinspiration.
Thesiteofthispanel’soriginalcreationisnowknown:itiscurrentlypartof
theAveryBrundagecollectioninSanFrancisco.
10
Therewere twocenterswhichproducedearly imagesof the lifeof theBuddhaas the
common era came to pass. Mathura (pronounced MOOT-ra) in southern India, and
Ghandara (gan-DAH-rah) in the south. Each center developed very different visual
styles.
ThisisaGandaranimagefromtheKushanperiodinthe2ndcenturyofthecommonera
anditportraysasceneoftheBuddhabeingwelcomedbyhisfamilyafterreturningfrom
hissix-yearsearchforenlightenment.
TheGandaranimageswerecraftedinnorthernIndiawherelocal,Indiancraftsmenwere
significantlyinfluencedbycraftsmenwhoarrivedinIndiawithAlexandertheGreat,and
so Gandaran styles reflect Graeco-Roman elements that are reminiscent of European
work.
Notice the detailed articulation of facial features, musculature and clothing on these
figures.ThemanwiththeswordlooksalmostmoreRomanthanIndian.
NoticealsothattheBuddha’srobesarenot“offtheshoulder”astheycametobelater
depicted;andthereareelementsthatrecallthefolkstorythattheBuddha’sbodyshowed
throughhisclothesasifglowing–therobestheBuddhaiswearingrevealthecontoursof
his‘glowing’body.
Itisinterestingtonote,too,thattheBuddhaisnotcarryingabeggingbowlinthisimage
althoughheisbeingofferedfood.
11
Here isanotherKushanperiodpaneldepicting theBuddha’sfirst sermon through
symbolsotherthandirectimagesoftheBuddhahimself.
This was a transitional period for artists making images of the teachings of the
Buddha.ThepresentationhereismoresimilartothesculpturalreliefsatSanchi.
Thefigures arepresented in a stylized, symbolic fashion. In symbolic form,deer
were frequentlyused to refer to theDeerParkwhere the “wheelof thedharma”
wassetinmotionwiththeBuddha’sfirstsermon.Thenumberthreecanhavemany
referencesinBuddhism:thewheelsatopthepillarcansuggestthethreejewelsof
Buddha;dharma;sangha (SAHN-gah); theycanalso refer to the threepartsof the
eightfoldpath,orthethreecharacteristicsofexperience:dukkha(DOO-kaa),anicca
(ah-NEE-cha);anatta(a-NAH-tah)–suffering,impermanenceandpmpersonality.
Themonksstandinforthesangha,boththecommunityoftheBuddha’sfollowers
generallyaswellasthemonkswhoheardthatfirstsermonmorespecifically.
12
Another piece coming from the 3rd century Kushan period again reflects theGraeco/
RomaninfluencesofGandaranstyle.Notetheinclusionofthecolumnonourleftand
themeanderornamentationalongthetop.
ThispaneldepictstheBuddhateachinghiswife–Yasodhara(yah-SHOW-da-ra)–and
son–Rahula(ra-HOO-la)–alongwiththeirattendants.
The image of the Buddha here shows the beginning of a process by which some
characteristicsofBuddhaimagesevolvedtobecomestandardqualities.Someofthem
visible here include the third eye, or urna (OOR-nah); the elongated earlobeswhich
would have been characteristic of a person of royalty who would have worn heavy
earrings;theprotuberanceoftheskullonthetopofthehead,calledtheushnisha(yoosh-
NISH-ah),whichwastakenasindicationofawisebeing.
HeretheBuddhaholdstherobeitselfinonehandwhilemakingtheformalgestureof
fearlessness(theabaya[a-BYE-ah]mudra[MOO-dra])withtheother;noticethattherobe
isstillnotyetshownintheoff-the-shoulderstylewhichlaterbecomesthenorm.
13
Thisparticularreliefcarvingonastandingstonemarkershowstheupper torsoof the
Buddhawithanattendantoverhisleftshoulder.
ThispiecereflectsthecharacteristicsoftheMathura(MOO-tra)styleoftheearlyKushan
periodfromthe1stor2ndcenturyofthecommonera.
TheMathuran style appeared further south in India than the work of the Gandaran
craftsmenwhowereinfluencedbythesensibilitiesthatcamewithAlexandertheGreat
andwhichdidn’treachthroughoutthesubcontinent.
TheMathuranstyleshowslessattentiontothearticulationofspecificphysicalqualities
than Gandaran style. Features like wavy hair, mustache and more clearly defined
musculaturedidnotusuallyappearintheworkofthoseIndiancraftspeoplewhohadnot
beentouchedbytheGraeco-Romaninfluences
Mathuranimagesfocusedonthemoregeneral,sensualqualitiesofthebodyandgave
yogicattentiontothephysicaltensionofthebreath.
Inthisexamplethefacehasgeneralizedfeatures,withdowncassteyesandfulllips.Itis
stylized,notattemptingtolooklikeitisportrayingaparticularlyspecificface.Thered
sandstone,withitsgranularsurface,givestheeffectofanapparition.
Noticehere,also,theappearanceofemergingstandardizedelements:thetopknowon
thehead,theelongatedearlobes,theso-calledliontorsoshapeandtheindicationofthe
foldsoftherobeovertheleftshoulderandupperarm.
ThesewerebecomepartofthevisuallanguagethatwastobetheconventionalmeansofdepictingtheBuddha
14
ThisGhandaranimagefromthe2ndor3rdcenturyreflects
theGraeco-Romaninfluencesonthecraftspeopleinthe
northernareasofthecountry..
Since theobjectcomes from theearlyperiodwhen the
specific symbolicelements for indicating the identityof
the imagewerenotyetstandardized, the identityof the
figure, whether it is a Buddha or a Bodhisattva, is not
entirelyclear.
Forexample,thisimagedoesnotshowtheelongatedear
lobeswhichisoneofthesignificantmarksoftheBuddha
andwhichbecometypicalonlaterimages.
Notice, too, thewavy hair,moustache and portrait-like
qualityofthefeaturespresented.
AnotherexampleofGandaransculpture from the late2nd
century,thisonereflectstheartoftheearlyMahayana(MA-
ha-YAH-nah)tradition.
In this case, we can identify it as an image of a
Bodhisattva.
We can identify the image as a Bodhisattva because it
displayssymbolicelementsusedindepictingsuchbeings.
In thishead, thewavyhair isstylizedanddecoratedwith
jewelry which suggests a Budhisattva since the Buddha’s
attireismorelikelytobejustasimplerobe.
InthetraditionsoftheMahayana–anevolutionofBuddhist
thoughtandpracticethathadfullyemergedatthistime–a
BodhisattvaisonewhorenouncesfinalNirvanainorderto
helpothersfindthepath.
Thegoaloftheartisanhereseemstohavebeensoshowthe
serenityofdemeanortypicalofanidealbeing.
15
ThisGandaranimageoftheBuddhaofthefuture–Maitreya(my-TRAY-
yah)–wascreatedinthefirstorsecondcenturyofthecommonera.
Here Maitreya is portrayed with wavy hair, more portrait-like facial
treatmentandfullyarticulateddrapery.
ThisisalsosaidtolookliketheKushandressofanoblemanofthetime,
richlyadornedwithjewelsandfinefabric.
Theelementswhichidentify thefigureasMaitreyaincludethewater
flaskinthelefthandandthestupapresentinthecrown.
ThefutureBuddhastandsinfrontofaflatdisc,orhalo.Suchhaloswere
usedinPersiandepictionsofthe‘sungod’andwereimprtedalongwith
otherGraeco-RomanelementsappearingintheGandaranstyles.
ThisisanimageoftheBuddhafromthe2ndor3rdcenturyofthe
commonerawhichshowsamixtureofboththeGandaraand
Mutrastyles
Notice that the facial features are portrait quality in the
Gandaranstyleandincludeamustacheandwavyhairwhich
covers the ushnisha, the skull bulge which signals Buddha
wisdom.Notice,toothattheleftfootpeeksoutfromunderthe
robe,afeatureincreasinglycommoninallstyles.
Reminiscent of theMaturan style, the robe falls over the left
shoulder,exposingabroadlycraftedlion’storso.
The Buddha here is seated on a pedestal and is shownwith
figuresbelowhimlisteningtohisteaching.
TheBuddha’shandsareheld in thedharmachakramudra–a
gesturesometimescalledthe‘teahing’or‘turningtheweeklof
thelaw’mudra.
16
Manyof theearly imagesof theBuddhadepictedelementsof stories
abouteventsinhislife.
This is a Mahayana image from the 2nd century of the common era
depictingamiraclewhichwassupposedtohaveoccurredinShravasti
whereflamescamefromtheupperpartofthebodyandwaterflowed
fromhisfeet.
Thecarving is in thegandaran stylewith thearticulateddetail in the
robesandheaddressesofthefollowers.
AsartisansbecamemorecomfortableportrayingimagesoftheBuddha
–acomfort that emerged fully in theMahayanacommunities – such
freezesbecamemorefrequentlyusedasremindersoftheBuddhaand
histeachings
17
thisKushanerafreezefromaroundthe2ndor3rdcenturyofthecommoneradepictsthestory
ofthedeathoftheBuddhaandhisachievementoffinalnirvana
craftsmenof the timehadbegunimprovising in theirdepictionofdharmastories,adding
headdresses to some characters for identification aswell as standardizing some physical
elementsoftheBuddhahimself
themixtureof craft styles and influences isnoticeablehere:on the left there is a roman
columnandafigureinromandress,
noticethehaloaroundthebuddha’shead...
intheMahayana,haloscamefromsundeitiesofneareasternfolktraditions;theyalsowere
usedinacultofthegodkingofthepersiancivilization
laterrepresentationsofthebuddha’sdeathscene—aswellasinotherelementsofthebuddha’s
story—wouldincreasinglycontainsimilarsymbolicelementsusedinsimilarways,
this consistency created familiar forms and even some rudimentary functionality as a
visuallanguagewhichcouldbedrawnuponbyartisanswhentheysatdowntopresentthe
dharma
18
thispanelrecallsthestoryofthecremationofthebuddha’sbody,
and the funeral pyrewhichwould not ignite until a final senior
disciplehadarrived.
nowthatthecremationhadbegun,theflamesareherebeingfedby
oilfromflasksonlongpolesheldbyattendants
there are a number of symbolic decorations to be noticed here:
the lotusblossomson thebaseandcoffin framedbyromay type
columns,andthetraditionofdisplayingoneofthebuddha’sfeet
19
Anotherbust fromtheGandharanperioddisplaying
thegraeco-romanstylisticelementsthatweretypical
duringtheearlyperiodinnorthernIndia.
particularly, such elements include the naturalistic
treatmentofthehair,thedetailinthefoldsoftherobe
andtheattentiontothefigure’smusculature.
notice, too, that by this time the robehas come to
coveronlyoneshoulderandthehandgestureofthe
BuddhahereisthatwhichindicatesthattheBuddha
isteaching.Thismudraisknownas‘turningthewheel
ofthelaw’.
this mudra came to be used extensively where
craftsmen wanted to indicate that the Buddha was
teaching.
This image of the Buddha shakyamuni,
thehistoricalBuddha,isanotherexample
oftheGhandaranstyle.
A number of things are particularly
well illustrated in this example: there
is the sculptural modeling of the body
underneath the roge; then there is the
detailed articulationof thedrapery and
the relaxed ‘hip shot’ stance which all
reflectgraeco-romanstylisticelements.
The robe here covers both shoulders,
a style which remained common for
standingimagesatthetime
Thepositioningof thehands is another
exampleoftheabayamudra,thegesture
offearlessness.
20
ThisimageofaseatedshakyamuniBudhaillustratesthemergingofelementsof
theMathuranandGhandarantraditionsandreflectsthenew,emergingunified
stylethatwasrootedinelementsofbothearliertraditions.
Herethenaturalistictreatmentofthebody,thedetailinthefoldsoftherobes,
andtheportrait-likequalityoftheface–typicalworkofghandarancraftsmen
–aretoneddowntoeffectamoretranscendentquality.
Also,thesemi-closedeyesandhairinthesemi-circularwavepatteraretypical
ofthelateghandaranperiodbuttheyarematchedwiththesenseofyogicbreath
inthebodywhichismoretypicaloftheMaathuranstyles
Ascraftsmencreatedworkswithelementsofboththeolderstyles,theybeganto
settleonsomenewconventions.
21
Thiswellpreservedimage,doneinhighrelief,wascutfromawalltowhich
itwasoriginallyattached.Althoughwedon’tknowwherethatwallwas,this
statueisnowlocatedintheIndianmuseuminCalcutta
Createdinthe2ndor3rdcentury,thecarvingshowsagainthemergingofthe
ghandaran and maathuran styles which were the two principle traditions
duringtheKushandynastypriortotheGuptayearswhichfollowedtheKushan
dynasty.
In this image, theBuddha iswearingmonastic robeswhichcoveronlyone
shoulder; themoustache isgonehere,and thehair isstylized,appearing in
waves.
Thehandsareheldintheteachingmudra.
22
thisnaturalisticimagefromthekushanperiodwascreatedinthe3rdcenturyand
recallsthestoryofsiddhartha’sasceticismduringhispursuitofenlightenment
the accounts of this period of his training tell that he practiced intensive
fastingforyearsand,accordingtothemythologies,consumedonlyasingle
sesameseedandasinglegrainofriceuntilhecametoappearasshowninthis
example.
thestorycontinuesthatwhenherealizedthatthesepracticeswerenotleading
toliberation,hebegantoeatricemilkagaintoregainhisstrength
Afterrecoveringfromtheasceticausterities,andhavingfledtheindulgences
ofhisearlypalace life,hewent tomeditateunder thebodhi treewherehe
attainedhisfinalawakeningandthediscoveryofwhathetermedthe‘middle
path’
23
thisstandingbronzeimageofshakyamuni–the
historicalBuddhaweknow–comesfromthelate
Kushanperiodaround400ofthecommonear.
the elements of the style are fully developed
and suggest the direction of development of
sculpturesinthelaterGuptaera
such elements include the quality of the facial
features,thehairstylizedinsnailcurlsandarobe
suggestingalmostatranslucencythoughitisstill
fullyarticulatedandcoversbothshoulders
the halo – with flaming spikes in this case –
representingtheemanationoflighthadbecome
a common element in this kind of ghandaran
work
in this standing pose, the Buddha displays the
abayamudra, thepositioningof thehands that
proclaimfearlessness.
24
This bronze piece was created in the
fifth or sixth century and also reflects
the merging of the Ghandaran and
Mathuranstyles.
The head is topped by hair that is
styled in snail curls and generalized,
non-detailed treatment of features are
elementsofthemathuranstyle.
The fullyarticulatedheavy robesarea
moretypicalGnahdarancharacteristic.
One of the unusual features of this
particular image is the ‘double halo’
whichframestheBuddhawithstylized
flames,perhapsaresidueofthePersian
sun-godtraditions
The hands display the mudra of
fearlessness.
25
MANIFESTATIONS OF CULTURAL INFLUENCE
ThefirstimagesoftheBuddhaandthefirstexamplesofdharmaartwerecreatedinIndia.
Suchearlyartworkappearedintwodistinctstyles:theMathurastyle–whichgrewoutofthesensibilities
ofthenativeIndiancraftsmen–andtheGhandaranapproach,whichwasbuiltonelementsoftheGreco-
RomantraditionthathadfoundtheirwayintotheAsianworld.
As Buddhist practices spread throughoutAsia, they underwent changes in emphasis and style as they
becametranslatedintotheculturallanguagesoftheirnewhomes.
Suchchangeswerereflectedintheimagescraftedbytheartisansofthenewculturesastheybroughttheir
own,indigenoussensibilitiestothetaskofinterpretingthe“importedmodels.”
ThenewimagesoftheBuddhawereneverconsideredtobeportraitsnorweretheyintendedtobeobjects
ofworship.
They were created to illustrate particular spiritual qualities of the Buddha and to symbolically display
principleelementsofhisteachings
Theimagesinthefollowingcollectiondisplaythenextstagesinthedevelopmentofdharmaart--theartof
Buddhistculture--astheBuddhadharmatookrootthroughoutAsia.
InthemwewillseethemanifestationsofinfluenceandtheimprintofindividualculturesfromAfghanistan
andChina,Japan,KoreaandthroughoutSoutheastAsia.
However,evenasimagesoftheBuddhawererenderedthroughthevariousshadesofAsianculture,some
featuresbecamestandard,althoughonlya fewwereconsistent inallcountries.Theprimary features,or
marks,thatwereeffectivelycodifiedinclude:
theushnisha(theprotuberanceatthetopoftheskullwhichwasamarkofwisdom),
Theurna(themarkofthethirdeyebetweentheeyebrows)whichstoodfor???
theelongatedearlobes(themarkofaprince)whichwouldhavebeencausedbytheheavyearringshewould
haveworn
thelipscurvedlikeabowandtheso-calledliontorso(bothofwhichweretakenasmarkingswhichindicate
aparticularlypowerfulbeing).
AsthecomplexityofteachingsmaturedintheMahayanatradition,agalleryofimagesevolvedtoarticulate
andgiveformtothenewteachings.
ThefollowingimagestracetheevolutionofdharmaartthroughthevariousregionsinAsiaandoverthe
courseofadozencenturiesoftime.
27
This unique Colossal Standing Buddha, was carved from a cliff in Bamiyan,
Afghanistaninthe4thor5thcentury,andstandsover150feettall.
Itandoneother,similarstatuewascarvedoutofarockycliffalongwithrows
ofchapels.
Thoughtheimageisextraordinarilylarge,itwascreatedusingthesame,stylized
languageusedinthecraftingofsmallersculpturesthatrepresentedtheBuddha.
fHereinAfghanistan,thedetaileddraperyandthesuggestionofamusculartorso
beneathitreflecttracesofthelateGhandaranstylefromIndia
Increatinganimageofthissize,therobewasseparatelymodeledinclayand
thenattachedtoacrudestonecorebymeansofropesandwoodenplugswhich
werehiddenbypaintandgoldgilt.
ThisisoneofthestatutesthatwasrecentlydestroyedbytheTalibanregime.
28
This bronze sculpture is an image of Maitreya Buddha, the
next Buddha who—it is told—will appear 5,000 years after
Shakyamuni–roughly2,500yearsfromtoday.
ThelegendofMaitreyabeganalongwithanumberofsimilar
messiahlegendsthataroseduringthetimeofChrist.
This imagewas crafted around 525 and, althoughwe don’t
knowwhereitwasoriginallylocated,itwouldlikelyhavebeen
oneofvariousimagesandstatutesinatemple.
It isacomplex imagewithanarrayoffigures that isagood
exampleoftheChinesestyleofitstime.Thefiguresareslender,
verticalandgraceful.
InthissceneMaiatreyaisimmediatelyflankedbytwomonks
whoarethemselvesboundedbytwobodhisattvas.
Flamingdevas,orangels,surroundthebodyhalowhichitselfis
madeofflames.Allaretoppedwithapavilionpopulatedwith
imagesofPrabudaratanaandVairocanainrecollectionoftheir
wellknowndiscussionofthedharma
ThisisanotherChineseimagefromaroundthebeginningofthe
7thcentury.Itwascarvedfrombuffedmarbleandtherearebitsof
pigmentandgiltthatremainonitssurfaceindicatingthatitwas
originallypaintedandthengilded.
ThepieceshowsstheChinesepreferenceforcreatingimagesthat
are symmetrically balanced. The various symbols in this piece
revolve around the Shakyamuni andPraBUtaRATna: that is, the
BuddhaofthepastsittingalongsidetheBuddhaofthepresentera
inthecenterofthetableau.
AbovethemisAmitabhaBuddha,aBuddhawhoistocomeinthe
future.
Belowandupholding the central display are two lions flanking
a chair which supports a lotus shaped censor – these figures
are carry-overs fromolder Indian iconography.This kind of riot
of symbolicelements is frequently seen indharmaart since the
varietyofsymbolsserveasreminderseventootherwiseilliterate
practitionersofthevarietyofelementsoftheBuddha’steachings.
Aninscriptiononthebackreads:“fortheemperor,monks,parents
andallsentientordinarybeings.:”
29
ThisunusualimageisfromtheTangDynastyinChinaaround
the8thcenturyandrepresentsoneoftheBuddhasofthefuture,
Vairocana.
Muchvisualsymbolismisgraftedontothisimageinanalmost
didactic,encyclopedicfashion.
ThehaloismadeofagroupofimagesofseatedBuddhasknown
as ‘transformation Buddhas’ because thevy recall particular
qualitiesofourBuddhanature.
themantlewornoverhis robe shows scenes from the lifeof
Shakyamuni–thehistoricalBuddha--aswellasrepresentations
oftheBuddhistcosmos.
TheanimalsatthebottomareservingasbearersoftheBuddha
intheolderIndiantraditions.
Theestheticusedtocraftthefigurereflectsanidealbodytype
which was typical in theT’ang imperial court: a somewhat
portlyfigurewhichwastheiridealofbeautyandtheBuddhais
presentedinaccordwiththesetastes.
This is a tenth centuryChinese imageof thebodhisattaof
compassion,anotherimageofKuanYin.Whenthedharma
came to China from India, the gender of the Bodhisattva
of Compassion changted from male to female, from
Avolakitesvara(AV-ah-low-KIT-ish-VAR-ah)toKuanYin.
This imagecanbe identifiedas thatofabodhisattaby the
headdresswhichcontainsanimageofshakyamuni(SHAK-
yah-MOO-ni)Buddha.
This piece is typical of theT’angdynastywhichhadbeen
underwayforseverslhundredyearsbythetimethispiece
wasmadeinthe10thcentury.
ElementsoftheImperial,T’angstyleincludedapreferencefor
portlyfigureswhohavefullyfleshedbodiesandfaces.
Thoughthisfigurehasanandrogynousquality,manyofthe
KuanYinfiguresfromthisperiodandonwardsappearmore
decidedlyfemale.
30
This image of Kuan Yin, comes from near
theendoftheTangDynastyaroundthe11th
century.
In this statue, the face retains a somewhat
portly presentation – which reflects
thesensibilities of the Chinese court during
the early part of the dynasty – while the
body is slender and graeful and reflects the
beginning of changes into the styles of the
laterparatoftheperiod.
ThisstandingBuddhacomesfrom10thcenturyinJapanandreflects
theMahayanatraditionofthemedicineBuddhawhoseemphasiswas
onhealing–heholdsamedicinebowlinhislefthand.
The style contains echoes .of Ghandaran India passing through
AfghanistanandChina.Notice theportlyqualitiesof thebodyand
facialfeatureswhichwerecompatiblewiththeJapaneseaestheticof
thetime.Fromaboutthe8thcenturytothe14th,JapanmirrorsChinese
styleswhichweresubtlyalteredwithitsowntastes.
HeretheBuddhastandsonalotusflower;hisrighthandisheldin
themudra of fearlessness; and themedicine bowl held in the left
handisnotsomethingthatwouldhavebeenplacedinthehandofa
traditionallyportrayedshakyamuniorhistoricalBuddha.
Different aspects or qualities of the Buddha were coming to be
suggested by objects in the hands, headdresses and a variety of
symbolicelementsthatwouldbedisplayedintheheaddress.
Its robes, facial features and the articulation of the body are
harmonized,balancedandabstractlystylized.
This isawooden imagewithaheavyphysicalqualityaswellasa
strongandspiritualpresence.
31
Thissmaller,JapanesefigurefromtheHeian(pronounce?)Dynastyisabout
12”highandismoadeofnutmegwoodfinishedwithblacklacquer.
Itwascraftedattheendofthe11thcenturyatattimewhenartisanswere
trying to push the formal, stsylized elements of their Buddha images to
displaysomemeasureofexpressivespirituality.
The lightness of presence of this figure will contrast with the heavier
Buddhas,likethelargeKamakuraBuddhatocome.
The various styles used in picturing the Buddha change over timewith
emphasissometimesbeingplacedonspiritualqualitiesandsometimeson
morephysicalones.
Oftenthesechangescorrespondtochangingsocialandpoliticalconditions:
when social life ismarked by turbulence and unrest, images tended to
emphasizethelighter,spiritualqualities.
32
Thisisaalsoan11thcenturyJapanesecreationfromthetraditionofthe
PureLandSchool.
Noticethelightfeelofthefigureasitfloatsonalotusflowerwhich
itselfisheldaloftbytiersofotherlotuselements.
This image is typical of the Japanese effort to maintain a balance
betweenthespiritualandphysical.
Notably,thesnailcurlsintheushnisha,therobewhichistracedaslines
onthebody,thedowncasteyesanddelicatehandswhichareheldas
theywouldbeinmeditationdonotprojectanysensualreferencesbut,
rather,astatebetweenthephysicalandspiritual.v
33
ThislargebronzestatueislocatedinKamakura,Japan.Itsitsover35feet
high.
constructed in the year 1252, it was cast in several parts and then
assembled: you canmake out someof the seams across the chest and
upperarms.
AswithJapaneseimagesingeneral,asetofstylizedelementsisassembled
to portray a sitting, meditating Buddha in a manner which conveys a
ssense of weight – grounded centeredness and the spiritual power of
focusedattention.
The subject matter here is not the personal, physical qualities of a
meditatingBuddha,butratherthefeelingoffocusedspiritualpresence.v
34
This16thcenturyJapaneseimageisoftheAmitabhaBuddha.
Serene and focused, the image sits atop a lotus flower and is
surrounded by a flaming halo with a complex design that is
composedofsymbolsofenergyandgrowth.
Inthecenterofthissystemofpulsating,vibrantenergytheBuddha
sitsquietly.
The figure displays the Japanese preferences for abstract, stylized
imagesandorganizationbyline,asiftheimagewereadrawingin
space.
35
ThisisalaterexampleofJapanesestylefromaround
the19thcentury.
ItisanexampleoftheShintoinfluenceontheartistic
representations of the Buddha in Japan with an
increasedemphasisonnatureandthequalitiesofthe
naturalworld.
In this case thefigure is carved fromwood,and the
faceisshownasslightlysmilingduringthemeditative
experience.
Thesmallstatuehasaratherrough-hewnsimplicityto
it.Itdoesnotmakeanyattemptathidingordisguising
the nature of the material from which this image
is made. Instead, the crafting of the image almost
emphasizesthequalitiesofthewooditself.
Emphasizingandfeaturingthequalitiesofthenatural
worldarecentralthemesinJapaneseBuddhistart.The
imageand itsmaterial arebothgivena shareof the
experience.
ThisfigurecomesfromKoreaofthe7thor8thcentury.
Generally,theKoreanaestheticsharesmanyelements
withChineseartfromtheearlyT’angperiod.
Thissomewhatportlyfigureismadeofgildedbronze
and has a rather heavy, earthy presence which
is reminiscent of the Chinese and Nara Japanese
sculpturesofthetime.
Overall,theKoreanaestheticsharesmanyelements
withChineseartfromtheearlyT’angperiod.
In this figure, the hands are held in the ‘teaching’
mudra but by the positioning of the hands, the
craftsmanissuggestingamorecomplexmetaphysical
relationship between the empirical and spiritual
worlds.
36
ThisisanexampleofaSukhotai[SOO-koh-TIE]figure,theclassicThaistylewhich
wasproducedduringtheperiodfrom1281–1310.
The style consolidated a variety of qualities that were typical of the different
kingdomsintheregionatthetime–includingboththeBurmeseandCambodian.
Theyallcametogetherinthenewly-emergentThaiempire.
Once characterized byThai prince Suphat as “the blow-up rubber look,” the
smooth, rounded surfaces that display little physicalmusculaturedo look abit
liketheyhavebeeninflated.ThereisanechohereoftheoriginalMathura,Indian
stylethatfocusedattentiononthebreathbycraftinganexpanded,so-calledlion
torso..
In this style, the features are generalized and stylized – they are composed of
elementsfromalimitedpalletoffeatures:theskinhasnotablysmoothcontours;
thetorsohasbroadshouldersandnarrowwaistwhichissometimesdescribedas
the‘liontorso’;thefacehasaformal,ovalshape–thereisnoattempttodetail
specific,naturalisticorportrait-likefeatures.
The Sukhotai style is one of the most commonTYhai styles currently used in
depictingtheBuddhatoday.
37
thesetwosukhothaiimagesaresimilarinformbutquitedifferentinsize:theoneonthe
leftisatabletopsculpturewhiletheoneontherightisatleast20feettall.
it is noteworthy that theThais are theonly artisans tohaveproducedan imageof a
walkingBuddha
Asinthepreviousimage,noticetheconsistencyofstylehere,withnoefforttoreflect
actualhumanproportions–therightarmsandhandsareparticularlyunrealisticinterms
ofdimensionsandshape.
InthisThaistylethesymbolismofenlightenmentisuniquelyhighlightedbytheflame
whicharisesfromtheushnisha,thebulgeonthetopofthehead.
Thisflaming‘spire’ischaracteristicofftheclassicalThaistyle.
38
This isa laterexample fromThailand in the14th
century.
ReferredtoastheUThong[OOO[asinthrough}-
TONG]style. Itevolvedafter thesukhothai style
andreflects influences formCambodianartisans,
presentingabroaderfaceandanoverallstockier,
heavierimage
Herealso, the snailcurlsare smallerand tighter
thantheSukihothai,andthehairisformedmore
likeaheaddressorcrownthanhumanhair.
Yettheimagekeepsthesmoothskin,stylizedform
oftheearlierSukhothaistyle.
ThisisaThaiimagefromthe19thcenturyandreflects
acompositeofall thestyles thathavecomebefore
includingtheinfluencesfromCambodiaandBurma.
Noticed the increased emphasis on the hair and
flameonthetopofthehead:they’vegottenlargerin
proportiontotherestofthebody.
andnotice,too,thedecreasedsizeoftheshoulders,
andthelargerhandswithmorevisualemphasison
themudra;
still, it continues the smooth skin and the stylized,
iconicshapeoftheimagetypicaloftheearlierThai
styles.
39
This Thai image portrays the Buddha’s physical state
duringtheasceticdaysofhissearchforenlightenment
whenhesubjectedhimselftosuchsevereausteritiesthat
hisbodybecamequiteemaciated.
With the spread of the Buddha’s teachings from India in
theeastwarddirection, towardsSoutheastAsia,wesee the
elements of the Mathuran Indian tradition developing in
a different direction that what evolved with the teachings
spreadingnorthwardintoChina.
Thisisaheadfrom13thcenturyCambodia.
It reflectsqualitiesof theKhmer taste thatwere current in
Cambodiaatthetime.
The headdress contains an image of the Buddha,
shakyamuni,andthusidentifiesTHISface/headitselfasthat
of thebodhisattvaofcompassion,knownasavalokitesvara
in southeasts Asia and India. In China the Bodhisattva of
Compassionwasportrayedbyafemalefigure,Kuan[Kwan]
Yin.
In comparison to some of the images spearing in other
southeast asian countries, the face of the Khmer of
Cambodianstyle iswiderwithbroad lipsandnose,anda
squarejaw.
ThesewereadjustmentsoftheIndian,Mathuranstylemade
byKhmerartisanstofitwiththeirownaesthetic.
40
ThisbronzeimageofthehistoricalBuddha,ShakyamuniwascraftedinCambodiaaround
thethirteenthcentury,attheheightoftheKhmerstyle.
The accepted intention for the creation of images of the Buddha had come to be
recognized as creating an abstract, conceptual reminderof thedharma rather than an
imageevokingimpulsesofworship.Noneoftheseimageswereintendedtobeportraitsor
eventorepresentaspecificindividual.Instead,imagesalmostcametobe‘assembled’out
ofasetofsymboliccomponents.
ThisCambodianexampleofthematureSoutheastAsianstyledemonstratesthemostrefined
characteristicsoftheMathuranIndianaestheticastranslatedintotheKhmerculture.
Noticethesmoothsurfacesofthebody;theskinheldinatensionwhichseemstosuggest
theelasticcontainmentof thebreath, theyobic life force.Notice, too, that the robe is
transparentandonlysuggestedbytheedges.Theelongatedearlobesareexaggerated;the
smallsnailcurlsofthehairandthetieredushnishare,bythistime,conventionaldesign
elementsinthefabricationofimagesoftheBuddha.
Allofthesestandardizedsymbolicelementswere‘flavored’byestheticelementsalready
presentinthenewculturesintowhichthedharmawastakingroot.
ThisclassicalimageoftheBuddhainameditativeposturehascometobetheprimary
imagethatpeopleeverywherehaveoftheBuddha.
41
ThisisanCambodianpiecefromtheAnkorPeriodinthe12thcenturyontheleftandfrom
14thcenturySriLankaontheright.
Bothdepictanincident intheBuddha’sbiographyinwhichhewasshelteredfromthe
weatherbythekingoftheserpents,Mucalinda,whilehesatinmeditation.
TheCambodianimageontheleftisparticularlystrikingbecauseoftheunusualpresence
ofacrownontheBuddha’shead.Insoutheastasia,crownslikethisdenoteaqualityof
royalty.
InCambodiafromthe9thto13thcenturies,thesevenheadedserpentbecameanarchetype
whichalsocametorepresentspiritualenergyrisingthroughthe7chakras.[CHA-kra]
TheSriLankanimageontherightshowsadifferentpreferenceforbroadshouldersand
slenderwaist.
42
ThisstandingBuddhafromCambodiadatesfromaroundthe
14thcentury.
Cambodian images are typically symmetrical and almost
geometricallyangularasopposed to thesmoothnessof the
Thaistyle.
The broad face, broad nose, full lips and the exaggerated
earlobesalongwiththeformalcrownaretypicalfeaturesof
theworkoftheKhmer/Cambodianartisans.
Theslenderbody,howeverisunusualinthistradition.
Noticetheimprintsofthewheelofthelawonthepalmsof
thehandsofthisfigure,recollectingsimilarmarkingsonthe
earlieststatuesfromIndia.
ThisisanotherpiecedepictingthescenefromtheBuddha’slife
when hewas sheltered by the serpentMucalinda [MOO-kah-
LIND-dah].
It is a lacquered, tabletop-sizedwoodenBurmese image from
the 14th century which reflects some of the qualities of the
Burmese styleof the time: thehead isoversized in relation to
thebody; there is thesmoothhaircap, theshortneckandthe
slightlyforward-leaningposture,withthebodyheldalmostasif
listening
Rather than sitting in ameditative posture, the gesture of the
right hand recalls themoment of the Buddha’s enlightenment
whenhe‘touchedtheearth’tocalltheearthitselftowitnesshis
entitlementtoenlightenment.
Thispositioningofthehand,thismudra,iscalledbhumisparsha
[BOO-mis-PAR-sha].This image represents the moment when
theBuddha touched theearth, asking it tobearwitness tohis
righttoenlightenmentatthemomentofhisawakening.
Protectedbytheserpentkingcoiledupbelowhimtoprotecthim
fromthefloodstheBuddhaisalsothushelpedtofrightenaway
Mara,thetempter.
43
ThisMahayanapieceis fromeasternJava–itselfaMahayanaculturerather
thanaTherevadanonesimilartoother,nearbycountriesSoutheastAsia.Itis
fromaround1300wherefemininequalitiesaregivenmoreemphasisthanthey
wereinnorthernIndia.
ThisimageisknownasthemotherofallBuddhasintheMahayanasutrasand
it follows theprescriptionsof the ritual iconography:bothhandsare in the
gestureofteaching;thefigureisseatedinmeditativepostureandiswearing
jewelry
Thefigureisseateduponalotus;theforeheadisadornedwithanurnadenoting
thehighestlevelofenlightenment.
AsacreationoflaterMahayanapractice,theimageisnotdrawnfromanyof
theelementsoftheoriginalPaliCanon,theearliestscripturalresourceonthe
Buddhaandhislife.
Instead, this image, with all its symbolic and ornate complexity, presents
elements thatmatured inBuddhismas it lateradvanced throughChinaand
Japan.
44
Thisisanstatuefrom15thcenturyTibetwhichmanypeoplemightinitiallyidentifyasanimage
oftheBuddha.
It is not, however, an image of the Buddha but rather ofAvolokiteshvara, the bodhisattva of
compassion.
ThelexiconofTibetaniconography–aswithTibetanphilosophyitself–issomultifacetedthat
verysubtledistinctionsoftenconveysignificantdifferences.
inthiscase,aninscriptiononthebottomofthestatuteidentifiesitspecificallyasthebodhisattva
ratherthanastheBuddha.
NotethatthisearlyimageofthebodhisattvahereismasculineincontrasttotheChineseandlater
TibetanimagesasthefeminineKuanYin.
Thebluehair,auniquelyTibetancharacteristic,referencesthevastnessoftheskyandannounces
thepresenceofanenlightenedmindwithin.
Noticethelotusstemthatisattachedtoandentwinedaroundtheleftarm.
Thisalsoidentifiesthisfigureasthebodhisattvaofcompassion–whenthelotusisassociated
withtheBuddhahimselfitisalmostexclusivelyincludedaspartofthepedestaluponwhichhe
issitting.
Notice, too, theuniquelyTibetan facial features: theeyesaredowncastbutslightlyopen; the
eyebrowsareconnectedandintheshapeofalongbow;thenoseissculptedinastylized(as
opposedtorealistic)mannerwithapointedtip“likethebeakofaneagle”;andthemouthisheld
inaslightsmile.
Theelongatedearsandhairinsnailcurlsalongwiththeurna–themarkinthecenterofthe
forehead–areallpartofthebroadervisuallanguage.
45
ThisisanotherTibetanimagefromthe14thcentury.
KnownasVairocana[VIE-ro-CHAN-ah]– theRadiantOne– this
imageistypicalofthepantheonofTibetaniconswhichrepresent
variousstatesofconsciousnessinanarrayofpersonifications.
This image isnotof ShakyamuniBuddha,but ratheroneof the
cosmic Buddhas --Vairocana– which appears in the complex
Tibetancosmology.
This image was created to sit on an altar in the midst of four
other imageswhere theentire tableau functionedasamandala
representingtheentirecosmos.
Thefigurespersonifythelifeforceinvariousmanifestations.
Boththedetailsonimageslikethisaswellastheoveralllayoutof
largerelementsfunctionasapictogramintendedtobereadalmost
as a passage of text describing the complex relationship of the
particularsetofcosmicprinciples
This is another image that clearly shows the complexity of the
iconographyofTibet.
Portraying the male Kalachakra [KA-la-CHAK-ra] and female
Vishvamata[VISH-va-MA-ta], the image displays the union of
complimentaryelementswhichcomposethelifeforceitself.
Symbolic elements here are also meant to be read almost
encyclopedically:initstotality,theimagerepresentstheembodiment
ofcompassionandwisdomthroughthevarietyofelementsmakingup
thetwoembrackingfigures.
Noticethattheyarestandinguponfiguresrepresentingignoranceand
delusion.
Kalachakrameansthewheeloftime:Kala(time)expresseshisrelative
aspectandChakra(wheel)expressestheeternalvoid--Kalachakrais
thusbeyondduality.
Vishvamata,thefemaleelement,has8armsandrepresentstheWorld
Mother.
Kalachakra,ChakraandVishvamataarealsonamesofHindudeities.
TheTibetan text –Kalachakratantra–mayhavebeena synthesisof
HinduandBuddhisttantricideaswhichappeartohaveoriginatedin
the10thcenturyinNalandainIndiaandthenspreadtoTibetwhere
it took on a profoundly influential position in theTibetan Buddhist
pantheon.
46
This is one of 108 different versions of the 11-headed Bodhisattva of
compassion:Avalokitisvara.
Thisonecomesfrom18thcenturyTibet.
Theaestheticisoneofrepetitionandmovementinthepartsaswellasthe
whole.
The effect is a pictogramof energywhere the 8 arms are referring to the
8 directions (this is distinct from the more conventional depictions of 6
directions).
ThesymbolismincorporatessomeHinduconceptsofuniversalcompassion
(“somovedwasthebodhisattvabythesufferingofsentientbeings,thathis
headsplitinto10pieces”)
TheBuddhaAmitaba(displayedattheverytop,completewithbluehair)then
turnedeachpieceintoacompleteheadandaddedhisown.
The relationship of the features on the faces are of typically Tibetan
proportions
Theoverallpowerandmovementsuggestsenergyincompassion
47
ARCHITECTURE
Creatingarchitecturalstructuresthatevokeareligiousorspiritualresponseisauniversallyoccurring
form of esthetic expression. In the Buddhist tradition, this led to the widespread construction
throughoutAsiaofmemorials, temples and temple complexesdedicated to theBuddhaandhis
teachings.
TheproportionsofthebodyoftheBuddha,considered“perfect”andharmonious,weretakenasa
guideforthedesignofearlyarchitecture.Architecturalplansareintendedtosettheenvironment
forthevisitortofollowthepracticestaughtbytheBuddha.
There are threebasic typesof structures, the stups, thepagodaand later the temple. Since the
Buddhainsistedthathewasnota‘god’andnottobeworshipped,theearlyformsweresimplymade
asremindersofhisburialsite.Theybecameplacestopractice.
Thestupacameoutofthepre-BuddhistIndianburialmoundsfor‘holy’beings.Thebodieswere
seatedonthegroundandcoveredwithsoil.Thesesiteswereconsideredsacredandbecameplaces
forpilgrimages.
Thestupa formevolvedand themoundwasoftenmadeofbrick,coveredwitha typeof stucco
and painted. A crowning element was added. The crowning element symbolized the steps
to enlightenment. In some cultures elaborate symbolism evolved to explain the stages of
enlightenment.
ThePagodaisamulti-tieredbuildingwitheachtiersymbolizingastageofenlightenment. Each
culturehastheirownsymbolickeytotheaspectsofeachpartofthebuilding.Thisformbecame
verypopularinJapanwheremanyvariationsareseen.
Thetemplearchitecturegrowsoutofvariouscombinationsofthestupaandpagodaelements.When
templeswereeventuallybuiltformeditationandcommunitygatherings,theytookonavarietyof
formsdependingontheculturefromwhichtheysprang.Therangeofscaleofsucharchitectural
creationsrunsfromthedelicateJapaneseTeaHousetothemonumental,man-mademountainof
BorobudurinIndonesia.
Ofthecountlessexamplesofarchitecturewewillbelookingatmonumentswhichhaveprovento
besuccessfulinallowingthevisitortoexperiencetheteachingsoftheBuddha.
ThemonumentatBorobudorinIndonesiaisespeciallysuccessfulasthearchitectureandsculpture
acttogethertoguidethevieweralongthepathoftheteachingsoftheBuddha.
In china, the Chan tradition emphasized a meditative connection with nature and focused on
awarenessof the moment. The teaceremonyevolved for thispurpose. The Japanese took the
tradition, Zen, in Japanese and refined it with expressions in painting poetry and especially
architecture. The architecture reflectsmanyaspects of theBuddha’s teaching inboth gross and
subtleways.
49
Thisgrass-coveredstupastandsonapilgrimagesiteinKatmanduinNepal.
ItwasconstructedjustbeforetheturnoftheCommonEra.
Thelowerpart,whatlookslikeadirtmound,isatypicalTherevandanstructure
symbolizing theBuddha’sburialmound. Itwasalso intended tobeused for
walkingmeditation.
Eachof the four cardinal directions ismarkedwith a small shrine, a feature
whichevolvedovertimeintomoreelaborategatewaysandarches.
ThewhitecrownontopofthemoundisaMahayanaadditionwhichstandsfor
theushnisha–theprotuberancealmostuniversallyseenonthetopofthehead
ofBuddhaimageswhichisintendedtobethemarkofanenlightenedbeing.
Thecrownisshapedwith13stepswhichsymbolizestagesofenlightenment.
50
HereweseetheearlystupaatSanchiinIndia.
OneofthefirstmonumentsbuiltbyKingAshoka,thekingwhoadopted
the Buddha’s teachings as guidelines for his kingdom, dates to the 3rd
centurybeforethecommonera.
Thismassivecentralstructureismadeofbrickandencasedinsandstone
–itwassubsequentlypolishedandpaintedred.
Therailingsandgatewayswereaddedseveralhundredyearslaterandare
madefromyellowish-graysandstone.
Thegatewaysfacethefourdirectionsandincludeawealthofsymbolic
carvingsabouttheBuddhaandhisteachings.
Thesymbolic imagesdonot includedepictionsof theBuddhahimself
since at that early date the builderswere still respecting theBuddha’s
admonition against creating images of himself thatmight become the
focusofworship.
51
ThisisanaerialviewofaTibetanstylestupalocatedinNepal.Itisone
ofthelocationsoccasionallyusedbytheDalaiLama.
This perspective shows how the stupa site is laid out to reflect the
compoundformsofacosmicdiagraminthestyleofTibetanmandalas.
The geometry of the cosmos is displayed through both the bounded
squareandtheboundlesscircle.
The‘burialmound’canstillbeseenatthecenterofthestructure,but
thecrowningprotuberance,calleda‘finial’,iselaboratedsignificantly
morethanonthemoundattheearlierSanchistupa,andtheentiresite
is richlyornamentedwithsymbolicreferences to theBuddhaandhis
teachings.
ThisstupaisdecoratedwithstringsofthetraditionalTibetanprayerflags
whichrunfromthetopofthefinialtothesurroundingwall.
52
Historically, the construction of stupas would be
offered by wealthy patrons to local temples as a
methodofaccumulatingmerit.
HereisonesuchThaistupafromthe17thcenturythat
sitsinatemplecomplexinBangkok.
Itsdesign follows thestylesetseveralhundredyears
earlierintheSukothaiperiod.
It also reflects the Thai aesthetic which shows a
preference for verticality and slender forms. The
dramaticfinialstandsatopthesymbolic‘mound.’
Thestyleofthefinialparallelslargeflamingushnishas
thatappearonThaiimagesoftheBuddhahimself.
This 14th century Sukhothai stupa stands
withinaThaitemplecomplexandillustrates
the slender verticality and emphasis
on repetitive paterns typical of the Thai
aesthetic.
The Sukhothai style of the 13th and 14th
centuryistheclassicalperiodofThaiart.
LaterThaiBuddhistartdrawsheavilyonthe
stylesdevelopedduringthisperiod.
53
Hereweseeafieldofstupas,builtinaccordance
with thewishesof thedonorswhofinanced their
construction.
Somestupas–asinthecentral,lightcoloredone,
are marked with symbolic gateways marking the
fourdirections.
The steps leading to the gateways are symbolic
only:theycan’tactuallybeusedphysicallyasthe
stupahasnointeriorspace.Thestepsareintended
torepresentthestepstoenlightenment.
Stupasliketheseareusedassitesforcontemplation
and places to practice walking meditation. The
symbolicimageryandinscriptionsincorporatedin
theirconstructionreflectavarietyofteachings.
Thisisabasreliefcarvinginthesideofatemple
wallinSukhothai,Thailand.
Sukhothai was the first capital city ofThailand
and was devastated during 14-15th century
Burmesewars.
Sukhothai images tend towards the vertical,
slender, graceful and they often suggest the
motionofdance.
Walking Buddhas are a specificallyThai image
–ThiswalkingBuddhaiscrownedherewithan
architecturalelementasanenhancement to the
ushnishaandareferencetotheumbrellaformsin
traditionalThaidance..
The slender – and notably unrealistic --
proportions of the body alongwith the smooth
surfacesandnoarticulationofmusclesorbones,
enhancetheoverallgraceofthefigure.
Asanobjectofcontemplation,thefiguredoesn’t
project the importance of any single feature,
but overall suggests the graceful flow of a
brushstroke
54
This bronze, votive stupa from Nalanda, India, was created in the 9th or 10th
century.
It stands only about 8 inches high and is an example of the way in which the
influenceofolderformscontinuetobecarriedforward.
Thehemisphericalstupaitselfrestsatopacircleoflotusleaves.
Thestupasupportsaplatformofthreelayers(reflectingthethreecharacteristicsof
experience)andtheeightdisksofthefinial(whichreferstheeightfoldpath)
The square, stepped base refers to the four directions and contains niches with
bodhisattvafigures.
Thefigureson the8 sidesof thebase representprinciple stages in the lifeof the
Buddha,fromhisbirth(ontheright)tohisvictoryoverthetemptationsofMara(on
theleft).
TheBuddhaplacedtotheleftofcenterissittinginthebhumisparshamudra,calling
theearthtowitnessatthemomentofhisawakening.
55
Ontheleftisanothersmall,table-sizeddevotionalobjectcarryingallthesymbolic
contentofthestupa.
ThisobjectisalsoThaiinoriginandismorestylizedinitspresentationoftheburial
mound.
Theflameat thetop,similar tothoseseenatoptheheadofThaiBuddhasandcan
refertoavarietyofconceptsincluding:thevoid,alotusortheflamethatextinguishes
attachmentsanddefilements.
OntherightisanotherstupawithinalargetemplecomplexatSukhothai.
Thejuxtapositionhereshowsthesourceoftheimageryforthedesktopstupasasit
comesfromthelarger,stylizedburialmounds.
ThislastoftheSukhothaiimagesisanexcellentexampleof
thestupaformwithaBuddhaimageintheforeground.
Notice the relationship between the two forms: the
structureofstupabehindtheBuddhaparallelsthatofthe
Buddhaintheforegroundfromthepointedushnishaatthe
toptothebroad,geometricbase–youcanalmostimagine
theBuddhaseatedwithinthemound.
The human figure here is stylized and not intended to
reflect the featuresofanyspecific individualbut is tobe
readasthepersonificationoftheBuddha’steachingsand
thepotentialforanyhumantobeawakened.
56
Thismulti-storiedpagodadatesfrom7thcenturyJapan.
Itispartofatemplecomplexandshowstheevolutionofthefinialportionofthe
earlierstupaswhichalsoparallelstheushnishaatopthesittingBuddhas.
Astupa–andinthiscaseapagoda–isasymbolicre-creationoftheBuddha’sburial
moundandso,traditionally, inthebaseofastupaorpagodaareincludedsome
symbolicrelicsoftheBuddha.
Here,thepagodaisintentionallydesignedsothattheskywillappearinthespaces
ofthestructure.Thearchitectureisessentiallydrawinginspace.
This is in accordwith the Japanese esthetic of contrasting formand voidwhich
appearsinmanyfacetsofJapaneseBuddhistart
57
An interior of a Japanese tea house demonstrates the
contrastingqualitiesofformandvoidinordertoprovide
a context for revealing the dharma. In themidst of the
traditional,ritualizedteaceremonythereisanopportunity
toexperienceseveralaspectsofthedharma.
At the entrance to the tea house itself is a half door
throughwhichonecanpassonlybykneelingorbending
inapostureofhumility.
Theinterioroftheteahouseisdesignedtocontaindistinct
spaceseachofwhichareintendedtofocusthemindon
aparticularaspectofthedharmaandinspireameditative
stateofawareness.
Materialsusedintheconstructionoftraditionalteahouses
arenaturalandretaintheirnaturally-occurringqualities.
Theoverallpreferenceinthelayoutisforasymmetry.
Theemptinessoftheteahouseinteriorcombinedwiththe
simple,naturalformsoftheconstructionweretohavea
significantimpactonwesternartistsinthe20thcentury.
Thisinteriorviewofateahouseshowsthetokonoma
section which contains a painting and a flower
arrangement. All are chosen by the tea master.
Attentionisdirectedtothetokonomaatvarioustimes
duringtheceremony.
Theobjectschosenforinclusioninthetokonomaare
carefullyselectedforcontemplation.
Thescrollmaycontainpoeticcontentformeditation;it
mayshowalandscapeortheremaybenohangingat
allandonlyasimpleflowerarrangement.
Thesimpleitemoritemsinanotherwiseemptyspace
again illustrates the Japanese theme of forms and
voids.
58
ThisisanexampleofaJapanesezengardentypicalofwhatwouldbeconstructedoutside
ateahouse.
Whatlookslikearandomdisplayisactuallycarefullycraftedtosuggestamicrocosmic
representationoftheentirecosmos.
Thegardencontainsnatural,irregularshapesandtextureswhichareintendedtoreflect
the natural forms andelements of the universe: form/void; high/low; all dualities are
collapsedintheperceptionofthedynamicrelationshipsamongalltheparts.
Therakingofthesmallstonesinthespacesbetweenthelargerrocksisdoneinpatterns
whichintentionallyimpacttheperceptionoftheviewer.Somehowwiththisdisciplined,
stylized process, the whole landscape looks like it ‘just happened’ – much like the
universeitself.
59
thisThaitempledatingfromthe18thcenturycontainsmanyoftheelementswhichdate
backalmosttwomillennia.
thetemplecomplex,whichisbuiltonafabricatedislandandissurroundedbywater,
displaysthefourgatewaysthatareweretraditionallyfoundsurroundingastupa.
thecrownofthetemple–acontinuedreferencetotheushnisha–isstillincorporated
inthearchitecturaldesignandisintendedtorefertothestepstoenlightenment.
Atthetopofeachroofgableisplacedanagaserpentwithanagabodyformingthe
edgeofeachroofgable,recollectingthenagawhoentwinedhimselfasaseatforthe
Buddhaandprotectedhimfromafloodwhilehewasmeditating.
templedesigns change significantly in the19th century leavingbehindmanyof the
traditional,architecturalreferencestothestupa.
60
hereisa19thcenturyThaitemplelocatedinBangkok.
Herethetempleisconstructedwithoutthefinialorstupa-likecrownsatthecenter,
although the naga design along the roof gables have become amore prominent
designelement.
the four directions are referenced with overlapping roofs rather than separate
gateways.
notice, too, the inclusionofChinese guardian liondogs standing at the gateways
61
Thisuniqueconstruction in Indonesia is, effectively, amanmademountain
whichwasbuiltinthe8thcenturyinordertoteachthedharmausingthetools
ofarchitecture.
Located at Borobudur, this colossal monument to the Buddha’s teachings
is meant to be experienced by following a path from the entry steps,
circumambulating the central stupa monument at the lower levels, and
eventuallyascendingtothesummit.
Sponsored and funded by the ruling upper class at the time, this huge
monumentleadsthevisitorupwardsthroughlevelscarvings.Theexperience
ofthelowerlevelcarvings,liketheconfusedlifeinsamsara,isacrowdedand
confusingplace.Movingupwardthroughlevels,thesculpturalenvironment
becomes increasinglycalm.As thevisitorclimbs through the9 tiersof the
constructionthereisamoreharmoniousrelationshipbetweentheformsand
voids.Thebusinessofthelowertiersturnstoquietspaceforcontemplation.
62
The path, with the focus
inward, towards the bas
reliefsculptureisintended
totakethevisitorthrough
theexperienceofsamsara
tonirvana.
onthewallsalongthepatharebasreliefcarvings like thisonewhichdepictsscenes
fromtheRamayana,amoralstoryoflifeinaccordwiththedharmawhichbeginswitha
normal,dailylife.
thescenesherearecrowded,busywiththehubbubofourdaytodaylivesandrepresent
theworldofsamsara–therealmsofexperiencecharacterizedbyceaselesswantingfor
thingstobebetter.
noteherethatthefiguresstandinavarietyofposturesandwithcomplexgesturesall
reflectingtheunfocusedenergyoftheunawakenedmind.
63
thisisaviewfromthebeginningofthesecondtier.
thislevelrepresentsscenesfromthelifeoftheBuddhathroughhisenlightenmentandup
tohisfirstsermon.
thisparticularimagerepresentstheBuddhabathingbeforehisfirstsermonassistedbythe
fiveasceticswithwhomhepracticedforsomeyearsbeforestrikingoutonhisowninafinal
efforttowardsenlightenment.
thestyleofthesculpturesherecomesdirectlyfromtheearlierguptaIndianstylewhichby
thistimehadcometosoutheastasia.
Asone follows thepathbeginning at the lowest level, one’s attention is directed towards the
centerofthemonumentbecausetheviewofthesurroundingcountrysideisobstructedbyawall
whichonlyoffersoccasionalopportunitiestolookoutthroughnarrowslitslikethese.
whenlookingat these‘windows’,one’seyeflickersbackandforthbetweenseeingtheslitsas
backgroundandasforegroundinthefashionofacontemporaryopticalillusion.
thisillusioniscreatedintentionallyinthearchitectureheretosuggesttherelationshipbetween
formandvoidwhichisacentralthemeintheMahayanatraditions.
architecturally,byallowingonlyglimpsesofthesurroundinglandscapethroughthewindowslits
frominsidethestructure,thelessonisthatonlyglimpsesofthetrutharevisiblefromthemind
statesofsamsara
64
arrivingatthetopofthestructure,onecomestoafieldofstupas.
eachofthesmallerstupashousesanimageofaBuddhawhichisvisible
throughthediamondshapedopeningsinthestupashell
proceedingalongthepath,circumambulatingthestupaswhilefacingthe
centralstupaenableglimpsesofthestatueswithinthestupasand,aftera
shorttime,thevisitorunderstands,orhasaflashofinsightastowhatis
containedwithin.Afteronlyseeingbitsandpiecesofthevariousimages,
themindputsthemtogethertoimaginethelookofthewholeimage.
Visitors often peek in through the openings to get a better view of the
sculptureswithin inorder to compare their imagined image to theone
inside.
In the foreground is one of the Buddha images which stands exposed
becausethesurroundingshellhasbeenremovedordestroyed
65
this is a closer view of an image like those
containedwithineachofthestupas.
onthebellshapedstructurebehind,it iseasyto
makeoutthediamondshapedopeningsthrough
whichthesculptureswithinbecomevisible.
turningoutwardatthetopofthestructureitisnowpossibletoseethesurroundinglandscape
vthechangeinperspectiveisdramatic.
insteadofbeingsurroundedbysymbolic representationsofspiritualdevelopment, theentire
surroundingworldbecomesopentodirectview,unmediatedbysymbolicrepresentations.
thisissimilartothewaythatthegoalofalleffortstowardsenlightenmentisthedirectperception
ofrealityunmediatedbythesymbolicrepresentationofthought.
inBorobudur,ascendingtheterraceshasledthepilgrim/visitoralongapathtowardsawakening
whichhasallbeenlaidoutinstone
theprogressionalongthispathwayhasbeendescribedasapsycho-physicalrepresentationof
thepilgrim’spath
66
THE ART OF ZEN
The aesthetic of Zen art in Japan grew out ofMahayana conceptions of emptiness and out of
MahayanaBuddhistpracticeitself.
WhatisknownasChanBuddhisminChinabeganaround500AD.Chan--andeventuallyZen--
carrywiththemformsofartthatuniquelyaddresstheflavorofMahayanadharmaunderstandings
aboutemptiness.
Astheseelementscametomixwiththetraditionsoftheprevailingculturetheycreatedtheirown
uniqueexpressionofthedharma.
The example ofmist in a landscape, partially hiding a mountain, points at the meditative
realizationofthevoid--themind--asthefieldoutofwhichallthingscomeandintowhichthey
alldisappear.
By the late 12th century -- in Japan -- all forms of artistic expression had come to incorporate
elements of the Zen esthetic: architecture, gardening, sculpture, painting, the tea ceremony,
potterycrafting,flowerarranging,martialarts--allsuchdisciplinesalsobecameopportunitiesfor
recollectingtheBuddha’sdharmaandforthepracticeofmeditation.
Andallcametobebuiltontheoftenparadoxicalqualityofdisciplinedspontaneity.
Asplashed-inkbrush-markonapieceofpaper,forexample,--whereinkdropsareliterallyflungat
thepaper--mightsubsequentlybeshapedintoalandscape,aflower,ortheBuddha....itsfinalform
dependingontheperceptionandintuitionoftheartistduringtheprocessofcreatingthework.
Particularlynoteworthyisthatthisaestheticalsomadethespecificsubjectmatteroftheartwork
--animageofaBuddha,perhaps;orapaththroughagarden--intotheintentionaldisplayofthe
materialsthemselvesthatmakeupthework--thisincontrasttothepracticesocommoninwestern
artofattemptingtocreatethe‘illusion’ofanotherreality.
Thephrase‘integritytomaterials’referstothispracticewherebythemediumoutofwhichthework
isfashionedbecomespartofthesubjectoftheworkitself.
ElementsoftheZenartisticaestheticarereflectedinliteraryworksaswell.
Inpoetry,forexample,Haikubecameanopportunityforrecollectingthedharma
Sittingsilently
Doingnothing,
Springcomes,
Andthegrassgrowsbyitself
writtenbythepoetOsho,thishaikureflectstheZenaestheticsetintheprecisionofaformalliterary
structurecharacterizedbythenotionthat“lessismore”.Thedepthofthesubjectmatterbeliesthe
extremesimplicityoftheexpression:theuniverseappearstous,unfoldingonitsown--byitself
--aswemakenoeffortonourownbehalf.
67
As with the haiku, other art forms aimed at what was not explicitly depicted -- the cosmic
emptinessoutofwhichallthingscomeandintowhichtheyallreturn.
ThesameaestheticsensibilitiesappearinZenpracticeitselfintheformoftheKoan.AKoanisan
assertionorquestionposedtothemeditatorthatcannotbeprocessedwithrational,intellectual
thinking.
Acommonlycitedexampleis“Whatisthesoundofonehandclapping”
Ponderingakoanleadstotheawarenessofthelimitationsofthemindandtoashiftinperspective
whichde-centerstheegoandallowsforinsight.
TheeventualexperienceofZenartcametobeunderstoodasauniquelyparticularevent,aformof
“dependentperception”whichincludesallofthefactorsthatarebroughttogetherinthecreation
oftheparticularexperience|ofauniqueviewer|ataspecifictime.
ThroughthevehicleofZenart,theartistattemptstoaddresstheveryheartofthenaturalprocess
itself--thatallthingsariseandpassaway.
Thegoalistodothiswithsuchprecisecontrolthatitemulatestheapparentlycarelessspontaneity
ofnature.
Thisisanartthatisverycomfortablewithparadox.
#######
68
The Buddhist Mahayana tradition known as Ch’an or Zen emerged in China
aroundthe6thcenturyofthecommonera.Theteachingstressedtheexperienceof
emptinessandembracedtheimpermanent,transitorynatureofallexperience.
Zen abandoned all academic-type speculations, shunned scripture and even
words themselves, trusting, instead,onattention toeverydayactivities topoint
theway.
thisimageoftheSecondZenPatriarchinReposecomesfrom10thcenturyChina.
ItistypicaloftheartthatgrewfromtheZenpracticeinChina.Theemphasison
theexperienceofemptinessandofnofixedexistenceforanythingledtoartthat
wasspontaneousandunplannedandwhichemerged–asitwere–outofthevoid
withoutbeingseparatedfromit.
Inthis imagethePatriarchrests inthemidstofotherwiseemptyspaceandthe
linescomposinghisbodyencloselargelyunarticulatedspace.
69
This isadetailofapainting that illustrates teachingzen through theuse
of a ‘koan’. Koans often come from stories about past achievements of
enlightenment.
PunchlineorquestioninaKoan–forexample,“Whatisthesoundofone
handclapping?”or“Howdoyoucatchafishwithagourd?”–isintended
toforcethemindoutofitsconventional,habitualthought-basedresponse-
patternsandleadittodirectexperienceofphenomena.
illustratingkoansbecamethepurposeofmanypaintings.
ThisimagecomesfromJapaninthelate14thcenturyandistitledCatching
aCatfishwithaGourd.
70
Thepaintingontheleftcomesfromlate17thcenturyChinaandistitledMouseandMelon.
Theteabowlontherightcomesfrom16thcenturyKorea.
HeretheaestheticoftheZenartscanbeseentocrossmedia.Inbothcreations,natural,
organicformiscoaxedintoshapewithapparentlyminimalplanningorconsciouseffort.
Thereisnoeffortatcreatingaprecision-craftedversionofsomepre-conceivedidea:but
theartisallowedtotakeorganicformduringtheprocessofcreation.
Theseimagesalsoservetoillustrateanatural,rough-hewn,asymmetricalqualitywhichdid
notappearintheaestheticvocabularyoftheWestuntilZenarrivedinthe20thcentury.
ThesubjectofMouseandMelonalsorecallsthestagesofgrowthanddecayinlife:and
melonsareformicetoo.
71
ThisimageofSixPersimmonsholdsasimilarpositioninZenartasdoestheMonaLisa
inthewesterntraditions.ThepaintingcomesfromChinainthelate13thcentury.The
artist’snamewasMuChi.
AniconinZenart,theworkishousedinaJapanesetempleandisbroughtoutand
displayedonlyonrareoccasions.
ThispaintingmodelsadefiningprincipleinZenpainting,“varietyinsameness”.
Itpointstotheinteractionofformandvoid,andinvitesustoexplorethedynamicsof
ourownperception.
72
The tea house presented an architectural expression
of theZen sensitivities to form and emptiness, and the
tea ceremonybecamea signal element ofZen esthetic
expression. Much of the artistic creations – pottery,
painting–thathavecometotypifyZenartworkgrewout
oftheteaceremony.
In the tea ceremony the relation of forms and voids is
highlighted through the use of space and time during
the ritual, and in the elements of the utensils, artwork,
landscapingandarchitectureinvolvedintheceremony.
During the ceremony the action and attention moves
and shifts among the various spaces of the tea house
intendingtoinspireasenseof“varietyinsameness”and
anaestheticof‘lessismore’:emptycanbefull.
Each surface and support has been formed out of
its material with an effort to restrain the tendency to
submergethequalitiesofthematerialsintheconceptual
design. So thematerials of wood, grass, paper are not
overworkedsotheyretaintheiroriginal,organicqualities
highlighting the variety of the constituent elements
composingtheform.
Anotherviewofaninteriorspaceinateahouseshowsthetokonomasectionwhereartisusedforcontemplation
A Tea ceremony involves slow, deliberatemovement and even periods of inactivity. Theintention is to encourage a deep meditativestate focused on the existential relationshipbetweenforms and void by referencing theinteraction between form and void in thephysicalspace
73
The design of the utensils that are used in a particular tea ceremony is an important part of the
presentationbeingofferedtotheparticipant.
Theteamasterchoosestheelementsfortheceremonycarefullyandpresents, forexample,thetea
bowlinamannerthatreflectsthenaturalqualitiesofemptiness.
The ceremony is intended to contrast freedomof actionwithin the prescribed ritual forms of the
ceremonyitself.
Thisparticularteabowlwascreatedinjapanattheendofthe16thcenturyandiswellknownenough
tohaveitsownname:itiscalledMine-no-momiji[pron:menaynomohmegee]meaning(Mountain
PeakMaple).This is not unusual:whenmany people experience awakening in the course of tea
ceremoniesconductedbyaparticularteamaster,amythologyarisesabouttheutensilsheorsheuses;
andtherearemanysimilarexamplesofparticularobjectshavingindividualnames.
ThispieceofPaintedShinoWareisnamedKoganItwascreatedinJapanattheendof16thcentury.
Notice that thecalligraphy--aswellas theshapeof thebowl– isallowed tomimic thekindof
organicdevelopmentthatoccursinthenaturalworld.
Thehandofthecraftsmancanbefeltkinestheticallyasoneimaginesthetouchofthepotter’sfingers
andastheeyetracesthebrushstrokeswhichexistascalligraphicgesturesandvisualreferencesto
plants.
74
In thisChan/Zenpaintingdetail lies the essenceof paradox inZen: the
brush strokes themselves are visible simply as brush strokes while they
createvisualreferencestomountainsandtrees.
Thenaturalqualityof theapplicationof inktopaper isnotdisguisedby
anyformofre-workingbutisleftasit iswhentheinkisbrushedonthe
paper.Theresultingscatterofbrushstrokesacrossthepapercreatesimages
ofmountainsandtreesbuttheyclearlyretaintheirnaturalorigininbrush
andink.
In terms of the content of the picture, both form and substance are
highlighted in the painting which recalls the Zen koan “Before Zen a
mountainisamountain,duringZenamountainisnotamountain,after
Zen amountain is amountain” referring to the spiritual transformation
that isnotseen in thephysical realmbut is, instead,a transformationof
perception.
75
ApathinaZengardenoffersoptionstothevisitor.Thereisnoonedirection
thevisitorisurgedtotake.
Thismetaphorical plan is to be amicrocosm of lifewhere there are often
crossroadsorchoicesalongourpathandeachchoicehasvariousanddifferent
possibilities.Butintheend,itisthesamegarden.
A planned zen garden is a place to be reminded of practice and to be
encouragedtoattendtoeverystep.Oftenthesteppingstonesareplacedat
anawkwarddistancefromeachotherinordertorequireaslow,concentrated
stepinordernottoleavethepath.
Gardens,liketeaceremonies,becameaninspirationforavarietyofzenarts.
AZengardenisdesignedtoencourageameditativestateandtoreflectthe
organically irregular patterns of nature rather than themore linear, regular
designsasistypicalofinformalEuropeangardens.
76
ThepaintingontheleftbytheJapaneseartistSesshu,isofthetypeoftenreferredtoas
a‘flungink’painting,becauseinkisinitially,literallyflungatthepaperuntilanimage
begins toappear fromtheemptypage.Thebrush is thenallowed tocoaxamore
representativeimageonthepagebyinterpretingthepatternthathasformedusing
onlysinglegestureswiththebrush–thereisnoreworkingofimageshere:theyare
inherently spontaneouslycreatedand recognized.Preparation forpaintingusually
involveslayingoutalltheartistsmaterialsandthenenteringameditativestatefrom
whichtheinkisflungandinterpreted.
Ontherightisadetailofdry-landscapegarden,Daisen-in,Kyoto.Thesmallareas
aroundateahouseareoftenplacesforthedrygarden.Withplacementoftherocks
accordingtoshapeandtexture,thegardensuggestsmountainsandwater.Thisisa
veryintimatespacebutitreferencesamoremajesticlandscapeaswell,referencing
boththerelationshipsbetweenpersonalandtheuniversal.
Scaleisimportantwithbothoftheseexampleswhicharepointingattherelationship
betweentheintimateandtheexpansive,theformandthevoid.
77
Representationof thevoidisparticularlysignificant inZen
painting.
Since it is understood to be the generating essence of all
things--theplaceoutofwhichthingscomeandintowhich
theyreturn--itsrepresentationisattheheartofallformsof
Zenart.
ThealmostgossamerinkstrokesonthissilkhangingbyLiang
K’aiareallthatconstitutethisportrayalofLiPo,apoetfrom
theSungDynastywhoseimageisemergingfromtheempty
ground.
LiPoisanhistoricalfigureintheZentraditionwhodreamed
hewasabutterflyandaboutwhomaquestionisoftenposed:
“IsLiPodreamingheisabutterflyorisabutterflydreaming
heisLiPo?”
Inthispaintingthebrushstrokegestures inspacecreatean
imageof thepoetatapointofbalancebetween formand
void.
HumorisalsoaprominentelementofZenpractice.
A comic sage is often used in Zen teaching stories,reminding thepractitionerof theselfeffacingnatureofthemostenlightenedbeings.
And seeinghumor in theworld is an everydaywaytore-frameeverydayexperience.This imagebyHanShan,fromthe1sthalfofthe14thcentury,celebratesKaoNingaatraditionalChineseComicSage.
78
This striking depiction of Drying Persimmons by
OtagakiRengetsuwasdonein1868.Thepoemwhich
heincorporatesasaprimarypartofthepaintingmakes
hiscalligraphyandthehaiku-likepoemitselfaprimary
partofthisvisualdisplay.Thepoemreads:
“Thelittlepersimmonsdryingoutside
Undertheeaves
ofmyhermitage-
Aretheyfreezingtonight
Inthewinterstorm?”
The persimmons in this painting recall that ‘icon’ of
Zenpainting,MuCh’i’sSixPersimmonswhichwesaw
earlier.
Zenspiritisoftenpresenteddirectlybymeansofapoempresentedascalligraphythat
appearsasanintegralpartofthebalancedvisualimage.
This 18th century painting by Hakuin [pron: HAH koo in] depicts BlindMen on a
Bridge,
Thepoemreads:
Inbothspiritualtraininganddealingwiththeworld.
Keepinmindablindmancrossingadangerousbridge.”
Theprecariousnessoflifeisrepresentedhereinbothliteraryandvisualmanners.
Despitethesubjectmatter,though,thepaintingaffectsaconcentratedcalming.
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AprizedqualityofZenpaintingwasqualitybywhichimageswerecoaxedoutof
thevoidwhichisregardedasthe‘mother’ofallthings.
ThispaintingwasdonebyNitenaround1600andisentitledShrike.Theearly
Edoperiod(1563-1645)wasatimeoftherefinementoftheartsinJapan.
Ratherthancreatealiteralimageofthebird,theintentionistoevoketheenergy
ofthebird,it’s“ch’i”inthemidstofadelicate,visualatmosphere.
80
OntheleftisaviewofaJapaneseteagarden.Noticethestepping
stones do not have a linear arrangement or direction. In a tea
gardentheideaistoofferchoicesalongthepath.Thepathisnever
‘going’inanyparticulardirection.Inaddition,thestonesareplaced
far enough apart so as to slow a person down and encourage a
meditativestate.
Artistsfromthe20thcenturyintheUSandEuropewereinfluenced
by various forms of Buddhist art, especially those of Zen which
werecompatiblewiththeemergingminimalistaesthetic,andwhere
interest inTheVoid reflected the dawning realizations ofmodern
physics.
This 20th century woodblock print by the American Richard
DiebenkornwasdonewhilehewasinJapanandhighlightsthevoid
framedbyanasymmetricalplacementofvariousshapesthatrecall
thesteppingstonesinaZengarden.
81
ThisbrushpaintingbyTaoChi[pron:DAHohCHEE]fromaround1700istitled
PeachblossomSpring.ThisstyleofChinesealbumleafpaintingshowssuchfreeform
brushgesturesasthosewhichformtherocksandmountainandthetintedcolordots
whichseemtobreathetheenvironmentofthespace.
The image on the right is a detail of the image on the left and magnifies the
meditatorinthepavilionwhichistuckedintotherockinawaythatsuggeststhe
sharedessenceofthefigure,rock,sky,space.
InBuddhist teachingthisiscalled‘noself’, thenon-separationfromandadirect
integrationwithallofnature.alloftheuniverse.
The vertical rocks in the foreground might call to mind a group ofrobed
figuresheadingtowardthepavilion.Rocks,monks;monks,rocks.
82
Bothofthesepaintingsareexamplesofwhatissometimesreferredtoasthe‘flungink’
styleofZenpainting.
Toprepareforcreatingsuchaworktheartistsitsinmeditationwithallmaterialsatthe
readybeforefinallytakingbrushandinkandflingingdropsontothepaper.Astheink
landsonthepaper,theartistlookstoseeformsthatarereadytobebroughtoutofthe
voidandthen,brisklycompletestheimage.
Theexampleon the left titledClearMorning inaMountainVillage, isbyYuChien
aChinesepainterofthemid13thcentury.TheLandscapeontherightisbyMurata
Shuko,alate15thcenturyJapaneseartist.
Inthepaintingontheleftyoucanseefiguresbentoverwithstaffswalkinginthemist
towardthesheltersinthemountains.Ontherighttheoutcroppingintheforeground
isseparatedbythemistfromthemountainsinthedistance.Mistisusedoftenlikethis
tosuggestthehiddenaspectsofadeludedmind,ortheideathatjustbecauseyoudo
notseeeverything,itdoesnotmeanitisnotthere.
Ifonewaitslongenoughthemistclearsandmorecanbeseen.
83
This extraordinary 13th century painting on silk
portrays The Sixth Zen Patriarch tearing up the
sutras,therecordingsoftheBuddha’steachings.
Noticehowthestaccato-likebrushstrokesconvey
theurgencyoftheaction.
ThesubjectdepictstheessentialZenteachingthat
themeaningofZenliesoutsidethescripturesand
thatstudyandintellectualexercisearenotpathsto
enlightenment.
For Zen practice, the path is the way of direct
experience.
Thisimageofakingfisheronadryreedisanother
example of a ‘flung ink’ painting. It consists of
minimalgestureandcalligraphywhichinvitesthe
viewertointuitthe‘essence’ofthebirdwithout
thedistractionsoftoomuchdetail.
This style makes ‘emptiness’, the void, the
pervadinggroundofthepainting.
84
Just enough and not toomuch -- this painting is a
Wagtain,auniquelyasianbird,onaLotusLeaf.
Paintings like these are done quickly as the artist
emergesfromastateofdeepconcentration.
Typically, the artist is not starting out with the
intentiontopaintabirdoranyotherspecificlikeness,
but develops ‘life breath, spirit essence of the ink,
paper, form,voidandbirdnesswhichappearoutof
theprocess.
Theemphasisisonprocess,notproduct;theproduct
istheoutcomeoftheprocess.
This image by Sesshu, a revered Japanese
painter from around 1500, is one of a set
portrayingthefourseasons.
thepresentimageisWinter.
The balance between the bird form and the
pine cone above subtly points up the space
between:thevoiditself.
The essence of the bird and its feathers is
created by the apparent wet brush strokes,
Brushstrokes and bird are the manifestation
of the same painted gesture.This is a good
exampleofZenpainting.
85
Another‘flungink’image,paintedbyChu
Ta[pron:chewdah],aneccentricChinese
Buddhistmonkofthe17thcentury,shows
the spontaneity and playfulness of birds
whoarecaughtas if justfluffingupafter
arainstorm.
This early 20th century painting by Nakahara Nantembo
is titled “Wall Gazing Daruma [propn: dah ROOM ah]”.
‘Daruma’ is a Japaneseword referring broadly to sitting in
a transcendentmeditative state inspiredby the teachingsof
Bodhidharma.
Renderedinsumiinkonpaper,itoutlinesamonksittingin
meditation.
Thepoemreads:
TheformofourGrandPatriarch
Facingthewall--
Orisitamelonoraneggplant
FromaroundYahataorYamashiro?
86
Jiun [JI un]Onko is the artistwho painted thisDaruma around 1800.The
darumasitsinatranscendentmeditativestateinspiredbytheteachingsofthe
Bodhidharma.Traditionaltypeofpaintingsofthistypetakemanyforms.
ThisparticularDarumahasbeendescribedas‘radiatingwisdomandwarmth,’
and if one takes time with it the forms and voids alternate places as if
breathing.
ThePoemreads
.Takeagoodlookanddiscover
Thatone’struenature
Isaninexhaustibletreasure
Transmittedfromgenerationv
Togeneration.
87
Thecircle,executedwithaninkedbrushisaclassicformofZenart.
Executedinasinglestrokeonthinpaperorsilk,oftenaccompaniedbycalligraphic
renderingofapoem, these imagesare thepureexpressionof themoment:going
backandretouchingwoulddestroytheimage.
TheexampleontheleftbyNakaharaNantembowasdonein1923;theoneonthe
right,byToreiEnji,doneinthe18thcenturyistitledZenCircleofEnlightenment.
Thepoemonthelefthandpaintingreads:“WithinthespinningCircleoflifeWe
areborn;Thehumanheart,too,Shouldbekeptroundandcomplete.”
Thepoemwithinthecircleintheimageontherightisanexclamationattributedto
theBuddha;“Inheavenandonearth,IaloneamtheHonoredone!”
from the Japanese ext “Brushstrokes of Enlightenment” comes the following
description.”AZencirclereflectsthattransformingexperience--perfectlyemptyyet
completelyfull,infinite,shiningbrightlylikethemoon-mindofenlightenment.”
Thepaintingisanenlightenmentexperience:suddenlyallinnerdoubtsareresolved
andeverythingisseenjustasitreallyis.
88
89
MODERNDHARMAART
The teachings of the Buddha began arriving in NorthAmerica early in the 20th century.
Increasedcontactwiththerestoftheworldbroughttravelersandbusinesspeoplebackto
Europe andNorthAmerica fromSoutheastAsia,China, and Japanbringingwith themall
formsofculturalartifacts, includingartwork,architectural inspiration,andaphilosophyof
livingwhichhadadeepaffectondancers,musicians,artistsandscholars.
Designesthetics from Japanfirstbeganappearing in thewest in the formof teacupsand
otherutensilsused inZen teaceremonies.Asian sensibilitiesalsobeganappearing in the
architectural works of Frank LloydWright and Japanese woodblock prints had a strong
influenceontheImpressionistpainters.
Increasedcommerceandculturalcontactwiththeeastincreasedthespreadofthedharma
inthewest,clothedatfirstinartisticsensibilitiesthatincludedpainting,literatureandmusic.
PerformanceartistslikecomposerJohnCage,dancechoreographerslikeMerceCunningham
alongwith suchpopular groups as theBeatleswereheavily influencedby the spirituality
and esthetic understandings of the east: there were poets -- Gary Snyder, Jack Kerouac,
AlanGinsberg... visual artists such asAd Reinhardt, Jackson Pollock, Franz Kline, Robert
MotherwellandJasperJohns...scholarssuchasD.T.SuzukiandRobertThurmanjoinedmore
popularwriterslikeAlanWatts...allweretranslatingtheBuddha’sinsightintotheconventions
oftheirowndisciplines,thelanguageoftheirownwork.
Historically,culturalcontactandinteractionhadoccurredprimarilythroughsoldiersreturning
fromwar; in thesecondhalfof the20thcenturycontactcame–significantly– throughthe
leadersinthepeacemovementwhobroughtthedharmaandrelatedartsfromAsia.
JackKornfieldandGarySnyderstandasprimeexamplesofpeoplewhodovedeeply into
differentdharmatraditionsindifferentpartsofAsiaandbroughtbackverydifferentformsof
dharma.
Visualartistsweremostattractedtotherepresentationof‘emptiness’intheZeninkpaintings,
andtherewasmuchexperimentationandanexpandedfreedominregardtosubjectmatter:
astatementbyD.T.Suzukibecamealmostamantraformanyartists:onethingisnomore
importantthananyotherasameanstoenlightenment.Thisinjunctionwastakenaspermission
tomakeanysubjectmatterthefocusofformalpainting,andasaresult,almostanythingcould
–anddid–becomethesubjectofwesternartinthesecondhalfofthe20thcentury.
Few visual artists at first directly incorporated images of a Buddha sitting in meditation.
Instead, artistswanted to present the dharma as directly as possible.And evenmore: the
creationofartworkitselfcametoberegardedasdharmapractice–painterPhillipGuston
said:“Whenyoubeginworkinyourstudioeveryoneisthere,yourteachers,yourfriends,your
parents.Onebyoneasyouworktheyallleave..whenyou’relucky‘you’do.”
91
ThisisanimageoftheBuddhafromHenriMatisse.Itreflectsthenatureoftheinterestinthe
Buddhathatwascommonatthebeginningofthelastcentury.
This visionof theBuddha is strikinglydifferent from theolder, classical images -- classical
imageswhichreflectedtheaestheticofthedifferent,earliercultures.
Throughreadinglists,documentedconversationsaswellasfromlettersanddiaries,wecan
traceadevelopinginterestinAsiancultureaswellasinAsianspiritualformsamongwestern
artistsintheearly20thcentury.
As western impressionist painters increasingly came into contact with Asian art forms -
- specifically those from Japan, China and India -- western artists who are not normally
recognizedasdharmaartistswerebecomingincreasinglyimmersedineasternartistic,spiritual
andculturalforms.
Alongwithlearningabouttheartisticforms,theseartistsalsobecameawareofthephilosophical
elements of the teachings of theBuddha.VanGogh is especially known to have read and
discussedideasfromJapaneseBuddhisttraditions.
Matisse’spaintingvisuallyillustrateshowthedharma--andtheartisticcontentthatcomealong
withit--takesontheculturaltrappingsofsocietiesintowhichtheymigratebydisplayingthe
effortofawesternartisttovisualizeaBuddhafromwithinthewesternartistictradition.
93
Thisisapiecebythe20thcenturyartistRichardDiebenkornwhichcomesfromhisOcean
Parkseriesofpaintingsandprints.Thatparticularseriesdealtwiththerelationshipsbetween
formandvoid.
ExploringtherelationshipsbetweenformandvoidisaprinciplefocusofChanandZenart,
andaswesternartistsincreasinglycameintocontactwitheasternculturesintheearly20th
century,theydiscoveredandfoundthistobeacompellingsubjectfortheirownwork.
Theasymmetrical compositionhere, and the randomshapes, remindusof the influence
ofelementsofsucheasternartformsastheZenteaceremony,rakupotteryandflungink
paintings.
AsintheAsianandBuddhistworldview,thevoidhereisnotthe‘negativespace’oftraditional
westernart--wherethefocalobjectiswhatisofprimaryimportance.Instead.‘space’isthe
pregnantemptinessoutofwhichallthingscomeandintowhichtheyallevaporate.
This piece explores empty space as a dynamic space and -- addressing the relationship
between that space and the forms that appearwithin it -- it resonates stronglywith the
dharmaaestheticofZenBuddhism.
94
AdReinhartwasoneofagroupofartistsworkinginthe1950sand60swhichincludedJohn
CageandtheNewYorkschoolofAbstractExpressionistsandMinimalists.
JohnCage,thecomposerwhostudiedwithZenMasterandauthorD.T.Suzuki,introducedthe
visualartistsinhiscircletoconceptsfromtheZentradition.
ThisworkisoneofaseriesthatReinhartcreatedthatiscomposedofsquaresofthesamecolor
pigment,colorthatispresentedinvarioussubtletonesandshades.
The artist,who painted themomentously controversialwork “black on black” described his
artisticintention:theviewershouldstopand,contemplatively,takeinthecompletespacewhich
thepaintingfills.Hewanted,hesaid,tobringameditativeexperiencetotheperceptionofa
workofart.
Standingbeforeapaintingsuchasthis,theviewerwashopefullygoingtohaveanexperience
akintomeditation–silent,contemplativeperusalofthecontentofthevisualfieldwithinthe
painting’sframe.
TheBuddhaoncedescribedthequalityoftheawarenesshewasattemptingtocultivateas:“in
theseeing,onlytheseeing”.
Accordingtotheartist,thiswasthephilosophybehindhispaintinginthisgenre–thecontentis
availablesimplyfortheseeing.
95
ThisglassimagecombinesreferencetotheZencircleandamandala.Thiscombinationof
referencesfromtheZenandTibetantraditionswascommonamongartistswhousedforms
oftheartaloneorincombinationtopointtoaninsight.Mostartistsdidnotseeboundaries
inthetraditionsbutallpointingtothesamemessage..onedharma.Theuseoftranslucent
glassasamediumsuggeststhepossibilityforinsight.
A western-trained eye might not immediately notice the reference to the classical,
calligraphicZencircleorthebroadsilhouetteofaTibetanmandala,butAmericanartist
ChrisWilmarthintendedbothinthisglassimage.
InNorthAmericatodaydharmapractitionersarefindingthemselvesexposedtoteachings
fromallthreeoftheprincipleBuddhisttraditionsastheycultivatetheirmeditationpractices.
Often,individualmeditatorsincorporateandcombinespecificdharmapracticesfrommore
thanonetraditionintheirpersonal,individualpractice.
ArtistsinterestedintheDharmaalsohavefoundthemselvesincludingreferencesandeven
specificelementsfromallthreedifferentBuddhisttraditionswithinasinglework.
Theuseoftranslucentglassforthisworkalsofunctions--liketheuseofmistinaJapanese
landscape -- topoint to theemptyvoid, themindwhich shines through thearisingand
passingpresentphenomena.
96
ThisadrawingisbyAllenGinsberg,beatpoetanddharma
teacherofthemid-20thcentury.
HeportraystheBuddhasittingonalotusseataboveaskull
whichisholdingaflowerinitsmouth.
The overall image is reminiscent of theTibetan paintings
calledthangkas,withtheBuddhasittingonalotusthronein
themiddleofthepainting,surroundedbyiconicimagesof
allkinds,includingskulls,flowers,stars,andsoon.
again,thegeneralthemeisinterpretedinthevisuallanguage
of themid20thcenturybeatculture,anartisticmilieux in
which many artists were exploring various Buddhist and
dharmaphilosophy.
Notably,thisdrawingisnotanattempttoproduce‘fineart’
inthesensethatthetermhasmeantinthepast.itisnotfor
theglorificationof theartist, for theexplorationofartistic
styleorforadisplayofartistictechnique.
Itisasimple,spontaneousdepictionofanimageofspiritual
importancetotheartist:muchlikeazencalligraphiccircle
mighthavebeen.
Another example that displays the “Beat” culture’s
interestinBuddhistteachings,isthispaintingbyJack
Kerouac which reflects his particular attraction to
MahayanaandTibetantraditions.
LetterswrittentoGarySnyderwhileSnyderwasliving
inaZenmonastery in Japan revealKerouac’sdeep
andseriousknowledgeofvariousformsofBuddhism
andhisearnestinterestinpersonaldharmapractice.
Interestingly, in these letters to Snyder, Kerouac
indicatedthathispreferencefortheTibetantraditions
came from theway they remindedhimofhisown
Catholic upbringing. The figure in the lower right
handcornerisatleastambiguousinitsecumenical
reference.
Thisimageisadistinctlywestern,ifnotspescifically
American,renditionoftheBuddha.
97
inZenpainting,calligraphyispracticedasaspontaneousexpressionofthe
painter’smeditativestate.
Thebrushgestureismadeaftercontemplationandmeditationonthepoem
–inthiscasethepoem,byWallaceStevens,isinthecolumnontheleft.
Madeasasinglegesture,itisneverreworked.Itiscultivatedmuchinthe
samewayasaretheasian‘flungink’paintingsofthe13thand14thcentury
Zentraditions.
ThispaintingbyAmericanpainterRobertMotherwellisintendedtodisplay
hisspontaneouscalligraphicresponsetothepoemontheleft.
MotherwellwasinvolvedinZenstudybothasascholarandasapractitioner
himselfandhedrewuponmanyAsiansourcesforinspirationinhisartwork
aswell.
98
PhillipGustonwas an artist of themid-20th centurywho intentionally explored the
implicationsofD.T.Suzuki’sstatement“onethingisnomoreimportantthananyother
asameansforenlightenment.”
That statement which was an often-repeated mantra of ‘pop art’ painters, inspired
Gustonwhowantedtodisplaysimpleobjectsinthehopethataviewerwouldreceive
them as an inspiration for awakening simply to what is before their eyes: nothing
complex,nothingselfconscious,
Hisearlyworkwasabstractexpressionistinnature,displayingfieldsofcolorwithout
representationalcontent.Whenhechangedhisstyletopresentworksinthisgenre,it
wastremendouslycontroversial.
Theartist,however,ignoredcommentsthat“you’llneversellthose”becausehewas
expresslyproducingwhathethoughtwasdharmainstruction,adisplayoftheBuddha’s
teachingsintheworkofawesternpainting:awakeningcomeswithdirectperceptionof
thecommon,everydayobjectsthatfillourlives.
99
RobertRauchenbergwaspartoftheNewYorkartscenethatincludedJohnCageandJasper
Johns in the1950’s and60’s. In thispaintingRauchenberg includes text in thepainting
muchthewaycalligraphicpoetryisoftenintegratedintotheJapanesebrushpaintings.
Inthiscase,however,thephrasesdonotdirectlyillustratetheprimaryvisualimagetheway
thewouldhaveintheJapanesetraditions.Here,thewordsandphrasesarealmostrandomly
assembledintheoverallcollage.“Thereisnopoorsubject”forpainting,Rauschenberghas
said.
Theintentionhereistopushviewerstoconstructapersonalmeaningsetforthepainting
themselves.
Rauschenbergoncesaid:youcanneverremembermypaintingsbecausewhenyoureturn
toviewthemyouwillbedifferentandeventhepaintingwillbedifferentandsotheentire
experiencewillhavechanged.
Hehastalkedabouthisworkintheenigmaticlanguagethatisoftenassociatedwiththe
Zentraditions:hisworks,hesaid,are“Dealingwiththesuspense,excitementandbodyof
anorganicsilence;therestrictionandfreedomofabsence;theplasticfullnessofnothing;
thepointacirclebeginsandends....[and]itiscompletelyirrelevantthatIammakingthem.
“Today”istheircreator.”
100
ThisisanotherRauschenbergpieceinwhich
he uses objects from different times and
places: there’s a Greek or Egyptian figure
superimposedonapainteddrapeandflanked
by images of vintage automobiles which
collectively evokes and addresses ideas of
history,memoryandperception.
multiple associations here appear almost as
a visual koan -- traces, residue appearing
and disappearing -- in and out of the void,
representedby emptiness of the surrounding
space.
These collages share the intent of the
“Happenings” whichwere conceived in the
1950’s at Black Mountain College in North
Carolina. Rauschenberg was in the circle of
John Cage,Merce Cunningham, Jasper Johns
and many artists who were involved in the
studyandpracticeofZen.
The “Happenings” were spontaneous
performances ( also done by the ‘Beats’in
SanFranciscoatthesametime).Theintention
camefromtheZennotionof ‘directpointing’
and impermanence. The subject matter
was random, presentedwith the idea that in
contemplationofanyone,oranycombination
of objects or experience, there would be a
potentialforinsighttoarise.
101
In 1974, Robert Rauschenberg created this direct reference to the form of the
Japanesekimono–thisishowakimonolookswhilehangingonabamboopole.
Theprocessherewhich--likethefiringofrakupottery--leavesmuchofthefinal
workproductoutofcontroloftheartist.
Inthiscase,heusedmultiple,handmadesilkscreensonwetpaperandlaminated
themallwithwettissuepaperenablingpaintsandinkstoslightlyblurandrun.
“justlettingthingshappen”inthiswayistheresultoftheinfluenceofZenphilosophy
andpracticeontheartist:thematerialsareallarranged,theprocessissetinmotion,
andthenaturalvariablesplayoutasthecompletedwork.
102
Thesetwomulti-medialeadprintsweredonebyJasperJohns,whowashangingoutinNew
YorkwithJohnCagewhileCagewasstudyingwithD.T.Suzuki.Johnswasattractedtothe
humorintheZentraditionandwasintriguedwiththeideaofartaskoan.
WithSuzuki’saphorismasabackground--Noonethingismoreimportantthananyother
asameanstoenlightenment!--Johnsfeltlicensedtouseanyobjectinaparadoxicalcontext
tocreateakoanwhichwasintendedasastimulustoawakening.
Theobjectshereareplacedinthecenterofthespace,formingasymmetricalmandalasin
which the centralobjectsoccupying thecenterof theworkshavebecomeahumorous
parodyofobjectsusuallyaccordedplacementinthesacredcenterofamandala.
Theplacementofthebroominthecenterofthepainting
identifiesitasanobjectofcentralimportance.Yetthe
objectitselfisawell-usedbroomandthere’seventhe
suggestionthatitissweeping,amundaneactivityfora
mundaneobject
themeaningofthewordsthatareincluded–evenwhat
wordstheyare–issomethingtheviewer’smindmay
makeanefforttoconstruct.Thewordsarepurposefully
ambiguousbecausetheviewercanthenexperiencein
hisorherownmind theeffort toconstructmeaning
outofwhatitperceives.
The image, as presented, is non-logical and not
narrative based. It is offered by the artist as an art-
koan.
103
AnotherJasperJohnsprint,thisisoneofaseriesonthefourseasons.Theseriesitself
was inspiredby thecountless treatmentsof the subject in JapaneseandChinese
art.
Thiswholeprintiscomposedofrandomreferences:
Amongthem,ontherightsideareseveraliterationsofthefamiliaropticalillusion
ofthegobletthatvisuallyalternatesbetweenitselfandtheprofilesoftwofacesthat
formitsoutline.
Includingtheseelementsandtheunstablerelationshipbetweenthem–inthiscase,
goblet-faces, faces-goblet,betweenanobjectand its surroundings --enables the
artisttoexplicitlypointattheinter-dependenceofallphenomena.
Itisalsoarepudiationofthenormalwesternperceptionofthespacesurroundinga
primaryobjectasnegativespace,as‘background.’
Instead,intheprintitself,spaceisjustspace
104
This lastpieceby Jasper Johns is acontemporarymandalawithmulti-dimensional
meaning,muchofithavingtodowiththeconstituentsofunity.Itisaprimeexample
ofthemeldingofmeditationandhumor.
When itwasoriginally presented, thedharmacontent of theprintwas lost in the
philosophicalcontroversysurroundingthePOPmovementanditwasinterpretedas
materialistandpoliticalinnature.
artwasdesignatedPOPbecauseitwasseenasbeingderivedfrompopularculture–
nottheBuddha’sdharma–andwasseenascommentingonthecultureofadvertising
andconsumerism.
for the artists, the reason for usingpopular objectswasnot an attempt tomake a
critiqueoffAmericanculturebutwas,rather,tofocusattentiononeverydayobjectsof
experienceforthepurposeofawakeningtotheirtruenature.
105
EscobarMarison,whosaysthattheAsianworldviewhasbeenaprimaryelementinherwork,crafted
this1970castacrylicpiecetitled“Fishing.”Thisisaphotographofathreedimensionalpiecewhich
issometimesdisplayedhangingfreelyandsometimesmountedonawall.Theworkisaboutafoot
andahalfacross.
Accordingtotheartist,itisintendedtofunctionasakoanandcannotberegardedthroughtraditional
conceptualtools.Anyinterpretationormeaningforthework—whichwasintentionallycreatedto
shockorsurprisetheviewer--isgoingtohaveauniquemeaningforeveryviewer.
Thematerialsusedwereintentionallychosentoimmediatelyattracttheviewerbythequalityofthe
translucentformwhicharrestsattentionbeforetheactualcontentofthepieceisevenrecognized.
Thenthequestions:isthisafishbeingbornorisitonebeingeaten?whythehumanfaceonthefish?
orisitafishbodyonahumanface?whatspeciesofthingISthis?
fortheartist,anyanswerstothesequestionsareonesthatariseinthemindoftheviewer.
ArtistWilliamWileycreatedthisimagewhichhelabeled“Mr.Un-
natural.”Itisapenandinkdrawingofanemptypersonagainst
a background that is reminiscent of some of the Chinese ink
paintingsofmountainsorrocks.
Thisparticularimageisoneofaseries:thisonepresentsacolumn
ofwordsalongtheleftmarginallbeginningwiththeletter‘P’--
Mr.Un-naturalhimselfisempty,ano-bodywhoseactualformis
outlinedordefinedbythesurroundingsubstance.
Theartistisintentionallyteasingtheviewer:mrun-naturalappears
tobeformedofwhatwouldtraditionallyberegardedasnegative
space. thewordsalongthesideincludethephrase“universeO
teaserunintoMr.Nobodyagain.”
flippingbetweenbackground/foreground,emptyspace/filledspace,theartistispresentingachallenge
thatisconceptualaswellasvisual:isthereanysubstancetomrun-natural?
Inanotherofhisworkshewrites,”Formisvoid,voidisform,formisvoid,but,whenallissaidand
doneNormisreallyLloyd.”
106
This 1975 piece by James Rosenquist is titledWind and Lightening. a viewer might legitimately
wonder:whatwind?where’sthelightning?
thecontentof this imageis intendedtobecomposedofscombinationofreferencesthataretobe
orderedbyeachviewerinhisorherownmanner.Thisisnotatraditionalapproachtoaworkofartand
manycriticsrespondedfromanalternatemindset.
Rosenquistrespondedwithacharacteristicabruptness:“Iwantedthespacetobemoreimportantthan
the imagery. Iwantedtouwseimagesas tools.But iot justdidn’thappenbecause thedumbcritics
said“oh,look,Icanrecognizethat,that’sacar,that’sahotdog,that’spopular.’Myworkdidn’thave
anythingtodowithpopularimageslikechewinggum.”
Thisisdefinitelynotthemindsetoftheonewhopaintedthemonalisa
afirstimpressionofthisworkmightleaveonewonderinghowitmight
possiblyberelatedtotheteachingsoftheBuddha.
early stages of dharma art in the 20th century didn’t include direct
references to the Buddha because the artists were uneasy presenting
explicit visual references. “you can’t talk about Buddhism,” went the
phrase thatwas shared among them “youhave toDO it.”These artist
wereexplicitlypointing theviewerdirectlyatexperience itselfas they
hadreadinthezentextsthatformedthebasisoftheirdharmalearning.
ClausOldenberg’ s “ice bag’ stands about four feet high – along the
pedestal is written “ice bag – 4 foot”... it wasn’t a Buddha sitting in
meditation,butitwouldhavetodo.
bypresentingtheicebaginalargerthanlifeformat,theartistchallengesthestandardviewofordinary
objectsthatweexperienceinoureverydaylives.
Oldenbergwas part of theNewYork scene that included JohnCage and the collection of abstract
impressionistpainterswhowerestudyingthesomewhatenigmaticzenworksofD.T.Suzuki,
Oldenberg’sintentionwastopointtheviewerdirectlyattheobjectasazenkoanmightaimdirectlyat
one’smind,leavingthequestionopen:whatistheartistgettingat?
Intheinterveningyears,thisideahasbecomeincorporatedintopopularcultureintheformoflarger
thanlifedesktoolslikepaperclips,staplers,etc.aswellasotherordinaryobjects.
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This ceramicTrophy All American was crafted by Robert Arneson in 1964. Arneson taught
ceramicsattheUniversityoffCaliforniainDavisandhespentmuchofhisclassroomeffortat
disruptinganypre-conceivednotionsaboutceramicartthathisstudentsmighthavebroughtwith
them.
ThispieceincludeselementsthatmergeselementsoftheJapaneserakupotteryandAmerican
content:theallAmericantrophy.
this isnot apristine trophy, it is createdoutof randomevents thatoccurduring thecrafting
process.Arnesonoftenassignedstudentsthetaskofcreatinga‘perfect’ceramicpieceswhichhe
wouldthenhavethemmutatethroughtearing,slappingandeventhrowingthepiecearoundin
ordertobringrandomnessandformtogetherinthefinishedwork.
inceramics,thecenteringofapieceonapotter’swheelisaprinciplethemeoftheart.Arneson
explicitlyintendedtode-centerhisworkasametaphorforde-centeringtheego,theselfwhich
–intheteachingoftheBuddha–isnotatallwhatonethinksitis...
criticsoftenreferredto thiskindofartas ‘funk’–a termthatevolvedoutof theBeatculture
thatwasappliedtojazzandimprovisationgenerallyandwasusedtodescribethewestcoast
expressionofdharmaartwhichwasmorevisceral,moretactilethanthemorecerebraleastcoast
‘pop’art.
thenotionsof‘pop’and‘funk’equallymissedthemarkasfarastheartistswereconcerned.
thisworkofArneson’sbringsAmericansensibilitiestothecraftofzenpotterywithahumorous
anddistinctlywesternresult.
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TheworksofWayneTheibaudhavebeenlabeledPOPartbycritics
wholaterdecidedthathisworkdidn’tfitthenotionsofwhatPOPart
was.Thesubjectoftheobjectsofhispaintingshasnothingtodowith
toys,balls,bags,cakes,pies.Thesubjectisperception.
In a subtlemanner thework shifts the viewers perception: space
is at the same time flat and two dimensional, and offers a three
dimensional illusion.Theibaud’s use of everyday objects offers up
thekoanwhichwascurrencyamonghisNewYorkcontemporaries,
JohnsandRauschenbergand theirgroup -- “One thing isnomore
importantthananyotherasameansforenlightenment.”
The texture of the paint and the colorsTheibaud uses activate the
viewerssensesofsightandeventaste.Manyviewers,whileviewing
thesepaintingswhere thepaint is layeredon like frosting,say they
salivate. This ‘lusciousness factor’ invites theviewer toponder the
stimulationofthesensesandconditioning
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JohnBaldessari,alongwithanumberofartistsinthe1970sand80s,begandrawing
for inspiration on the creation and subsequent ritual destruction of Tibetan sand
paintings and began themselves creating performance art and events which were
simplytobe“happenings.”
Theseeventsorperformanceswereoftenphotographed(indeferencetotheresidual
desiresforSOMEpermanence).Thesepicturesrepresentaneventwhichwasentitled
“ThrowingballsintotheAirtoGetaStraightLine”(best4of36tries)
Inaninterviewin1990,theartistdescribedtheconnectionofhisworktothedharma:
Hesaid,“IsupposeIfirstcameintorealcontactwithAsianideasthroughthegeneral
disseminationbytheBeatmovementinCaliforniaespeciallyinSanFranciscothrough
AlanWatts.IstillkeepacopyofWatts’“TheWisdomofInsecurity”.IreadSuzuki,
andZenandtheArtofArcheryearly.[youcouldseetheinfluenceofthosethoughts]
inmyearlywork,andit’sstillthere[today].
“JohnCage’suseofZenwasaprettystronginfluence......thereisasenseofeconomy,
thesortof‘lessismore’idea.AlsothepenchantforparadoxwhichIseemedtoidentify
with.The idea of non-linear thinking, global thinking of being able tomakewhat
would be identified by theWesternmind as non-logical connections.And as you
knowallofthisisstillveryprevalentinmywork.”
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Karma Phuntsok is anAustralian artistwho renders the
DalaiLama’s teachingthatwelearnourmost important
lessons about compassion from our greatest enemies.
And,shesays–echoingtheBuddha’sdharma--weloose
themostwhenwelooseourcompassion.
ThispaintingdrawsattentiontoaMahayanaprinciplethat
thereisauniversalBuddhanature,somethingweall,have
inequalmeasure--evenMaoZedong.
Phuntsok employs the skills of the traditional Tibetan
artistswhopaintthewidelyrecognizedThankapaintings.
ThosepaintersarecalledLharipa,meaning“drawerofthe
gods”andtothoseskillssheaddsthesensibilitiesofthe
modernartist–ifyouremovedtheimageoftheBuddha
from this portrait, it would be reminiscent of an Andy
Warhol painting.But sheuses theflat, even colors and
theluminousshadingtypicaloftheThankastocreatethe
elementsinthisimage.
Thisinstallation--LeonHerdtLagoon--byPatriciaJohansonislocatedinDallas,Texasandinthe
traditionsof the Japaneseaesthetic, incorporates thenatural reflectionsoff thewateralongwith
thelandscapeoftreesandgrass,whiletheappearinganddisappearing,undulatingbridgeforms
hearkentotheappearance/disappearanceofallformsinthevoid.
Trained as a landscape architect,Ms. Johanson created this piece as part of an environmental
cleanupeffort and so isbringing the sensibilitiesof thedharma into the realmsofpublicart in
America.
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Theimageontheleftisacloseupordetailoftheinstallationshownontherightwhichis
acollectionofsimilarlyconceivedimagesoftheBuddha.TheartistisArleneShechetwho
createdthisinstallationintheearlynineteennineties.
ThevisualreferencesaremadethroughtheblurringoffacialdetailsoftheBuddhaandinthe
repetitionofthestyleineachoftheotherimages.Thekoanhereis:All-the-same-but-differenr
–thebustsandfiguresareallnameless,faceless,deathless.
This installation of Buddha images in
Amsterdamistitled“WaxPeaceBuddhas.”
Theidentityoftheindividualartistisunknown
–likesomeoftheearliestdharmaart.Created
in 1996, the wax material was designed to
disappear,inkeepingwiththecentralquality
ofallexistencewhichisimpermanence.
In the present display, the repetition of the
imageisinthemannerofarepeatedmantra
andthereflectionof theimagesinthewater
remindsthevieweroftherealityofillusion.
Interestingly,thespecificmudradisplayedby
the statues is the contemporary ‘peace’ sign
–notatraditionalmudraassociatedwiththe
Buddha.
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ThisworkbyRudolfStingelisuntitled.Itisaparodyonthemulti-armedimages
fromChina,JapanandTibet–hereasittingBuddhaisacompositestylemixing
elementsofThai(inthefacialfeaturesandtheshapeofthetorso)andTibetan
(intheshapeoftheheadandhair)isholdingeverydaytools.
Compositeimages,drawingonstylingsofdifferenttraditionsarebecominga
standardpracticeforcontemporaryartistswhoarelookingtodepictimagesof
theBuddha.
TheblendofFunkandPOPartstyleshereresultsinthedisplayofbothhumor
andparadox.Theimageitselfismadeofcasturathanerubber.
Earlierinthe20thcentury,artistswerereferringtothedharmaalmostincode
for fear of being shunned for any brazen display of spirituality: this image
alongwiththelastfewimageswhichdisplayanexplicitBuddhaimagemarks
asignificantstepintheartoftheBuddhadharma–Dharmaartiscomingout
ofthecloset.
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Here,atthisexhibitattheWhitneyMuseuminNewYork,theBuddhaiscontemplatinghimself:
theimageoftheBuddhastatuecapturedbythecameraisdisplayedonthescreentowardswhich
thestatue’sgazeisdirected.
Theartist,NamJunePaikcreatedthisinstallationinthenineteeneightieswhichreferencesallthe
dharmathemesofillusion,impermanenceandabsenceofselfintheelementsoftheinstallation
itself,andinthematerialsandthetechnologywhichcreatethedisplay.
This is an example of installation art, a mixed-media, three
dimensionalpresentationinwhichthefiguresittingbeforethepicture
isintendedtobeanintegralpartoftheviewingexperience.
ThisdisplaywasdonebyartistsTimJohnsonandMyLeThiin2001.
ItistitledYabYum,aTibetantermmeaningmother/fatherunionand
referring to the parallel union of the central qualities of Buddhist
awakening:wisdomandcompassion.
In the painting the Buddha is touching the ground with his
fingertips,callingupontheearthtobearwitnessatthemomentof
hisawakening:thisrecollectsthewisdomelement,whiletheimage
theBodhisattvaofCompassion inscribedonhis chest invokes the
elementofcompassion.
Thewitnesssittingbeforethepaintingprovokestheambiguityover
whethertheimageonthewallisintendedtobeseenasareflection
ofwhat is in themind of thiswitness orwhether it is serving to
inspirethewitnesstocontemplatethisimageorideaasameditative
reflection.
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ThispiecebyartistNanJunPaikisfrom1993.Itisconstructedofwoodandcanvasusing
paintandsilkscreentoplacetheBuddhainthemidstof20thcenturytechnology.
This is the multi-media Buddha in the midst of the cacophony of the contemporary
technologicalmilieu.TheimagesonthewallpaperrepeatversionsoftheBuddhaimagethat
haveappearedinotherculturesoverthecourseofthepast2000years.
Andatthecentersitsthemeditativemind,revealedalmosttheatricallywiththeold-fashioned
partingcurtains,andreflectingontheappearanceoftheBuddhainthecurrentculture
ThispaintingbyTerryAllen from
1986 is titled The Blue Hole. It
is presented as a mixed media
creationinastyletypicalofwhat
mightbe termedCaliforniaFunk
and reminiscent of the aphorism
by Swami Satchitananda: you
can’tstopthewavesbutyoucan
learntosurf.
Whatever the blue hole is, is
pointedlynotexplained.
115
Thisisanimageofapiecemadeforsale,formassproduction,forcommercialpurpose.Today,Buddhismand
theDharmanowappearinthemidstofourcontemporaryconsumerculture,andthisismirroredinvarious
waysbythisimage.
Thesittingfigureitselfisreminiscentofthesculptureof20thcenturysculptorHenryMoore,anditalsoincludes
elementsofhistoricalimages–theushnishabulgeonthehead,forexample–themarkofanenlightenedbeing
--andthelotussittingposture.
Whilethisstatuecouldbeusedindevotionalpractice,itisclearlyacommercialproduct–producedforthe
purposeofsale…Yetdespiteitscommercialorigins,theimageitselfdoesn’tcreateadissonancewithtraditional
dharmateachings:thefacelessnessoftheimageisinkeepingwiththeno-selfaspectoftheBuddha’steaching;
theadditionofbreaststothefigureaddsatouchoffemininitytowhatwascommonlyanandrogenousfigure.
Thisprocessofaddingmodernlayerstotraditionalimagesisacontemporaryexampleoftheprocesswhich
occurredoverandoveragaininthecourseofhistorywherenewculturesadoptedestablishedelementsand
layeredontheirownadditionstothedharmaimagestheycreated.
Perhapsmoststrikinglyhowever,thisimageisdeeplyembeddedinthecontextofcommerce.Asanobject,itis
offeredforsale;asanartisticcreation,itisusedtoillustratethecoverofacatalogofitemsthatarethemselves
forsale–including,presumably,EasternSerenityitself.
Theimageitselfishereservingasacommodity,anornamentforthedecorationcommercialculture.Howmuch
doesthatrelationshipreflectthedharmaactivitiesofAmericanpractitioners?
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Theintegrationofthedharmaandcommercialculturethatoccursinthemindsoftheobserversis
illustratedhere:acommercialmessageforspiritualbooksistapedtothehandoftheBuddhaina
bookstoredisplay.
Takinginthebroadercontext,thefigureinthebackgroundontherightisalsoforsale:itisTibetan.
Thebooksontheleft,areAmerican.Theretailoutletcanbeamoderntemple.
The standing figure holding the note is a not an antique, despite theweathered and cracked
appearanceof its surface. It is a contemporary creation that drawson someThai andLaotian
sculpturalstylings.Butthefacialfeaturesaredistinctlycontemporary,distinctlywestern–theeyes
arenotdowncast,andthefaceitselfisanimated--almostsmiling.Notethatthesurfaceofthe
pieceisintentionallyfabricatedtosimulatesignsofage.
Oldandnew;eastandwest:alltraditionsarenowarenowbeingstirredtogetherintheAmerican
meltingpot.
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