Devi Kothi

The Temple of Devi-Kothi: Wall Paintings and Wooden Reliefs in a Himalayan Shrine of theGreat Goddess in the Churah Region of the Chamba District, Himachal Pradesh, IndiaAuthor(s): Eberhard Fischer, Vishwa Chander Ohri and Vijay SharmaSource: Artibus Asiae. Supplementum, Vol. 43, The Temple of Devi-Kothi: Wall Paintings andWooden Reliefs in a Himalayan Shrine of the Great Goddess in the Churah Region of theChamba District, Himachal Pradesh, India (2003), pp. 3-191Published by: Artibus Asiae PublishersStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1522708 .Accessed: 04/08/2014 14:39

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Eberhard Fischer ? Vishwa Chander Ohri ? Vijay Sharma

THE TEMPLE

OF DEVI-KOTH I Wall Paintings and Wooden Reliefs in a Himalayan Shrine of the Great Goddess in the Churah Region of the Chamba District, Himachal Pradesh, INDIA

ARTIBUS ASIAE Publishers Suppl. 43 2003 Museum Rietberg Zurich


We acknowledge with sincere gratitude the constant help and support we have received for many years from

Professor B. N. Goswamy

who opened our eyes to see the beauty of Pahari paintings and gave us words to describe what we have seen.

Dedicated on the occasion of his 70th birthday Chandigarh, August 15, 2003


Table of contents

7 Preface

9 Introduction 9 Devi-Kothi - place and name 9 Approach to the temple and the village Devi-Kothi

12 History of the discovery of Devi-Kothi 14 The antiquity of Devi-Kothi village

21 The structure of the wooden temple 26 The cella and the icon

29 The woodwork 29 The fagade of the cella 29 The door-frame to the sanctum 31 The lintel reliefs 33 The large dvarapala-figures 35 The pillars 37 The roof front 38 The wooden ceiling 65 Discussion and interpretation of the coffered-ceiling

and the wooden reliefs 65 The iconographic scheme 79 The arrangement of the squares 81 The production method

83 The murals 83 The borders and the space for the murals 86 The south wall mural:

The entrance of the sanctum and the pictures of donors 88 Discussion 89 The west wall mural:

The Devi, triumphant in combat 96 Interpretation 97 The north wall mural:

The exploits of the Devi 100 First sequence: The Devi kills mighty demons 101 Second sequence: The Devi fights and kills Mahishasura 103 Third sequence: The Goddess grants a boon to the gods 106 Fourth scene: The Devi slays Shumbha and Nishumbha 108 Discussion

5


114 The east wall mural: The Krishna cycle

115 The top register:The birth of Krishna (scenes 1-6) 123 The second register: The baby Krishna (scenes 7-12) 130 The third register: Young Krishna (scenes 13-18) 137 The bottom register: Krishna, the champion of Mathura (scenes 19-24) 145 The narrative sequence in a time and place frame 147 Note on pigments, technique and the muralist

157 The inscription 161 The life and times of Raja Umed Singh, builder of Devi-Kothi 165 Chamunda or Kali temples in the Chamba District 167 The management of the Devi-Kothi temple 170 Names and legends of the Goddess of Devi-Kothi 173 Fairs and pilgrimages related to the Devi-Kothi Goddess

178 Notes 187 Bibliography 190 Map

6


Preface

Like a solitaire diamond, it stands out. The Devi-Kothi temple is, in many ways, without a parallel in the Pahari region. For it is not easy to think of another 18th century wooden shrine with murals and wooden reliefs of such high quality made entirely by local craftsmen for a royal patron, either in Himachal Pradesh or in Jammu & Kashmir. This apart, there are other reasons why the monument, and the magnificent landscape in the midst of which it is located, deserve to be better known than they are at present. The entire region is exquisite and lies far off the beaten tourist track; the priests at the temple are dedicated, devout men; the community the shrine serves is singularly friendly.

Sadly, however, this little jewel of a monument, located in the Baira-valley of Churah in the north-western part of the Chamba District (H. P.) has never received the attention it deserves. Aware of this, and after we had individually visited the site more than once, we, the three authors, decided some years ago to produce this monograph. The first drafts were conceived in Devi-Kothi itself (by Eberhard Fischer and Vijay Sharma); additional material was compiled and added in Shimla (by V. C. Ohri); the final structuring, revising and editing was done in Switzerland, the final but not yet edited version being agreed upon by everyone involved. Our hope in putting all this material together is not only that art- lovers, alike from Himachal Pradesh and other parts of India and abroad, will be seduced into visiting the place, but also that the Government of Himachal Pradesh will be per- suaded to take adequate steps to protect this virtually uncared for monument. Preserva- tion is an urgent need; the eastern mural in the temple requires protection against sunlight by a wooden wall; and the ban on the vandalizing practice of scribbling names on the walls (euphemistically called ((graffiti))) needs to be enforced by professionally trained and dedicated monument-attendants, possibly recruited from the local priests' families. Financial help from the government would of course be needed for the installation of modern facilities such as electrification, the provision of neon lights, loud-speakers. But all this can be done easily without causing any damage to the monument. Devi-Kothi is, and deserves to remain, one of Himachal Pradesh's great heritage sites.

An acknowlegement, in the end, of the help we have received in researching this unique monument, and putting together this monograph. Grateful thanks are due, first of all, to Barbara Fischer who not only was in Devi-Kothi in 1984 herself, when she made notes which later proved to be of great value, but who was a gracious host, looking after the needs of everyone involved over a long period of time. In 1984 we were accompanied on our tour to Devi-Kothi by our friend V. C. Thakur, Officer at the Department Languages and Culture of Himachal Pradesh. Neeru Sharma was more than once a wonderful host when we worked and stayed in Chamba, especially in 2000. In the Himachal Pradesh Gov- ernment we are indebted to Deepak Sanan and his wife Dhanu Swadi; Subash Chand Negi supported our first visit to Devi-Kothi when he was Deputy Commissioner of Chamba in 1984, and made Barbara and Eberhard Fischer's stay in Chamba a most pleasurable memory, especially when we were joined there by Dinanath Pathy and Nanni Boller-Schlapfer. Chandra Holm and Clare Walker helped in correcting the final version of our manuscript, and we are very thankful to B. N. Goswamy and Milo Beach for taking consistent, per- sonal interest in our work. This book is very much indepted to their support.

Eberhard Fischer, V. C. Ohri and Vijay Sharma

7


1 The Pahari-Region: Chamba State in the 18th century (after W. G. Archer, 1973: Indian Paintings from the Punjab Hills)

8


Introduction

Devi-Kothi - place and name The small, richly embellished wooden temple of the hill-type1, the subject of this monograph, was built in the mid-eighteenth century, and stands in a sylvan setting near the vil-

lage Devi-Kothi at an elevation of 2348 m in the Western Himalayas. It lies in the area of Churah, once a part of the erstwhile kingdom of Chamba, and now a sub-division of the district of Chamba, in the state of Himachal Pradesh, in northern India. The village and the temple bear the same name: Devi-Kothi or Devi-ri-kothi, meaning the (( Dwelling (or the Storehouse/Fort)2 of the Goddess )). (( Devi-ri-kothi)) is the older and more accurate term, but it is (( Devi-Kothi)) that has passed into common usage, the name finding place alike in the records of the Government of Himachal Pradesh, and those of the Census of India. The Goddess, Devi, mentioned and worshipped in the temple, is Chamunda, a manifestation of Durga; but, following local practice in which deities are sometimes named after the location where a shrine to them stands, the Goddess of Devi-Kothi is popularly known in Chamba also as Bairbali, (the Lady or Goddess of Baira) (for additional information see p.169f). In this name is preserved the memory of the region of Baira which, like so many others of its kind, was once ruled by one of the Ranas (Sanskrit rajanaka), local feudal chieftains, who once held power in the hills3. At that time, close to a millen- nium ago, Devi-Kothi served as the headquarters of the Rana of Baira. Ruins of an old fort close by bear testimony to this fact4.

Approach to the temple and the village Devi-Kothi The landscape here is stark and majestic. Since 1962 a fair road leads up to the village Bairagarh beyond Tissa, the administrative headquarters of the Churah sub-division, and shortly before reaching this village, one arrives at a fork where one meets a new road that is not yet complete but has already been cut out of the rocky slope up to Khabla nala. From this river-bed, dotted by a number of watermills still in use, a steep track of about

~ : ~ . . .. ': - "

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2 Approach to Devi-Kothi (September 2000)

9


one to two kilometres leads through a pine or forest up to a ridge with languid pastures and a superb view. There is also a wrestling place, a rather ugly cement structure that was erected a few years ago. From here onwards the walk is nearly level and most pleas- ant. Another three kilometres of walking parallel to the Baira nala-river, mainly through pine forests, bring one to Devi-Kothi, entering the village from the west. There is no other traffic here: one meets only mules and small horses which go back and forth on the path, or an occasional villager carrying a load on his head. If one were to cross another nine hamlets, all situated higher up than Devi Kothi, one could get up to the Chehni pass which leads to the Pangi valley, the furthermost outpost of Chamba in the Himalayan ranges.

The village Devi-Kothi consists of three hamlets, Dhariala, Loharka and Devi-Kothi proper, and is inhabited by Rajput and Brahmin5, Lohar6, Batval7, and Arya8 families; some other groups mentioned in the 1961 Census of India survey having by now disappeared. Most of the Brahmin families of Devi-Kothi have some duties and rights in the local Chamunda temple (s. p.167).

The houses of Devi-Kothi are built on slopes in a terrace formation as hamlets with rough and uneven paths, and with no evident public centers. Traditionally, all houses are one storeyed and have flat roofs, which are locally called sarana. Their large rectangular rooms have the hearth positioned in the centre, usually the cattle pen to the left of the entrance and the kitchen to the right, whilst the places for sleeping, worship, and storage are in the back. Not directly above the fireplace is an outlet in the roof for smoke; par- titions of this room are mostly flexible and do not reach up to the ceiling. In the past twenty years, however, two-storeyed buildings have been erected. The old houses are generally equipped with a large wooden veranda, often used for weaving on a semi-permanently installed loom, and for additional airy rooms providing space for the storage of grains and

3 The upper hamlet of Devi-Kothi with the Pir Panjal mountain range (October 1984)

10


4 General view of Devi-Kothi with the Devi-temple in the lower right corner (September 2000)

5 View of Devi-Kothi, photograph taken by Jean Ph. Vogel (before 1908)

hay. The thick roofs are made of timber with rough slates and layers of fern, birch bark, pine needles, and clay. The roof is so strong that it customarily serves as a yard for the neighbouring house above. This arrangement can easily lead to quarrels, especially if the property does not belong to the same family. Formerly, Brahmins owned the top most hamlet, Rajputs the centre and the Lohars the lower area of the Devi-Kothi slope. But for a few decades this pattern has been disturbed by other communities having purchased landed property from these families.

A Forest Rest House, situated in a tranquil area above the village, has a perfect view but no water or electricity connections. Housing facilities in Devi-Kothi have im- proved in the last few decades, and many new buildings have been erected. Electricity is now available and many water taps have been installed inside the village assuring the villagers of a continuous supply of water. But the steep paths running through the village are as untidy and slippery as ever.

11


History of the discovery of Devi-Kothi J. Ph. Vogel, the Dutch Indologist, at that time Superintendent of the Archaeological Sur- vey of India, Northern Circle, visited this area in the early years of the 20th century. He was the first modern scholar to document the existence of the Devi-Kothi temple, mentioning first, in the Catalogue of the Bhuri Singh Museum at Chamba (1909:35) its ((late wood-carving... (under) the reign of Raja Umed Singh in A.D. 1754)), adding that in it ((Mughal influence is evident)). Later, writing about the same shrine in the monograph, Antiquities of Chamba State (1911: 206), he remarked: ((The present building, decorated with quaint frescoes and curious carvings in deodar- and shisham-wood, was erected in A. D. 1754 by Raja Umed Singh, as appears from the following Takri inscription cut on two wooden boards on both sides of the entrance. )9 The inscription is then transcribed and translated (see p. 157). The notices are brief, but considering the period in which they were made, the brevity, even about the qualities of the work in the shrine, is understandable. Indian painting and, to some extent even Hindu sculpture, were not yet appreciated in the west at that time. A. K. Coomaraswamy's celebrated book, Rajput Painting, 1916, in- troducing for the first time in detail the subjects, the spirit, and the aesthetics of non- mughal Indian painting, was yet to appear. Besides, Vogel's interest lay essentially in the study of epigraphic material: hence his recording of the dedicatory inscription in the Devi- Kothi temple, and three interesting epigraphic remains from the local fountain enclosure on the north-eastern edge of the village. But Vogel did remarkable work in Chamba, dis- covering and preserving several remains of great historical value. As far as Devi-Kothi is concerned, he photographed the village site (1911: Fig. 9), the ruins of the Rana's fort, and a mukhalingam (see p. 18), and he edited and translated, with great ability and dedication, the ancient inscriptions'0.

Vogel's work later helped another European scholar, Hermann Goetz - at that time the Director of the Baroda Museum and Picture Gallery - who visited the Devi-Kothi temple about four decades later. In his study, Goetz suggested that the prince portrayed wor- shipping the Goddess at the entrance-wall next to the door to the sanctum, was none other than the ruler who, according to the inscription, had the temple built: Raja Umed Singh of Chamba himself. In two articles, published in the journal Marg, Goetz" supplied more details of this temple, mentioning, for instance, that there are 115 bas-reliefs set in the ceiling of the circumambulatory gallery; apart from this, besides the donor's painted

6 Ancient wall, above a Rajput house in Devi- Kothi (in 2000)

7

Remains of the old ? ;~ ,~t'~~~ - >,, , ,~~~ . 1~ .1~ -.>~ , ..,.:...fortification wall

? ..t3,..;::~.~;:~ t, :,?,-,. . in Devi-Kothi photo-

graphed by Vogel (prior to 1908)

12


8 Sarana house with shed of Pandit Jaisingh Sharma in upper Devi- - Kothi (in 2000)

9 Pillared verandah of a Rajput house in Devi- Kothi (in 2000) ' :

portraits, there were three large murals with Devi- and Krishna-themes, he noted. He placed these reliefs and paintings within the context of the art activity in the Umed Singh period, but he did not illustrate them12. In his 1962 article13 on ((The Art of Chamba in the Islamic Period 11 s, Goetz summarized his ideas concerning art activity under Raja Umed Singh, dedicating a full paragraph to Devi-Kothi, drawing attention to reliefs and murals in the temple with perception and art historical acumen, toward which one will turn again in the following pages.

After Goetz, there was a slowing down in the attention paid to the Devi-Kothi temple, chiefly because the site was distant'4 and off the beaten track, and it might have been believed by those interested in the art of Himachal Pradesh that whatever needed to be said about the shrine had already been said.

The Census of India (1961) took up the village of Devi-Kothi for an ethnographic- statistical village survey, and devoted to it a monograph, edited by Ram Chandra Pal Singh, which appeared in 1964 as Volume XX-Part VI-No. 4. The field investigations were conducted by Tarlok Chand Sud and Surender Mohan Bhatnagar, supported by V. C. Ohri (who supplied cultural information) and O.C. Handa (photographs and drawings). This work included some valuable information provided by the priests of the temple and the following photographs of the temple itself were reproduced: the wooden fac,ade, the entrance, the idol, a wooden pillar-bracket, rams' horns as votive offerings, a stone gateway of the site (now demolished'5?), the temple's door-lock, and the stone lions erected in front of the temple (along with a fountain slab, already photographed by Vogel). How- ever, unfortunately, the publication is less than careful, for most of the plates in this monograph depict some other sites in the Chamba District'6 and have nothing to do with Devi-Kothi itself.

For a long time, very few good photographs of the Devi-Kothi temple, and the murals and woodwork in it were available. A few rather randomly selected scenes from the Krishna panel had been recorded and were included by V.C. Ohri in his doctoral thesis (1976) and in the volume Arts of Himachal (1975)'17. In general, however, the Devi-Kothi temple was but rarely mentioned'8 for decades, and, except for Ohri, no other art-histo- rian seems to have ever visited the place. Judgements about the work there were often based on just one picture postcard (

grounds, she felt that the murals should be placed ((in the first quarter of the nineteenth century)), while noting that they differ from the (( Kangra complex of paintings associated with Raja Sansar Chand. ) She is right on the last score, for these murals have nothing to do with paintings, for example, by Purkhu, the painter whose family worked in Kangra for Raja Sansar Chand around 1810. But one can now definitely say that they were painted some fifty years earlier by a master from an entirely different workshop in Chamba. Based on Mira Seth's rather casual judgement, S. S. Charak (1979: vol. 3: 229) went on to speak of the existence in Devi-Kothi of < many panels on the themes from the Bhaga- vata Purana... [of which] two interesting [ones] illustrate Krishna and gopis... and the other depicting a gopi with a water pot balanced on her head, standing by a fire on which something is being cooked. On stylistic and themetic [sic] grounds these murals may be placed in the first quarter of the nineteenth century. One painting, showing a lady taking water from a tap points to even a later date. ? The descriptions and the judgements, one is constrained to say, are somewhat rash, and might possibly have been avoided if only the authors had consulted the writings of Hermann Goetz, or - better still - had visited the temple themselves.

Jagdish Mittal was the first to study, from a technical, and later an art historical, standpoint, mural-paintings in Chamba (see Mittal, 1964), but he was clearly not person- ally acquainted with Devi-Kothi at the time of writing his splendid later essay (Mittal, 1989: 202). All that he said was:

10 Vishnu on Garuda, centre relief of a t, K _ _ ' r double winged shrine with dedicatory inscriptions on side panels, stone, from nt t r t R o ; Devi-Kothi, Bhuri Singh Museum Chamba 's s ... ... (Sharma in 20011) ' _he

,,TiI...!

man in gratitude for help received against h is en emies who m he had attacked i n th eir stronghold and then defeated. H ere, at Mindhal, Raja Pr ithv i Singh reconfirmed the grant of land to the temple of the Goddess Chamunda, upon regaining control over Chamba in A.D. 1641. These are aspects of the Godd ess to which further attention would need to be draw n later.

One thin grat istude, howefover, clear: ited as not his enemthiout reason that a Raja of Ccked in theircould

stronghold and then defeated22. Here, at Mindhal, Raja Prithvi Singh reconfirmed the grant

have thought of building a Chamunda temple on the outskirts of his territory. The site must have been chosen not only because it was strategically important, or that it was once the stronghold of a local Rana: the site was ancient, and must have been seen as sacred. No archaeological survey of the area has been conducted yet, but if this were to be done, one can be fairly confident that it would yield interesting material. As it is, quite a few stray finds from the area are known. Some sculptures of high quality have been documented in the form of photographs bearing witness to the affluence of the local temples and their patrons, and a stylistic awareness of classical iconography as much as of contemporary North Indian styles.

Of the antiquities discovered at Devi-Kothi, many are now preserved in the Bhuri Singh Museum, Chamba. The earliest, an inscription on a stone slab, unique for its expression of fine human sentiments23, was found by Vogel before 1908 at a water fountain enclosure constructed by the widowed mother of a Rajanaka, Nagapala24. It is part of a miniature shrine for God Vishnu (see PI. 10)25, which exhibits the general traits of Kash- miri sculpture of the eleventh or twelfth centuries, as do several other fragments sighted near a Shivalaya, the Shiva shrine at Devi-Kothi26. These dispersed fragments of ((classical)) sculptures were photographed by ourselves in 1984 and some were subsequently published.

15


11 Brahma-icon, c. 10th century, Devi-Kothi, photographed in situ (in 1984)

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The finest in respect of workmanship is a fragment of a Brahma figure (PI. 11) in a polished, dark, fine grained stone, (in the typical Kashmir style of the tenth century>)27. The formation of the torso with its very slender waist, the cross-cut navel with the belly fold, the three heads with heavy-cheeked faces, the full lips and the smiling expression, the typical pinnacled crown and the jewellery, all speak of a Kashmiri connection. One would have to verify the mineralogical structure of the stone to know more about its proper provenance, but the level of craftsmanship certainly points towards Kashmir as the home of the sculptor.

The second (classical) stone-relief represents Surya on his chariot (PI. 13). It is stiffer and less subtly carved than the Brahma image, and is made from locally available stone, but even this sculpture ((exhibits the traits of Kashmir work, such as the round facial type, horizontally elongated eyes, and the type of crown))28. This icon can be assigned to a slightly later period, and placed in the eleventh or twelfth century.

16


12 Fragment of a standing Surya, c. 14th century, Devi-Kothi, photographed in situ (in 1984)

13 Surya on his chariot, c.11th/12th centuries, Devi-Kothi, photographed in situ (in 1984)

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Both images - of Brahma and Surya -, it has been remarked (Ohri, 1989:166ff), (( exhibit the stylistic and iconographic traits and norms adopted from Kashmir though the standard of workmanship and finish... is not of the same order). These two apart, we photographed another slightly more rubbed and fragmentary icon of Surya (PI. 12). Here, the Sun God stands on a lotus pedestal, flanked by two horses. This image, again probably carved from local stone, displays the very rounded Kashmiri face and a diadem with a very high petal crown. It is coarser and less (classical), and one may date it to a later period still, the 14th century perhaps. But it affords proof that from the 10th century onwards, there was, at Devi-Kothi, the presence of deities from the classical Hindu pan- theon, and not only that of local deities and godlings.

As far as the Goddess is concerned, however, at Devi-Kothi till now only one related stone sculpture has been found, but it at least suggests that once upon a time, a temple to the Devi may have stood here. It is29 a carved lalata bimba-lintel of a sanctum door, at

17


14 Ganesha with a lion- vahana on a stone door frame, from Devi-Kothi, Bhuri Singh Museum Chamba (Sharma in 2001)

17 Ekadasharudra/ mukhalingam photographed by J. Ph. Vogel prior to 1908

15 Stone lintel with the image of Devi, Shivalaya of Devi-Kothi (in 1984)

16 Shivalaya of Devi-Kothi before restauration and re-installation (in 1984)

the centre of which there is a figure of Ganesha. But this deity is seen here seated on a (PI. 14)30. The presence of this vahana-mount, so firmly linked to the Goddess (even though it is Ganesha who is mounted on it here), indicates that the temple to which the lintel originally belonged was associated with the worship of Shakti. While this evidence supports our assumption that the existing wooden temple of the Goddess Chamunda was built by Raja Umed Singh at the site of some ruined, older stone temple of the Goddess, it is to be regretted that other remains of the old temple - except for a large stone amalaka- pinnacle-stone still lying in the temple's compound in 1984 and several fragments fixed in the platform of the lions in front of the shrine - have not yet come to light. But the in- dications are strong, and the antiquity of the worship of the Great Goddess in this village can almost be taken for granted31.

18


Ganesha on the = . wooden door frame in_ = : i m!

~~~~~~In the houmidst of Srthe Devi-Kothi village is a Shivalaya, a small stone-shrine dedicated

Amarnath Sharmathe image of a seated Devi carrying a pot

Stone(P. 15). In the sanctum one finds33 a mukhalingam34 surmounted by eleven heads form-the

watering an ekadasharudra a group of eleven Rudrasfountain in one icon (see P. Dev17)i-. The ten h Kothireveals the inn 198of) a late Kashmiri style.

In the village, one encounters Ganesha again (see P. 18): on a fine old wooden door

lintel,se en seated in the centre of the lintel, with invarapaa-guardian figures appearing at the

Devi-KothiIt may finally be mentioned that in Devi-Kothi, in fact in the entire region of Churah,1984)

one can still find, in abundance, fountain slabs decorated with splendid, efolkishn motifs (Pt. 19). These and the many door lintels (see Pl. 20), storage boxes, pillars, and wooden

chests, we would like to add, deserve to be carefully documented, but this is something

that would go beyond the e limits of..i a the present study.

ther been mkadealocallyuora imported from a ca e's w s in Chamba ino'io's . 1" to wn.ra'

bs.' Th.rm.em ohv ee eoe rma l eml n sdcrtdwt motifs belonging to a period earlier than that of Raja Umed Singh, but seems to have ei-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ :..~-...::~ ther beenmadelocall or(iprtd fr.o',--, a capne's-wrkho:i Chamba.. town.'

It~~~~~~~~~~~'~ ma -f-i;na.'-.y .... mentone tha in Dev-Kothi ?i'n fac i.. "... entire regio "o. Churah,---'.'-'

20~~~~~n ca tl id naudne onansas eoae ihslni,(oks~mtf

Devi-Ko~~that woul 1984 beyo.-dt.e limit o,f..: the. prsn study

19


3.23 m c )

E co

BilmmmBm

1.44m

Ground-plan of the Devi-Kothi temple (Barbara and Eberhard Fischer, in 1984)

X wooden pillars L JI | projecting balcony

stepped platform wooden railing

m_ icon of the goddess :::::: wooden door to sanctum

20


The structure of the wooden temple

The temple of the Goddess is built on a site situated far below the main hamlet of Devi- Kothi, where the Rajputs and Brahmins live, and where a fortress-like structure existed in the olden days. The steep slope down to the Baira nala river levels off at this site, thus providing space for a temple-yard. This rather large rectangular area is surrounded by a stone wall, approximately one meter in height. In the temple-yard, formerly, only the Devi- temple, a small naga-snake shrine, and two sheds were to be seen, each rising on a sep- arate platform. In the 1980s, however, a mandapa-hall called (Jalpa Devi)-temple, a dharamshala-(dormitory) building with a corrugated iron roof, and a house used by the Brahmins for cattle fodder and as a (temple-office), were built here. At the wall close to the precipice, on a small stone platform, two stone lions35 have been placed facing the entrance of the temple. In former times, additional stone sculptures, like sepulchral slabs from a former fountain enclosure, as well as fragments of an ancient stone temple - i.e., an amalaka - were placed here along with iron tridents and flags fixed to the pedestal.

The temple itself (see plan) is a rectangular wooden building that has been constructed on a stone platform, 1.40 m in height and 5.70 m by 5.60 m in area. It consists of a square cella (3.23 m by 3.26 m), a circumambulatory passage (2.56 m high and 82 cm wide) between the walls and pillars, a small projecting balcony (56 cm wide and 1.80m

21 View of the Devi-Kothi temple and yard (from the west, in 1984)

21


22 View of the Devi-Kothi temple (from the west, in 2000)

23 Fagade of the Devi- Kothi temple (in 1984)

24 Fagade of the Devi- Kothi temple (in 2000)

long36), and a large gable roof (c. 2.50 m in height) with additional slanting roofs (c. 60 cm) that project both over the facade and out to the back. A fine wooden coffered-ceiling (con- sisting of squares of c. 80 cm) has been fixed over the circumambulation gallery.

As it stands now, the original stone platform of the temple has been coated with cement and decorated at the front in a modern stencilled pattern. But at its base, an old, thick and broad wooden plank (c. 60 cm) is still used as a place for visitors to sit, and for temple musicians to place their instruments, etc. It was once held in place by four wooden beams with lions' heads (now ruined) which projected out the base of the platform. Two additional wooden planks sticking out in the centre are meant to be used by the visitors as steps to climb up to the sanctum and the gallery space. Now, an additional and easier entrance is found on the western side and most visitors approach the shrine by climbing up the steps built between the mandapa-hall and the temple. At the time of restoration, the gallery space was extended up to the rafter, and the wooden balustrade was replaced by a brick one, coated with cement. On the western and northern sides, wooden boards that have been inserted on top of these railings cover the walls almost up to the roof and

22


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protect the murals against rain and sunlight37. The large gable roof with the closed triangular top-storey38 above the coffered-ceiling, rests on ten pillars at the perimeter of the platform, four each in front and back, and one on each side in the middle. Recently, when the platform was enlarged, four corner posts were added to support the large roof. The wooden structure of the temple-roof rests on pillars placed upon beams which have been set in the platform. The circumambulatory gallery now has a cement floor that hides this wooden construction. The pillars are decorated with slightly projecting capitals, on which the ceiling beams rest.

25 Main view of the Devi-Kothi temple, surrounded by the enlarged mandapa and the newly constructed dharamsala, and with the adjacent house for storing hay; in front of the entrance tridents fixed in the old amalaka stone (in 2000)

26 The small Naga shrine adjacent to the Devi- Kothi temple (in 2000)

27 Carved entrance to the Naga shrine of Devi-Kothi (in 2000)

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28 The platform with two lions, memorial slabs and other fragments (in 1984)

29 The expurgated cement-platform for the lions (in 2000)

The boards of the coffered-ceiling have been fixed to the ceiling beams, thus block- ing a view of the inner construction of the gable roof. This is trilateral with several pillars supporting the ridge beam that projects over the fagade in the form of a makara head. Above the entrance, where the front pillar supporting the ridge beam has been inserted into the front ceiling beam, another makara head projects through the slanting front roof.

The slate roof of the temple was repaired recently, but the relief-panels fixed in the triangular front indicate that its shape and size have not been changed much. This slanting front roof, protecting the entrance from rain, is still supported by an old decorated beam.

24


30 View of the faQade of the Devi temple with the entance to the cella and the murals (in 2000)

31 Platform, balcony, and facade of the Devi temple with the priests receiving a musician (in 2000)

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The cella in the center of the temple is a square cubicle and has been constructed using the technique of timber bonded masonry work. A crack in the facade, between the wooden frame and the dvarapala-sculpture to the left of the entrance, permits a view of the details of how the wall was constructed: a wooden plank can be seen at the bottom, then two or three layers of stone, over which another broad wooden plank has been placed.

The outside walls are plastered, the front embellished with wood-carvings and murals, the two side-walls and the back-wall with large-sized murals. A circumambulatory gallery runs around the cella, which was once surrounded by a wooden railing as can still be seen at the front, but has been replaced on the western and northern sides by wooden planks, almost completely closing the gallery. This was necessary to protect the murals against rain and intense sunlight. The original designs of the fine, slightly projecting wooden balcony and balustrade are preserved only in the front part of the temple. This woodwork may not be (original) and is possibly a replacement, but it was done taste- fully about a century ago.

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32 Modern side entrance to the west with the cement railing and wooden wall to protect the Devi-mural (in 2000)

34 Inside the cella of the Devi-Kothi temple, the brass icon of the Devi during evening puja (in 1984)

33 The unprotected east side with the cement railing (in 2000)

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Votive offerings - like tridents, brass bells, and the horns of rams and ibex brought by devotees - have been fixed by the priests of the temple to the front, the railing, the pillars, and some beams. In former times, they must have been far more prominent than they are now.

The cella and the icon The entrance to the cubical cella can now be closed by a (modern) door in which a win- dow-opening with an iron bar has been cut out: the opening serves the purpose of al-

lowing the faithful to have the darshan of the Goddess, and to make an offering of coins, even when the priest happens to be absent. The icon of the Goddess is placed against the back-wall, just opposite the entrance. The small room is filled with ritual utensils, dresses, votive offerings39 etc., leaving only a little space for the priests to squat in one corner.

26


35 Inside the cella with the icon and the officiating priests (in 2000)

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The icon of the Goddess that one sees in the temple now is a new, 20th century, brass-cast figure. Four-armed - with trident, sword, noose, and shield in the hands - this image of Durga Mahishasuramardini is about 50cm in height, framed by a brass torana at the back, embellished with three silver chhatri-umbrellas. It stands on a raised platform of three tiers and remains, ordinarily, covered, except for the face, by red or golden-yellow embroidered dresses with silver or gold cloth appliques. The eyes of the Goddess are painted in, and the face is enhanced by a nose-ring (see PI. 186).

27


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37 Entrance to the Devi temple (in 2000)

The woodwork

The fagade of the cella The entrance to the cubical cella faces south. Visitors, who come for darshan, have to climb two steep steps to reach the platform in front of the sanctum. Many, however, - in particular devotees of under-privileged classes - stand on the lower step, being able to gain only a distant view of the Goddess: Brahmins and Rajputs generally climb up to the platform and sit in front of the shrine when reciting their prayers.

The front wall of the sanctum, with the entrance in the centre, consists of a wooden recess with a tripartite door-frame and a one-winged door, a lintel, and a pair of monumental dvarapala relief-sculptures (with the donor's inscriptions above their heads) flanking the entrance. These wooden reliefs form a unit as it were, and are surrounded by plastered panels bearing painted images and decorative motifs (see PI. 38).

THE DOOR-FRAME TO THE SANCTUM The two wooden panels of the door are a modern replacement, but the frame in which they are set is old and original. This frame consists visually of three parts, even though the vertical jambs are partly carved out of one solid beam. At its bottom, above an un- decorated base, one sees a pair of small dvarapala-figures leaning on sticks, with one knee slightly bent, and the figures of the two river-goddesses: Yamuna, standing on a tor- toise, and Ganga, riding a makara, facing each other. All the four images are crowned and two-armed, with both the goddesses bearing stemmed lotus-flowers and vessels in their hands. These figures stand within slender cusped arches, the top space being filled with

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38 The wooden facade (in 2000)

39 Small dvarapala with Yamuna at the door frame base (in 2000)

40 Small dvarapala with Ganga at the door frame base (in 2000)

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creepers. Following a horizontal band of rhomboid flowers, the vertical relief posts start with an ornamentation of deeply cut geometrical and creeper formations. The patterning continues horizontally across the door that has a rectangular plaque depicting Ganesha, set in the centre. The two inner frames are cut at an angle, with the top board placed horizontally above it.

Discussion There are features that the Devi-Kothi temple shares with other stone and wooden temples of Chamba. The tripartite doorframe, for instance, the dvarapala-figures, and the images of Ganesha, Yamuna and Ganga, one sees elsewhere in the region too. The iris flowers are obviously based on Mughal prototypes, whilst the ornaments of the jambs represent a more traditional repertory, even though the lozenges, in Goetz's view (1947: 159), are ((a typical design of the Umed Singh period)). The very deep-cut ornamentation seems to be made by using bow-drills and fine chisels of various shapes and width, much as carpenters, especially in Rajasthan and Gujarat,40 do even today when producing wood- blocks for printing textiles.

30

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41 a-e The nine lintel relief panels above the cella door (in 1984)

THE LINTEL RELIEFS Nine nearly square panels depicting deities have been inserted into a frame running above the entrance that is rather heavy and cut in deep relief; apart from this, there are the two large dvarapala-reliefs. The nine icons, once whitewashed, are on plain black boards which have been mounted on tablets fixed to the wall by dark red mouldings. The ledges have slanting sides and are decorated with four-petalled flowers, bell-shapes, and square- lozenges filled with four leaves. All ornaments have been cut deeply with chisels. In order to achieve such narrow and deep reliefs, holes must have been drilled before the chisel work was started. The boards and ledges are carefully joined, but big nails with round heads have also been used to fix them properly.

Each icon is set into a relatively broad plain border with a flat cusped arch placed on side-columns with thick creepers in the corners. Under each arch, a deity is seated on a vahana-animal or a throne. The bodies and crowned heads are invariably depicted frontally. Two-armed, they ride astride their mounts, with only the left leg showing. The animals they ride are, however, always presented in profile, except for the central Garuda figure mounted by Vishnu.

The sequence in the lintel starts at the left with Vishnu in his first incarnation as Matsya, the upper body of the God emerging from the wide-open mouth of the giant fish. Vishnu bears two vessels in his hands, and his scarf is seen fluttering in the air. Within the next square another deity is rendered, seated on a ram - the figure could be that of Agni, Kubera or Mangala - holding a noose and another unidentified object in his hands. This is followed by the figure of Chandra, the moon-god, riding a deer41, again carrying two vessels in his hands. Next comes Indra - or Brihaspati? - on a beautifully rendered, massive elephant, an ankusha-goad and possibly a vajra-thunderbolt in his hands. Right in the centre is a panel occupied by Vishnu who is mounted on Garuda; here, however, the celestial bird is rendered en face, as if bestowing the devotee, with proper darshana on his own: standing upright on two human feet, dressed in a dhoti, hands folded in ado- ration, the four wings spread wide42, and scarf fluttering in the air. To Vishnu's right is a deity seated on a peacock, probably Karttikeya, with a pot and a ma/a-rosary in his hands. He is followed by two horse-riders, one of them holding two banners, and the other two

31


lotus-flowers: possibly Varuna and Surya. At the extreme end at the right, corresponding to Matsya at the left, Vishnu appears again, now seated on a pedestal with lotus petals, holding a pot and a rosary in his raised hands43. This might well be the artist's rendering of Vishnu in his ninth incarnation, as Buddha.

Interpretation and Discussion The lintel featuring the nine icons was described by Hermann Goetz (1954: 27) as (a frieze of the Navagraha), the nine planets; and one of the present authors, V. C. Ohri, concurs with this interpretation. In 1963, the priest of the Devi-Kothi temple told him that the nine planets are represented, not in the usual order and iconography, but with their vahana, vehicles. After careful examination, Ohri was - and continues to be - convinced that it is the navagrahas, and they are represented in the following sequence: (1) Ketu44, (2) Mangala, (3) Chandra, (4) Brihaspati, (5) Budha45, (6) Rahu46, (7) Surya, (8) Shukra and (9) Shani.

For the authors Fischer and Sharma, however, this seems unlikely. They identify here at least three images as Vishnu (first, fifth, and last); it also seems that Indra and Agni, possibly even Chandra/Soma, Karttikeya/Varuna, and Surya are rendered in their classical aspect and riding their recognizable vahanas. Thus, Matsya47 is present, and two important grahas, Rahu and Ketu, are apparently absent. Fischer and Sharma believe that the intention might therefore have been to render the ashta dikpalas, the eight guardians of the directions, or lokapalas, guardinas of the universe, with the ninth image added at the centre, being that of Vishnu. In a classical composition this group of deities would include Indra, Agni, Surya, and Chandra or Vayu - images that can be clearly identified from their iconographic traits here48 - while some of the other gods of directions, like Yama, seem to be absent, or at least not clearly indicated by their vahanas or emblems49.

Apart from this issue, there is of course another question: why should Vishnu, with two of his incarnations - the first and the ninth - also rendered at the extreme ends, figure so prominently in the centre, above the door of a Chamunda shrine? There are several possible answers. It is not unlikely that the lintel we see here was originally not even intended for this Shakta shrine and was only removed from another location and fixed to this entrance in A.D. 1754 (i.e. when the Devi-Kothi temple was built). Should this not be the case, and the lintel be contemporary with the ceiling reliefs and murals of the Devi-Kothi temple, one could argue that the sculptors who made it, all came from Chamba, where the Lakshminarayana temple was in fact the religious center of the place in the 18th century; and they might have brought in all the Vaishnava themes because it was so much a part of their own tradition to incorporate them into a temple fagade and lintel. One knows that the priests of this Vishnu-temple in Chamba were entrusted with looking after the financial matters of all the Chamunda shrines in Chamba territory, and might, therefore, have had some say in the iconographic program of the fagade. It is equally possible that these priests might also have wanted Vishnu-Narayana to figure prominently above the door to the sanctum for reminding the devotees that, even in a shakti-shrine far away from Chamba, it is Vishnu as Lakshminarayana who remains the supreme figure.

However, to go back to the first suggestion: it is likely that this lintel panel was already available in Chamba (possibly in the temple bhandara-store of the Lakshminarayana temple, or in the family of the craftsmen) when the Devi-Kothi temple was to be erected, and the carpenters made use of it. One reminds oneself that within the Chamba tradition, extant decorative members were often recycled and reused for the embellishment of temples and palaces. In Gand-Dehra, for instance, the coffered-ceiling, pillars, and relief panels all come from different periods, and the Chamunda temple of Chamba town is known to have been embellished with reliefs taken from Umed Singh's palace which was in most parts destroyed in 177550.

32


It should also be mentioned that the prominence with which the figure of Vishnu is depicted at the entrance to a Shakti shrine, is also to be seen in the Devi-temple of Gand- Dehra, where Vishnu, in his manifestation as Matsya, makes a noticeable appearance. He is painted to the left of the sanctum above the Lakshminarayana icon, with Jagannatha (who often replaces Buddha51 as the ninth incarnation) to the right. In this temple, a group of nine icons has been carved in the rough stone lintel above the entrance, but without differentiating emblems.

THE LARGE DVARAPALA-FIGURES The shrine door is flanked, as noticed before, by two monumental dvarapala figures, who were identified for Hermann Goetz52 as Bhima and Arjuna, by his local informants. The figures are carved out of large rectangular wooden blocks and the arms, weapons, and base of the two warrior figures oversect the simple frames, which end, above their shoulders and heads, as cusped Mughal arches decorated with incised leaves. Two inscriptions in Takri have been carved into the horizontal relief-block spaces above these arches.

The dvarapala to the left of the entrance carries a spear, held diagonally in front of his body; the other has a bow slung over his shoulder and holds an arrow in his right hand. Both wear karanda-pinnacled diadems over a textile cap or turban53 with a pearl-band across the forehead. They have a U-shaped, vertical (Vaishnava) tilaka-mark on the forehead, and wear armlets on the upper arms, and large four-petalled diamond shaped earrings hang from rather large ears. The figures are of athletically built men, with fleshy, smooth-shaved faces; the mouths are small but the lips full; the eyes appear elongated under heavy, well-formed eyebrows. The figures are dressed in dhotis54 with broad waist- and shoulder-cloths and sport four different types of necklaces. The way they stand, their feet point towards the entrance of the sanctum, suggests that they are flanking it as its guards.

42 Large dvarapala with

the entrance (in 2000)

43 Large dvarapala with ti" ': ' the bow and arrow, right side of the ent- . rance (in 2000)

33


The large cusped arches above the dvarapala-figures are set in projecting frames with lozenges, which have, at their base, iris flowers blooming on large stems with leaves on one side; on the other, appear cypress trees, both plants being set also within narrow, slender cusped arches.

Discussion Compared to the ceiling reliefs, the dvarapalas, the lintel figures, and relief ornaments at the entrance to the cella, are somewhat ((stiff)), with deep-cut chisel (and partly drill) work, missing the lively and painterly realism of the ceiling reliefs entirely. They are possessed of characteristics belonging to an older tradition, incorporating ancient Pahari and early Mughal features. This is said, however, not to take anything away from the artistic merit of the work. The scroll relief-band, for instance, is remarkably well carved and the irises at the base are neat and lively. The heavy dvarapala-panels were, in all likelihood, carved along with the pillars in situ, being probably too heavy to be transported over long dis- tances. It is very likely, in fact, that the carpenter/s produced them locally in the same years that the Devi-Kothi temple was constructed (i.e. A. D. 1752/4).

It is well worth mentioning that the pair of dvarapala figures at Devi-Kothi have parallels: there are, for instance, similar figures to be seen in Badi-Dehra, a Jalpa Devi shrine situated (but not yet documented) between the villages Kakiyan and Utip on the outskirts of Chamba town; and they remind one of the earlier ( i.e. A. D. 1632) monumental life-size wooden (Pandava)-sculptures in the Khajjinag temple at Khajiar55. The figures (PI. 44a, b) have a certain bulk, although they pose with elegance; and if one were to take out the Mughal decorative elements from them, they could be seen as being based on

34


44 Large dvarapala with the spear, earlier condition and pigmentation (in 1984)

44a,b For comparison: Large wooden dvarapala figures with club and rosary in Khajiar (Fischer-Sharma in 1998)

45 Capital of a front corner pillar with elaborate carving and vertical beam - support in form of khichaka figures (in 2000)

earlier stone icons. By far the finest, certainly the most animated figure of a dvarapala in relief, however, is to be found in the Gand-Dehra shrine near Chamba (PI. 44c). Here, in addition, a small dwarf-like side-figure is brought in, carrying like an ayudha-purusha, the archer's quiver on his head. This rather flat but most subtle relief was in all likelihood the work of a carpenter well acquainted with drawing and painting, decades before the Devi- Kothi temple was constructed.

The pillars The four pillars at the front of the temple have been superbly crafted with delicately chiselled Mughalised patterns. With a grooved square base they have been inserted in the

44c Wooden dvarapala figures with a dwarf Gand-Dehra (Fischer- Sharma in 1998)

35


46 View of a ceiling corner with votive bells, facetted pillar, decorated capitel, beam support, and casette relief (in 2000)

47 Beam support in form of a khichaka- figure (in 1984)

48 Capital of a side pillar with eight-pointed star (in 2000)

ground sill beams on the platform, now underneath the floor level. The shafts are faceted but end as rectangular columns, decorated with very elaborate creeper, bell, and leaf designs, with slanting capitals decorated with palmettes, into which two vertical, double (kichaka-beam-supports) have been inserted, showing once more the palmette-band at the ends.

The kichaka-dwarf brackets (Goetz 1969:159 refers to them as (kircaka)) in the four corners are all similar: crowned (like the dvarapala-sculptures) and bejewelled figures in dhotis with legs bent and turned up towards the heads.

Only the front and corner pillars have deep-cut relief ornaments on capitals and kichaka-dwarf brackets on top. The middle ones are exclusively decorated with eight- pointed stars - two intersecting squares - flanked by horizontal ornaments, all of which are differently shaped. The rectangular beam-supports end in small double volutes. Pil- lars and beams at the back are simpler than at the front, the relief work being rougher. The centre of the capitals is, without exception, the eight-pointed star, filled with leaves in and around a central circle, surrounded by bands with bell-shaped flowers as well as leaves, (diamonds), and lozenges.

36


Discussion Most decorative motifs of the facade and pillars still correspond very much to what Her- mann Goetz (1954: 8) identified as being typical for the Raja Chhattar Singh (reg. 1664- 1690) period: ((cypresses, cusped arches, the squinch fillings, the diapers, flower rosettes)) as found at the Vaikunthadwara, the gateway of the Lakshminarayana temple, erected in A.D. 1678. In addition, simplified (

On the centre pole one sees six small images of deities, placed one above the other. They are all crowned and dressed in dhoti or jama. They include Rama, sporting a bow, and Hanuman striding forward; Vishnu, seated on a lotus-flower, is placed at the very top, right under the gable beam58.

A horizontal eave beam (a kapota or kapotali)59 under the front roof has been nicely decorated with a running scroll and some triangular wooden lappets that hang down. Two decorative knobs with lathe-turned, bulbous tops have been set in between, possibly indicating stylised pigeons. A similar but simpler decorated ledge has been fixed in the middle at the front.

The back of the gable roof is closed with regular planks; only the central post is or- namented with four incised cartouches (PI. 36).

The massive gable beam ends on both sides in large makara-heads. Inserted along its top are actual brass vessels covered with chhatri-parasols or trishula-tridents, all offerings by devotees to the Goddess. It seems that their arrangement has not been changed since the 1980s.

The wooden ceiling There are five squares in the ceiling above the entrance and the same number of squares above each of the murals of the pradakshina-circumambulation gallery around the sanctum; together with those in the corners, they add up to a total of 24 squares. Each of them is comprised of one central quadratic and four rectangular panels. Thus, five times twenty-four, i.e. 120, reliefs60 were required and prepared, to make up the whole of the wooden ceiling.

The quadratic centre pieces encompass, without exception, an eight-pointed star formed by two intersecting squares, on a panel with slanting sides and borders that are often painted red. Motifs carved in high relief are placed in their centres. They mostly appear unpainted whilst the background stars are coated with white or vermillion pigment, and the outline of the stars is generally in vermillion; only occasionally does one see green.

Like the central pieces, all rectangular panels are made of thick deodar-wood planks, each carefully planed. On all four sides a band of approximately 2 cm has been cut away to provide ledges for the framing. The rectangular space for the relief has been incised to the exact measure and the edges cut to slant. In the center, an elongated cartouche61 with cusped arches at the shorter sides has been drawn, probably using a stencil. The outline of this elegant frame has been chiselled out, first with a groove and the motif then drawn on the inside. After that, the area surrounding the figure or scene has been cut or shaved away with a chisel and evened out with astonishing uniformity. The motif is carved as a rather flat relief but with intersections and frontal views, indicating details with sharp indented lines. The flat backgrounds are usually painted in cinnabar, the out- lines of the cartouches white, brown or green, the ledges dark-red; the figures or scenes now seem to be uncoloured, but several of them were, at least once, partially tinted. Sev- eral of them display a very light black, now appearing grey, and red or blue. In fact, it may well be that they were originally quite delicately coloured before being fixed as a coffered- ceiling.

The relief squares and rectangles are placed in frame-ledges that have received several layers of paint. Iron nails were used to fix them to the wooden ceiling-beams. These frames are very accurately cut, diagonally at the corners with slanting sides and very straight rills. They must have once received a uniform coat of brownish-red paint.

Reliefs and frame-ledges are very well crafted, each of them executed exactly to size, and thus fitting into the ceiling without any gap or (improvisation>. This is no mean achievement, both from an artistic and from a technical point of view. And the elan with which these carpenters-cum-designers/painters carried out a most demanding task, work-

38


50 The wooden ceiling of the circumambulation-gallery (in 2000)

XIX XVIII XVII XVI XV XIV

II III IV V VI VII

39


ing in a secluded corner, at a distant remove alike from a discerning patron or an appre- ciative viewer, can only elicit great admiration

All parts of the wooden ceiling are not only uniform in size: they carry almost the same measure of (iconographic gravity), with no square or quadratic piece treated lightly, or casually. It seems as if the task were conceived as being without a beginning or an end, not even around a conspicuous, dominant central point. Each square gives the impression of having been fabricated as one unit and treated as such - at least by the carpenters - before it was raised and integrated into the ceiling. There is some vague iconographic connection between the main (theme) of the row of relief-squares and the mural on the adjoining wall, even when the paintings seem to spring from the matrix that Chamba-based painters routinely drew upon while working.

With very few exceptions, the figures of the quadratic centre pieces take care not to point the soles of their feet, disrespectfully, towards the sanctum; and, as far as the faces go, they seem to turn almost naturally towards the sacred centre, the sanctum.

The coffered-ceiling needs, however, to be described in some detail, and one can begin with the south-eastern corner and then go on to the reliefs of the south ceiling, the one above the entrance. This would also be the part of the ceiling that the visitor would normally have encountered first when entering the shrine for gaining darshan of the deity, when offering obeisance. In the cirmcumambulatory path, proceeding in a clock-wise movement, (following the course of the sun), as might be said - with the sanctum always to his right - the devotee would first head towards the west wall where the Devi mural is, then to the north or back of the cella and return via the Krishna mural in the east to the entrance.

In describing each square, one starts with the central quadratic piece, which lends a name to the square. From there it is best to proceed on to the rectangular relief which keeps the same base for standing or sitting, which is usually the panel to its left. For the sake of convenience, or clarity, titles - even though somewhat arbitrarily chosen - are given to the 24 squares: brought in first, is the theme of the quadratic panel, and then, in brackets, the main theme of the reliefs arranged around it.

40


I. The Hatha-yogi (and the Gods)

An ascetic sits cross-legged on a tiger skin, matted hair tied up, a bairagan elbow-rest supporting the right elbow; the left arm is, however, raised above the head, like an urdhva-bahu. There is no clear indication about the divine or other status of the figure, but one does wonder if the artisits had the figure of Shiva as the Great Yogi in mind.

1.1.

Shiva, face rendered in profile, is seen standing, the great Nandi-bull, his vahana, resting like a domesticated pet close to his legs. The Lord is four-armed, holding a trident and a drum in the raised hands, rosary and bowl in the lower ones. Around his waist is the familiar tiger skin, his favoured (garment), and snakes wind around his shoulders.

1.2. A crowned noble - a celestial figure perhaps? - stands, wearing, presumably in the current fashion of the court, a long jama, a sash, and an angavastra-like shoulder-wrap, hands folded and holding a lotus, in homage.

51 Square I of the coffered-ceiling (in 2000)

1.3. An ascetic stands, hair matted and tied up, a vina resting against a shoulder62, hands folded: the figure could well represent Shiva himself in his Vinadhara aspect. An animal skin is wrapped around the loins and round earrings, like those worn by Jogis, strengthen the impression that it is none other than the Lord himself, who is rendered here.

1.4. Brahma, four-headed and crowned, four- armed, dressed in dhoti and shoulder cloth, is seen carrying, following well- established iconography, two books (the Vedas), a rosary, and a water vessel (see also PI. 77).

41


II. Baby Krishna (with adorers)

Krishna is rendered in his Navanita-priya, locally also called the Laddu- or Modaka- Gopala aspect, as a crawling baby, a ball of butter or sweets in one raised hand, a scarf around the neck.63

2.1. A young man dressed in a pair of short drawers with a sash, a long scarf around the shoulders, and a gopa's cap on his head, stands like an attendant figure, holding a yaks' tail, a chauri-flywhisk against his shoulder.

2.2. A standing figure (possibly Krishna), dressed in a dhoti and wearing a crown, stands holding a cowherd's staff (or flute?) in his right hand and a lotus- flower in his left.

2.3. A gopa-cowherd stands erect, wearing short drawers and a pointed cap, carrying a handkerchief and a stick with a crook in his hands.

2.4. A young woman stands like an adoring gopi, with a lotus-bud in her folded hands; her odhani-veil falling off her back in a long, trapezoid fold.

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III. A deity in profile, seated on a lotus-flower (with Rama and retinue)

A two-armed, celestial figure, holding in one hand a lotus flower, the other held in varada mudra, is seated on a lotus, the stem of the flower prominently rendered.

3.1. A youthful, princely figure crowned and dressed in a dhoti, appears here, holding a bow under the arm and pointing an arrow to the ground. The weight of the form is borne chiefly on the left leg, the right knee bent and only the toes touching the ground. What is meant to be represented, perhaps, is Rama lifting and then bending Shiva's great bow in the svayamvara-episode.

3.3. One sees Hanuman standing with folded hands, his long, curving tail visible behind his crowned head. His face is fleshy; the feet are fashioned like those of a monkey.

3.4. A female figure - presumably Sita - stands, with hands folded in anjali mudra, adoring the Lord.

3.2.

Another princely figure carrying a bow and arrow is represented, but he, on his part, stands firmly on both feet and holds the bow in front of his chest. Judging from the iconographic context, this could be Lakshmana, ever solicitous of Rama's welfare, and ever by his side.

4,

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IV. Krishna, seated on a lotus (with young Krishna as cowherd)

Like an iconic figure64 meant to be revered, Krishna is seen seated on a lotus; but he retains some of his cowherd's garb: a gopa's cap and a scarf fluttering in the air. The peacock's feather on the head and the lotus and the flute in his hands complete the image.

4.1.

An old man with a beard, possibly Krishna's step-father Nanda, is seen seated. But it apears as if he were issuing instructions to a cowherd boy driving away a cow; another young boy stands behind him (see PI. 85).

4.2. Two cowherds - possibly Krishna, together with a gopa wielding a chauri- flywhisk - appear here, goading two bulls (see PI. 87).

4.3. A herdsman's stick in hand, Krishna, is seen, driving four cows; the animals drawn and carved to form a tight group, their contours overlapping (see PI. 86).

4.4. A rendering of the dana /lil/a-episode: Krishna is demanding toll from two gopi cowherd-girls who carry baskets on their heads. One sees Krishna with one hand reaching out into one of the baskets as he grips the left arm of one of the girls; the other girl, her companion in front, tries to save her by pulling the end of her odhani- veil and asking her to move on. A little boy, doubtless one of Krishna's gopa- companion, flees, having already claimed two pots which he carries in his hand (see PI. 88).

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V. Vishnu on a lotus-flower (with renderings of Venugopala and adoring gopis)

Vishnu, four-armed, sits cross-legged on a full-blown lotus, with his ayudha-emblems -

mace, lotus, discus, and conch - in his hands. Judging from the context in which the image is placed, the intention, perhaps, is to suggest the real nature of Krishna, the cow-herd, who is none other than Vishnu himself.

5.1. As Venugopala, Krishna stands, holding a flute, his head turned back. He wears a crown and is dressed in a long jama with a sash; a long scarf is draped over his shoulders, a loop of the garment caress- ing his belly; on his feet he wears wooden paduka-sandals (see PI. 82).

5.2. A young maiden appears, dancing, her arms raised over her head; the body is turned, and one sees her holding a chauri- flywhisk.

5.3. Another maiden, doubtless a gopi, is seen holding a flask, like an attendant figure, her back towards the centre.

5.4. In a white cartouche, a maid - an attendant figure - stands, holding a platter and a drinking cup.

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VI. A kneeling gopa-boy, possibly Krishna, with vessels in his hands (surrounded by Goddesses and Gods)

Sporting a cowherd's cap, a small kneeling figure, possibly Krishna, is rendered, scarf fluttering, a sash tied over his short drawers, vessels in both the hands.

6.1. The great goddess Durga, four-armed and crowned, stands riding her lion-vehicle who looks up at her. She carries a straight, rapier-like sword and a shield in the two upper hands; in the others, close to her torso, are a ghanta-bell and a patra- bowl. The border of her ghaghra-skirt and odhani-veil are delicately patterned.

6.2. Saraswati, the goddess of learning, is seen seated, crowned and four-armed, on a lotus, supported by the stem of the flower and two leaves. In her hands she carries a vina with a single resonant gourd, a manuscript, and a lotus-bud.

6.3. Shiva in his Bhairava aspect, guardian of the Goddess, is seen four-armed, wielding a trishula-trident and a ma/a-rosary in his

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)r hands; of the two lower hands, one ts downwards while the lower holds wl. A snake is coiled around the neck, a long garland of skulls hangs down s knees. His long matted locks are bed back and fall about his shoulders; ace is rendered almost frontally. e are large, round rings in the ears; -like teeth protrude from both corners e mouth; a round third eye and a a-mark on the forehead, complete the e (see PI. 76).

a lotus, the Goddess as Shakti - orm reminiscent of the image lied in the Shakti Devi temple at itrari - stands four-armed, holding lent, a snake, a staff, and a damaru- i in her four hands. She is dressed ong skirt with an odhani; the breasts ompletely covered by her jewellery.

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VII. Dancing Krishna (with a sadhu and hath-jogis and a mahanta)

The central figure of this square towards the south-west corner is seen dancing, knees positioned apart, shoulder-cloth held in the hands, face turned sideways. It is none other than Krishna, wearing a gopa-cap. (In respect of orientation, the figure is in line with the images in the squares placed along the western ceiling.)

7.1.

A bearded, wandering sadhu-ascetic is seen, his hair piled on his head and tied with some sort of fabric. He is dressed only in a loincloth and carries bags on his shoulders; a kamandalu-pot is in one of the hands and a walking stick in the other.

7.2. A jogi, sporting a long trimmed beard, but dressed, surprisingly, in a long jama coat and a cap, sits cross-legged on a tiger skin, right hand raised in the gesture of benediction.

7.3. An elderly Natha-jogi stands on one leg, evidently doing penance: the right leg is raised, and the sole of the foot is pressed to his hip. The left arm is raised; the right one, holding a rosary, is placed on the left knee. The figure is naked, and the hair is worn long.

7.4. A mahanta65, abbot or head of a religious establishment, sits reading from a manuscript, rosary held in the left hand. He is dressed in an ankle-length jama- coat with a triangular neck-opening; the head is covered by a noticeable conical cap with a central knob and rim. The face is clean shaven and rendered in three- quarter profile.

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VIII. The Goddess Lakshmi seated on a lotus (with two dakinis and two demons)

The Goddess Lakshmi - Kamala - crowned and bejewelled, sits cross-legged on a lotus-flower. In her two upper hands lotus-buds are held; the lower right one is in varada mudra, the gesture of granting a boon.

8.1. A dakini, a ((female imp or witch )66, denizen of the burning grounds, stands, wielding a dread sword above her head, even as she drinks from a skull bowl. Her face is coarse with a large nose and heavy chin; kundala-rings (adorn) her ears. The hair is worn long and untidy; her dangling breasts nearly touch her navel; and the torso of the old haggard is naked but for a piece of patterned cloth draped around the waist (see PI. 91).

8.2. An asura-demon is seen, holding a swinging, curved sword over his head threateningly. His face, seen from the front, features two horns, large ears, and fangs visible through the half-open

mouth. He is clad only in short drawers worn with a sash, and has a round shield to defend himself with. The feet are like the claws of a bird.

8.3. Another fearful dakini, an associate of Kali, stands, holding a sword in front of her face and a cup in front of her breasts, as if drinking from it. She looks much like the other dakini seen here, but appears to be much younger than her in years.

8.4. Another demon67 strides forward, appearing to attack with a drawn sword. The face has a bear-like snout and he wears a tail, long and curving. The horns on his head are rendered in profile.

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IX. A coiled Snake-deity (with a dakini, a centaur and demonic figures)

One sees a giant, coiled up snake-deity - Shesha perhaps, or Vasuki ? -, the head rather heavy, tongue flicking out of his mouth.

9.1. A dakini, possibly Shani-like but female68, similar in appearance to Kali but two-armed only, completely naked with sagging breasts, khatvanga-cot-post and bowl in hands, is seen seated, legs parted, on a pyre with the flames con- suming a corpse69, licking at her genitals. The face is hideous and turned sideways; a lolling tongue hangs out of the mouth; untidy hair cascades over the shoulders70 (see PI. 89).

9.2. A demon with a snout, face in profile, is rendered, rushing forward, sword held as if ready to attack. (This image appears upside down and therefore looks as though it is in the wrong direction: something that must have happened when the panel was fixed [re-fixed?] to the ceiling.)

9.3. A centaur-like female figure, a creature of fantasy is seen, the rendering quite exceptional. The head is that of an old human female with long, stringy hair, heavy cheeks and chin, big round rings in the ears; the torso is that of a haggard woman with sagging breasts; strong arms brandish a heavy, straight sword and a shield. The body, however, is that of a galloping bull, the tip of its tail touching the ground. This figure was once tinted white (see PI. 90).

9.4. Another demon figure: swinging the sabre over his head as he fixes the viewer with his gaze. In his three- quarter-profile face, the tongue dangles, and the fangs stay prominent (see PI. 92).

59 Square IX of the coffered-ceiling

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X. A crouching jogi (surrounded by other jogis of the Natha-order) A youthful looking jogi sits on the ground, knees drawn up to his chest, right arm placed on his knees, chin resting on hand, left arm hanging down at the side. The jogi is naked, but wears a conical cap and earrings, suggestive of the fact that he belongs to the Kanphata jogi-order71.

10.1. A Kanphata jogi sits, knees slightly parted, on a feline skin. The figure is youthful and naked, wearing nothing but a brief loincloth, earrings, and a carefully rendered cap with a central knob. With his feet he holds a bowl in which he grinds bhang-marihuana with a long stick or pestle held firmly in both hands. The jogi looks down and seems to be concen- trating hard upon the work in hand.

10.2. Another jogi figure is seated on an animal skin, meditating, with the gaze directed straight ahead. One knee is drawn up to the chest, the right hand placed between thigh and torso. (Once more, this panel

has been fixed upside-down, the resultant impression being that of the figure looking out of the square.)

10.3. Seated on a leopard skin, again with one knee raised, a jogi sits, resting his weight on the right heel as he looks down towards a round band or rosary that he holds with both hands.

10.4. A young jogi sits, right knee raised, and the left pressing down against the earth. He holds a bowl to his lips, as if drinking (bhang72?) from it; the left hand rests on a pot, placed upon the head of an animal skin.

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XI. A jogi seated (surrounded by two jogis and two birds) A jogi, wearing a conical cap, is seated, one knee drawn up to the chest, the other placed against the ground. He leans upon his left arm, while the right elbow rests on the other knee, the stance imparting to the figure a somewhat thoughtful, even pensive, air.

11.1. An elderly jogi with a pointed beard73, dressed in a long sleeveless coat, sits cross-legged on a tiger skin, telling the beads of a rosary. The left hand rests in his lap, visible above his foot, and the right elbow is placed upon a wooden rest. The cap he wears and the earrings, bespeak of his belonging to the Kan- phata order; the air about him is that of a learned religious teacher74, seated, meditating (see PI. 95).

11.2. A young, nearly unclothed, Kanphata jogi - with only the tie-string of a loincloth75 indicated around his waist - is seen writing on a wooden tablet, its diamond- shaped handle prominently rendered.

The weight of the body rests on his right foot; the left knee is raised, the edge of the wooden tablet resting upon it. (This relief is fixed upside down again, the figure thus seems to be looking out of the square.)

11.3 A bird, most likely a vulture76, is seen rendered inside a vertically placed cartouche: beak powerful, crest small, neck long, the body heavy, and the claws large.

11.4. A peacock is seen flying, short wings spread apart, small crest on the head, long tail marked with round (eye)- designs.

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XII. A winged peri head (surrounded by four peris)

The head of a peri - winged, female celestial figure - is seen sporting two wings. It is covered by a cap with some kind of sarpech-ornament topping it. The star-shaped panel within which the half-figure is carved, is painted green.

12.1. A peri, dressed in a long gown tied with a sash at the waist, is seen dancing to the beat of her own dhol-drum77. The tips of her wings touch each other above her head, which is covered by a turban in which a sarpech is tucked. The body and head are elegantly carved, capturing something of the feeling of an ecstatic dance movement (see PI. 94).

12.3. A peri is seen flying through the air, carrying a peacock resting against her hip. A turban in which a splendid sarpech is tucked enhances her fine features. Both of her powerful wings appear behind the head (see PI. 93).

12.4. A peri, playing a string instrument like a lute, appears, standing on one leg.

12.2. A peri, standing erect, plays on a vina. The panel is juxtaposed to the one which features another peri performing on a lute78, leading one to the thought that this relief might again have been turned (upside down) in the course of being fixed to the ceiling.

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XIII. A stork (surrounded by a peri, a bird, a girl and a dancer)

A stork is seen picking at the soil. His bent neck and tail neatly fill the star-shaped background space. This square is fixed in the north-west corner, between the two Devi murals.

13.1. A peri, wearing a long jama with a sash, a sarpech adorning the turban, is seen dancing to the beat of her own tambourine, her scarf moving in the air.

13.2. A woman is rendered, giving the impression of approaching; head bent and covered with an odhani, one end of which she holds in her right hand; in her left hand, she carries a bowl of grapes.

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13.3. Another image of a bird with a long beak, possibly a hamsa-goose: the head is round but bears no crest, the neck long, the body bulky, the legs rather short.

13.4. A young lady is seen dancing, one hand holding a pair of kartal over her head, the other placed on the hip: the elbows are seen at an angle and the face is turned back. She seems to look downwards, towards a parrot perching on the floor. The elegant lady wears a long jama with many pleats and a long scarf, but no sash. On her head, she sports a turban topped by a sarpech.

63 Square XIII of the coffered-ceiling

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XIV. A small hawk (with single, or pairs of animals)

A small hawk perches, its body diagonally rendered, filling the space in the green coloured star-shaped panel inside which it is placed.

14.1. A couple of long-tailed monkeys sit juxtaposed to each other, both eating fruit.

14.2. Two lion cubs squat, one behind the other.

14.3. A slender bear with a short tail and a round snout is seen walking.

14.4. A boar leaps forward.

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XV. A lion (with hunting scenes)

A lion appears, like a heraldic figure, featuring a short mane and a grave face, tail curving up towards the neck.

15.1. Vertically arranged, the figure of a hunter chasing a deer with a bow and arrow, appears in the panel. One arrow has already pierced the neck of the animal who is rendered nearly as tall as the hunter himself.

15.2. A rampant lion is seen attacking a cowering hunter who tries to guard himself with his shield against the snarling mouth and the fierce claws of the gigantic beast. The hunter has, however, already driven a katar-dagger into the lion's belly; the scabbard is seen still tucked in the sash. (This relief is so placed that all the feet point outwards).

15.3. A short-tailed duck is depicted, being attacked by a hawk which has swooped down upon it and dug its beak into the hapless bird's neck.

15.4. A tiger pounces upon an antelope, tearing into its back.

65 Square XV of the coffered-ceiling

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XVI. A hawk (with a youth and rams, a falconer and prey) A hawk or falcon is rendered at rest, inside the star-shaped central square.

16.1. A young nobleman is standing, well- shod, clad in a jama with a dagger tucked in his waist-belt, holding a flower.

Devi Kothi

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