Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1 2007 pp 7ndash20 7

Small farm systems to feedhungry AsiaC Devendra

Abstract Small farms are an integral part of Asian agriculture They arecharacterized by the preponderance and emphasis on mixed cropndashanimals systemsacross a variety of agroecological zones Mixed farming is the backbone ofagriculture many categories of which are models of diversification efficiency andresilience in Asia In global terms small farms in Asia account for an estimated87 of all farms of under two hectares of land About 52 of these farms havelt1 ha with the smallest sizes (03ndash06 ha) being found in China Bangladesh SriLanka and Indonesia There are three types of small farms in irrigated areas rainfedzones and plantation agriculture The first category greatly benefited from policysupport and massive resource inputs through the lsquogreen revolutionrsquo while thesecond was bypassed by it but continues to produce the bulk of the ruminant meatsand milk The third type remains neglected The rural poor are mainly small farmersand landless agricultural labourers their characteristics are described in detailIrrespective of their various definitions the key descriptors are deprivationsubsistence illiteracy survival and because of globalization vulnerability Datafrom various sources indicate some key features concerning Asian agriculture about83 of the agricultural area is rainfed between 51 and 55 of the totalpopulation of cattle and goats is found here and about 59ndash60 of poor livestockkeepers are found on mixed farms The development of small farms in rainfedenvironments is a priority for the future and affirmative action is imperative Thestrategies for development include the promotion of animal production as the entrypoint for food production and total factor productivity integrated use of naturalresources improved feeding and nutrition interdisciplinary participatory andholistic approaches to address system constraints and strengthening access toinformation and delivery systems Effective policies are urgently required to spurthis initiative these should include development policy for small farm systemsintensifying the role of animals in integrated systems improved ruralndashurbanmarketing linkages infrastructure and communications The developmentpathways include needs-based intensification of animal production systemsimproving diversification with the appropriate mix of animals that can beintegrated with annual and perennial crops ensuring access to improvedtechnologies and markets strengthening empowerment promotion of cooperativesand agri-business and sustained pro-poor initiatives to reduce poverty and hungerthat are consistent with income growth socioeconomic benefits improved livelihoodsand self-reliance

Keywords small farm systems small farmers mixed farming animal productionsystems rainfed areas development pathways Asia

C Devendra specializes in animal nutrition and animal production systems and is anindependent consultant in international animal production He may be contacted at 130AJalan Awan Jawa 58200 Kuala Lumpur Malaysia Tel +60 3 7897 9917 Fax +60 3 7983 7935E-mail cdevpcjaringmy

8 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

The Asian region is characterized by high humanpopulation growth rates rising demand for food suppliesto meet current and projected requirements continuingpoverty urbanization and increasing zoonosis Of theseincreased population growth and the implications forfood supplies are especially critical given that Asia alonehad a human population of about 33 million in 2005which is projected to increase to about 46 million by 2020Hungry Asia thus has the awesome task of grappling withthe demand for more food and its distribution in whichanimal proteins rather than calories from cereals are themajor concern Concerning the latter the projected totalmeat and milk consumption levels in 2020 are far inexcess of anticipated supplies in Asia (Delgado et al1999) The rapid growth in the consumption of foods ofanimal origin is especially spectacular in East and South-east Asia where the current and projected demand hasplaced major challenges and unprecedented pressure onthe management of natural resources (land cropsanimals and water) and improved animal productionsystems (Devendra 2004 ) An inquiry into where theseincreased food supplies are going to come from and whois going to supply the growth in consumption inevitablyleads to a discussion and assessment of the contributionand capacity of small farming systems and small farmersin Asia

In this context there is a school of thought that main-tains that with increasing globalization economies ofscale intensification and commercialization these smallfarms do not have a viable future and are likely todisappear This is unlikely to be the case in Asia becauseof the very large number of small farms the production ofrelatively high proportions of foods of animal origin theconsiderable size of the rural populations and livestockkeepers therein and continuing poverty and hunger Ithas in fact been suggested that small mixed farms willremain predominant in Asia in the foreseeable future inwhich cropndashanimal systems will see continuedintensification and important growth and that animals inaddition to production will continue to enhance thenatural resource base (Devendra 2002) Pro-poorstrategies plus social and effective developmentpolicies are therefore needed to address increasedcontributions from these farms to the food chain withinan enabling economic environment to spur agriculturaldevelopment

The small farms are diverse complex and are foundacross all agroecological zones (AEZ) They are involvedwith various biological and livelihood diversificationstrategies A large proportion of the poor population isfound in small farms throughout Asia living in theshadow of poverty and hunger with an enduring wish foran improved and more comfortable life tomorrow It isestimated more importantly that as much as 75 of thepoor or 09 billion live and work in rural areas with anincome of less than US$1day (IFAD 2001) In thedeveloping countries it has been reported that 50 of theestimated four billion rural poor are dependent on live-stock to maintain their basic quality of life but their livesare being placed at risk by Western agricultural systemsas domestic markets in the mega cities are targeted byWestern food experts (Hodges 2005)

This paper focuses on small farm systems and small

farmers with respect to their aspirations characteristicsconstraints trends and their future It is concernedspecifically with characteristics of small farms and smallfarmers the role and potential contribution of animalsand improved natural resource management (NRM)ways of increasing productivity pro-poor initiatives forthe alleviation of poverty and food insecurity anddevelopment pathways to achieve these objectives Theawesome need is for effective development policy tostrengthen and accelerate the capacity of sustainableanimal production systems on small farms to increaseanimal protein supplies to meet human requirements inthe future The paper emphasizes that the development ofsmall farms in rainfed AEZs is imperative and especiallyimportant and concludes with a discussion on strategiesand development pathways that link resource usesystems perspectives to address major constraintsopportunities and policy issues

The small farm scenario

It is important to understand and keep in perspective themeaning of small farms and their characteristics as wellas those of resource-poor small farmers and the landless

Definition of small farmsA definition of small farms is surprisingly sparse andperhaps symptomatic of inadequate efforts to understandthe nature and characteristics of small farm systems andtheir relevance Devendra (1993) defined small farms ascomplex interrelationships between animals crops andfarming families involving small landholdings andminimum resources of labour and capital from whichsmall farmers may or may not be able to derive a regularand adequate supply of food or an acceptable income andstandard of living Lipton (2005) refers to family farmswhich are operated units that derive most of the labourand enterprise from the farm family these are howevernot the same as small farms Small farms are typicallymixed farms and quite often these farms are involvedwith cropsndashpigsndashaquaculture integration such as inVietnam (see Figures 1 and 2)

The traditional small farm scenario is characterized byseveral factors

bull There is low input usebull Diversification of agriculture is practisedbull There is limited access to resources services and

technologiesbull They excel in the use of indigenous knowledge and

traditional systemsbull A high proportion of the farmland is used for food

crops mostly for home consumption and also for foodsecurity

bull Cash crops are grown to generate incomebull A mix of animals is present but seldom are more than

two species of ruminants reared togetherbull Low economic efficiency and competitiveness are

evident due mainly to low transaction costs and theuse of unpaid family labour

bull There is poor access to market outlets and poor market-ing arrangements

9Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Figure 1 A typical small farm involved in mixed farming inVietnamPhoto copy C Devendra

Figure 2 A small farm engaged in cropsndashpigsndashaquaculture integration involving small ponds also in Vietnam Photo copy C Devendra

Definition of small farmersCompared with small farms there are more definitions ofsmall farmers synonymous with the term lsquosmallholdersrsquoIt is important to stress that the rural poor are

predominantly small farmers and landless agriculturallabourers Adams and Coward (1972) defined a smallfarmer as one who had very little access to politicalpower productive assets andor income streams withinsociety Wapenham (1979) referred to these as agriculturalproducers controlling no more land than they can farmwithout the permanent employment of non-family labourNarayanan and Gulati (2002) characterize these asfarmers (crop or livestock) practising a mix ofcommercial and subsistence production or either of thesein which the family provides the majority of labour andthe farm provides the principal source of income TheWorld Bank`s Rural Strategy (World Bank 2003) definessmallholders as those with a low asset base operating lessthan two hectares of cropland

Devendra (1983 1993) has listed a number of featuresthat characterize small farmers and the landless that areunique to these individuals These include inter alia

bull They are essentially resource-poor people who facegeographic isolation

bull Most of these are usually found in harsh and lessfavourable rainfed environments

bull They continuously experience hunger and ruralpoverty

bull They have the capacity to adapt and survive hardshipbull They resist changes to avoid risks and capital invest-

mentsbull They have little or no access to major decision-making

processes and the use of new technologybull Being mostly illiterate they are not interested in

extension materialsbull Agricultural diversification and loss-minimizing

strategies plus livelihood diversification to earn non-farm income to support the family and the farm areboth common In these circumstances women tend totake over much of the decision making and manage-ment of the farm

bull They are not commercial producers of specializedlivestock products and usually own 1ndash2 large rumi-nants 4ndash6 small ruminants andor a few indigenouspigs poultry and ducks (Figure 3)

bull Large ruminants are owned primarily for draughtpower and secondarily for meat Animals are reared formultipurpose use including the supply of dung andurine and transportation

bull They manage their animals as well as feed them fromcommon property resources Farm labour includingthat from women and children is often used formanaging the animals

bull Women tend to work more hours per day than menand together with children are often involved inhousehold chores and in the management of smallanimals (Figure 4)

bull They use meagre farm resources rationally and strive toachieve complementary relationships between theanimal and crop components in mixed farm enter-prises

bull Small farmers (except the landless) have secured tenureand can pass on their land and assets to their familiesand children

The definition of small farmers also needs to include therural landless who are also called marginal farmers and

10 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Figure 3 A farmer with his mixed ownership of a Yellow cownative pigs and Yunnan black goats in Nanjian county Yunnanprovince ChinaPhoto copy C Devendra

Figure 4 A farmerrsquos wife and her children feeding nativepoultry in Thailand Small animals provide critical food andnutrition security for poor rural householdsPhoto copy C Devendra

landless agricultural labourers These individuals areessentially transhumants and nomads who move withtheir flocks of camels cattle goats and sheep in search offeed and water (Figure 5) For many of them it is a way oflife in which they practise a variety of loss-minimizingstrategies The ownership of animals provides securityand enables their survival in these less favoured environ-ments

Considering the various definitions and irrespective ofwhere the small farms are found there are a fewoverriding key descriptive words concerned with thelivelihoods of small farmers Up to the mid-1990s thesewere deprivation subsistence illiteracy survival and due toglobalization and the many externalities since then theadditional keyword is vulnerability

Figure 5 A landless nomad with his flock of sheep and goats onthe move in search of feed and water in Rajasthan IndiaPhoto copy C Devendra

Types of small farmsThere are three types of small farms in Asia

bull farms in irrigated agriculturebull farms in rainfed areas andbull farms in plantation agriculture

Irrespective of the type of farm mixed farming systems inwhich crops and animals are integrated on the same farmform the backbone of small farming systems in Asianagriculture Mixed farming systems are synonymous withcropndashanimal systems and are varied and integrated withannual and perennial cropping in various ways Bothruminants and non-ruminants are involved and thechoice of one or more species is dependent on theoverriding influence of preference market dictatespotential to generate income contribution to cropcultivation and livelihoods

In Asia mixed farming provides 90 of the milk 77of the ruminant meats 47 of pork and poultry meat and31 of the eggs The industrialized pig and poultryproduction systems in peri-urban areas produce the bulkof the meats and eggs Past growth trends suggest(Steinfeld 1998) that mixed farming systems grew half asfast (22 per year) compared with industrial systems(43 per year) and three times as fast as pastoralsystems (07 per year) The data suggest that ruminantproduction in mixed farming systems will continue to beimportant in the future In India smallholders reportedlycontributed over 40 of food grain production during1990ndash91 they owned the majority of livestock anddominated the dairy sector (Narayanan and Gulati 2002)The tremendous success of lsquoOperation Floodrsquo in dairy

11Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

development in India is due largely to the participation ofsmall farmers through the concerted efforts of theNational Dairy Development Board of lsquoOperation Floodrsquo

Two broad categories of mixed farming systems can beidentified

(1) systems combining animals and annual cropping inwhich there are two further subtypes

bull systems involving non-ruminants ponds and fisheg vegetablesndashpigsndashducksndashfish systems in Vietnamricendashmaizendashvegetablesndashsweet potatoesndashpigsndashdairycattle in China and

bull systems involving ruminants eg maizendashground-nutssoya beanndashgoats systems in Indonesiaricendashfinger milletndashricendashgoats in Nepal

(2) systems combining animals and perennial croppingin which there are again two subtypes

bull systems involving ruminants eg coconutsndashsheepintegration in the Philippines oil palmndashcattleintegration in Malaysia and

bull systems involving non-ruminants eg oil palmndashchickens integration in Malaysia

Farms in irrigated agriculture These are farms inessentially higher-quality or high-potential croplandwhere there is intensive crop cultivation mainly cereals(rice and wheat) and secondarily cash crops Cerealproduction is the predominant activity crop yields havereached ceiling yields in which some of the produce iskept for home consumption and the rest is sold forincome The irrigated areas were the ones that greatlybenefited from the lsquogreen revolutionrsquo in Asia between1975 and 1980 There were significant increases in percapita income and a decline in the number of peopleliving in poverty Increased productivity and prosperitybenefited the rice farmers but the higher agriculturalgrowth exacerbated poverty and food security among thepoor in rainfed areas The farmers here are generallyricher and have greater access to technology and services

The green revolution was supply-led and was fuelledat that time by several key factors sharply rising foodprices aims by governments to achieve self-sufficiency incereals massive irrigation schemes and several policiesto include fixed prices credit and subsidies most ofwhich were supported by national governments andinternational donors Since that time cereal yieldincreases have been declining as has expansion ofadditional land for intensive crop cultivation

In Malaysia detailed early surveys of 5274 farmhouseholds in the Muda irrigated rice-growing areaindicated that 87 of these were engaged in livestockkeeping Of these 894 owned chickens 471 ducks267 buffalo and cattle and 77 goats On averageeach household had between 13 and 15 birds

Animals are of lower importance compared with cropsbut are nevertheless quite common in small farm systemsAmong the animals large ruminants notably buffalo andcattle are common and are used to supply draughtpower for land cultivation and haulage operations andalso manure production Swamp buffalo in the rice-growing areas of South-east Asia are used for about80ndash100 days for ploughing In Thailand swamp buffalo

Figure 6 The rainfed lowland and upland continuum in LuangPrabang in LaosPhoto copy C Devendra

are used for 51ndash67 days (Chantalakhana and Skunmun2002) Small ruminants (goats and sheep) may or may notbe owned since the rice environment with its relativelyabundant water supplies is not very suitable for thespecies On the other hand pigs poultry and ducks arevery common here Ducks are especially suited to thisenvironment where they use the available feeds and post-harvest losses of rice to great advantage

Farms in rainfed areas These are farms that are outsidethe irrigated zones and are almost entirely dependent onrainfall for crop cultivation They include the rainfedlowlands and uplands in a continuum (Figure 6) Theland quality is very variable and as a consequence theseareas have been variously referred to as harsh fragilemarginal backward less favoured and low-potential In thispaper the term lsquorainfed areasrsquo will be used to embrace allthese terms

Table 1 provides information on the extent of therainfed areas (CGIARTAC 2000) In Asia rainfed areas(marginal + arid lands + forests and woodlands) accountfor 831 of agricultural lands compared with 166 offavoured land Marginal and arid lands alone constitute485 of the total area Additionally about 63 of therural population is found in the former compared withonly 37 in the favoured areas It is of interest to note inthis context that in 1993 in India 42 of the rural poorlived in low-potential rainfed areas 16 in irrigated

12 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Table 1 Distribution of land types by region

Land type ( of total land) Rural populationRegion Favoured Marginal Sparsely populated Forest and living in favoured

arid lands woodlands lands ()

Asia 166 300 185 346 370Latin America and Caribbean 96 203 81 619 340Sub-Saharan Africa 85 231 246 437 270Near East and North America 78 226 658 39 240Total (105 countries) 107 240 259 394 350

Source CGIARTAC 2000

areas and 42 in high-potential rainfed areas (Fan andHazell 2000)

It is important to stress that some of the rainfed areasare potentially very useful such as the lowland areasimmediately outside the irrigated zones In comparisonwith farms in the high-potential favoured or irrigatedareas that significantly benefited from various policysupport the rainfed areas were bypassed by the greenrevolution and had very limited access to the many policyissues and resource inputs of national governments Quitejustifiably therefore official support (similar to that of theirrigated areas) is now necessary to give greater emphasisto these regions With improved technologicalinterventions increased resource use and opportunitiesfor improved NRM and animal production these areascan produce more food in the future (Devendra 2000a)

The rainfed AEZs of relevance are as follows

bull rainfed temperate and tropical highlands ndash mainly theHindu-KushHimalayan region

bull rainfed humidsubhumid tropical systems ndash mainlycountries in Indo-China South-east and East Asia andthe Pacific Islands parts of South Asia to includeBangladesh and Sri Lanka and

bull rainfed aridsemi-arid tropical systems ndash mainlycountries in South Asia excluding Nepal and Bangla-desh

Among these rainfed humidsubhumid and rainfed aridsemi-arid tropical systems are priority AEZs Table 2 givessome indication of the household characteristicsbiophysical data and patterns of farming systems on fiverainfed locations in China Indonesia the PhilippinesThailand and Vietnam The average annual rainfall wasbetween 1500 and 2300 mm rice-based cropping systemswere common but this also included other annual cropsand tree crops Both ruminants and non-ruminants werereared and the presence of both animal and cropdiversity provided a variety of cropndashanimal interactions(Devendra and Thomas 2002) the effects of which onproductivity peoplersquos livelihoods and sustainableagriculture provide major opportunities for research anddevelopment activities The overriding major constraintwas the 5ndash7 months of dry periods There was a 10ndash25level of contribution by animals to total farm income(Devendra 2005)

A few countries for example China India andIndonesia have given priority to the development ofthese rainfed areas In China for example the north-

western region is given priority for the intensification ofagricultural production and creation of lsquoclimate-freersquoagriculture in the grasslands through irrigation fromunderground aquifers with the objective of making thearea a bread and -meal basket to meet Chinarsquos growingdemand for protein-rich diets However populationpressures on these grasslands have been increasing withresultant increased poverty rates degradation and duststorms (MEA 2005)

Farms in plantation agriculture These are farms thatare found within large plantations that usually involvetree crops such as coconuts citrus oil palm and rubberRelative land areas are therefore larger because of the treecrops These include government settlement schemes suchas the Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) inMalaysia and the transmigration schemes in SumatraIndonesia In the latter five hectares of land parcels areallocated to resettle people away from Java through themanagement of rubber-based agriculture and animalproduction The animals reared are beef cattle smallruminants and poultry

Integrated tree cropsndashruminants production systemsare underestimated in Asia These systems have muchpotential to promote effective NRM productivity gainsand sustainability In this context integration withcoconut systems in the Philippines (Figure 7) oil palm inMalaysia (Figure 8) and rubber in Indonesia are goodexamples

Size of holdings trends and contribution

The small size of farm holdings is one of the characteristicfeatures of Asian farming systems Nevertheless there isconsiderable variation between AEZs and countrieswhich is reflected in the various definitions used todescribe both small farms (Table 3) and small farmers

The size of farms varies from country to country butspecific attempts have been made to classify small farmsin which the yardstick of less than 2 ha has often beenused The classification of farms is also influenced by landquality In India for example small farmers marginalfarmers or agricultural labourers are those with 2ndash4 08ndash2and lt 08 ha of dryland respectively In the Philippinesand Thailand small farms have land sizes of 28 ha and12 ha respectively Using a definition of a small farm ashaving a land area less than 2 ha it has been reported thatan overwhelming majority (87) of the 470 million smallfarms worldwide is found in Asia (Nagayets 2005) It was

13Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Table 2 Some household attributes and biophysical characteristics in rainfed farming systems in five countries in South-east and EastAsia

Item Vietnam Thailand Indonesia Philippines China

Household attributesAverage farm size (ha) 259 plusmn 197 524 plusmn 274 055 plusmn 073 126 plusmn 045 027 plusmn 012Household size (persons) 494 plusmn 174 479 plusmn 208 446 plusmn 154 552 plusmn 233 473 plusmn 129Percentage of farms managed by women 284 316 42 300 260

Biophysical characteristicsLocation Dong Tam Amphur Muang Dangiang Don Montano Bixi Xiang

Bin Phuoc Mahasarakham Cilawu Garut Umingan NanjianPangasinan Yunnan

Mean annual rainfall (mm) 2170 1500 2200 2300 760Dry season (months) 6 6ndash7 5ndash6 6 7

Farming systemsPredominant cropndashanimal systems Rice-based Rice-based Rice-based cattle Rice-based beef Wheat

beef cattle dairy cattle fattening and cattle and goat maize-basedproduction production sheep raising production beef cattle

and goatsproduction

Predominant animal species1 BC Pi Po DC Pi Po BC Bu S G Fi BC Bu G Pi Po BC Bu GPi Po

Number of animals (TLUs)2 067 plusmn 169 734 plusmn 432 070 plusmn 078 226 plusmn 197 107 plusmn 073Main cropndashanimal interactions Crop residues Crop residues Crop residues Crop residues Crop

as feeds use as feed manure as feed manure as feed manure residues asof draught as fertilizer use as fertilizer as fertilizer feed manureanimals of draught as fertilizers

animals use ofdraughtanimals

Contribution of livestock to total income () 13 10ndash20 10ndash15 15ndash20 20ndash25

1 BC = beef cattle DC = dairy cattle Bu = buffaloes S = sheep G = goats Pi = pigs Po = poultry Fi = fish2 TLU = tropical livestock unit equivalent to a ruminant animal of 250 kg body weight Only ruminant species have been consideredfor its estimation according to the following equivalencies cattle and buffalo = 10 sheep and goats = 001 in all species mature male= 10 mature female = 075 growing animal = 05 pre-weaned animal = 025Source Devendra 2005

further estimated that China alone accounted for about402 of these farms followed by India (23) Theaverage farm size in Asia is reported to be 16 ha (vonBraun 2005) but the average size of small farms in mostcountries is much lower than this (Table 3) In Asia alsosome 527 of farms across many countries have lt10 hawith the smallest farm sizes of 03 ha being found in SriLanka 04 ha in Indonesia and 060 ha in Bangladesh InChina Chuanmin and Falla (2006) have recently reportedthat in the year 2000 the average farm size of over 241million farms was 057 ha

Of increasing concern is the trend towards decreasingfarm sizes in all countries due to the subdivision ofexisting land Table 4 gives an idea of this trend Withoutexception farm landholdings are decreasing and willcontinue to do so There are inadequate data on this trendwith specific reference to small farms in rainfed areas butthere is no doubt that the trend is also found in theseareas

There appear to be few data on the extent of thecontribution by small farms to food production especiallyby animals However remembering that mixed farmsystems are the predominant production systems in Asiaand that the bulk of the milk ruminant meats and a fairshare of non-ruminant meats and eggs come from thesesystems it follows that the contribution by small farms to

foods of animal origin is quite significant With crops it ispertinent to note from FAO (2005) data that with farms oflt 2 ha of land the proportion of cropland was 69 inBangladesh (1996ndash97) 58 in China (1997) and 36 inIndia (1995ndash96)

Small farms and poverty

The first of the eight Millennium Development Goalsconcerns poverty The objective is to eradicate extremepoverty and hunger by halving the proportion of peoplewhose income is less than US$1day and those who sufferfrom hunger (UN 2001) Small farm systems and espe-cially those in the harsher areas have a relatively largeproportion of poor people concentrated in them andaddressing both poverty and hunger are therefore closelylinked with improved productivity from these farms Theextremely poor own less land especially irrigated landand depend on subsistence agriculture for a large part oftheir income Data from Bangladesh indicate that povertyis correlated with the amount of land a householdcontrols (Human Development Report 2001) The severityof poverty and hunger appears to be associated with thesize of farms and Singh (2004) reported that in India theincidence of poverty and hunger among those farmerswhose landholdings were under 05 ha was 38 and 32

14 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Figure 7 Integration of sheep with coconut production in thePhilippinesPhoto copy C Devendra

Figure 8 Cattle integrated with oil palm in MalaysiaPhoto copy C Devendra

respectively With larger farms of more than 4 ha theincidence was reduced by 13 and 12 respectively

In the rural areas poverty is a rural dilemma The ruralpoor depend to a very large extent directly or indirectlyon the farm for at least four major objectives incomesbuilding assets food security and improved livelihoodsPro-poor development objectives therefore need to make aconcerted effort to address these objectives and thewidening gap between the lsquohavesrsquo in the high-potentialareas and the lsquohave-notsrsquo in the rainfed zones Develop-ment efforts and investment aid thus remain a majorchallenge for the development community since thealleviation of poverty and increased resourcefulness willinfluence increased productivity

These poor people are disadvantaged in a multitude ofways the elements of which consist of variousinterrelated issues inter alia including chronic hungermalnutrition and ill health inadequate or no access tomost amenities deprivation and despair These togetherresult in a continuing syndrome of a povertyndashadaptationndashfragile livesndashlittle hopendashlow life expectancy complex inwhich the potential to be fully participatory andproductive is significantly reduced Poor farmers long forand dream of dignity self-reliance and empowerment(Devendra and Chantalakhana 2002)

Table 5 presents the proportion of poor livestockkeepers by production system and region and severalobservations are relevant to this First across regionsmixed rainfed systems had the highest proportion of poor

Table 3 Variation in the size of small farms in some countries

Country Definition

Bangladesh (a) Subsistence farmerscroppers lt 04 ha(b) Viable and potentially viable owners 04ndash08 ha

India (a) Small farmers 2ndash4 ha of dry land (1 ha dry land = 08 ha of wetland)(b) Marginal farmers 08ndash2 ha of dry land(c) Agricultual labourers lt 08 ha of dry land

Indonesia (a) Java 066 ha(b) Average size 12 ha

Korea lt 1 haMalaysia (a) Rice faros 16ndash17 ha

(b) Rubber smallholdings 21 haNepal (a) Terai 4 bighas (25 ha)

(b) Hills 175 bighas (10 ha)Philippines Average size 28 haSri Lanka (a) Agricultural households 12 ha

(b) Rice-cultivating households 03 haThailand Non-canal-irrigated areas 24 ha

Source FAO 2001 2004

Table 4 Trends in the average size of farms in selectedcountries

Country Year Average farm size (ha)

China 1980 061990 041999 04

India 1971 231991 16

1995ndash96 14Indonesia 1973 11

1993 09Nepal 1992 10

2002 08Pakistan 1971ndash73 53

1989 382000 21

Philippines 1971 361991 22

Source FAO 2001 2004 data on China are from Fan and Chang-Kang 2003

livestock keepers Within these systems and withinregions South Asia and South-east and East Asiaaccounted for 59ndash60 of total poor livestock keepersMixed irrigated systems were the next highest with 29ndash337 The higher number of poor livestock keepers in themixed farming systems in rainfed areas is consistent withthe higher proportion of rural poor found in thecombined marginal arid lands forests and woodlands(Table 1)

About 14 of poor livestock keepers are in the landlesscategory mainly in the arid and semi-arid regions (Table1) and are found mainly in the arid and semi-arid Hindu-Kush Himalayan region Mongolia China Pakistan andIndia Animal production involves zero-grazing practicesand extensive systems that are associated with resource-

15Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Table 5 Proportion of poor livestock keepers within production system by region ()

Production Developing Sub-Saharan N Africa and South East and Latin Americasystem countries Africa Near East Asia S E Asia and Caribbean

Grassland-based systems 71 131 143 25 18 90Mixed rainfed systems 660 779 566 601 593 679Mixed irrigated systems 185 04 169 337 290 36Landless 84 85 121 37 99 195

Source Thornton et al 2002

poor nomads transhumants or agricultural labourers andseasonal migrants with small ruminants cattle andcamels The movements are annual cycles that aretriggered by reduced feed and water supplies inadequatemarket opportunities and loss-minimizing strategies(Devendra 1998) This is also a way of life for the poorand the ownership of animals enables survival and alsofood and financial security

Within Asia the largest numbers of poor people arefound in India The country has reduced absolute povertyfrom about 55 in the 1970s to about 35 today Thepercentage of rural poor out of the total poor is about79 as a consequence of which the major focus is on thisrural sector and ways to stimulate agricultural growth toovercome persistent poverty Associated with thissituation however are the very high infant mortalityrates a high percentage of infants not surviving to age 40years and underweight children under the age of fiveyears (Human Development Report 2001)

Role and contribution of animals

Animals play an important role in small farm systems andmake a number of valuable contributions They occupy animportant economic and ecological niche in these systemsthroughout Asia Animals are widely owned by smallfarmers for a variety of advantageous reasons (Devendra1983 Chantalakhana 1990)

bull diversification in the use of production resources andreduction of socioeconomic risks

bull promotion of linkages between system components(land crops and water)

bull generation of value-added products (eg meat milkeggs and skins)

bull income generation investment insurance andeconomic security

bull supply of draught power for crop cultivationtransportation and haulage operations

bull contribution to soil fertility through nutrient cycling(dung and urine)

bull prestige social and recreational valuesbull contribution to sustainable agriculture and environ-

mental protection andbull development of stable farm households

The role and contributions of animals in small farms arefar more varied and complex than in specializedcommercial farms due to the close and varied relation-ships with farm families interactions with crops socialvalues and prevailing agricultural systems The

multipurpose roles and contributions by animalsgenerally fall into four categories

(1) household benefits(2) increased productivity in integrated farming systems(3) sustainability of agricultural systems and environ-

mental integrity and(4) enhancement of rural and social stability

The many functions of animals are well known howeverthere are important additional features and implicationsconcerning the role of animals in small farms These are asfollows

First the irrigated areas are home to the majority ofswamp buffaloes some cattle pigs and poultry and theperi-urban and urban areas have the bulk of the landlessindustrial pig and poultry production systems Outside ofthese areas and within the rainfed lowlands and uplands51ndash55 of the total population of cattle and smallruminants in Asia is kept (TAC 1992) including smallerpopulations of native pigs and poultry In the lattersituation therefore the value of these species and theircontributions increase with the decreasing quality of theecosystem in the face of harsher biophysical factors Inthese circumstances the ownership of animals is vitalfor survival financial (lsquobanks on hoovesrsquo) and foodsecurity production of dung to sustain cropproduction and enhancement of the natural resourcebase

Second the interactions with the environment inrainfed environments are much more serious such as inovergrazing lsquoslash and burnrsquo issues and depletion anddegradation of the natural resources Improvedproduction systems that involve controlled managementof grazing animals are therefore vital to maintain environ-mental integrity

Third the presence of a relatively large proportion ofruminant animals in the rainfed areas clearly implies aneed for their development and for an emphasis on theseareas A focus on improved animal production systems istherefore a most important prerequisite for promotingtotal factor productivity in these same areas

A fundamental prerequisite for developing andincreasing productivity from animals in the rainfedareas promoting efficient natural resource managementand protection of the environment is the need toconsider research and development in holistic terms Aholistic approach backed by systems perspectives isvital for dealing with the numerous positive andnegative interactions and heterogeneity of small farmsystems

16 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Strategy for developing small farms address-ing major constraints and opportunities

The strategy for the development of small farms needs toaddress several issues and constraints in order to pursueopportunities for productivity enhancement These are asfollows

Institutional support for research and developmentThe first requirement is a belief in the potentialimportance and contribution of small farms and thereforetheir development in Asia in the future Institutionalcommitment support for and a reorientation of researchand development philosophy and recognition of thecomplexity of the issues involved are fundamental to thisendeavour An agenda for research and developmentprerogatives is required that includes the following

bull programme focus and target AEZsbull a clear set of objectivesbull prioritization of effort for multidisciplinary and partici-

patory approaches that respond to the needs of smallfarmers

bull linkages with development agents and the privatesector

bull a time framebull potential biological and socioeconomic benefits and

impacts andbull potential lsquospilloversrsquo to other locations and regions

(Alston 2002) including trans-regionally

Without these considerations much needed improve-ments in the productivity of small farms and livelihoodsof small farmers are unlikely to be achieved

Natural resource managementUnderstanding the natural resource base is essential forits effective management and to optimize productionNRM involves the components (land crops animals andwater) as well as their synergies the interactions of thecomponents and their positive and negativeimplications Associated aspects related to thistask include the following

bull importance of indigenous knowledge and traditionalmethods used by farmers to meet their objectives andneeds

bull biodiversitybull community-based NRM practicesbull integration of NRM components and production

systemsbull productivity-enhancing and needs-based technologiesbull issues of sustainability and sustainable development

andbull development of multidisciplinary models and partner-

ships that target the development of small farmsystems

The benefits of improved NRM technology applicationand opportunities for productivity enhancement are many(Devendra 2001) This is clearly reflected in a recentreview of the benefits of cropndashanimal interactions andattendant economic advantages from 31 studies in 11countries concerning small farms across a variety ofAEZs mixed farming systems various species of animals

and both annual and perennial crops in Asia (Devendra2007) The range of farming systems involved and moreparticularly the application of needs-based newtechnologies in individual countries demonstrate whatcan also be achieved in terms of the types and extent ofbenefits in small farms Effective NRM has necessarily tobe very much participatory and needs to build onindigenous knowledge and traditional systems The needfor trust reciprocity and connectedness in institutions inthe collective management and improvement of naturalresources is equally important and has been emphasized(Pretty 2003)

Targeting more effective NRM in small farms is there-fore urgent and is also justified by the following factors

bull the need for increased productivity in Asia with itsmassive human populations population growth rateand poor people

bull distinct opportunities for productivity enhancementbased on the knowledge already available

bull focusing more attention on the application of locallygenerated agricultural technologies and theirspillovers which will promote increased self-reliance

bull investments in productivity-enhancing research anddevelopment which are decreasing and difficult toobtain and

bull effective use of NRM which also has the advantage ofpreserving indigenous knowledge traditional systemsand biodiversity

Targeting research and development of rainfed areasThe rationale and justification for targeting the rainfedareas in Asia are related to three important reasonsinadequate availability of arable land the need to increaseproductivity from animals to match projected humanneeds and the alleviation of poverty (Devendra 2000a)The decreasing availability of arable land with humanpopulation increase is reflected in the projected decreasefrom between 017 and 10 haperson in 198890 tobetween 005 and 030 haperson by 2010 (FAO 1998)Inadequate arable land is associated with the followingreasons

bull demand for agricultural land to meet human needs eghousing recreation and industrialization

bull expansion of crop production to ceiling levelsbull increasing and very high animal densitiesbull increased urbanization and use of arable land andbull growing environmental concerns due to very intensive

crop production eg acidification and salinization withrice cultivation and human health risks due to expand-ing peri-urban poultry and pig production

Poverty is a major concern since the rainfed areas alsohave large populations of the poorest of the poor the vastmajority of whom live below the US$1day yardstick It isestimated that about 678 million of the rural poor keeplivestock in developing countries and this representstwo-thirds of the rural poor (Livestock in Development1999) The poverty dimension includes eight elements(IFAD 2001) material deprivation lack of assetsisolation alienation dependence lack of decision-makingpower vulnerability to external shocks and insecurity

These circumstances place much stress on the use of

17Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

natural resources and thus force a need to look beyondthe use of arable land in the irrigated areas and to focusmuch needed attention on the more difficult rainfed areasFor example rainfed lowland and upland areas areunderutilized This is reflected in the availability ofapproximately 141 times 106 ha of land or 43 of the totalarable land in Asia (TAC 1992)

The rainfed areas have been constrained by manyfactors such as roads and market access and hence havebeen relatively underutilized and also bypassed byresearch and development The development of ruralroads is especially significant and in China for exampleit has been shown that every yuan invested in low-qualityroads yielded five yuan of rural non-farm gross domesticproduct (GDP) Moreover low-quality roads raise morepeople out of poverty per yuan than high-quality roads(Fan and Chan-Kang 2005) Increased rural roads alsocontribute to market access Water is another constraintand without adequate irrigation systems rainfed areashave not been able to increase productivity and capacityThese constraints can however be overcome by increasedresearch and development attention technology deliveryand market-oriented production systems It is alsoimportant to note that in studies in India (Fan Hazell andThorat 2000) and China (Fan Zhang and Zhang 2000)the returns on investment are very much higher in theseareas compared with areas that have benefited from thegreen revolution

The strategy for the development of small farms musttherefore give priority to rainfed areas especially to thepotentially more important locations Within theseanimal production can strategically serve as the entrypoint to address food production pro-poor initiativescollective management and improvement of the naturalresources that are needs-led Interdisciplinary researchand development efforts that target AEZs serve to addressthe major constraints and opportunities

The systems approach and interdisciplinarityA notable and consistent weakness of the research anddevelopment process and programmes in most nationalagricultural systems concerned with animal production inAsia is the near absence of the use of the systemsapproach Much of the research continues along strongdisciplinary lines without reference to the needs of thesmall farm systems and the AEZs where they are found(Devendra 1996 2006) Despite the dominant emphasison mixed farming in Asia research on cropndashanimalsystems is seldom integrated and with rare exceptionsvery few institutions recognize the importance of trainingin systems research As a consequence the complex andinterrelated systems-based problems in cropndashanimalsystems are not addressed in holistic terms This tendencyexplains why improved productivity from animals insmall farm systems is slow to be realized To a very largeextent the same reasons also apply to the general neglectof the rainfed areas the inadequate productivity fromsmall farm systems therein and the contribution fromanimals

The systems approach requires multi-andinterdisciplinary interpretation of the differentcomponents of the system and biophysical environmentidentified through detailed analyses of the constraints

needs and opportunities These ensure that the individualcomponents interactions and contributions can focus onthe whole system Considering the complexities of smallfarm systems the heterogeneity of the biophysicalenvironment and the various types of mixed farmingactivities therein systems perspectives are therefore ofparamount importance in improving understanding anddevelopment of the increased contribution of these farms

The methodology for systems research is distinct andfollows several sequential steps

(1) site selection(2) site description and characterization (diagnosis)(3) planning of on-farm research(4) on-farm testing and validation of alternatives(5) dissemination of results and(6) impact assessment

The systems approach needs to be backed by otherimportant requirements

bull recognition of the importance of interdisciplinaryparticipatory approaches

bull formulation of research programmes that havecommunity-based participation to set a commonagenda and create ownership (this should involve bothproduction and post-production systems)

bull programmes that are needs-led and have institutionaland structural commitment

bull establishment of effective participatory planning inter-institutional coordination and collaboration researchmanagement dissemination of information andresolution of feedback issues

bull long-term commitment to achieving impacts andbull training in agricultural systems and systems

methodologies at various levels

Associated with these methodologies much more can alsobe done to improve the socioeconomic understanding ofthe rural landless poor This includes taking into accountinter alia their way of life and aspirations their seasonalmovements together with their moving flocks of camelscattle goats and sheep reasons for the choice and extentof animal ownership constraints to their livelihoods andloss-minimizing strategies These and the foregoing issuesjustify further research investments to improve thesituation

Feed resources and nutritionForemost among the constraints to animal producton arefeed resources and nutrition which constitute the majorconstraint throughout South-east Asia (Devendra et al1997) and South Asia (Devendra et al 2000) The strategyfor feed resource use needs to take cognizance of thefollowing interrelated issues (Devendra 2000b)

bull knowledge of the totality of available feeds (grassesand forages crop residues agro-industrial by-productsand non-conventional sources)

bull appropriateness and effective use within productionsystems

bull feeds and their use should be identified with farmingsystems and self-reliance and

bull potential promotion of linkages between rural andperi-urban areas in the use of production inputs

18 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

intensification nutrient flows and marketing ofproduce that is consistent with environmental integrity

Given the critical long dry seasons and feed shortages inthese environments together with the possibilities ofincreasing feed production to overcome the shortages thesynchronization of feed availability to match speciesrequirements along with methods of conservation aremajor opportunities An example of this approachincludes foodndashfeed cropping eg rice and mung beancassava and cowpea (Devendra Sevilla and Pezo 2001)forage production in rice bunds and under tree cropsalley cropping planting tree legumes such as Gliricidia orLeucaena for forage production and the use of multi-nutrient block licks (MNBL) Other options include thedevelopment and promotion of dual-purpose (seeds andforage) sorghum millet and groundnut with resistance tofoliar diseases and higher biomass yields in southernIndia (Blummel et al 2003) especially to support dairyproduction and reduced fallows The resolution ofconstraints can produce significant impacts on increasedper animal performance and improved livelihoods ofresource-poor farmers and can enhance existingproductivity gaps in these areas The final objective ofthese improvements should be the development ofsustainable all-year-round feeding systems

Access to technologies and delivery systemsAccess to improved and appropriate technologies is amajor constraint with small farmers The problem isparticularly manifested among small farmers and smallfarms in the rainfed areas that have been bypassed by thegreen revolution These same areas are also often remoteand have poor communications resulting in furtherdifficulties For these and other reasons researchprogrammes have tended to ignore these situationsAssociated with access to improved technologies areweak delivery systems which do not facilitate effectivetechnology transfer and adoption to accelerateproductivity This is a major weakness in researchprogrammes that do not formulate and ensureparticipatory adaptive research and on-farm developmentactivities or strengthening of effective researchndashextensionlinkages to ensure maximum adoption

It is of interest to note that analyses of seven countrycase studies (Meinzen-Dick et al 2004) have shown thatthree main factors affected technology adoption

bull vulnerability ndash whether the technologies were expectedto increase or decrease peoplersquos vulnerability to loss ofincome bad health natural disasters and other factors

bull assets ndash whether farmers had the assets necessary fortechnology adoption ndash especially if they were poor and

bull institutions ndash whether institutions (such as agriculturalextension services government policies non-govern-mental organizations private sector gender rolesmarkets for inputs and outputs etc) encouraged ordiscouraged adoption and represented the interests ofpoor people

Markets and marketingSmall farmers have major problems coping with a rangeof difficulties in the face of the complexity and generalinefficiency of the prevailing marketing chains Foremost

among these is access to marketing and to the marketingchain At present inadequate access to market outlets andweak marketing arrangements represent a majorconstraint to the production to consumption systems and tothe owners and producers of animals As a consequencesmall farmers are often denied compelling opportunitiesand economic benefits The market chain involves ruralperi-urban urban and international markets and a majorchallenge will lie in ways to link small farmers with thesemarkets and marketing systems

Rural markets are especially important to rural com-munities and their households and are also used for thesale of live animals for slaughter in the urban areas Inorder to provide good links between rural and urbanmarkets appropriate infrastructural and communicationfacilities must be in place in addition to collection andprocessing centres Without improved marketing andtransport systems the prevailing systems constitute majorconstraints to the sale of animals and products from smallfarms Because of the greater market demand for animalproducts in urban areas transport facilities becomeessential Urban markets are the outlets for exports andpromote international trade

Considerable opportunities exist for participation inthe international trade of meats in the Middle East regionTo compete in world markets however quality standardsprocessing and storage facilities become essentialAdditionally for the Muslim world and the huge marketsin the Middle East meeting lsquohalalrsquo standards is also vitalAssociated with international trade is the impact ofglobalization and the lowering of tariff and non-tariffbarriers involving opening up market opportunities forcountries on the one hand and on the other severecompetitiveness for low-cost products Efficientproduction post-production to consumption and market-ing systems are therefore crucial to maintain a sustainableand competitive position

Policy issues

A number of policy issues need to be resolved to supportthe future development of small farms and increasedcontributions from them Such policies will also besupportive of increased investments in their developmentas well as pro-poor initiatives For reasons of brevitythese will not be discussed in detail but are identifiedinter alia as follows

bull A first essential is affirmative development policy forimproved understanding of small farms currentsituation and trends and potential future contribu-tions

bull The aspirations of small farmers and the syndrome of apovertyndashadaptationndashfragile livesndashlittle hopendashlow lifeexpectancy complex will need new attention onaccount of globalization and their vulnerability Socio-economic research can make a major contribution here

bull Associated with the above is the role of animals as theentry point for development especially in the moredifficult rainfed environments outside of the irrigatedareas that have been bypassed by the green revolution

bull Research and development on the complexity andheterogeneity of small farm systems NRM and cropndash

19Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

soilndashanimal interactions must necessarily be inter-disciplinary and holistic At present knowledge ofsystems perspectives and adaptive research at the farmlevel are major limitations in most countries Theserepresent major and urgent training needs at thecollege and university levels

bull Animal production in small farm systems has to beseen in the broader context of productionndashpost-productionndashconsumption systems

bull Among the ruminant production systems integrationwith tree crops despite the economic benefits of addedvalue is still underestimated Policy interventions arerequired to stimulate the development of more inte-grated systems with animals for example through taxincentives and also to encourage increased privatesector investment

bull Policy is required to support micro-credit schemesaccess to markets and public services

bull The market chain involves rural urban and inter-national markets Rural markets are especiallyimportant to rural communities and for the sale of liveanimals for slaughter to urban areas At present theruralndashurban market linkages are weak and appropriatepolicies are required to provide improvements to thesecollection and processing centres as well asinfrastructural and communication facilities and toprovide links to international markets

Development pathways

Considered together the challenges for the future of smallfarms in Asia include the following inter alia

bull Based on constraint analyses through community-based participation there should be a focus on priorityneeds to improve animal production systems

bull Diversification should be improved through theappropriate mix of animals with annual or perennialcrops appropriate to mixed farming to intensify pro-duction in rainfed areas

bull Create increased access to information improvedtechnologies and delivery systems which canpotentially impact on total production increasessocioeconomic benefits improved livelihoods andsustainable development

bull Strengthen empowerment to include informal trainingat various levels gender equity and also effectivedissemination of information

bull Promote the formation of cooperatives farmer organi-zations focus groups and farmer-managed revolvingfunds to enhance decision making and resource plan-ning These enhance reduced transaction costs andimproved marketing to obtain better returns for theproduce The successful Anand model of IndiarsquoslsquoOperation Floodrsquo involved making farmersshareholders in the whole chain of marketing andprocessing milk and is worthy of note and emulation

bull Promote pro-poor initiatives that are consistent withincome growth socioeconomic benefits improvedlivelihoods and self-reliance

Cooperative development is largely dependent on thecapacity of farmers to be self-reliant so as to benefit fromeconomies of scale bargaining power competitiveness in

agribusiness as well as reduced market risksAgricultural cooperatives are very variable in Asia andthese remain to be more fully developed in manycountries In China for example cooperatives are verylimited and a nationwide need for their establishment toovercome natural and market risks has recently beensuggested (Chuanmin and Falla 2006) Fully developedcooperatives are dynamic contribute significantly to ruraldevelopment and can enable small farm systems torespond to market dictates and consumer needs

Conclusions

Small farm systems will remain an integral part of Asianagriculture and will continue to occupy a predominantposition in food production within an overwhelmingpanorama of varied agricultural activities in the variousAEZs These small farms are models of diversification inNRM and resilience They will continue to play animportant contributory role in the production of a highproportion of ruminant meats and milk in particular andin enhancing the natural resource base They will alsohelp alleviate poverty hunger and food insecurity for thesizeable populations of rural poor despite the threat ofincreasing globalization economies of scaleintensification and commercialization in the foreseeablefuture There are major constraints to their developmentof course but there are also compelling opportunities andeconomic benefits that involve community-based manage-ment of natural resources Social and effectivedevelopment policies are also needed that can togetherstimulate increased contributions from these farms to thefood chain ndash within an enabling economic environment ndashand can spur agricultural development

ReferencesAdams D and Coward E W (1972) Small Farmer Development

Strategies Agricultural Development Council New YorkAlston J (2002) lsquoSpilloversrsquo Australian Journal of Agricultural

Research and Resource Economics Vol 48 pp 315ndash336Blummel M Zerbini E Reddy B V S Hash C T Bidinger

F and Khan A A (2003) lsquoImproving the production andutilisation of sorghum and millet in livestock feed progresstowards dual-purpose genotypesrsquo Field Crops Research Vol 84pp 143ndash158

CGIARTAC ndash Consultative Group on International AgriculturalResearchTechnical Advisory Committee (2000) lsquoCGIARpriorities for marginal landsrsquo CGIAR Washingtion DC(mimeograph)

Chantalakhana C (1990) lsquoSmall farm animal production andsustainable agriculturersquo Proceedings III AsianndashAustralasianAnimal Science Congress 27 Mayndash1 June Taipei Taiwan Vol 2 pp39ndash58

Chantalakhana C and Skunmun P (2002) Sustainable Small-holder Animal Systems in the Tropics Kasetsart University PressBangkok

Chuanmin S and Falla J S (2006) lsquoAgro-industrialization acomparative study of China and developed countriesrsquo Outlookon Agriculture Vol 35 No 3 pp 177ndash182

Delgado C Rosegrant M Steinfeld H Ehui S and CourboisC (1999) lsquoLivestock to 2020 The next food revolutionrsquo FoodAgriculture and the Environment Discussion Paper No 28 Interna-tional Food Policy Research Institute Washington DC

Devendra C (1983) lsquoSmall farm systems combining crops andanimalsrsquo Proceedings of Fifth World Conference in AnimalProduction14ndash18 August Tokyo Japan Vol 1 pp 173ndash191

8 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

The Asian region is characterized by high humanpopulation growth rates rising demand for food suppliesto meet current and projected requirements continuingpoverty urbanization and increasing zoonosis Of theseincreased population growth and the implications forfood supplies are especially critical given that Asia alonehad a human population of about 33 million in 2005which is projected to increase to about 46 million by 2020Hungry Asia thus has the awesome task of grappling withthe demand for more food and its distribution in whichanimal proteins rather than calories from cereals are themajor concern Concerning the latter the projected totalmeat and milk consumption levels in 2020 are far inexcess of anticipated supplies in Asia (Delgado et al1999) The rapid growth in the consumption of foods ofanimal origin is especially spectacular in East and South-east Asia where the current and projected demand hasplaced major challenges and unprecedented pressure onthe management of natural resources (land cropsanimals and water) and improved animal productionsystems (Devendra 2004 ) An inquiry into where theseincreased food supplies are going to come from and whois going to supply the growth in consumption inevitablyleads to a discussion and assessment of the contributionand capacity of small farming systems and small farmersin Asia

In this context there is a school of thought that main-tains that with increasing globalization economies ofscale intensification and commercialization these smallfarms do not have a viable future and are likely todisappear This is unlikely to be the case in Asia becauseof the very large number of small farms the production ofrelatively high proportions of foods of animal origin theconsiderable size of the rural populations and livestockkeepers therein and continuing poverty and hunger Ithas in fact been suggested that small mixed farms willremain predominant in Asia in the foreseeable future inwhich cropndashanimal systems will see continuedintensification and important growth and that animals inaddition to production will continue to enhance thenatural resource base (Devendra 2002) Pro-poorstrategies plus social and effective developmentpolicies are therefore needed to address increasedcontributions from these farms to the food chain withinan enabling economic environment to spur agriculturaldevelopment

The small farms are diverse complex and are foundacross all agroecological zones (AEZ) They are involvedwith various biological and livelihood diversificationstrategies A large proportion of the poor population isfound in small farms throughout Asia living in theshadow of poverty and hunger with an enduring wish foran improved and more comfortable life tomorrow It isestimated more importantly that as much as 75 of thepoor or 09 billion live and work in rural areas with anincome of less than US$1day (IFAD 2001) In thedeveloping countries it has been reported that 50 of theestimated four billion rural poor are dependent on live-stock to maintain their basic quality of life but their livesare being placed at risk by Western agricultural systemsas domestic markets in the mega cities are targeted byWestern food experts (Hodges 2005)

This paper focuses on small farm systems and small

farmers with respect to their aspirations characteristicsconstraints trends and their future It is concernedspecifically with characteristics of small farms and smallfarmers the role and potential contribution of animalsand improved natural resource management (NRM)ways of increasing productivity pro-poor initiatives forthe alleviation of poverty and food insecurity anddevelopment pathways to achieve these objectives Theawesome need is for effective development policy tostrengthen and accelerate the capacity of sustainableanimal production systems on small farms to increaseanimal protein supplies to meet human requirements inthe future The paper emphasizes that the development ofsmall farms in rainfed AEZs is imperative and especiallyimportant and concludes with a discussion on strategiesand development pathways that link resource usesystems perspectives to address major constraintsopportunities and policy issues

The small farm scenario

It is important to understand and keep in perspective themeaning of small farms and their characteristics as wellas those of resource-poor small farmers and the landless

Definition of small farmsA definition of small farms is surprisingly sparse andperhaps symptomatic of inadequate efforts to understandthe nature and characteristics of small farm systems andtheir relevance Devendra (1993) defined small farms ascomplex interrelationships between animals crops andfarming families involving small landholdings andminimum resources of labour and capital from whichsmall farmers may or may not be able to derive a regularand adequate supply of food or an acceptable income andstandard of living Lipton (2005) refers to family farmswhich are operated units that derive most of the labourand enterprise from the farm family these are howevernot the same as small farms Small farms are typicallymixed farms and quite often these farms are involvedwith cropsndashpigsndashaquaculture integration such as inVietnam (see Figures 1 and 2)

The traditional small farm scenario is characterized byseveral factors

bull There is low input usebull Diversification of agriculture is practisedbull There is limited access to resources services and

technologiesbull They excel in the use of indigenous knowledge and

traditional systemsbull A high proportion of the farmland is used for food

crops mostly for home consumption and also for foodsecurity

bull Cash crops are grown to generate incomebull A mix of animals is present but seldom are more than

two species of ruminants reared togetherbull Low economic efficiency and competitiveness are

evident due mainly to low transaction costs and theuse of unpaid family labour

bull There is poor access to market outlets and poor market-ing arrangements

9Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Figure 1 A typical small farm involved in mixed farming inVietnamPhoto copy C Devendra

Figure 2 A small farm engaged in cropsndashpigsndashaquaculture integration involving small ponds also in Vietnam Photo copy C Devendra

Definition of small farmersCompared with small farms there are more definitions ofsmall farmers synonymous with the term lsquosmallholdersrsquoIt is important to stress that the rural poor are

predominantly small farmers and landless agriculturallabourers Adams and Coward (1972) defined a smallfarmer as one who had very little access to politicalpower productive assets andor income streams withinsociety Wapenham (1979) referred to these as agriculturalproducers controlling no more land than they can farmwithout the permanent employment of non-family labourNarayanan and Gulati (2002) characterize these asfarmers (crop or livestock) practising a mix ofcommercial and subsistence production or either of thesein which the family provides the majority of labour andthe farm provides the principal source of income TheWorld Bank`s Rural Strategy (World Bank 2003) definessmallholders as those with a low asset base operating lessthan two hectares of cropland

Devendra (1983 1993) has listed a number of featuresthat characterize small farmers and the landless that areunique to these individuals These include inter alia

bull They are essentially resource-poor people who facegeographic isolation

bull Most of these are usually found in harsh and lessfavourable rainfed environments

bull They continuously experience hunger and ruralpoverty

bull They have the capacity to adapt and survive hardshipbull They resist changes to avoid risks and capital invest-

mentsbull They have little or no access to major decision-making

processes and the use of new technologybull Being mostly illiterate they are not interested in

extension materialsbull Agricultural diversification and loss-minimizing

strategies plus livelihood diversification to earn non-farm income to support the family and the farm areboth common In these circumstances women tend totake over much of the decision making and manage-ment of the farm

bull They are not commercial producers of specializedlivestock products and usually own 1ndash2 large rumi-nants 4ndash6 small ruminants andor a few indigenouspigs poultry and ducks (Figure 3)

bull Large ruminants are owned primarily for draughtpower and secondarily for meat Animals are reared formultipurpose use including the supply of dung andurine and transportation

bull They manage their animals as well as feed them fromcommon property resources Farm labour includingthat from women and children is often used formanaging the animals

bull Women tend to work more hours per day than menand together with children are often involved inhousehold chores and in the management of smallanimals (Figure 4)

bull They use meagre farm resources rationally and strive toachieve complementary relationships between theanimal and crop components in mixed farm enter-prises

bull Small farmers (except the landless) have secured tenureand can pass on their land and assets to their familiesand children

The definition of small farmers also needs to include therural landless who are also called marginal farmers and

10 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Figure 3 A farmer with his mixed ownership of a Yellow cownative pigs and Yunnan black goats in Nanjian county Yunnanprovince ChinaPhoto copy C Devendra

Figure 4 A farmerrsquos wife and her children feeding nativepoultry in Thailand Small animals provide critical food andnutrition security for poor rural householdsPhoto copy C Devendra

landless agricultural labourers These individuals areessentially transhumants and nomads who move withtheir flocks of camels cattle goats and sheep in search offeed and water (Figure 5) For many of them it is a way oflife in which they practise a variety of loss-minimizingstrategies The ownership of animals provides securityand enables their survival in these less favoured environ-ments

Considering the various definitions and irrespective ofwhere the small farms are found there are a fewoverriding key descriptive words concerned with thelivelihoods of small farmers Up to the mid-1990s thesewere deprivation subsistence illiteracy survival and due toglobalization and the many externalities since then theadditional keyword is vulnerability

Figure 5 A landless nomad with his flock of sheep and goats onthe move in search of feed and water in Rajasthan IndiaPhoto copy C Devendra

Types of small farmsThere are three types of small farms in Asia

bull farms in irrigated agriculturebull farms in rainfed areas andbull farms in plantation agriculture

Irrespective of the type of farm mixed farming systems inwhich crops and animals are integrated on the same farmform the backbone of small farming systems in Asianagriculture Mixed farming systems are synonymous withcropndashanimal systems and are varied and integrated withannual and perennial cropping in various ways Bothruminants and non-ruminants are involved and thechoice of one or more species is dependent on theoverriding influence of preference market dictatespotential to generate income contribution to cropcultivation and livelihoods

In Asia mixed farming provides 90 of the milk 77of the ruminant meats 47 of pork and poultry meat and31 of the eggs The industrialized pig and poultryproduction systems in peri-urban areas produce the bulkof the meats and eggs Past growth trends suggest(Steinfeld 1998) that mixed farming systems grew half asfast (22 per year) compared with industrial systems(43 per year) and three times as fast as pastoralsystems (07 per year) The data suggest that ruminantproduction in mixed farming systems will continue to beimportant in the future In India smallholders reportedlycontributed over 40 of food grain production during1990ndash91 they owned the majority of livestock anddominated the dairy sector (Narayanan and Gulati 2002)The tremendous success of lsquoOperation Floodrsquo in dairy

11Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

development in India is due largely to the participation ofsmall farmers through the concerted efforts of theNational Dairy Development Board of lsquoOperation Floodrsquo

Two broad categories of mixed farming systems can beidentified

(1) systems combining animals and annual cropping inwhich there are two further subtypes

bull systems involving non-ruminants ponds and fisheg vegetablesndashpigsndashducksndashfish systems in Vietnamricendashmaizendashvegetablesndashsweet potatoesndashpigsndashdairycattle in China and

bull systems involving ruminants eg maizendashground-nutssoya beanndashgoats systems in Indonesiaricendashfinger milletndashricendashgoats in Nepal

(2) systems combining animals and perennial croppingin which there are again two subtypes

bull systems involving ruminants eg coconutsndashsheepintegration in the Philippines oil palmndashcattleintegration in Malaysia and

bull systems involving non-ruminants eg oil palmndashchickens integration in Malaysia

Farms in irrigated agriculture These are farms inessentially higher-quality or high-potential croplandwhere there is intensive crop cultivation mainly cereals(rice and wheat) and secondarily cash crops Cerealproduction is the predominant activity crop yields havereached ceiling yields in which some of the produce iskept for home consumption and the rest is sold forincome The irrigated areas were the ones that greatlybenefited from the lsquogreen revolutionrsquo in Asia between1975 and 1980 There were significant increases in percapita income and a decline in the number of peopleliving in poverty Increased productivity and prosperitybenefited the rice farmers but the higher agriculturalgrowth exacerbated poverty and food security among thepoor in rainfed areas The farmers here are generallyricher and have greater access to technology and services

The green revolution was supply-led and was fuelledat that time by several key factors sharply rising foodprices aims by governments to achieve self-sufficiency incereals massive irrigation schemes and several policiesto include fixed prices credit and subsidies most ofwhich were supported by national governments andinternational donors Since that time cereal yieldincreases have been declining as has expansion ofadditional land for intensive crop cultivation

In Malaysia detailed early surveys of 5274 farmhouseholds in the Muda irrigated rice-growing areaindicated that 87 of these were engaged in livestockkeeping Of these 894 owned chickens 471 ducks267 buffalo and cattle and 77 goats On averageeach household had between 13 and 15 birds

Animals are of lower importance compared with cropsbut are nevertheless quite common in small farm systemsAmong the animals large ruminants notably buffalo andcattle are common and are used to supply draughtpower for land cultivation and haulage operations andalso manure production Swamp buffalo in the rice-growing areas of South-east Asia are used for about80ndash100 days for ploughing In Thailand swamp buffalo

Figure 6 The rainfed lowland and upland continuum in LuangPrabang in LaosPhoto copy C Devendra

are used for 51ndash67 days (Chantalakhana and Skunmun2002) Small ruminants (goats and sheep) may or may notbe owned since the rice environment with its relativelyabundant water supplies is not very suitable for thespecies On the other hand pigs poultry and ducks arevery common here Ducks are especially suited to thisenvironment where they use the available feeds and post-harvest losses of rice to great advantage

Farms in rainfed areas These are farms that are outsidethe irrigated zones and are almost entirely dependent onrainfall for crop cultivation They include the rainfedlowlands and uplands in a continuum (Figure 6) Theland quality is very variable and as a consequence theseareas have been variously referred to as harsh fragilemarginal backward less favoured and low-potential In thispaper the term lsquorainfed areasrsquo will be used to embrace allthese terms

Table 1 provides information on the extent of therainfed areas (CGIARTAC 2000) In Asia rainfed areas(marginal + arid lands + forests and woodlands) accountfor 831 of agricultural lands compared with 166 offavoured land Marginal and arid lands alone constitute485 of the total area Additionally about 63 of therural population is found in the former compared withonly 37 in the favoured areas It is of interest to note inthis context that in 1993 in India 42 of the rural poorlived in low-potential rainfed areas 16 in irrigated

12 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Table 1 Distribution of land types by region

Land type ( of total land) Rural populationRegion Favoured Marginal Sparsely populated Forest and living in favoured

arid lands woodlands lands ()

Asia 166 300 185 346 370Latin America and Caribbean 96 203 81 619 340Sub-Saharan Africa 85 231 246 437 270Near East and North America 78 226 658 39 240Total (105 countries) 107 240 259 394 350

Source CGIARTAC 2000

areas and 42 in high-potential rainfed areas (Fan andHazell 2000)

It is important to stress that some of the rainfed areasare potentially very useful such as the lowland areasimmediately outside the irrigated zones In comparisonwith farms in the high-potential favoured or irrigatedareas that significantly benefited from various policysupport the rainfed areas were bypassed by the greenrevolution and had very limited access to the many policyissues and resource inputs of national governments Quitejustifiably therefore official support (similar to that of theirrigated areas) is now necessary to give greater emphasisto these regions With improved technologicalinterventions increased resource use and opportunitiesfor improved NRM and animal production these areascan produce more food in the future (Devendra 2000a)

The rainfed AEZs of relevance are as follows

bull rainfed temperate and tropical highlands ndash mainly theHindu-KushHimalayan region

bull rainfed humidsubhumid tropical systems ndash mainlycountries in Indo-China South-east and East Asia andthe Pacific Islands parts of South Asia to includeBangladesh and Sri Lanka and

bull rainfed aridsemi-arid tropical systems ndash mainlycountries in South Asia excluding Nepal and Bangla-desh

Among these rainfed humidsubhumid and rainfed aridsemi-arid tropical systems are priority AEZs Table 2 givessome indication of the household characteristicsbiophysical data and patterns of farming systems on fiverainfed locations in China Indonesia the PhilippinesThailand and Vietnam The average annual rainfall wasbetween 1500 and 2300 mm rice-based cropping systemswere common but this also included other annual cropsand tree crops Both ruminants and non-ruminants werereared and the presence of both animal and cropdiversity provided a variety of cropndashanimal interactions(Devendra and Thomas 2002) the effects of which onproductivity peoplersquos livelihoods and sustainableagriculture provide major opportunities for research anddevelopment activities The overriding major constraintwas the 5ndash7 months of dry periods There was a 10ndash25level of contribution by animals to total farm income(Devendra 2005)

A few countries for example China India andIndonesia have given priority to the development ofthese rainfed areas In China for example the north-

western region is given priority for the intensification ofagricultural production and creation of lsquoclimate-freersquoagriculture in the grasslands through irrigation fromunderground aquifers with the objective of making thearea a bread and -meal basket to meet Chinarsquos growingdemand for protein-rich diets However populationpressures on these grasslands have been increasing withresultant increased poverty rates degradation and duststorms (MEA 2005)

Farms in plantation agriculture These are farms thatare found within large plantations that usually involvetree crops such as coconuts citrus oil palm and rubberRelative land areas are therefore larger because of the treecrops These include government settlement schemes suchas the Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) inMalaysia and the transmigration schemes in SumatraIndonesia In the latter five hectares of land parcels areallocated to resettle people away from Java through themanagement of rubber-based agriculture and animalproduction The animals reared are beef cattle smallruminants and poultry

Integrated tree cropsndashruminants production systemsare underestimated in Asia These systems have muchpotential to promote effective NRM productivity gainsand sustainability In this context integration withcoconut systems in the Philippines (Figure 7) oil palm inMalaysia (Figure 8) and rubber in Indonesia are goodexamples

Size of holdings trends and contribution

The small size of farm holdings is one of the characteristicfeatures of Asian farming systems Nevertheless there isconsiderable variation between AEZs and countrieswhich is reflected in the various definitions used todescribe both small farms (Table 3) and small farmers

The size of farms varies from country to country butspecific attempts have been made to classify small farmsin which the yardstick of less than 2 ha has often beenused The classification of farms is also influenced by landquality In India for example small farmers marginalfarmers or agricultural labourers are those with 2ndash4 08ndash2and lt 08 ha of dryland respectively In the Philippinesand Thailand small farms have land sizes of 28 ha and12 ha respectively Using a definition of a small farm ashaving a land area less than 2 ha it has been reported thatan overwhelming majority (87) of the 470 million smallfarms worldwide is found in Asia (Nagayets 2005) It was

13Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Table 2 Some household attributes and biophysical characteristics in rainfed farming systems in five countries in South-east and EastAsia

Item Vietnam Thailand Indonesia Philippines China

Household attributesAverage farm size (ha) 259 plusmn 197 524 plusmn 274 055 plusmn 073 126 plusmn 045 027 plusmn 012Household size (persons) 494 plusmn 174 479 plusmn 208 446 plusmn 154 552 plusmn 233 473 plusmn 129Percentage of farms managed by women 284 316 42 300 260

Biophysical characteristicsLocation Dong Tam Amphur Muang Dangiang Don Montano Bixi Xiang

Bin Phuoc Mahasarakham Cilawu Garut Umingan NanjianPangasinan Yunnan

Mean annual rainfall (mm) 2170 1500 2200 2300 760Dry season (months) 6 6ndash7 5ndash6 6 7

Farming systemsPredominant cropndashanimal systems Rice-based Rice-based Rice-based cattle Rice-based beef Wheat

beef cattle dairy cattle fattening and cattle and goat maize-basedproduction production sheep raising production beef cattle

and goatsproduction

Predominant animal species1 BC Pi Po DC Pi Po BC Bu S G Fi BC Bu G Pi Po BC Bu GPi Po

Number of animals (TLUs)2 067 plusmn 169 734 plusmn 432 070 plusmn 078 226 plusmn 197 107 plusmn 073Main cropndashanimal interactions Crop residues Crop residues Crop residues Crop residues Crop

as feeds use as feed manure as feed manure as feed manure residues asof draught as fertilizer use as fertilizer as fertilizer feed manureanimals of draught as fertilizers

animals use ofdraughtanimals

Contribution of livestock to total income () 13 10ndash20 10ndash15 15ndash20 20ndash25

1 BC = beef cattle DC = dairy cattle Bu = buffaloes S = sheep G = goats Pi = pigs Po = poultry Fi = fish2 TLU = tropical livestock unit equivalent to a ruminant animal of 250 kg body weight Only ruminant species have been consideredfor its estimation according to the following equivalencies cattle and buffalo = 10 sheep and goats = 001 in all species mature male= 10 mature female = 075 growing animal = 05 pre-weaned animal = 025Source Devendra 2005

further estimated that China alone accounted for about402 of these farms followed by India (23) Theaverage farm size in Asia is reported to be 16 ha (vonBraun 2005) but the average size of small farms in mostcountries is much lower than this (Table 3) In Asia alsosome 527 of farms across many countries have lt10 hawith the smallest farm sizes of 03 ha being found in SriLanka 04 ha in Indonesia and 060 ha in Bangladesh InChina Chuanmin and Falla (2006) have recently reportedthat in the year 2000 the average farm size of over 241million farms was 057 ha

Of increasing concern is the trend towards decreasingfarm sizes in all countries due to the subdivision ofexisting land Table 4 gives an idea of this trend Withoutexception farm landholdings are decreasing and willcontinue to do so There are inadequate data on this trendwith specific reference to small farms in rainfed areas butthere is no doubt that the trend is also found in theseareas

There appear to be few data on the extent of thecontribution by small farms to food production especiallyby animals However remembering that mixed farmsystems are the predominant production systems in Asiaand that the bulk of the milk ruminant meats and a fairshare of non-ruminant meats and eggs come from thesesystems it follows that the contribution by small farms to

foods of animal origin is quite significant With crops it ispertinent to note from FAO (2005) data that with farms oflt 2 ha of land the proportion of cropland was 69 inBangladesh (1996ndash97) 58 in China (1997) and 36 inIndia (1995ndash96)

Small farms and poverty

The first of the eight Millennium Development Goalsconcerns poverty The objective is to eradicate extremepoverty and hunger by halving the proportion of peoplewhose income is less than US$1day and those who sufferfrom hunger (UN 2001) Small farm systems and espe-cially those in the harsher areas have a relatively largeproportion of poor people concentrated in them andaddressing both poverty and hunger are therefore closelylinked with improved productivity from these farms Theextremely poor own less land especially irrigated landand depend on subsistence agriculture for a large part oftheir income Data from Bangladesh indicate that povertyis correlated with the amount of land a householdcontrols (Human Development Report 2001) The severityof poverty and hunger appears to be associated with thesize of farms and Singh (2004) reported that in India theincidence of poverty and hunger among those farmerswhose landholdings were under 05 ha was 38 and 32

14 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Figure 7 Integration of sheep with coconut production in thePhilippinesPhoto copy C Devendra

Figure 8 Cattle integrated with oil palm in MalaysiaPhoto copy C Devendra

respectively With larger farms of more than 4 ha theincidence was reduced by 13 and 12 respectively

In the rural areas poverty is a rural dilemma The ruralpoor depend to a very large extent directly or indirectlyon the farm for at least four major objectives incomesbuilding assets food security and improved livelihoodsPro-poor development objectives therefore need to make aconcerted effort to address these objectives and thewidening gap between the lsquohavesrsquo in the high-potentialareas and the lsquohave-notsrsquo in the rainfed zones Develop-ment efforts and investment aid thus remain a majorchallenge for the development community since thealleviation of poverty and increased resourcefulness willinfluence increased productivity

These poor people are disadvantaged in a multitude ofways the elements of which consist of variousinterrelated issues inter alia including chronic hungermalnutrition and ill health inadequate or no access tomost amenities deprivation and despair These togetherresult in a continuing syndrome of a povertyndashadaptationndashfragile livesndashlittle hopendashlow life expectancy complex inwhich the potential to be fully participatory andproductive is significantly reduced Poor farmers long forand dream of dignity self-reliance and empowerment(Devendra and Chantalakhana 2002)

Table 5 presents the proportion of poor livestockkeepers by production system and region and severalobservations are relevant to this First across regionsmixed rainfed systems had the highest proportion of poor

Table 3 Variation in the size of small farms in some countries

Country Definition

Bangladesh (a) Subsistence farmerscroppers lt 04 ha(b) Viable and potentially viable owners 04ndash08 ha

India (a) Small farmers 2ndash4 ha of dry land (1 ha dry land = 08 ha of wetland)(b) Marginal farmers 08ndash2 ha of dry land(c) Agricultual labourers lt 08 ha of dry land

Indonesia (a) Java 066 ha(b) Average size 12 ha

Korea lt 1 haMalaysia (a) Rice faros 16ndash17 ha

(b) Rubber smallholdings 21 haNepal (a) Terai 4 bighas (25 ha)

(b) Hills 175 bighas (10 ha)Philippines Average size 28 haSri Lanka (a) Agricultural households 12 ha

(b) Rice-cultivating households 03 haThailand Non-canal-irrigated areas 24 ha

Source FAO 2001 2004

Table 4 Trends in the average size of farms in selectedcountries

Country Year Average farm size (ha)

China 1980 061990 041999 04

India 1971 231991 16

1995ndash96 14Indonesia 1973 11

1993 09Nepal 1992 10

2002 08Pakistan 1971ndash73 53

1989 382000 21

Philippines 1971 361991 22

Source FAO 2001 2004 data on China are from Fan and Chang-Kang 2003

livestock keepers Within these systems and withinregions South Asia and South-east and East Asiaaccounted for 59ndash60 of total poor livestock keepersMixed irrigated systems were the next highest with 29ndash337 The higher number of poor livestock keepers in themixed farming systems in rainfed areas is consistent withthe higher proportion of rural poor found in thecombined marginal arid lands forests and woodlands(Table 1)

About 14 of poor livestock keepers are in the landlesscategory mainly in the arid and semi-arid regions (Table1) and are found mainly in the arid and semi-arid Hindu-Kush Himalayan region Mongolia China Pakistan andIndia Animal production involves zero-grazing practicesand extensive systems that are associated with resource-

15Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Table 5 Proportion of poor livestock keepers within production system by region ()

Production Developing Sub-Saharan N Africa and South East and Latin Americasystem countries Africa Near East Asia S E Asia and Caribbean

Grassland-based systems 71 131 143 25 18 90Mixed rainfed systems 660 779 566 601 593 679Mixed irrigated systems 185 04 169 337 290 36Landless 84 85 121 37 99 195

Source Thornton et al 2002

poor nomads transhumants or agricultural labourers andseasonal migrants with small ruminants cattle andcamels The movements are annual cycles that aretriggered by reduced feed and water supplies inadequatemarket opportunities and loss-minimizing strategies(Devendra 1998) This is also a way of life for the poorand the ownership of animals enables survival and alsofood and financial security

Within Asia the largest numbers of poor people arefound in India The country has reduced absolute povertyfrom about 55 in the 1970s to about 35 today Thepercentage of rural poor out of the total poor is about79 as a consequence of which the major focus is on thisrural sector and ways to stimulate agricultural growth toovercome persistent poverty Associated with thissituation however are the very high infant mortalityrates a high percentage of infants not surviving to age 40years and underweight children under the age of fiveyears (Human Development Report 2001)

Role and contribution of animals

Animals play an important role in small farm systems andmake a number of valuable contributions They occupy animportant economic and ecological niche in these systemsthroughout Asia Animals are widely owned by smallfarmers for a variety of advantageous reasons (Devendra1983 Chantalakhana 1990)

bull diversification in the use of production resources andreduction of socioeconomic risks

bull promotion of linkages between system components(land crops and water)

bull generation of value-added products (eg meat milkeggs and skins)

bull income generation investment insurance andeconomic security

bull supply of draught power for crop cultivationtransportation and haulage operations

bull contribution to soil fertility through nutrient cycling(dung and urine)

bull prestige social and recreational valuesbull contribution to sustainable agriculture and environ-

mental protection andbull development of stable farm households

The role and contributions of animals in small farms arefar more varied and complex than in specializedcommercial farms due to the close and varied relation-ships with farm families interactions with crops socialvalues and prevailing agricultural systems The

multipurpose roles and contributions by animalsgenerally fall into four categories

(1) household benefits(2) increased productivity in integrated farming systems(3) sustainability of agricultural systems and environ-

mental integrity and(4) enhancement of rural and social stability

The many functions of animals are well known howeverthere are important additional features and implicationsconcerning the role of animals in small farms These are asfollows

First the irrigated areas are home to the majority ofswamp buffaloes some cattle pigs and poultry and theperi-urban and urban areas have the bulk of the landlessindustrial pig and poultry production systems Outside ofthese areas and within the rainfed lowlands and uplands51ndash55 of the total population of cattle and smallruminants in Asia is kept (TAC 1992) including smallerpopulations of native pigs and poultry In the lattersituation therefore the value of these species and theircontributions increase with the decreasing quality of theecosystem in the face of harsher biophysical factors Inthese circumstances the ownership of animals is vitalfor survival financial (lsquobanks on hoovesrsquo) and foodsecurity production of dung to sustain cropproduction and enhancement of the natural resourcebase

Second the interactions with the environment inrainfed environments are much more serious such as inovergrazing lsquoslash and burnrsquo issues and depletion anddegradation of the natural resources Improvedproduction systems that involve controlled managementof grazing animals are therefore vital to maintain environ-mental integrity

Third the presence of a relatively large proportion ofruminant animals in the rainfed areas clearly implies aneed for their development and for an emphasis on theseareas A focus on improved animal production systems istherefore a most important prerequisite for promotingtotal factor productivity in these same areas

A fundamental prerequisite for developing andincreasing productivity from animals in the rainfedareas promoting efficient natural resource managementand protection of the environment is the need toconsider research and development in holistic terms Aholistic approach backed by systems perspectives isvital for dealing with the numerous positive andnegative interactions and heterogeneity of small farmsystems

16 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Strategy for developing small farms address-ing major constraints and opportunities

The strategy for the development of small farms needs toaddress several issues and constraints in order to pursueopportunities for productivity enhancement These are asfollows

Institutional support for research and developmentThe first requirement is a belief in the potentialimportance and contribution of small farms and thereforetheir development in Asia in the future Institutionalcommitment support for and a reorientation of researchand development philosophy and recognition of thecomplexity of the issues involved are fundamental to thisendeavour An agenda for research and developmentprerogatives is required that includes the following

bull programme focus and target AEZsbull a clear set of objectivesbull prioritization of effort for multidisciplinary and partici-

patory approaches that respond to the needs of smallfarmers

bull linkages with development agents and the privatesector

bull a time framebull potential biological and socioeconomic benefits and

impacts andbull potential lsquospilloversrsquo to other locations and regions

(Alston 2002) including trans-regionally

Without these considerations much needed improve-ments in the productivity of small farms and livelihoodsof small farmers are unlikely to be achieved

Natural resource managementUnderstanding the natural resource base is essential forits effective management and to optimize productionNRM involves the components (land crops animals andwater) as well as their synergies the interactions of thecomponents and their positive and negativeimplications Associated aspects related to thistask include the following

bull importance of indigenous knowledge and traditionalmethods used by farmers to meet their objectives andneeds

bull biodiversitybull community-based NRM practicesbull integration of NRM components and production

systemsbull productivity-enhancing and needs-based technologiesbull issues of sustainability and sustainable development

andbull development of multidisciplinary models and partner-

ships that target the development of small farmsystems

The benefits of improved NRM technology applicationand opportunities for productivity enhancement are many(Devendra 2001) This is clearly reflected in a recentreview of the benefits of cropndashanimal interactions andattendant economic advantages from 31 studies in 11countries concerning small farms across a variety ofAEZs mixed farming systems various species of animals

and both annual and perennial crops in Asia (Devendra2007) The range of farming systems involved and moreparticularly the application of needs-based newtechnologies in individual countries demonstrate whatcan also be achieved in terms of the types and extent ofbenefits in small farms Effective NRM has necessarily tobe very much participatory and needs to build onindigenous knowledge and traditional systems The needfor trust reciprocity and connectedness in institutions inthe collective management and improvement of naturalresources is equally important and has been emphasized(Pretty 2003)

Targeting more effective NRM in small farms is there-fore urgent and is also justified by the following factors

bull the need for increased productivity in Asia with itsmassive human populations population growth rateand poor people

bull distinct opportunities for productivity enhancementbased on the knowledge already available

bull focusing more attention on the application of locallygenerated agricultural technologies and theirspillovers which will promote increased self-reliance

bull investments in productivity-enhancing research anddevelopment which are decreasing and difficult toobtain and

bull effective use of NRM which also has the advantage ofpreserving indigenous knowledge traditional systemsand biodiversity

Targeting research and development of rainfed areasThe rationale and justification for targeting the rainfedareas in Asia are related to three important reasonsinadequate availability of arable land the need to increaseproductivity from animals to match projected humanneeds and the alleviation of poverty (Devendra 2000a)The decreasing availability of arable land with humanpopulation increase is reflected in the projected decreasefrom between 017 and 10 haperson in 198890 tobetween 005 and 030 haperson by 2010 (FAO 1998)Inadequate arable land is associated with the followingreasons

bull demand for agricultural land to meet human needs eghousing recreation and industrialization

bull expansion of crop production to ceiling levelsbull increasing and very high animal densitiesbull increased urbanization and use of arable land andbull growing environmental concerns due to very intensive

crop production eg acidification and salinization withrice cultivation and human health risks due to expand-ing peri-urban poultry and pig production

Poverty is a major concern since the rainfed areas alsohave large populations of the poorest of the poor the vastmajority of whom live below the US$1day yardstick It isestimated that about 678 million of the rural poor keeplivestock in developing countries and this representstwo-thirds of the rural poor (Livestock in Development1999) The poverty dimension includes eight elements(IFAD 2001) material deprivation lack of assetsisolation alienation dependence lack of decision-makingpower vulnerability to external shocks and insecurity

These circumstances place much stress on the use of

17Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

natural resources and thus force a need to look beyondthe use of arable land in the irrigated areas and to focusmuch needed attention on the more difficult rainfed areasFor example rainfed lowland and upland areas areunderutilized This is reflected in the availability ofapproximately 141 times 106 ha of land or 43 of the totalarable land in Asia (TAC 1992)

The rainfed areas have been constrained by manyfactors such as roads and market access and hence havebeen relatively underutilized and also bypassed byresearch and development The development of ruralroads is especially significant and in China for exampleit has been shown that every yuan invested in low-qualityroads yielded five yuan of rural non-farm gross domesticproduct (GDP) Moreover low-quality roads raise morepeople out of poverty per yuan than high-quality roads(Fan and Chan-Kang 2005) Increased rural roads alsocontribute to market access Water is another constraintand without adequate irrigation systems rainfed areashave not been able to increase productivity and capacityThese constraints can however be overcome by increasedresearch and development attention technology deliveryand market-oriented production systems It is alsoimportant to note that in studies in India (Fan Hazell andThorat 2000) and China (Fan Zhang and Zhang 2000)the returns on investment are very much higher in theseareas compared with areas that have benefited from thegreen revolution

The strategy for the development of small farms musttherefore give priority to rainfed areas especially to thepotentially more important locations Within theseanimal production can strategically serve as the entrypoint to address food production pro-poor initiativescollective management and improvement of the naturalresources that are needs-led Interdisciplinary researchand development efforts that target AEZs serve to addressthe major constraints and opportunities

The systems approach and interdisciplinarityA notable and consistent weakness of the research anddevelopment process and programmes in most nationalagricultural systems concerned with animal production inAsia is the near absence of the use of the systemsapproach Much of the research continues along strongdisciplinary lines without reference to the needs of thesmall farm systems and the AEZs where they are found(Devendra 1996 2006) Despite the dominant emphasison mixed farming in Asia research on cropndashanimalsystems is seldom integrated and with rare exceptionsvery few institutions recognize the importance of trainingin systems research As a consequence the complex andinterrelated systems-based problems in cropndashanimalsystems are not addressed in holistic terms This tendencyexplains why improved productivity from animals insmall farm systems is slow to be realized To a very largeextent the same reasons also apply to the general neglectof the rainfed areas the inadequate productivity fromsmall farm systems therein and the contribution fromanimals

The systems approach requires multi-andinterdisciplinary interpretation of the differentcomponents of the system and biophysical environmentidentified through detailed analyses of the constraints

needs and opportunities These ensure that the individualcomponents interactions and contributions can focus onthe whole system Considering the complexities of smallfarm systems the heterogeneity of the biophysicalenvironment and the various types of mixed farmingactivities therein systems perspectives are therefore ofparamount importance in improving understanding anddevelopment of the increased contribution of these farms

The methodology for systems research is distinct andfollows several sequential steps

(1) site selection(2) site description and characterization (diagnosis)(3) planning of on-farm research(4) on-farm testing and validation of alternatives(5) dissemination of results and(6) impact assessment

The systems approach needs to be backed by otherimportant requirements

bull recognition of the importance of interdisciplinaryparticipatory approaches

bull formulation of research programmes that havecommunity-based participation to set a commonagenda and create ownership (this should involve bothproduction and post-production systems)

bull programmes that are needs-led and have institutionaland structural commitment

bull establishment of effective participatory planning inter-institutional coordination and collaboration researchmanagement dissemination of information andresolution of feedback issues

bull long-term commitment to achieving impacts andbull training in agricultural systems and systems

methodologies at various levels

Associated with these methodologies much more can alsobe done to improve the socioeconomic understanding ofthe rural landless poor This includes taking into accountinter alia their way of life and aspirations their seasonalmovements together with their moving flocks of camelscattle goats and sheep reasons for the choice and extentof animal ownership constraints to their livelihoods andloss-minimizing strategies These and the foregoing issuesjustify further research investments to improve thesituation

Feed resources and nutritionForemost among the constraints to animal producton arefeed resources and nutrition which constitute the majorconstraint throughout South-east Asia (Devendra et al1997) and South Asia (Devendra et al 2000) The strategyfor feed resource use needs to take cognizance of thefollowing interrelated issues (Devendra 2000b)

bull knowledge of the totality of available feeds (grassesand forages crop residues agro-industrial by-productsand non-conventional sources)

bull appropriateness and effective use within productionsystems

bull feeds and their use should be identified with farmingsystems and self-reliance and

bull potential promotion of linkages between rural andperi-urban areas in the use of production inputs

18 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

intensification nutrient flows and marketing ofproduce that is consistent with environmental integrity

Given the critical long dry seasons and feed shortages inthese environments together with the possibilities ofincreasing feed production to overcome the shortages thesynchronization of feed availability to match speciesrequirements along with methods of conservation aremajor opportunities An example of this approachincludes foodndashfeed cropping eg rice and mung beancassava and cowpea (Devendra Sevilla and Pezo 2001)forage production in rice bunds and under tree cropsalley cropping planting tree legumes such as Gliricidia orLeucaena for forage production and the use of multi-nutrient block licks (MNBL) Other options include thedevelopment and promotion of dual-purpose (seeds andforage) sorghum millet and groundnut with resistance tofoliar diseases and higher biomass yields in southernIndia (Blummel et al 2003) especially to support dairyproduction and reduced fallows The resolution ofconstraints can produce significant impacts on increasedper animal performance and improved livelihoods ofresource-poor farmers and can enhance existingproductivity gaps in these areas The final objective ofthese improvements should be the development ofsustainable all-year-round feeding systems

Access to technologies and delivery systemsAccess to improved and appropriate technologies is amajor constraint with small farmers The problem isparticularly manifested among small farmers and smallfarms in the rainfed areas that have been bypassed by thegreen revolution These same areas are also often remoteand have poor communications resulting in furtherdifficulties For these and other reasons researchprogrammes have tended to ignore these situationsAssociated with access to improved technologies areweak delivery systems which do not facilitate effectivetechnology transfer and adoption to accelerateproductivity This is a major weakness in researchprogrammes that do not formulate and ensureparticipatory adaptive research and on-farm developmentactivities or strengthening of effective researchndashextensionlinkages to ensure maximum adoption

It is of interest to note that analyses of seven countrycase studies (Meinzen-Dick et al 2004) have shown thatthree main factors affected technology adoption

bull vulnerability ndash whether the technologies were expectedto increase or decrease peoplersquos vulnerability to loss ofincome bad health natural disasters and other factors

bull assets ndash whether farmers had the assets necessary fortechnology adoption ndash especially if they were poor and

bull institutions ndash whether institutions (such as agriculturalextension services government policies non-govern-mental organizations private sector gender rolesmarkets for inputs and outputs etc) encouraged ordiscouraged adoption and represented the interests ofpoor people

Markets and marketingSmall farmers have major problems coping with a rangeof difficulties in the face of the complexity and generalinefficiency of the prevailing marketing chains Foremost

among these is access to marketing and to the marketingchain At present inadequate access to market outlets andweak marketing arrangements represent a majorconstraint to the production to consumption systems and tothe owners and producers of animals As a consequencesmall farmers are often denied compelling opportunitiesand economic benefits The market chain involves ruralperi-urban urban and international markets and a majorchallenge will lie in ways to link small farmers with thesemarkets and marketing systems

Rural markets are especially important to rural com-munities and their households and are also used for thesale of live animals for slaughter in the urban areas Inorder to provide good links between rural and urbanmarkets appropriate infrastructural and communicationfacilities must be in place in addition to collection andprocessing centres Without improved marketing andtransport systems the prevailing systems constitute majorconstraints to the sale of animals and products from smallfarms Because of the greater market demand for animalproducts in urban areas transport facilities becomeessential Urban markets are the outlets for exports andpromote international trade

Considerable opportunities exist for participation inthe international trade of meats in the Middle East regionTo compete in world markets however quality standardsprocessing and storage facilities become essentialAdditionally for the Muslim world and the huge marketsin the Middle East meeting lsquohalalrsquo standards is also vitalAssociated with international trade is the impact ofglobalization and the lowering of tariff and non-tariffbarriers involving opening up market opportunities forcountries on the one hand and on the other severecompetitiveness for low-cost products Efficientproduction post-production to consumption and market-ing systems are therefore crucial to maintain a sustainableand competitive position

Policy issues

A number of policy issues need to be resolved to supportthe future development of small farms and increasedcontributions from them Such policies will also besupportive of increased investments in their developmentas well as pro-poor initiatives For reasons of brevitythese will not be discussed in detail but are identifiedinter alia as follows

bull A first essential is affirmative development policy forimproved understanding of small farms currentsituation and trends and potential future contribu-tions

bull The aspirations of small farmers and the syndrome of apovertyndashadaptationndashfragile livesndashlittle hopendashlow lifeexpectancy complex will need new attention onaccount of globalization and their vulnerability Socio-economic research can make a major contribution here

bull Associated with the above is the role of animals as theentry point for development especially in the moredifficult rainfed environments outside of the irrigatedareas that have been bypassed by the green revolution

bull Research and development on the complexity andheterogeneity of small farm systems NRM and cropndash

19Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

soilndashanimal interactions must necessarily be inter-disciplinary and holistic At present knowledge ofsystems perspectives and adaptive research at the farmlevel are major limitations in most countries Theserepresent major and urgent training needs at thecollege and university levels

bull Animal production in small farm systems has to beseen in the broader context of productionndashpost-productionndashconsumption systems

bull Among the ruminant production systems integrationwith tree crops despite the economic benefits of addedvalue is still underestimated Policy interventions arerequired to stimulate the development of more inte-grated systems with animals for example through taxincentives and also to encourage increased privatesector investment

bull Policy is required to support micro-credit schemesaccess to markets and public services

bull The market chain involves rural urban and inter-national markets Rural markets are especiallyimportant to rural communities and for the sale of liveanimals for slaughter to urban areas At present theruralndashurban market linkages are weak and appropriatepolicies are required to provide improvements to thesecollection and processing centres as well asinfrastructural and communication facilities and toprovide links to international markets

Development pathways

Considered together the challenges for the future of smallfarms in Asia include the following inter alia

bull Based on constraint analyses through community-based participation there should be a focus on priorityneeds to improve animal production systems

bull Diversification should be improved through theappropriate mix of animals with annual or perennialcrops appropriate to mixed farming to intensify pro-duction in rainfed areas

bull Create increased access to information improvedtechnologies and delivery systems which canpotentially impact on total production increasessocioeconomic benefits improved livelihoods andsustainable development

bull Strengthen empowerment to include informal trainingat various levels gender equity and also effectivedissemination of information

bull Promote the formation of cooperatives farmer organi-zations focus groups and farmer-managed revolvingfunds to enhance decision making and resource plan-ning These enhance reduced transaction costs andimproved marketing to obtain better returns for theproduce The successful Anand model of IndiarsquoslsquoOperation Floodrsquo involved making farmersshareholders in the whole chain of marketing andprocessing milk and is worthy of note and emulation

bull Promote pro-poor initiatives that are consistent withincome growth socioeconomic benefits improvedlivelihoods and self-reliance

Cooperative development is largely dependent on thecapacity of farmers to be self-reliant so as to benefit fromeconomies of scale bargaining power competitiveness in

agribusiness as well as reduced market risksAgricultural cooperatives are very variable in Asia andthese remain to be more fully developed in manycountries In China for example cooperatives are verylimited and a nationwide need for their establishment toovercome natural and market risks has recently beensuggested (Chuanmin and Falla 2006) Fully developedcooperatives are dynamic contribute significantly to ruraldevelopment and can enable small farm systems torespond to market dictates and consumer needs

Conclusions

Small farm systems will remain an integral part of Asianagriculture and will continue to occupy a predominantposition in food production within an overwhelmingpanorama of varied agricultural activities in the variousAEZs These small farms are models of diversification inNRM and resilience They will continue to play animportant contributory role in the production of a highproportion of ruminant meats and milk in particular andin enhancing the natural resource base They will alsohelp alleviate poverty hunger and food insecurity for thesizeable populations of rural poor despite the threat ofincreasing globalization economies of scaleintensification and commercialization in the foreseeablefuture There are major constraints to their developmentof course but there are also compelling opportunities andeconomic benefits that involve community-based manage-ment of natural resources Social and effectivedevelopment policies are also needed that can togetherstimulate increased contributions from these farms to thefood chain ndash within an enabling economic environment ndashand can spur agricultural development

ReferencesAdams D and Coward E W (1972) Small Farmer Development

Strategies Agricultural Development Council New YorkAlston J (2002) lsquoSpilloversrsquo Australian Journal of Agricultural

Research and Resource Economics Vol 48 pp 315ndash336Blummel M Zerbini E Reddy B V S Hash C T Bidinger

F and Khan A A (2003) lsquoImproving the production andutilisation of sorghum and millet in livestock feed progresstowards dual-purpose genotypesrsquo Field Crops Research Vol 84pp 143ndash158

CGIARTAC ndash Consultative Group on International AgriculturalResearchTechnical Advisory Committee (2000) lsquoCGIARpriorities for marginal landsrsquo CGIAR Washingtion DC(mimeograph)

Chantalakhana C (1990) lsquoSmall farm animal production andsustainable agriculturersquo Proceedings III AsianndashAustralasianAnimal Science Congress 27 Mayndash1 June Taipei Taiwan Vol 2 pp39ndash58

Chantalakhana C and Skunmun P (2002) Sustainable Small-holder Animal Systems in the Tropics Kasetsart University PressBangkok

Chuanmin S and Falla J S (2006) lsquoAgro-industrialization acomparative study of China and developed countriesrsquo Outlookon Agriculture Vol 35 No 3 pp 177ndash182

Delgado C Rosegrant M Steinfeld H Ehui S and CourboisC (1999) lsquoLivestock to 2020 The next food revolutionrsquo FoodAgriculture and the Environment Discussion Paper No 28 Interna-tional Food Policy Research Institute Washington DC

Devendra C (1983) lsquoSmall farm systems combining crops andanimalsrsquo Proceedings of Fifth World Conference in AnimalProduction14ndash18 August Tokyo Japan Vol 1 pp 173ndash191

9Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Figure 1 A typical small farm involved in mixed farming inVietnamPhoto copy C Devendra

Figure 2 A small farm engaged in cropsndashpigsndashaquaculture integration involving small ponds also in Vietnam Photo copy C Devendra

Definition of small farmersCompared with small farms there are more definitions ofsmall farmers synonymous with the term lsquosmallholdersrsquoIt is important to stress that the rural poor are

predominantly small farmers and landless agriculturallabourers Adams and Coward (1972) defined a smallfarmer as one who had very little access to politicalpower productive assets andor income streams withinsociety Wapenham (1979) referred to these as agriculturalproducers controlling no more land than they can farmwithout the permanent employment of non-family labourNarayanan and Gulati (2002) characterize these asfarmers (crop or livestock) practising a mix ofcommercial and subsistence production or either of thesein which the family provides the majority of labour andthe farm provides the principal source of income TheWorld Bank`s Rural Strategy (World Bank 2003) definessmallholders as those with a low asset base operating lessthan two hectares of cropland

Devendra (1983 1993) has listed a number of featuresthat characterize small farmers and the landless that areunique to these individuals These include inter alia

bull They are essentially resource-poor people who facegeographic isolation

bull Most of these are usually found in harsh and lessfavourable rainfed environments

bull They continuously experience hunger and ruralpoverty

bull They have the capacity to adapt and survive hardshipbull They resist changes to avoid risks and capital invest-

mentsbull They have little or no access to major decision-making

processes and the use of new technologybull Being mostly illiterate they are not interested in

extension materialsbull Agricultural diversification and loss-minimizing

strategies plus livelihood diversification to earn non-farm income to support the family and the farm areboth common In these circumstances women tend totake over much of the decision making and manage-ment of the farm

bull They are not commercial producers of specializedlivestock products and usually own 1ndash2 large rumi-nants 4ndash6 small ruminants andor a few indigenouspigs poultry and ducks (Figure 3)

bull Large ruminants are owned primarily for draughtpower and secondarily for meat Animals are reared formultipurpose use including the supply of dung andurine and transportation

bull They manage their animals as well as feed them fromcommon property resources Farm labour includingthat from women and children is often used formanaging the animals

bull Women tend to work more hours per day than menand together with children are often involved inhousehold chores and in the management of smallanimals (Figure 4)

bull They use meagre farm resources rationally and strive toachieve complementary relationships between theanimal and crop components in mixed farm enter-prises

bull Small farmers (except the landless) have secured tenureand can pass on their land and assets to their familiesand children

The definition of small farmers also needs to include therural landless who are also called marginal farmers and

10 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Figure 3 A farmer with his mixed ownership of a Yellow cownative pigs and Yunnan black goats in Nanjian county Yunnanprovince ChinaPhoto copy C Devendra

Figure 4 A farmerrsquos wife and her children feeding nativepoultry in Thailand Small animals provide critical food andnutrition security for poor rural householdsPhoto copy C Devendra

landless agricultural labourers These individuals areessentially transhumants and nomads who move withtheir flocks of camels cattle goats and sheep in search offeed and water (Figure 5) For many of them it is a way oflife in which they practise a variety of loss-minimizingstrategies The ownership of animals provides securityand enables their survival in these less favoured environ-ments

Considering the various definitions and irrespective ofwhere the small farms are found there are a fewoverriding key descriptive words concerned with thelivelihoods of small farmers Up to the mid-1990s thesewere deprivation subsistence illiteracy survival and due toglobalization and the many externalities since then theadditional keyword is vulnerability

Figure 5 A landless nomad with his flock of sheep and goats onthe move in search of feed and water in Rajasthan IndiaPhoto copy C Devendra

Types of small farmsThere are three types of small farms in Asia

bull farms in irrigated agriculturebull farms in rainfed areas andbull farms in plantation agriculture

Irrespective of the type of farm mixed farming systems inwhich crops and animals are integrated on the same farmform the backbone of small farming systems in Asianagriculture Mixed farming systems are synonymous withcropndashanimal systems and are varied and integrated withannual and perennial cropping in various ways Bothruminants and non-ruminants are involved and thechoice of one or more species is dependent on theoverriding influence of preference market dictatespotential to generate income contribution to cropcultivation and livelihoods

In Asia mixed farming provides 90 of the milk 77of the ruminant meats 47 of pork and poultry meat and31 of the eggs The industrialized pig and poultryproduction systems in peri-urban areas produce the bulkof the meats and eggs Past growth trends suggest(Steinfeld 1998) that mixed farming systems grew half asfast (22 per year) compared with industrial systems(43 per year) and three times as fast as pastoralsystems (07 per year) The data suggest that ruminantproduction in mixed farming systems will continue to beimportant in the future In India smallholders reportedlycontributed over 40 of food grain production during1990ndash91 they owned the majority of livestock anddominated the dairy sector (Narayanan and Gulati 2002)The tremendous success of lsquoOperation Floodrsquo in dairy

11Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

development in India is due largely to the participation ofsmall farmers through the concerted efforts of theNational Dairy Development Board of lsquoOperation Floodrsquo

Two broad categories of mixed farming systems can beidentified

(1) systems combining animals and annual cropping inwhich there are two further subtypes

bull systems involving non-ruminants ponds and fisheg vegetablesndashpigsndashducksndashfish systems in Vietnamricendashmaizendashvegetablesndashsweet potatoesndashpigsndashdairycattle in China and

bull systems involving ruminants eg maizendashground-nutssoya beanndashgoats systems in Indonesiaricendashfinger milletndashricendashgoats in Nepal

(2) systems combining animals and perennial croppingin which there are again two subtypes

bull systems involving ruminants eg coconutsndashsheepintegration in the Philippines oil palmndashcattleintegration in Malaysia and

bull systems involving non-ruminants eg oil palmndashchickens integration in Malaysia

Farms in irrigated agriculture These are farms inessentially higher-quality or high-potential croplandwhere there is intensive crop cultivation mainly cereals(rice and wheat) and secondarily cash crops Cerealproduction is the predominant activity crop yields havereached ceiling yields in which some of the produce iskept for home consumption and the rest is sold forincome The irrigated areas were the ones that greatlybenefited from the lsquogreen revolutionrsquo in Asia between1975 and 1980 There were significant increases in percapita income and a decline in the number of peopleliving in poverty Increased productivity and prosperitybenefited the rice farmers but the higher agriculturalgrowth exacerbated poverty and food security among thepoor in rainfed areas The farmers here are generallyricher and have greater access to technology and services

The green revolution was supply-led and was fuelledat that time by several key factors sharply rising foodprices aims by governments to achieve self-sufficiency incereals massive irrigation schemes and several policiesto include fixed prices credit and subsidies most ofwhich were supported by national governments andinternational donors Since that time cereal yieldincreases have been declining as has expansion ofadditional land for intensive crop cultivation

In Malaysia detailed early surveys of 5274 farmhouseholds in the Muda irrigated rice-growing areaindicated that 87 of these were engaged in livestockkeeping Of these 894 owned chickens 471 ducks267 buffalo and cattle and 77 goats On averageeach household had between 13 and 15 birds

Animals are of lower importance compared with cropsbut are nevertheless quite common in small farm systemsAmong the animals large ruminants notably buffalo andcattle are common and are used to supply draughtpower for land cultivation and haulage operations andalso manure production Swamp buffalo in the rice-growing areas of South-east Asia are used for about80ndash100 days for ploughing In Thailand swamp buffalo

Figure 6 The rainfed lowland and upland continuum in LuangPrabang in LaosPhoto copy C Devendra

are used for 51ndash67 days (Chantalakhana and Skunmun2002) Small ruminants (goats and sheep) may or may notbe owned since the rice environment with its relativelyabundant water supplies is not very suitable for thespecies On the other hand pigs poultry and ducks arevery common here Ducks are especially suited to thisenvironment where they use the available feeds and post-harvest losses of rice to great advantage

Farms in rainfed areas These are farms that are outsidethe irrigated zones and are almost entirely dependent onrainfall for crop cultivation They include the rainfedlowlands and uplands in a continuum (Figure 6) Theland quality is very variable and as a consequence theseareas have been variously referred to as harsh fragilemarginal backward less favoured and low-potential In thispaper the term lsquorainfed areasrsquo will be used to embrace allthese terms

Table 1 provides information on the extent of therainfed areas (CGIARTAC 2000) In Asia rainfed areas(marginal + arid lands + forests and woodlands) accountfor 831 of agricultural lands compared with 166 offavoured land Marginal and arid lands alone constitute485 of the total area Additionally about 63 of therural population is found in the former compared withonly 37 in the favoured areas It is of interest to note inthis context that in 1993 in India 42 of the rural poorlived in low-potential rainfed areas 16 in irrigated

12 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Table 1 Distribution of land types by region

Land type ( of total land) Rural populationRegion Favoured Marginal Sparsely populated Forest and living in favoured

arid lands woodlands lands ()

Asia 166 300 185 346 370Latin America and Caribbean 96 203 81 619 340Sub-Saharan Africa 85 231 246 437 270Near East and North America 78 226 658 39 240Total (105 countries) 107 240 259 394 350

Source CGIARTAC 2000

areas and 42 in high-potential rainfed areas (Fan andHazell 2000)

It is important to stress that some of the rainfed areasare potentially very useful such as the lowland areasimmediately outside the irrigated zones In comparisonwith farms in the high-potential favoured or irrigatedareas that significantly benefited from various policysupport the rainfed areas were bypassed by the greenrevolution and had very limited access to the many policyissues and resource inputs of national governments Quitejustifiably therefore official support (similar to that of theirrigated areas) is now necessary to give greater emphasisto these regions With improved technologicalinterventions increased resource use and opportunitiesfor improved NRM and animal production these areascan produce more food in the future (Devendra 2000a)

The rainfed AEZs of relevance are as follows

bull rainfed temperate and tropical highlands ndash mainly theHindu-KushHimalayan region

bull rainfed humidsubhumid tropical systems ndash mainlycountries in Indo-China South-east and East Asia andthe Pacific Islands parts of South Asia to includeBangladesh and Sri Lanka and

bull rainfed aridsemi-arid tropical systems ndash mainlycountries in South Asia excluding Nepal and Bangla-desh

Among these rainfed humidsubhumid and rainfed aridsemi-arid tropical systems are priority AEZs Table 2 givessome indication of the household characteristicsbiophysical data and patterns of farming systems on fiverainfed locations in China Indonesia the PhilippinesThailand and Vietnam The average annual rainfall wasbetween 1500 and 2300 mm rice-based cropping systemswere common but this also included other annual cropsand tree crops Both ruminants and non-ruminants werereared and the presence of both animal and cropdiversity provided a variety of cropndashanimal interactions(Devendra and Thomas 2002) the effects of which onproductivity peoplersquos livelihoods and sustainableagriculture provide major opportunities for research anddevelopment activities The overriding major constraintwas the 5ndash7 months of dry periods There was a 10ndash25level of contribution by animals to total farm income(Devendra 2005)

A few countries for example China India andIndonesia have given priority to the development ofthese rainfed areas In China for example the north-

western region is given priority for the intensification ofagricultural production and creation of lsquoclimate-freersquoagriculture in the grasslands through irrigation fromunderground aquifers with the objective of making thearea a bread and -meal basket to meet Chinarsquos growingdemand for protein-rich diets However populationpressures on these grasslands have been increasing withresultant increased poverty rates degradation and duststorms (MEA 2005)

Farms in plantation agriculture These are farms thatare found within large plantations that usually involvetree crops such as coconuts citrus oil palm and rubberRelative land areas are therefore larger because of the treecrops These include government settlement schemes suchas the Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) inMalaysia and the transmigration schemes in SumatraIndonesia In the latter five hectares of land parcels areallocated to resettle people away from Java through themanagement of rubber-based agriculture and animalproduction The animals reared are beef cattle smallruminants and poultry

Integrated tree cropsndashruminants production systemsare underestimated in Asia These systems have muchpotential to promote effective NRM productivity gainsand sustainability In this context integration withcoconut systems in the Philippines (Figure 7) oil palm inMalaysia (Figure 8) and rubber in Indonesia are goodexamples

Size of holdings trends and contribution

The small size of farm holdings is one of the characteristicfeatures of Asian farming systems Nevertheless there isconsiderable variation between AEZs and countrieswhich is reflected in the various definitions used todescribe both small farms (Table 3) and small farmers

The size of farms varies from country to country butspecific attempts have been made to classify small farmsin which the yardstick of less than 2 ha has often beenused The classification of farms is also influenced by landquality In India for example small farmers marginalfarmers or agricultural labourers are those with 2ndash4 08ndash2and lt 08 ha of dryland respectively In the Philippinesand Thailand small farms have land sizes of 28 ha and12 ha respectively Using a definition of a small farm ashaving a land area less than 2 ha it has been reported thatan overwhelming majority (87) of the 470 million smallfarms worldwide is found in Asia (Nagayets 2005) It was

13Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Table 2 Some household attributes and biophysical characteristics in rainfed farming systems in five countries in South-east and EastAsia

Item Vietnam Thailand Indonesia Philippines China

Household attributesAverage farm size (ha) 259 plusmn 197 524 plusmn 274 055 plusmn 073 126 plusmn 045 027 plusmn 012Household size (persons) 494 plusmn 174 479 plusmn 208 446 plusmn 154 552 plusmn 233 473 plusmn 129Percentage of farms managed by women 284 316 42 300 260

Biophysical characteristicsLocation Dong Tam Amphur Muang Dangiang Don Montano Bixi Xiang

Bin Phuoc Mahasarakham Cilawu Garut Umingan NanjianPangasinan Yunnan

Mean annual rainfall (mm) 2170 1500 2200 2300 760Dry season (months) 6 6ndash7 5ndash6 6 7

Farming systemsPredominant cropndashanimal systems Rice-based Rice-based Rice-based cattle Rice-based beef Wheat

beef cattle dairy cattle fattening and cattle and goat maize-basedproduction production sheep raising production beef cattle

and goatsproduction

Predominant animal species1 BC Pi Po DC Pi Po BC Bu S G Fi BC Bu G Pi Po BC Bu GPi Po

Number of animals (TLUs)2 067 plusmn 169 734 plusmn 432 070 plusmn 078 226 plusmn 197 107 plusmn 073Main cropndashanimal interactions Crop residues Crop residues Crop residues Crop residues Crop

as feeds use as feed manure as feed manure as feed manure residues asof draught as fertilizer use as fertilizer as fertilizer feed manureanimals of draught as fertilizers

animals use ofdraughtanimals

Contribution of livestock to total income () 13 10ndash20 10ndash15 15ndash20 20ndash25

1 BC = beef cattle DC = dairy cattle Bu = buffaloes S = sheep G = goats Pi = pigs Po = poultry Fi = fish2 TLU = tropical livestock unit equivalent to a ruminant animal of 250 kg body weight Only ruminant species have been consideredfor its estimation according to the following equivalencies cattle and buffalo = 10 sheep and goats = 001 in all species mature male= 10 mature female = 075 growing animal = 05 pre-weaned animal = 025Source Devendra 2005

further estimated that China alone accounted for about402 of these farms followed by India (23) Theaverage farm size in Asia is reported to be 16 ha (vonBraun 2005) but the average size of small farms in mostcountries is much lower than this (Table 3) In Asia alsosome 527 of farms across many countries have lt10 hawith the smallest farm sizes of 03 ha being found in SriLanka 04 ha in Indonesia and 060 ha in Bangladesh InChina Chuanmin and Falla (2006) have recently reportedthat in the year 2000 the average farm size of over 241million farms was 057 ha

Of increasing concern is the trend towards decreasingfarm sizes in all countries due to the subdivision ofexisting land Table 4 gives an idea of this trend Withoutexception farm landholdings are decreasing and willcontinue to do so There are inadequate data on this trendwith specific reference to small farms in rainfed areas butthere is no doubt that the trend is also found in theseareas

There appear to be few data on the extent of thecontribution by small farms to food production especiallyby animals However remembering that mixed farmsystems are the predominant production systems in Asiaand that the bulk of the milk ruminant meats and a fairshare of non-ruminant meats and eggs come from thesesystems it follows that the contribution by small farms to

foods of animal origin is quite significant With crops it ispertinent to note from FAO (2005) data that with farms oflt 2 ha of land the proportion of cropland was 69 inBangladesh (1996ndash97) 58 in China (1997) and 36 inIndia (1995ndash96)

Small farms and poverty

The first of the eight Millennium Development Goalsconcerns poverty The objective is to eradicate extremepoverty and hunger by halving the proportion of peoplewhose income is less than US$1day and those who sufferfrom hunger (UN 2001) Small farm systems and espe-cially those in the harsher areas have a relatively largeproportion of poor people concentrated in them andaddressing both poverty and hunger are therefore closelylinked with improved productivity from these farms Theextremely poor own less land especially irrigated landand depend on subsistence agriculture for a large part oftheir income Data from Bangladesh indicate that povertyis correlated with the amount of land a householdcontrols (Human Development Report 2001) The severityof poverty and hunger appears to be associated with thesize of farms and Singh (2004) reported that in India theincidence of poverty and hunger among those farmerswhose landholdings were under 05 ha was 38 and 32

14 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Figure 7 Integration of sheep with coconut production in thePhilippinesPhoto copy C Devendra

Figure 8 Cattle integrated with oil palm in MalaysiaPhoto copy C Devendra

respectively With larger farms of more than 4 ha theincidence was reduced by 13 and 12 respectively

In the rural areas poverty is a rural dilemma The ruralpoor depend to a very large extent directly or indirectlyon the farm for at least four major objectives incomesbuilding assets food security and improved livelihoodsPro-poor development objectives therefore need to make aconcerted effort to address these objectives and thewidening gap between the lsquohavesrsquo in the high-potentialareas and the lsquohave-notsrsquo in the rainfed zones Develop-ment efforts and investment aid thus remain a majorchallenge for the development community since thealleviation of poverty and increased resourcefulness willinfluence increased productivity

These poor people are disadvantaged in a multitude ofways the elements of which consist of variousinterrelated issues inter alia including chronic hungermalnutrition and ill health inadequate or no access tomost amenities deprivation and despair These togetherresult in a continuing syndrome of a povertyndashadaptationndashfragile livesndashlittle hopendashlow life expectancy complex inwhich the potential to be fully participatory andproductive is significantly reduced Poor farmers long forand dream of dignity self-reliance and empowerment(Devendra and Chantalakhana 2002)

Table 5 presents the proportion of poor livestockkeepers by production system and region and severalobservations are relevant to this First across regionsmixed rainfed systems had the highest proportion of poor

Table 3 Variation in the size of small farms in some countries

Country Definition

Bangladesh (a) Subsistence farmerscroppers lt 04 ha(b) Viable and potentially viable owners 04ndash08 ha

India (a) Small farmers 2ndash4 ha of dry land (1 ha dry land = 08 ha of wetland)(b) Marginal farmers 08ndash2 ha of dry land(c) Agricultual labourers lt 08 ha of dry land

Indonesia (a) Java 066 ha(b) Average size 12 ha

Korea lt 1 haMalaysia (a) Rice faros 16ndash17 ha

(b) Rubber smallholdings 21 haNepal (a) Terai 4 bighas (25 ha)

(b) Hills 175 bighas (10 ha)Philippines Average size 28 haSri Lanka (a) Agricultural households 12 ha

(b) Rice-cultivating households 03 haThailand Non-canal-irrigated areas 24 ha

Source FAO 2001 2004

Table 4 Trends in the average size of farms in selectedcountries

Country Year Average farm size (ha)

China 1980 061990 041999 04

India 1971 231991 16

1995ndash96 14Indonesia 1973 11

1993 09Nepal 1992 10

2002 08Pakistan 1971ndash73 53

1989 382000 21

Philippines 1971 361991 22

Source FAO 2001 2004 data on China are from Fan and Chang-Kang 2003

livestock keepers Within these systems and withinregions South Asia and South-east and East Asiaaccounted for 59ndash60 of total poor livestock keepersMixed irrigated systems were the next highest with 29ndash337 The higher number of poor livestock keepers in themixed farming systems in rainfed areas is consistent withthe higher proportion of rural poor found in thecombined marginal arid lands forests and woodlands(Table 1)

About 14 of poor livestock keepers are in the landlesscategory mainly in the arid and semi-arid regions (Table1) and are found mainly in the arid and semi-arid Hindu-Kush Himalayan region Mongolia China Pakistan andIndia Animal production involves zero-grazing practicesand extensive systems that are associated with resource-

15Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Table 5 Proportion of poor livestock keepers within production system by region ()

Production Developing Sub-Saharan N Africa and South East and Latin Americasystem countries Africa Near East Asia S E Asia and Caribbean

Grassland-based systems 71 131 143 25 18 90Mixed rainfed systems 660 779 566 601 593 679Mixed irrigated systems 185 04 169 337 290 36Landless 84 85 121 37 99 195

Source Thornton et al 2002

poor nomads transhumants or agricultural labourers andseasonal migrants with small ruminants cattle andcamels The movements are annual cycles that aretriggered by reduced feed and water supplies inadequatemarket opportunities and loss-minimizing strategies(Devendra 1998) This is also a way of life for the poorand the ownership of animals enables survival and alsofood and financial security

Within Asia the largest numbers of poor people arefound in India The country has reduced absolute povertyfrom about 55 in the 1970s to about 35 today Thepercentage of rural poor out of the total poor is about79 as a consequence of which the major focus is on thisrural sector and ways to stimulate agricultural growth toovercome persistent poverty Associated with thissituation however are the very high infant mortalityrates a high percentage of infants not surviving to age 40years and underweight children under the age of fiveyears (Human Development Report 2001)

Role and contribution of animals

Animals play an important role in small farm systems andmake a number of valuable contributions They occupy animportant economic and ecological niche in these systemsthroughout Asia Animals are widely owned by smallfarmers for a variety of advantageous reasons (Devendra1983 Chantalakhana 1990)

bull diversification in the use of production resources andreduction of socioeconomic risks

bull promotion of linkages between system components(land crops and water)

bull generation of value-added products (eg meat milkeggs and skins)

bull income generation investment insurance andeconomic security

bull supply of draught power for crop cultivationtransportation and haulage operations

bull contribution to soil fertility through nutrient cycling(dung and urine)

bull prestige social and recreational valuesbull contribution to sustainable agriculture and environ-

mental protection andbull development of stable farm households

The role and contributions of animals in small farms arefar more varied and complex than in specializedcommercial farms due to the close and varied relation-ships with farm families interactions with crops socialvalues and prevailing agricultural systems The

multipurpose roles and contributions by animalsgenerally fall into four categories

(1) household benefits(2) increased productivity in integrated farming systems(3) sustainability of agricultural systems and environ-

mental integrity and(4) enhancement of rural and social stability

The many functions of animals are well known howeverthere are important additional features and implicationsconcerning the role of animals in small farms These are asfollows

First the irrigated areas are home to the majority ofswamp buffaloes some cattle pigs and poultry and theperi-urban and urban areas have the bulk of the landlessindustrial pig and poultry production systems Outside ofthese areas and within the rainfed lowlands and uplands51ndash55 of the total population of cattle and smallruminants in Asia is kept (TAC 1992) including smallerpopulations of native pigs and poultry In the lattersituation therefore the value of these species and theircontributions increase with the decreasing quality of theecosystem in the face of harsher biophysical factors Inthese circumstances the ownership of animals is vitalfor survival financial (lsquobanks on hoovesrsquo) and foodsecurity production of dung to sustain cropproduction and enhancement of the natural resourcebase

Second the interactions with the environment inrainfed environments are much more serious such as inovergrazing lsquoslash and burnrsquo issues and depletion anddegradation of the natural resources Improvedproduction systems that involve controlled managementof grazing animals are therefore vital to maintain environ-mental integrity

Third the presence of a relatively large proportion ofruminant animals in the rainfed areas clearly implies aneed for their development and for an emphasis on theseareas A focus on improved animal production systems istherefore a most important prerequisite for promotingtotal factor productivity in these same areas

A fundamental prerequisite for developing andincreasing productivity from animals in the rainfedareas promoting efficient natural resource managementand protection of the environment is the need toconsider research and development in holistic terms Aholistic approach backed by systems perspectives isvital for dealing with the numerous positive andnegative interactions and heterogeneity of small farmsystems

16 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Strategy for developing small farms address-ing major constraints and opportunities

The strategy for the development of small farms needs toaddress several issues and constraints in order to pursueopportunities for productivity enhancement These are asfollows

Institutional support for research and developmentThe first requirement is a belief in the potentialimportance and contribution of small farms and thereforetheir development in Asia in the future Institutionalcommitment support for and a reorientation of researchand development philosophy and recognition of thecomplexity of the issues involved are fundamental to thisendeavour An agenda for research and developmentprerogatives is required that includes the following

bull programme focus and target AEZsbull a clear set of objectivesbull prioritization of effort for multidisciplinary and partici-

patory approaches that respond to the needs of smallfarmers

bull linkages with development agents and the privatesector

bull a time framebull potential biological and socioeconomic benefits and

impacts andbull potential lsquospilloversrsquo to other locations and regions

(Alston 2002) including trans-regionally

Without these considerations much needed improve-ments in the productivity of small farms and livelihoodsof small farmers are unlikely to be achieved

Natural resource managementUnderstanding the natural resource base is essential forits effective management and to optimize productionNRM involves the components (land crops animals andwater) as well as their synergies the interactions of thecomponents and their positive and negativeimplications Associated aspects related to thistask include the following

bull importance of indigenous knowledge and traditionalmethods used by farmers to meet their objectives andneeds

bull biodiversitybull community-based NRM practicesbull integration of NRM components and production

systemsbull productivity-enhancing and needs-based technologiesbull issues of sustainability and sustainable development

andbull development of multidisciplinary models and partner-

ships that target the development of small farmsystems

The benefits of improved NRM technology applicationand opportunities for productivity enhancement are many(Devendra 2001) This is clearly reflected in a recentreview of the benefits of cropndashanimal interactions andattendant economic advantages from 31 studies in 11countries concerning small farms across a variety ofAEZs mixed farming systems various species of animals

and both annual and perennial crops in Asia (Devendra2007) The range of farming systems involved and moreparticularly the application of needs-based newtechnologies in individual countries demonstrate whatcan also be achieved in terms of the types and extent ofbenefits in small farms Effective NRM has necessarily tobe very much participatory and needs to build onindigenous knowledge and traditional systems The needfor trust reciprocity and connectedness in institutions inthe collective management and improvement of naturalresources is equally important and has been emphasized(Pretty 2003)

Targeting more effective NRM in small farms is there-fore urgent and is also justified by the following factors

bull the need for increased productivity in Asia with itsmassive human populations population growth rateand poor people

bull distinct opportunities for productivity enhancementbased on the knowledge already available

bull focusing more attention on the application of locallygenerated agricultural technologies and theirspillovers which will promote increased self-reliance

bull investments in productivity-enhancing research anddevelopment which are decreasing and difficult toobtain and

bull effective use of NRM which also has the advantage ofpreserving indigenous knowledge traditional systemsand biodiversity

Targeting research and development of rainfed areasThe rationale and justification for targeting the rainfedareas in Asia are related to three important reasonsinadequate availability of arable land the need to increaseproductivity from animals to match projected humanneeds and the alleviation of poverty (Devendra 2000a)The decreasing availability of arable land with humanpopulation increase is reflected in the projected decreasefrom between 017 and 10 haperson in 198890 tobetween 005 and 030 haperson by 2010 (FAO 1998)Inadequate arable land is associated with the followingreasons

bull demand for agricultural land to meet human needs eghousing recreation and industrialization

bull expansion of crop production to ceiling levelsbull increasing and very high animal densitiesbull increased urbanization and use of arable land andbull growing environmental concerns due to very intensive

crop production eg acidification and salinization withrice cultivation and human health risks due to expand-ing peri-urban poultry and pig production

Poverty is a major concern since the rainfed areas alsohave large populations of the poorest of the poor the vastmajority of whom live below the US$1day yardstick It isestimated that about 678 million of the rural poor keeplivestock in developing countries and this representstwo-thirds of the rural poor (Livestock in Development1999) The poverty dimension includes eight elements(IFAD 2001) material deprivation lack of assetsisolation alienation dependence lack of decision-makingpower vulnerability to external shocks and insecurity

These circumstances place much stress on the use of

17Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

natural resources and thus force a need to look beyondthe use of arable land in the irrigated areas and to focusmuch needed attention on the more difficult rainfed areasFor example rainfed lowland and upland areas areunderutilized This is reflected in the availability ofapproximately 141 times 106 ha of land or 43 of the totalarable land in Asia (TAC 1992)

The rainfed areas have been constrained by manyfactors such as roads and market access and hence havebeen relatively underutilized and also bypassed byresearch and development The development of ruralroads is especially significant and in China for exampleit has been shown that every yuan invested in low-qualityroads yielded five yuan of rural non-farm gross domesticproduct (GDP) Moreover low-quality roads raise morepeople out of poverty per yuan than high-quality roads(Fan and Chan-Kang 2005) Increased rural roads alsocontribute to market access Water is another constraintand without adequate irrigation systems rainfed areashave not been able to increase productivity and capacityThese constraints can however be overcome by increasedresearch and development attention technology deliveryand market-oriented production systems It is alsoimportant to note that in studies in India (Fan Hazell andThorat 2000) and China (Fan Zhang and Zhang 2000)the returns on investment are very much higher in theseareas compared with areas that have benefited from thegreen revolution

The strategy for the development of small farms musttherefore give priority to rainfed areas especially to thepotentially more important locations Within theseanimal production can strategically serve as the entrypoint to address food production pro-poor initiativescollective management and improvement of the naturalresources that are needs-led Interdisciplinary researchand development efforts that target AEZs serve to addressthe major constraints and opportunities

The systems approach and interdisciplinarityA notable and consistent weakness of the research anddevelopment process and programmes in most nationalagricultural systems concerned with animal production inAsia is the near absence of the use of the systemsapproach Much of the research continues along strongdisciplinary lines without reference to the needs of thesmall farm systems and the AEZs where they are found(Devendra 1996 2006) Despite the dominant emphasison mixed farming in Asia research on cropndashanimalsystems is seldom integrated and with rare exceptionsvery few institutions recognize the importance of trainingin systems research As a consequence the complex andinterrelated systems-based problems in cropndashanimalsystems are not addressed in holistic terms This tendencyexplains why improved productivity from animals insmall farm systems is slow to be realized To a very largeextent the same reasons also apply to the general neglectof the rainfed areas the inadequate productivity fromsmall farm systems therein and the contribution fromanimals

The systems approach requires multi-andinterdisciplinary interpretation of the differentcomponents of the system and biophysical environmentidentified through detailed analyses of the constraints

needs and opportunities These ensure that the individualcomponents interactions and contributions can focus onthe whole system Considering the complexities of smallfarm systems the heterogeneity of the biophysicalenvironment and the various types of mixed farmingactivities therein systems perspectives are therefore ofparamount importance in improving understanding anddevelopment of the increased contribution of these farms

The methodology for systems research is distinct andfollows several sequential steps

(1) site selection(2) site description and characterization (diagnosis)(3) planning of on-farm research(4) on-farm testing and validation of alternatives(5) dissemination of results and(6) impact assessment

The systems approach needs to be backed by otherimportant requirements

bull recognition of the importance of interdisciplinaryparticipatory approaches

bull formulation of research programmes that havecommunity-based participation to set a commonagenda and create ownership (this should involve bothproduction and post-production systems)

bull programmes that are needs-led and have institutionaland structural commitment

bull establishment of effective participatory planning inter-institutional coordination and collaboration researchmanagement dissemination of information andresolution of feedback issues

bull long-term commitment to achieving impacts andbull training in agricultural systems and systems

methodologies at various levels

Associated with these methodologies much more can alsobe done to improve the socioeconomic understanding ofthe rural landless poor This includes taking into accountinter alia their way of life and aspirations their seasonalmovements together with their moving flocks of camelscattle goats and sheep reasons for the choice and extentof animal ownership constraints to their livelihoods andloss-minimizing strategies These and the foregoing issuesjustify further research investments to improve thesituation

Feed resources and nutritionForemost among the constraints to animal producton arefeed resources and nutrition which constitute the majorconstraint throughout South-east Asia (Devendra et al1997) and South Asia (Devendra et al 2000) The strategyfor feed resource use needs to take cognizance of thefollowing interrelated issues (Devendra 2000b)

bull knowledge of the totality of available feeds (grassesand forages crop residues agro-industrial by-productsand non-conventional sources)

bull appropriateness and effective use within productionsystems

bull feeds and their use should be identified with farmingsystems and self-reliance and

bull potential promotion of linkages between rural andperi-urban areas in the use of production inputs

18 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

intensification nutrient flows and marketing ofproduce that is consistent with environmental integrity

Given the critical long dry seasons and feed shortages inthese environments together with the possibilities ofincreasing feed production to overcome the shortages thesynchronization of feed availability to match speciesrequirements along with methods of conservation aremajor opportunities An example of this approachincludes foodndashfeed cropping eg rice and mung beancassava and cowpea (Devendra Sevilla and Pezo 2001)forage production in rice bunds and under tree cropsalley cropping planting tree legumes such as Gliricidia orLeucaena for forage production and the use of multi-nutrient block licks (MNBL) Other options include thedevelopment and promotion of dual-purpose (seeds andforage) sorghum millet and groundnut with resistance tofoliar diseases and higher biomass yields in southernIndia (Blummel et al 2003) especially to support dairyproduction and reduced fallows The resolution ofconstraints can produce significant impacts on increasedper animal performance and improved livelihoods ofresource-poor farmers and can enhance existingproductivity gaps in these areas The final objective ofthese improvements should be the development ofsustainable all-year-round feeding systems

Access to technologies and delivery systemsAccess to improved and appropriate technologies is amajor constraint with small farmers The problem isparticularly manifested among small farmers and smallfarms in the rainfed areas that have been bypassed by thegreen revolution These same areas are also often remoteand have poor communications resulting in furtherdifficulties For these and other reasons researchprogrammes have tended to ignore these situationsAssociated with access to improved technologies areweak delivery systems which do not facilitate effectivetechnology transfer and adoption to accelerateproductivity This is a major weakness in researchprogrammes that do not formulate and ensureparticipatory adaptive research and on-farm developmentactivities or strengthening of effective researchndashextensionlinkages to ensure maximum adoption

It is of interest to note that analyses of seven countrycase studies (Meinzen-Dick et al 2004) have shown thatthree main factors affected technology adoption

bull vulnerability ndash whether the technologies were expectedto increase or decrease peoplersquos vulnerability to loss ofincome bad health natural disasters and other factors

bull assets ndash whether farmers had the assets necessary fortechnology adoption ndash especially if they were poor and

bull institutions ndash whether institutions (such as agriculturalextension services government policies non-govern-mental organizations private sector gender rolesmarkets for inputs and outputs etc) encouraged ordiscouraged adoption and represented the interests ofpoor people

Markets and marketingSmall farmers have major problems coping with a rangeof difficulties in the face of the complexity and generalinefficiency of the prevailing marketing chains Foremost

among these is access to marketing and to the marketingchain At present inadequate access to market outlets andweak marketing arrangements represent a majorconstraint to the production to consumption systems and tothe owners and producers of animals As a consequencesmall farmers are often denied compelling opportunitiesand economic benefits The market chain involves ruralperi-urban urban and international markets and a majorchallenge will lie in ways to link small farmers with thesemarkets and marketing systems

Rural markets are especially important to rural com-munities and their households and are also used for thesale of live animals for slaughter in the urban areas Inorder to provide good links between rural and urbanmarkets appropriate infrastructural and communicationfacilities must be in place in addition to collection andprocessing centres Without improved marketing andtransport systems the prevailing systems constitute majorconstraints to the sale of animals and products from smallfarms Because of the greater market demand for animalproducts in urban areas transport facilities becomeessential Urban markets are the outlets for exports andpromote international trade

Considerable opportunities exist for participation inthe international trade of meats in the Middle East regionTo compete in world markets however quality standardsprocessing and storage facilities become essentialAdditionally for the Muslim world and the huge marketsin the Middle East meeting lsquohalalrsquo standards is also vitalAssociated with international trade is the impact ofglobalization and the lowering of tariff and non-tariffbarriers involving opening up market opportunities forcountries on the one hand and on the other severecompetitiveness for low-cost products Efficientproduction post-production to consumption and market-ing systems are therefore crucial to maintain a sustainableand competitive position

Policy issues

A number of policy issues need to be resolved to supportthe future development of small farms and increasedcontributions from them Such policies will also besupportive of increased investments in their developmentas well as pro-poor initiatives For reasons of brevitythese will not be discussed in detail but are identifiedinter alia as follows

bull A first essential is affirmative development policy forimproved understanding of small farms currentsituation and trends and potential future contribu-tions

bull The aspirations of small farmers and the syndrome of apovertyndashadaptationndashfragile livesndashlittle hopendashlow lifeexpectancy complex will need new attention onaccount of globalization and their vulnerability Socio-economic research can make a major contribution here

bull Associated with the above is the role of animals as theentry point for development especially in the moredifficult rainfed environments outside of the irrigatedareas that have been bypassed by the green revolution

bull Research and development on the complexity andheterogeneity of small farm systems NRM and cropndash

19Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

soilndashanimal interactions must necessarily be inter-disciplinary and holistic At present knowledge ofsystems perspectives and adaptive research at the farmlevel are major limitations in most countries Theserepresent major and urgent training needs at thecollege and university levels

bull Animal production in small farm systems has to beseen in the broader context of productionndashpost-productionndashconsumption systems

bull Among the ruminant production systems integrationwith tree crops despite the economic benefits of addedvalue is still underestimated Policy interventions arerequired to stimulate the development of more inte-grated systems with animals for example through taxincentives and also to encourage increased privatesector investment

bull Policy is required to support micro-credit schemesaccess to markets and public services

bull The market chain involves rural urban and inter-national markets Rural markets are especiallyimportant to rural communities and for the sale of liveanimals for slaughter to urban areas At present theruralndashurban market linkages are weak and appropriatepolicies are required to provide improvements to thesecollection and processing centres as well asinfrastructural and communication facilities and toprovide links to international markets

Development pathways

Considered together the challenges for the future of smallfarms in Asia include the following inter alia

bull Based on constraint analyses through community-based participation there should be a focus on priorityneeds to improve animal production systems

bull Diversification should be improved through theappropriate mix of animals with annual or perennialcrops appropriate to mixed farming to intensify pro-duction in rainfed areas

bull Create increased access to information improvedtechnologies and delivery systems which canpotentially impact on total production increasessocioeconomic benefits improved livelihoods andsustainable development

bull Strengthen empowerment to include informal trainingat various levels gender equity and also effectivedissemination of information

bull Promote the formation of cooperatives farmer organi-zations focus groups and farmer-managed revolvingfunds to enhance decision making and resource plan-ning These enhance reduced transaction costs andimproved marketing to obtain better returns for theproduce The successful Anand model of IndiarsquoslsquoOperation Floodrsquo involved making farmersshareholders in the whole chain of marketing andprocessing milk and is worthy of note and emulation

bull Promote pro-poor initiatives that are consistent withincome growth socioeconomic benefits improvedlivelihoods and self-reliance

Cooperative development is largely dependent on thecapacity of farmers to be self-reliant so as to benefit fromeconomies of scale bargaining power competitiveness in

agribusiness as well as reduced market risksAgricultural cooperatives are very variable in Asia andthese remain to be more fully developed in manycountries In China for example cooperatives are verylimited and a nationwide need for their establishment toovercome natural and market risks has recently beensuggested (Chuanmin and Falla 2006) Fully developedcooperatives are dynamic contribute significantly to ruraldevelopment and can enable small farm systems torespond to market dictates and consumer needs

Conclusions

Small farm systems will remain an integral part of Asianagriculture and will continue to occupy a predominantposition in food production within an overwhelmingpanorama of varied agricultural activities in the variousAEZs These small farms are models of diversification inNRM and resilience They will continue to play animportant contributory role in the production of a highproportion of ruminant meats and milk in particular andin enhancing the natural resource base They will alsohelp alleviate poverty hunger and food insecurity for thesizeable populations of rural poor despite the threat ofincreasing globalization economies of scaleintensification and commercialization in the foreseeablefuture There are major constraints to their developmentof course but there are also compelling opportunities andeconomic benefits that involve community-based manage-ment of natural resources Social and effectivedevelopment policies are also needed that can togetherstimulate increased contributions from these farms to thefood chain ndash within an enabling economic environment ndashand can spur agricultural development

ReferencesAdams D and Coward E W (1972) Small Farmer Development

Strategies Agricultural Development Council New YorkAlston J (2002) lsquoSpilloversrsquo Australian Journal of Agricultural

Research and Resource Economics Vol 48 pp 315ndash336Blummel M Zerbini E Reddy B V S Hash C T Bidinger

F and Khan A A (2003) lsquoImproving the production andutilisation of sorghum and millet in livestock feed progresstowards dual-purpose genotypesrsquo Field Crops Research Vol 84pp 143ndash158

CGIARTAC ndash Consultative Group on International AgriculturalResearchTechnical Advisory Committee (2000) lsquoCGIARpriorities for marginal landsrsquo CGIAR Washingtion DC(mimeograph)

Chantalakhana C (1990) lsquoSmall farm animal production andsustainable agriculturersquo Proceedings III AsianndashAustralasianAnimal Science Congress 27 Mayndash1 June Taipei Taiwan Vol 2 pp39ndash58

Chantalakhana C and Skunmun P (2002) Sustainable Small-holder Animal Systems in the Tropics Kasetsart University PressBangkok

Chuanmin S and Falla J S (2006) lsquoAgro-industrialization acomparative study of China and developed countriesrsquo Outlookon Agriculture Vol 35 No 3 pp 177ndash182

Delgado C Rosegrant M Steinfeld H Ehui S and CourboisC (1999) lsquoLivestock to 2020 The next food revolutionrsquo FoodAgriculture and the Environment Discussion Paper No 28 Interna-tional Food Policy Research Institute Washington DC

Devendra C (1983) lsquoSmall farm systems combining crops andanimalsrsquo Proceedings of Fifth World Conference in AnimalProduction14ndash18 August Tokyo Japan Vol 1 pp 173ndash191

10 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Figure 3 A farmer with his mixed ownership of a Yellow cownative pigs and Yunnan black goats in Nanjian county Yunnanprovince ChinaPhoto copy C Devendra

Figure 4 A farmerrsquos wife and her children feeding nativepoultry in Thailand Small animals provide critical food andnutrition security for poor rural householdsPhoto copy C Devendra

landless agricultural labourers These individuals areessentially transhumants and nomads who move withtheir flocks of camels cattle goats and sheep in search offeed and water (Figure 5) For many of them it is a way oflife in which they practise a variety of loss-minimizingstrategies The ownership of animals provides securityand enables their survival in these less favoured environ-ments

Considering the various definitions and irrespective ofwhere the small farms are found there are a fewoverriding key descriptive words concerned with thelivelihoods of small farmers Up to the mid-1990s thesewere deprivation subsistence illiteracy survival and due toglobalization and the many externalities since then theadditional keyword is vulnerability

Figure 5 A landless nomad with his flock of sheep and goats onthe move in search of feed and water in Rajasthan IndiaPhoto copy C Devendra

Types of small farmsThere are three types of small farms in Asia

bull farms in irrigated agriculturebull farms in rainfed areas andbull farms in plantation agriculture

Irrespective of the type of farm mixed farming systems inwhich crops and animals are integrated on the same farmform the backbone of small farming systems in Asianagriculture Mixed farming systems are synonymous withcropndashanimal systems and are varied and integrated withannual and perennial cropping in various ways Bothruminants and non-ruminants are involved and thechoice of one or more species is dependent on theoverriding influence of preference market dictatespotential to generate income contribution to cropcultivation and livelihoods

In Asia mixed farming provides 90 of the milk 77of the ruminant meats 47 of pork and poultry meat and31 of the eggs The industrialized pig and poultryproduction systems in peri-urban areas produce the bulkof the meats and eggs Past growth trends suggest(Steinfeld 1998) that mixed farming systems grew half asfast (22 per year) compared with industrial systems(43 per year) and three times as fast as pastoralsystems (07 per year) The data suggest that ruminantproduction in mixed farming systems will continue to beimportant in the future In India smallholders reportedlycontributed over 40 of food grain production during1990ndash91 they owned the majority of livestock anddominated the dairy sector (Narayanan and Gulati 2002)The tremendous success of lsquoOperation Floodrsquo in dairy

11Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

development in India is due largely to the participation ofsmall farmers through the concerted efforts of theNational Dairy Development Board of lsquoOperation Floodrsquo

Two broad categories of mixed farming systems can beidentified

(1) systems combining animals and annual cropping inwhich there are two further subtypes

bull systems involving non-ruminants ponds and fisheg vegetablesndashpigsndashducksndashfish systems in Vietnamricendashmaizendashvegetablesndashsweet potatoesndashpigsndashdairycattle in China and

bull systems involving ruminants eg maizendashground-nutssoya beanndashgoats systems in Indonesiaricendashfinger milletndashricendashgoats in Nepal

(2) systems combining animals and perennial croppingin which there are again two subtypes

bull systems involving ruminants eg coconutsndashsheepintegration in the Philippines oil palmndashcattleintegration in Malaysia and

bull systems involving non-ruminants eg oil palmndashchickens integration in Malaysia

Farms in irrigated agriculture These are farms inessentially higher-quality or high-potential croplandwhere there is intensive crop cultivation mainly cereals(rice and wheat) and secondarily cash crops Cerealproduction is the predominant activity crop yields havereached ceiling yields in which some of the produce iskept for home consumption and the rest is sold forincome The irrigated areas were the ones that greatlybenefited from the lsquogreen revolutionrsquo in Asia between1975 and 1980 There were significant increases in percapita income and a decline in the number of peopleliving in poverty Increased productivity and prosperitybenefited the rice farmers but the higher agriculturalgrowth exacerbated poverty and food security among thepoor in rainfed areas The farmers here are generallyricher and have greater access to technology and services

The green revolution was supply-led and was fuelledat that time by several key factors sharply rising foodprices aims by governments to achieve self-sufficiency incereals massive irrigation schemes and several policiesto include fixed prices credit and subsidies most ofwhich were supported by national governments andinternational donors Since that time cereal yieldincreases have been declining as has expansion ofadditional land for intensive crop cultivation

In Malaysia detailed early surveys of 5274 farmhouseholds in the Muda irrigated rice-growing areaindicated that 87 of these were engaged in livestockkeeping Of these 894 owned chickens 471 ducks267 buffalo and cattle and 77 goats On averageeach household had between 13 and 15 birds

Animals are of lower importance compared with cropsbut are nevertheless quite common in small farm systemsAmong the animals large ruminants notably buffalo andcattle are common and are used to supply draughtpower for land cultivation and haulage operations andalso manure production Swamp buffalo in the rice-growing areas of South-east Asia are used for about80ndash100 days for ploughing In Thailand swamp buffalo

Figure 6 The rainfed lowland and upland continuum in LuangPrabang in LaosPhoto copy C Devendra

are used for 51ndash67 days (Chantalakhana and Skunmun2002) Small ruminants (goats and sheep) may or may notbe owned since the rice environment with its relativelyabundant water supplies is not very suitable for thespecies On the other hand pigs poultry and ducks arevery common here Ducks are especially suited to thisenvironment where they use the available feeds and post-harvest losses of rice to great advantage

Farms in rainfed areas These are farms that are outsidethe irrigated zones and are almost entirely dependent onrainfall for crop cultivation They include the rainfedlowlands and uplands in a continuum (Figure 6) Theland quality is very variable and as a consequence theseareas have been variously referred to as harsh fragilemarginal backward less favoured and low-potential In thispaper the term lsquorainfed areasrsquo will be used to embrace allthese terms

Table 1 provides information on the extent of therainfed areas (CGIARTAC 2000) In Asia rainfed areas(marginal + arid lands + forests and woodlands) accountfor 831 of agricultural lands compared with 166 offavoured land Marginal and arid lands alone constitute485 of the total area Additionally about 63 of therural population is found in the former compared withonly 37 in the favoured areas It is of interest to note inthis context that in 1993 in India 42 of the rural poorlived in low-potential rainfed areas 16 in irrigated

12 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Table 1 Distribution of land types by region

Land type ( of total land) Rural populationRegion Favoured Marginal Sparsely populated Forest and living in favoured

arid lands woodlands lands ()

Asia 166 300 185 346 370Latin America and Caribbean 96 203 81 619 340Sub-Saharan Africa 85 231 246 437 270Near East and North America 78 226 658 39 240Total (105 countries) 107 240 259 394 350

Source CGIARTAC 2000

areas and 42 in high-potential rainfed areas (Fan andHazell 2000)

It is important to stress that some of the rainfed areasare potentially very useful such as the lowland areasimmediately outside the irrigated zones In comparisonwith farms in the high-potential favoured or irrigatedareas that significantly benefited from various policysupport the rainfed areas were bypassed by the greenrevolution and had very limited access to the many policyissues and resource inputs of national governments Quitejustifiably therefore official support (similar to that of theirrigated areas) is now necessary to give greater emphasisto these regions With improved technologicalinterventions increased resource use and opportunitiesfor improved NRM and animal production these areascan produce more food in the future (Devendra 2000a)

The rainfed AEZs of relevance are as follows

bull rainfed temperate and tropical highlands ndash mainly theHindu-KushHimalayan region

bull rainfed humidsubhumid tropical systems ndash mainlycountries in Indo-China South-east and East Asia andthe Pacific Islands parts of South Asia to includeBangladesh and Sri Lanka and

bull rainfed aridsemi-arid tropical systems ndash mainlycountries in South Asia excluding Nepal and Bangla-desh

Among these rainfed humidsubhumid and rainfed aridsemi-arid tropical systems are priority AEZs Table 2 givessome indication of the household characteristicsbiophysical data and patterns of farming systems on fiverainfed locations in China Indonesia the PhilippinesThailand and Vietnam The average annual rainfall wasbetween 1500 and 2300 mm rice-based cropping systemswere common but this also included other annual cropsand tree crops Both ruminants and non-ruminants werereared and the presence of both animal and cropdiversity provided a variety of cropndashanimal interactions(Devendra and Thomas 2002) the effects of which onproductivity peoplersquos livelihoods and sustainableagriculture provide major opportunities for research anddevelopment activities The overriding major constraintwas the 5ndash7 months of dry periods There was a 10ndash25level of contribution by animals to total farm income(Devendra 2005)

A few countries for example China India andIndonesia have given priority to the development ofthese rainfed areas In China for example the north-

western region is given priority for the intensification ofagricultural production and creation of lsquoclimate-freersquoagriculture in the grasslands through irrigation fromunderground aquifers with the objective of making thearea a bread and -meal basket to meet Chinarsquos growingdemand for protein-rich diets However populationpressures on these grasslands have been increasing withresultant increased poverty rates degradation and duststorms (MEA 2005)

Farms in plantation agriculture These are farms thatare found within large plantations that usually involvetree crops such as coconuts citrus oil palm and rubberRelative land areas are therefore larger because of the treecrops These include government settlement schemes suchas the Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) inMalaysia and the transmigration schemes in SumatraIndonesia In the latter five hectares of land parcels areallocated to resettle people away from Java through themanagement of rubber-based agriculture and animalproduction The animals reared are beef cattle smallruminants and poultry

Integrated tree cropsndashruminants production systemsare underestimated in Asia These systems have muchpotential to promote effective NRM productivity gainsand sustainability In this context integration withcoconut systems in the Philippines (Figure 7) oil palm inMalaysia (Figure 8) and rubber in Indonesia are goodexamples

Size of holdings trends and contribution

The small size of farm holdings is one of the characteristicfeatures of Asian farming systems Nevertheless there isconsiderable variation between AEZs and countrieswhich is reflected in the various definitions used todescribe both small farms (Table 3) and small farmers

The size of farms varies from country to country butspecific attempts have been made to classify small farmsin which the yardstick of less than 2 ha has often beenused The classification of farms is also influenced by landquality In India for example small farmers marginalfarmers or agricultural labourers are those with 2ndash4 08ndash2and lt 08 ha of dryland respectively In the Philippinesand Thailand small farms have land sizes of 28 ha and12 ha respectively Using a definition of a small farm ashaving a land area less than 2 ha it has been reported thatan overwhelming majority (87) of the 470 million smallfarms worldwide is found in Asia (Nagayets 2005) It was

13Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Table 2 Some household attributes and biophysical characteristics in rainfed farming systems in five countries in South-east and EastAsia

Item Vietnam Thailand Indonesia Philippines China

Household attributesAverage farm size (ha) 259 plusmn 197 524 plusmn 274 055 plusmn 073 126 plusmn 045 027 plusmn 012Household size (persons) 494 plusmn 174 479 plusmn 208 446 plusmn 154 552 plusmn 233 473 plusmn 129Percentage of farms managed by women 284 316 42 300 260

Biophysical characteristicsLocation Dong Tam Amphur Muang Dangiang Don Montano Bixi Xiang

Bin Phuoc Mahasarakham Cilawu Garut Umingan NanjianPangasinan Yunnan

Mean annual rainfall (mm) 2170 1500 2200 2300 760Dry season (months) 6 6ndash7 5ndash6 6 7

Farming systemsPredominant cropndashanimal systems Rice-based Rice-based Rice-based cattle Rice-based beef Wheat

beef cattle dairy cattle fattening and cattle and goat maize-basedproduction production sheep raising production beef cattle

and goatsproduction

Predominant animal species1 BC Pi Po DC Pi Po BC Bu S G Fi BC Bu G Pi Po BC Bu GPi Po

Number of animals (TLUs)2 067 plusmn 169 734 plusmn 432 070 plusmn 078 226 plusmn 197 107 plusmn 073Main cropndashanimal interactions Crop residues Crop residues Crop residues Crop residues Crop

as feeds use as feed manure as feed manure as feed manure residues asof draught as fertilizer use as fertilizer as fertilizer feed manureanimals of draught as fertilizers

animals use ofdraughtanimals

Contribution of livestock to total income () 13 10ndash20 10ndash15 15ndash20 20ndash25

1 BC = beef cattle DC = dairy cattle Bu = buffaloes S = sheep G = goats Pi = pigs Po = poultry Fi = fish2 TLU = tropical livestock unit equivalent to a ruminant animal of 250 kg body weight Only ruminant species have been consideredfor its estimation according to the following equivalencies cattle and buffalo = 10 sheep and goats = 001 in all species mature male= 10 mature female = 075 growing animal = 05 pre-weaned animal = 025Source Devendra 2005

further estimated that China alone accounted for about402 of these farms followed by India (23) Theaverage farm size in Asia is reported to be 16 ha (vonBraun 2005) but the average size of small farms in mostcountries is much lower than this (Table 3) In Asia alsosome 527 of farms across many countries have lt10 hawith the smallest farm sizes of 03 ha being found in SriLanka 04 ha in Indonesia and 060 ha in Bangladesh InChina Chuanmin and Falla (2006) have recently reportedthat in the year 2000 the average farm size of over 241million farms was 057 ha

Of increasing concern is the trend towards decreasingfarm sizes in all countries due to the subdivision ofexisting land Table 4 gives an idea of this trend Withoutexception farm landholdings are decreasing and willcontinue to do so There are inadequate data on this trendwith specific reference to small farms in rainfed areas butthere is no doubt that the trend is also found in theseareas

There appear to be few data on the extent of thecontribution by small farms to food production especiallyby animals However remembering that mixed farmsystems are the predominant production systems in Asiaand that the bulk of the milk ruminant meats and a fairshare of non-ruminant meats and eggs come from thesesystems it follows that the contribution by small farms to

foods of animal origin is quite significant With crops it ispertinent to note from FAO (2005) data that with farms oflt 2 ha of land the proportion of cropland was 69 inBangladesh (1996ndash97) 58 in China (1997) and 36 inIndia (1995ndash96)

Small farms and poverty

The first of the eight Millennium Development Goalsconcerns poverty The objective is to eradicate extremepoverty and hunger by halving the proportion of peoplewhose income is less than US$1day and those who sufferfrom hunger (UN 2001) Small farm systems and espe-cially those in the harsher areas have a relatively largeproportion of poor people concentrated in them andaddressing both poverty and hunger are therefore closelylinked with improved productivity from these farms Theextremely poor own less land especially irrigated landand depend on subsistence agriculture for a large part oftheir income Data from Bangladesh indicate that povertyis correlated with the amount of land a householdcontrols (Human Development Report 2001) The severityof poverty and hunger appears to be associated with thesize of farms and Singh (2004) reported that in India theincidence of poverty and hunger among those farmerswhose landholdings were under 05 ha was 38 and 32

14 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Figure 7 Integration of sheep with coconut production in thePhilippinesPhoto copy C Devendra

Figure 8 Cattle integrated with oil palm in MalaysiaPhoto copy C Devendra

respectively With larger farms of more than 4 ha theincidence was reduced by 13 and 12 respectively

In the rural areas poverty is a rural dilemma The ruralpoor depend to a very large extent directly or indirectlyon the farm for at least four major objectives incomesbuilding assets food security and improved livelihoodsPro-poor development objectives therefore need to make aconcerted effort to address these objectives and thewidening gap between the lsquohavesrsquo in the high-potentialareas and the lsquohave-notsrsquo in the rainfed zones Develop-ment efforts and investment aid thus remain a majorchallenge for the development community since thealleviation of poverty and increased resourcefulness willinfluence increased productivity

These poor people are disadvantaged in a multitude ofways the elements of which consist of variousinterrelated issues inter alia including chronic hungermalnutrition and ill health inadequate or no access tomost amenities deprivation and despair These togetherresult in a continuing syndrome of a povertyndashadaptationndashfragile livesndashlittle hopendashlow life expectancy complex inwhich the potential to be fully participatory andproductive is significantly reduced Poor farmers long forand dream of dignity self-reliance and empowerment(Devendra and Chantalakhana 2002)

Table 5 presents the proportion of poor livestockkeepers by production system and region and severalobservations are relevant to this First across regionsmixed rainfed systems had the highest proportion of poor

Table 3 Variation in the size of small farms in some countries

Country Definition

Bangladesh (a) Subsistence farmerscroppers lt 04 ha(b) Viable and potentially viable owners 04ndash08 ha

India (a) Small farmers 2ndash4 ha of dry land (1 ha dry land = 08 ha of wetland)(b) Marginal farmers 08ndash2 ha of dry land(c) Agricultual labourers lt 08 ha of dry land

Indonesia (a) Java 066 ha(b) Average size 12 ha

Korea lt 1 haMalaysia (a) Rice faros 16ndash17 ha

(b) Rubber smallholdings 21 haNepal (a) Terai 4 bighas (25 ha)

(b) Hills 175 bighas (10 ha)Philippines Average size 28 haSri Lanka (a) Agricultural households 12 ha

(b) Rice-cultivating households 03 haThailand Non-canal-irrigated areas 24 ha

Source FAO 2001 2004

Table 4 Trends in the average size of farms in selectedcountries

Country Year Average farm size (ha)

China 1980 061990 041999 04

India 1971 231991 16

1995ndash96 14Indonesia 1973 11

1993 09Nepal 1992 10

2002 08Pakistan 1971ndash73 53

1989 382000 21

Philippines 1971 361991 22

Source FAO 2001 2004 data on China are from Fan and Chang-Kang 2003

livestock keepers Within these systems and withinregions South Asia and South-east and East Asiaaccounted for 59ndash60 of total poor livestock keepersMixed irrigated systems were the next highest with 29ndash337 The higher number of poor livestock keepers in themixed farming systems in rainfed areas is consistent withthe higher proportion of rural poor found in thecombined marginal arid lands forests and woodlands(Table 1)

About 14 of poor livestock keepers are in the landlesscategory mainly in the arid and semi-arid regions (Table1) and are found mainly in the arid and semi-arid Hindu-Kush Himalayan region Mongolia China Pakistan andIndia Animal production involves zero-grazing practicesand extensive systems that are associated with resource-

15Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Table 5 Proportion of poor livestock keepers within production system by region ()

Production Developing Sub-Saharan N Africa and South East and Latin Americasystem countries Africa Near East Asia S E Asia and Caribbean

Grassland-based systems 71 131 143 25 18 90Mixed rainfed systems 660 779 566 601 593 679Mixed irrigated systems 185 04 169 337 290 36Landless 84 85 121 37 99 195

Source Thornton et al 2002

poor nomads transhumants or agricultural labourers andseasonal migrants with small ruminants cattle andcamels The movements are annual cycles that aretriggered by reduced feed and water supplies inadequatemarket opportunities and loss-minimizing strategies(Devendra 1998) This is also a way of life for the poorand the ownership of animals enables survival and alsofood and financial security

Within Asia the largest numbers of poor people arefound in India The country has reduced absolute povertyfrom about 55 in the 1970s to about 35 today Thepercentage of rural poor out of the total poor is about79 as a consequence of which the major focus is on thisrural sector and ways to stimulate agricultural growth toovercome persistent poverty Associated with thissituation however are the very high infant mortalityrates a high percentage of infants not surviving to age 40years and underweight children under the age of fiveyears (Human Development Report 2001)

Role and contribution of animals

Animals play an important role in small farm systems andmake a number of valuable contributions They occupy animportant economic and ecological niche in these systemsthroughout Asia Animals are widely owned by smallfarmers for a variety of advantageous reasons (Devendra1983 Chantalakhana 1990)

bull diversification in the use of production resources andreduction of socioeconomic risks

bull promotion of linkages between system components(land crops and water)

bull generation of value-added products (eg meat milkeggs and skins)

bull income generation investment insurance andeconomic security

bull supply of draught power for crop cultivationtransportation and haulage operations

bull contribution to soil fertility through nutrient cycling(dung and urine)

bull prestige social and recreational valuesbull contribution to sustainable agriculture and environ-

mental protection andbull development of stable farm households

The role and contributions of animals in small farms arefar more varied and complex than in specializedcommercial farms due to the close and varied relation-ships with farm families interactions with crops socialvalues and prevailing agricultural systems The

multipurpose roles and contributions by animalsgenerally fall into four categories

(1) household benefits(2) increased productivity in integrated farming systems(3) sustainability of agricultural systems and environ-

mental integrity and(4) enhancement of rural and social stability

The many functions of animals are well known howeverthere are important additional features and implicationsconcerning the role of animals in small farms These are asfollows

First the irrigated areas are home to the majority ofswamp buffaloes some cattle pigs and poultry and theperi-urban and urban areas have the bulk of the landlessindustrial pig and poultry production systems Outside ofthese areas and within the rainfed lowlands and uplands51ndash55 of the total population of cattle and smallruminants in Asia is kept (TAC 1992) including smallerpopulations of native pigs and poultry In the lattersituation therefore the value of these species and theircontributions increase with the decreasing quality of theecosystem in the face of harsher biophysical factors Inthese circumstances the ownership of animals is vitalfor survival financial (lsquobanks on hoovesrsquo) and foodsecurity production of dung to sustain cropproduction and enhancement of the natural resourcebase

Second the interactions with the environment inrainfed environments are much more serious such as inovergrazing lsquoslash and burnrsquo issues and depletion anddegradation of the natural resources Improvedproduction systems that involve controlled managementof grazing animals are therefore vital to maintain environ-mental integrity

Third the presence of a relatively large proportion ofruminant animals in the rainfed areas clearly implies aneed for their development and for an emphasis on theseareas A focus on improved animal production systems istherefore a most important prerequisite for promotingtotal factor productivity in these same areas

A fundamental prerequisite for developing andincreasing productivity from animals in the rainfedareas promoting efficient natural resource managementand protection of the environment is the need toconsider research and development in holistic terms Aholistic approach backed by systems perspectives isvital for dealing with the numerous positive andnegative interactions and heterogeneity of small farmsystems

16 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Strategy for developing small farms address-ing major constraints and opportunities

The strategy for the development of small farms needs toaddress several issues and constraints in order to pursueopportunities for productivity enhancement These are asfollows

Institutional support for research and developmentThe first requirement is a belief in the potentialimportance and contribution of small farms and thereforetheir development in Asia in the future Institutionalcommitment support for and a reorientation of researchand development philosophy and recognition of thecomplexity of the issues involved are fundamental to thisendeavour An agenda for research and developmentprerogatives is required that includes the following

bull programme focus and target AEZsbull a clear set of objectivesbull prioritization of effort for multidisciplinary and partici-

patory approaches that respond to the needs of smallfarmers

bull linkages with development agents and the privatesector

bull a time framebull potential biological and socioeconomic benefits and

impacts andbull potential lsquospilloversrsquo to other locations and regions

(Alston 2002) including trans-regionally

Without these considerations much needed improve-ments in the productivity of small farms and livelihoodsof small farmers are unlikely to be achieved

Natural resource managementUnderstanding the natural resource base is essential forits effective management and to optimize productionNRM involves the components (land crops animals andwater) as well as their synergies the interactions of thecomponents and their positive and negativeimplications Associated aspects related to thistask include the following

bull importance of indigenous knowledge and traditionalmethods used by farmers to meet their objectives andneeds

bull biodiversitybull community-based NRM practicesbull integration of NRM components and production

systemsbull productivity-enhancing and needs-based technologiesbull issues of sustainability and sustainable development

andbull development of multidisciplinary models and partner-

ships that target the development of small farmsystems

The benefits of improved NRM technology applicationand opportunities for productivity enhancement are many(Devendra 2001) This is clearly reflected in a recentreview of the benefits of cropndashanimal interactions andattendant economic advantages from 31 studies in 11countries concerning small farms across a variety ofAEZs mixed farming systems various species of animals

and both annual and perennial crops in Asia (Devendra2007) The range of farming systems involved and moreparticularly the application of needs-based newtechnologies in individual countries demonstrate whatcan also be achieved in terms of the types and extent ofbenefits in small farms Effective NRM has necessarily tobe very much participatory and needs to build onindigenous knowledge and traditional systems The needfor trust reciprocity and connectedness in institutions inthe collective management and improvement of naturalresources is equally important and has been emphasized(Pretty 2003)

Targeting more effective NRM in small farms is there-fore urgent and is also justified by the following factors

bull the need for increased productivity in Asia with itsmassive human populations population growth rateand poor people

bull distinct opportunities for productivity enhancementbased on the knowledge already available

bull focusing more attention on the application of locallygenerated agricultural technologies and theirspillovers which will promote increased self-reliance

bull investments in productivity-enhancing research anddevelopment which are decreasing and difficult toobtain and

bull effective use of NRM which also has the advantage ofpreserving indigenous knowledge traditional systemsand biodiversity

Targeting research and development of rainfed areasThe rationale and justification for targeting the rainfedareas in Asia are related to three important reasonsinadequate availability of arable land the need to increaseproductivity from animals to match projected humanneeds and the alleviation of poverty (Devendra 2000a)The decreasing availability of arable land with humanpopulation increase is reflected in the projected decreasefrom between 017 and 10 haperson in 198890 tobetween 005 and 030 haperson by 2010 (FAO 1998)Inadequate arable land is associated with the followingreasons

bull demand for agricultural land to meet human needs eghousing recreation and industrialization

bull expansion of crop production to ceiling levelsbull increasing and very high animal densitiesbull increased urbanization and use of arable land andbull growing environmental concerns due to very intensive

crop production eg acidification and salinization withrice cultivation and human health risks due to expand-ing peri-urban poultry and pig production

Poverty is a major concern since the rainfed areas alsohave large populations of the poorest of the poor the vastmajority of whom live below the US$1day yardstick It isestimated that about 678 million of the rural poor keeplivestock in developing countries and this representstwo-thirds of the rural poor (Livestock in Development1999) The poverty dimension includes eight elements(IFAD 2001) material deprivation lack of assetsisolation alienation dependence lack of decision-makingpower vulnerability to external shocks and insecurity

These circumstances place much stress on the use of

17Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

natural resources and thus force a need to look beyondthe use of arable land in the irrigated areas and to focusmuch needed attention on the more difficult rainfed areasFor example rainfed lowland and upland areas areunderutilized This is reflected in the availability ofapproximately 141 times 106 ha of land or 43 of the totalarable land in Asia (TAC 1992)

The rainfed areas have been constrained by manyfactors such as roads and market access and hence havebeen relatively underutilized and also bypassed byresearch and development The development of ruralroads is especially significant and in China for exampleit has been shown that every yuan invested in low-qualityroads yielded five yuan of rural non-farm gross domesticproduct (GDP) Moreover low-quality roads raise morepeople out of poverty per yuan than high-quality roads(Fan and Chan-Kang 2005) Increased rural roads alsocontribute to market access Water is another constraintand without adequate irrigation systems rainfed areashave not been able to increase productivity and capacityThese constraints can however be overcome by increasedresearch and development attention technology deliveryand market-oriented production systems It is alsoimportant to note that in studies in India (Fan Hazell andThorat 2000) and China (Fan Zhang and Zhang 2000)the returns on investment are very much higher in theseareas compared with areas that have benefited from thegreen revolution

The strategy for the development of small farms musttherefore give priority to rainfed areas especially to thepotentially more important locations Within theseanimal production can strategically serve as the entrypoint to address food production pro-poor initiativescollective management and improvement of the naturalresources that are needs-led Interdisciplinary researchand development efforts that target AEZs serve to addressthe major constraints and opportunities

The systems approach and interdisciplinarityA notable and consistent weakness of the research anddevelopment process and programmes in most nationalagricultural systems concerned with animal production inAsia is the near absence of the use of the systemsapproach Much of the research continues along strongdisciplinary lines without reference to the needs of thesmall farm systems and the AEZs where they are found(Devendra 1996 2006) Despite the dominant emphasison mixed farming in Asia research on cropndashanimalsystems is seldom integrated and with rare exceptionsvery few institutions recognize the importance of trainingin systems research As a consequence the complex andinterrelated systems-based problems in cropndashanimalsystems are not addressed in holistic terms This tendencyexplains why improved productivity from animals insmall farm systems is slow to be realized To a very largeextent the same reasons also apply to the general neglectof the rainfed areas the inadequate productivity fromsmall farm systems therein and the contribution fromanimals

The systems approach requires multi-andinterdisciplinary interpretation of the differentcomponents of the system and biophysical environmentidentified through detailed analyses of the constraints

needs and opportunities These ensure that the individualcomponents interactions and contributions can focus onthe whole system Considering the complexities of smallfarm systems the heterogeneity of the biophysicalenvironment and the various types of mixed farmingactivities therein systems perspectives are therefore ofparamount importance in improving understanding anddevelopment of the increased contribution of these farms

The methodology for systems research is distinct andfollows several sequential steps

(1) site selection(2) site description and characterization (diagnosis)(3) planning of on-farm research(4) on-farm testing and validation of alternatives(5) dissemination of results and(6) impact assessment

The systems approach needs to be backed by otherimportant requirements

bull recognition of the importance of interdisciplinaryparticipatory approaches

bull formulation of research programmes that havecommunity-based participation to set a commonagenda and create ownership (this should involve bothproduction and post-production systems)

bull programmes that are needs-led and have institutionaland structural commitment

bull establishment of effective participatory planning inter-institutional coordination and collaboration researchmanagement dissemination of information andresolution of feedback issues

bull long-term commitment to achieving impacts andbull training in agricultural systems and systems

methodologies at various levels

Associated with these methodologies much more can alsobe done to improve the socioeconomic understanding ofthe rural landless poor This includes taking into accountinter alia their way of life and aspirations their seasonalmovements together with their moving flocks of camelscattle goats and sheep reasons for the choice and extentof animal ownership constraints to their livelihoods andloss-minimizing strategies These and the foregoing issuesjustify further research investments to improve thesituation

Feed resources and nutritionForemost among the constraints to animal producton arefeed resources and nutrition which constitute the majorconstraint throughout South-east Asia (Devendra et al1997) and South Asia (Devendra et al 2000) The strategyfor feed resource use needs to take cognizance of thefollowing interrelated issues (Devendra 2000b)

bull knowledge of the totality of available feeds (grassesand forages crop residues agro-industrial by-productsand non-conventional sources)

bull appropriateness and effective use within productionsystems

bull feeds and their use should be identified with farmingsystems and self-reliance and

bull potential promotion of linkages between rural andperi-urban areas in the use of production inputs

18 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

intensification nutrient flows and marketing ofproduce that is consistent with environmental integrity

Given the critical long dry seasons and feed shortages inthese environments together with the possibilities ofincreasing feed production to overcome the shortages thesynchronization of feed availability to match speciesrequirements along with methods of conservation aremajor opportunities An example of this approachincludes foodndashfeed cropping eg rice and mung beancassava and cowpea (Devendra Sevilla and Pezo 2001)forage production in rice bunds and under tree cropsalley cropping planting tree legumes such as Gliricidia orLeucaena for forage production and the use of multi-nutrient block licks (MNBL) Other options include thedevelopment and promotion of dual-purpose (seeds andforage) sorghum millet and groundnut with resistance tofoliar diseases and higher biomass yields in southernIndia (Blummel et al 2003) especially to support dairyproduction and reduced fallows The resolution ofconstraints can produce significant impacts on increasedper animal performance and improved livelihoods ofresource-poor farmers and can enhance existingproductivity gaps in these areas The final objective ofthese improvements should be the development ofsustainable all-year-round feeding systems

Access to technologies and delivery systemsAccess to improved and appropriate technologies is amajor constraint with small farmers The problem isparticularly manifested among small farmers and smallfarms in the rainfed areas that have been bypassed by thegreen revolution These same areas are also often remoteand have poor communications resulting in furtherdifficulties For these and other reasons researchprogrammes have tended to ignore these situationsAssociated with access to improved technologies areweak delivery systems which do not facilitate effectivetechnology transfer and adoption to accelerateproductivity This is a major weakness in researchprogrammes that do not formulate and ensureparticipatory adaptive research and on-farm developmentactivities or strengthening of effective researchndashextensionlinkages to ensure maximum adoption

It is of interest to note that analyses of seven countrycase studies (Meinzen-Dick et al 2004) have shown thatthree main factors affected technology adoption

bull vulnerability ndash whether the technologies were expectedto increase or decrease peoplersquos vulnerability to loss ofincome bad health natural disasters and other factors

bull assets ndash whether farmers had the assets necessary fortechnology adoption ndash especially if they were poor and

bull institutions ndash whether institutions (such as agriculturalextension services government policies non-govern-mental organizations private sector gender rolesmarkets for inputs and outputs etc) encouraged ordiscouraged adoption and represented the interests ofpoor people

Markets and marketingSmall farmers have major problems coping with a rangeof difficulties in the face of the complexity and generalinefficiency of the prevailing marketing chains Foremost

among these is access to marketing and to the marketingchain At present inadequate access to market outlets andweak marketing arrangements represent a majorconstraint to the production to consumption systems and tothe owners and producers of animals As a consequencesmall farmers are often denied compelling opportunitiesand economic benefits The market chain involves ruralperi-urban urban and international markets and a majorchallenge will lie in ways to link small farmers with thesemarkets and marketing systems

Rural markets are especially important to rural com-munities and their households and are also used for thesale of live animals for slaughter in the urban areas Inorder to provide good links between rural and urbanmarkets appropriate infrastructural and communicationfacilities must be in place in addition to collection andprocessing centres Without improved marketing andtransport systems the prevailing systems constitute majorconstraints to the sale of animals and products from smallfarms Because of the greater market demand for animalproducts in urban areas transport facilities becomeessential Urban markets are the outlets for exports andpromote international trade

Considerable opportunities exist for participation inthe international trade of meats in the Middle East regionTo compete in world markets however quality standardsprocessing and storage facilities become essentialAdditionally for the Muslim world and the huge marketsin the Middle East meeting lsquohalalrsquo standards is also vitalAssociated with international trade is the impact ofglobalization and the lowering of tariff and non-tariffbarriers involving opening up market opportunities forcountries on the one hand and on the other severecompetitiveness for low-cost products Efficientproduction post-production to consumption and market-ing systems are therefore crucial to maintain a sustainableand competitive position

Policy issues

A number of policy issues need to be resolved to supportthe future development of small farms and increasedcontributions from them Such policies will also besupportive of increased investments in their developmentas well as pro-poor initiatives For reasons of brevitythese will not be discussed in detail but are identifiedinter alia as follows

bull A first essential is affirmative development policy forimproved understanding of small farms currentsituation and trends and potential future contribu-tions

bull The aspirations of small farmers and the syndrome of apovertyndashadaptationndashfragile livesndashlittle hopendashlow lifeexpectancy complex will need new attention onaccount of globalization and their vulnerability Socio-economic research can make a major contribution here

bull Associated with the above is the role of animals as theentry point for development especially in the moredifficult rainfed environments outside of the irrigatedareas that have been bypassed by the green revolution

bull Research and development on the complexity andheterogeneity of small farm systems NRM and cropndash

19Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

soilndashanimal interactions must necessarily be inter-disciplinary and holistic At present knowledge ofsystems perspectives and adaptive research at the farmlevel are major limitations in most countries Theserepresent major and urgent training needs at thecollege and university levels

bull Animal production in small farm systems has to beseen in the broader context of productionndashpost-productionndashconsumption systems

bull Among the ruminant production systems integrationwith tree crops despite the economic benefits of addedvalue is still underestimated Policy interventions arerequired to stimulate the development of more inte-grated systems with animals for example through taxincentives and also to encourage increased privatesector investment

bull Policy is required to support micro-credit schemesaccess to markets and public services

bull The market chain involves rural urban and inter-national markets Rural markets are especiallyimportant to rural communities and for the sale of liveanimals for slaughter to urban areas At present theruralndashurban market linkages are weak and appropriatepolicies are required to provide improvements to thesecollection and processing centres as well asinfrastructural and communication facilities and toprovide links to international markets

Development pathways

Considered together the challenges for the future of smallfarms in Asia include the following inter alia

bull Based on constraint analyses through community-based participation there should be a focus on priorityneeds to improve animal production systems

bull Diversification should be improved through theappropriate mix of animals with annual or perennialcrops appropriate to mixed farming to intensify pro-duction in rainfed areas

bull Create increased access to information improvedtechnologies and delivery systems which canpotentially impact on total production increasessocioeconomic benefits improved livelihoods andsustainable development

bull Strengthen empowerment to include informal trainingat various levels gender equity and also effectivedissemination of information

bull Promote the formation of cooperatives farmer organi-zations focus groups and farmer-managed revolvingfunds to enhance decision making and resource plan-ning These enhance reduced transaction costs andimproved marketing to obtain better returns for theproduce The successful Anand model of IndiarsquoslsquoOperation Floodrsquo involved making farmersshareholders in the whole chain of marketing andprocessing milk and is worthy of note and emulation

bull Promote pro-poor initiatives that are consistent withincome growth socioeconomic benefits improvedlivelihoods and self-reliance

Cooperative development is largely dependent on thecapacity of farmers to be self-reliant so as to benefit fromeconomies of scale bargaining power competitiveness in

agribusiness as well as reduced market risksAgricultural cooperatives are very variable in Asia andthese remain to be more fully developed in manycountries In China for example cooperatives are verylimited and a nationwide need for their establishment toovercome natural and market risks has recently beensuggested (Chuanmin and Falla 2006) Fully developedcooperatives are dynamic contribute significantly to ruraldevelopment and can enable small farm systems torespond to market dictates and consumer needs

Conclusions

Small farm systems will remain an integral part of Asianagriculture and will continue to occupy a predominantposition in food production within an overwhelmingpanorama of varied agricultural activities in the variousAEZs These small farms are models of diversification inNRM and resilience They will continue to play animportant contributory role in the production of a highproportion of ruminant meats and milk in particular andin enhancing the natural resource base They will alsohelp alleviate poverty hunger and food insecurity for thesizeable populations of rural poor despite the threat ofincreasing globalization economies of scaleintensification and commercialization in the foreseeablefuture There are major constraints to their developmentof course but there are also compelling opportunities andeconomic benefits that involve community-based manage-ment of natural resources Social and effectivedevelopment policies are also needed that can togetherstimulate increased contributions from these farms to thefood chain ndash within an enabling economic environment ndashand can spur agricultural development

ReferencesAdams D and Coward E W (1972) Small Farmer Development

Strategies Agricultural Development Council New YorkAlston J (2002) lsquoSpilloversrsquo Australian Journal of Agricultural

Research and Resource Economics Vol 48 pp 315ndash336Blummel M Zerbini E Reddy B V S Hash C T Bidinger

F and Khan A A (2003) lsquoImproving the production andutilisation of sorghum and millet in livestock feed progresstowards dual-purpose genotypesrsquo Field Crops Research Vol 84pp 143ndash158

CGIARTAC ndash Consultative Group on International AgriculturalResearchTechnical Advisory Committee (2000) lsquoCGIARpriorities for marginal landsrsquo CGIAR Washingtion DC(mimeograph)

Chantalakhana C (1990) lsquoSmall farm animal production andsustainable agriculturersquo Proceedings III AsianndashAustralasianAnimal Science Congress 27 Mayndash1 June Taipei Taiwan Vol 2 pp39ndash58

Chantalakhana C and Skunmun P (2002) Sustainable Small-holder Animal Systems in the Tropics Kasetsart University PressBangkok

Chuanmin S and Falla J S (2006) lsquoAgro-industrialization acomparative study of China and developed countriesrsquo Outlookon Agriculture Vol 35 No 3 pp 177ndash182

Delgado C Rosegrant M Steinfeld H Ehui S and CourboisC (1999) lsquoLivestock to 2020 The next food revolutionrsquo FoodAgriculture and the Environment Discussion Paper No 28 Interna-tional Food Policy Research Institute Washington DC

Devendra C (1983) lsquoSmall farm systems combining crops andanimalsrsquo Proceedings of Fifth World Conference in AnimalProduction14ndash18 August Tokyo Japan Vol 1 pp 173ndash191

11Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

development in India is due largely to the participation ofsmall farmers through the concerted efforts of theNational Dairy Development Board of lsquoOperation Floodrsquo

Two broad categories of mixed farming systems can beidentified

(1) systems combining animals and annual cropping inwhich there are two further subtypes

bull systems involving non-ruminants ponds and fisheg vegetablesndashpigsndashducksndashfish systems in Vietnamricendashmaizendashvegetablesndashsweet potatoesndashpigsndashdairycattle in China and

bull systems involving ruminants eg maizendashground-nutssoya beanndashgoats systems in Indonesiaricendashfinger milletndashricendashgoats in Nepal

(2) systems combining animals and perennial croppingin which there are again two subtypes

bull systems involving ruminants eg coconutsndashsheepintegration in the Philippines oil palmndashcattleintegration in Malaysia and

bull systems involving non-ruminants eg oil palmndashchickens integration in Malaysia

Farms in irrigated agriculture These are farms inessentially higher-quality or high-potential croplandwhere there is intensive crop cultivation mainly cereals(rice and wheat) and secondarily cash crops Cerealproduction is the predominant activity crop yields havereached ceiling yields in which some of the produce iskept for home consumption and the rest is sold forincome The irrigated areas were the ones that greatlybenefited from the lsquogreen revolutionrsquo in Asia between1975 and 1980 There were significant increases in percapita income and a decline in the number of peopleliving in poverty Increased productivity and prosperitybenefited the rice farmers but the higher agriculturalgrowth exacerbated poverty and food security among thepoor in rainfed areas The farmers here are generallyricher and have greater access to technology and services

The green revolution was supply-led and was fuelledat that time by several key factors sharply rising foodprices aims by governments to achieve self-sufficiency incereals massive irrigation schemes and several policiesto include fixed prices credit and subsidies most ofwhich were supported by national governments andinternational donors Since that time cereal yieldincreases have been declining as has expansion ofadditional land for intensive crop cultivation

In Malaysia detailed early surveys of 5274 farmhouseholds in the Muda irrigated rice-growing areaindicated that 87 of these were engaged in livestockkeeping Of these 894 owned chickens 471 ducks267 buffalo and cattle and 77 goats On averageeach household had between 13 and 15 birds

Animals are of lower importance compared with cropsbut are nevertheless quite common in small farm systemsAmong the animals large ruminants notably buffalo andcattle are common and are used to supply draughtpower for land cultivation and haulage operations andalso manure production Swamp buffalo in the rice-growing areas of South-east Asia are used for about80ndash100 days for ploughing In Thailand swamp buffalo

Figure 6 The rainfed lowland and upland continuum in LuangPrabang in LaosPhoto copy C Devendra

are used for 51ndash67 days (Chantalakhana and Skunmun2002) Small ruminants (goats and sheep) may or may notbe owned since the rice environment with its relativelyabundant water supplies is not very suitable for thespecies On the other hand pigs poultry and ducks arevery common here Ducks are especially suited to thisenvironment where they use the available feeds and post-harvest losses of rice to great advantage

Farms in rainfed areas These are farms that are outsidethe irrigated zones and are almost entirely dependent onrainfall for crop cultivation They include the rainfedlowlands and uplands in a continuum (Figure 6) Theland quality is very variable and as a consequence theseareas have been variously referred to as harsh fragilemarginal backward less favoured and low-potential In thispaper the term lsquorainfed areasrsquo will be used to embrace allthese terms

Table 1 provides information on the extent of therainfed areas (CGIARTAC 2000) In Asia rainfed areas(marginal + arid lands + forests and woodlands) accountfor 831 of agricultural lands compared with 166 offavoured land Marginal and arid lands alone constitute485 of the total area Additionally about 63 of therural population is found in the former compared withonly 37 in the favoured areas It is of interest to note inthis context that in 1993 in India 42 of the rural poorlived in low-potential rainfed areas 16 in irrigated

12 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Table 1 Distribution of land types by region

Land type ( of total land) Rural populationRegion Favoured Marginal Sparsely populated Forest and living in favoured

arid lands woodlands lands ()

Asia 166 300 185 346 370Latin America and Caribbean 96 203 81 619 340Sub-Saharan Africa 85 231 246 437 270Near East and North America 78 226 658 39 240Total (105 countries) 107 240 259 394 350

Source CGIARTAC 2000

areas and 42 in high-potential rainfed areas (Fan andHazell 2000)

It is important to stress that some of the rainfed areasare potentially very useful such as the lowland areasimmediately outside the irrigated zones In comparisonwith farms in the high-potential favoured or irrigatedareas that significantly benefited from various policysupport the rainfed areas were bypassed by the greenrevolution and had very limited access to the many policyissues and resource inputs of national governments Quitejustifiably therefore official support (similar to that of theirrigated areas) is now necessary to give greater emphasisto these regions With improved technologicalinterventions increased resource use and opportunitiesfor improved NRM and animal production these areascan produce more food in the future (Devendra 2000a)

The rainfed AEZs of relevance are as follows

bull rainfed temperate and tropical highlands ndash mainly theHindu-KushHimalayan region

bull rainfed humidsubhumid tropical systems ndash mainlycountries in Indo-China South-east and East Asia andthe Pacific Islands parts of South Asia to includeBangladesh and Sri Lanka and

bull rainfed aridsemi-arid tropical systems ndash mainlycountries in South Asia excluding Nepal and Bangla-desh

Among these rainfed humidsubhumid and rainfed aridsemi-arid tropical systems are priority AEZs Table 2 givessome indication of the household characteristicsbiophysical data and patterns of farming systems on fiverainfed locations in China Indonesia the PhilippinesThailand and Vietnam The average annual rainfall wasbetween 1500 and 2300 mm rice-based cropping systemswere common but this also included other annual cropsand tree crops Both ruminants and non-ruminants werereared and the presence of both animal and cropdiversity provided a variety of cropndashanimal interactions(Devendra and Thomas 2002) the effects of which onproductivity peoplersquos livelihoods and sustainableagriculture provide major opportunities for research anddevelopment activities The overriding major constraintwas the 5ndash7 months of dry periods There was a 10ndash25level of contribution by animals to total farm income(Devendra 2005)

A few countries for example China India andIndonesia have given priority to the development ofthese rainfed areas In China for example the north-

western region is given priority for the intensification ofagricultural production and creation of lsquoclimate-freersquoagriculture in the grasslands through irrigation fromunderground aquifers with the objective of making thearea a bread and -meal basket to meet Chinarsquos growingdemand for protein-rich diets However populationpressures on these grasslands have been increasing withresultant increased poverty rates degradation and duststorms (MEA 2005)

Farms in plantation agriculture These are farms thatare found within large plantations that usually involvetree crops such as coconuts citrus oil palm and rubberRelative land areas are therefore larger because of the treecrops These include government settlement schemes suchas the Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) inMalaysia and the transmigration schemes in SumatraIndonesia In the latter five hectares of land parcels areallocated to resettle people away from Java through themanagement of rubber-based agriculture and animalproduction The animals reared are beef cattle smallruminants and poultry

Integrated tree cropsndashruminants production systemsare underestimated in Asia These systems have muchpotential to promote effective NRM productivity gainsand sustainability In this context integration withcoconut systems in the Philippines (Figure 7) oil palm inMalaysia (Figure 8) and rubber in Indonesia are goodexamples

Size of holdings trends and contribution

The small size of farm holdings is one of the characteristicfeatures of Asian farming systems Nevertheless there isconsiderable variation between AEZs and countrieswhich is reflected in the various definitions used todescribe both small farms (Table 3) and small farmers

The size of farms varies from country to country butspecific attempts have been made to classify small farmsin which the yardstick of less than 2 ha has often beenused The classification of farms is also influenced by landquality In India for example small farmers marginalfarmers or agricultural labourers are those with 2ndash4 08ndash2and lt 08 ha of dryland respectively In the Philippinesand Thailand small farms have land sizes of 28 ha and12 ha respectively Using a definition of a small farm ashaving a land area less than 2 ha it has been reported thatan overwhelming majority (87) of the 470 million smallfarms worldwide is found in Asia (Nagayets 2005) It was

13Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Table 2 Some household attributes and biophysical characteristics in rainfed farming systems in five countries in South-east and EastAsia

Item Vietnam Thailand Indonesia Philippines China

Household attributesAverage farm size (ha) 259 plusmn 197 524 plusmn 274 055 plusmn 073 126 plusmn 045 027 plusmn 012Household size (persons) 494 plusmn 174 479 plusmn 208 446 plusmn 154 552 plusmn 233 473 plusmn 129Percentage of farms managed by women 284 316 42 300 260

Biophysical characteristicsLocation Dong Tam Amphur Muang Dangiang Don Montano Bixi Xiang

Bin Phuoc Mahasarakham Cilawu Garut Umingan NanjianPangasinan Yunnan

Mean annual rainfall (mm) 2170 1500 2200 2300 760Dry season (months) 6 6ndash7 5ndash6 6 7

Farming systemsPredominant cropndashanimal systems Rice-based Rice-based Rice-based cattle Rice-based beef Wheat

beef cattle dairy cattle fattening and cattle and goat maize-basedproduction production sheep raising production beef cattle

and goatsproduction

Predominant animal species1 BC Pi Po DC Pi Po BC Bu S G Fi BC Bu G Pi Po BC Bu GPi Po

Number of animals (TLUs)2 067 plusmn 169 734 plusmn 432 070 plusmn 078 226 plusmn 197 107 plusmn 073Main cropndashanimal interactions Crop residues Crop residues Crop residues Crop residues Crop

as feeds use as feed manure as feed manure as feed manure residues asof draught as fertilizer use as fertilizer as fertilizer feed manureanimals of draught as fertilizers

animals use ofdraughtanimals

Contribution of livestock to total income () 13 10ndash20 10ndash15 15ndash20 20ndash25

1 BC = beef cattle DC = dairy cattle Bu = buffaloes S = sheep G = goats Pi = pigs Po = poultry Fi = fish2 TLU = tropical livestock unit equivalent to a ruminant animal of 250 kg body weight Only ruminant species have been consideredfor its estimation according to the following equivalencies cattle and buffalo = 10 sheep and goats = 001 in all species mature male= 10 mature female = 075 growing animal = 05 pre-weaned animal = 025Source Devendra 2005

further estimated that China alone accounted for about402 of these farms followed by India (23) Theaverage farm size in Asia is reported to be 16 ha (vonBraun 2005) but the average size of small farms in mostcountries is much lower than this (Table 3) In Asia alsosome 527 of farms across many countries have lt10 hawith the smallest farm sizes of 03 ha being found in SriLanka 04 ha in Indonesia and 060 ha in Bangladesh InChina Chuanmin and Falla (2006) have recently reportedthat in the year 2000 the average farm size of over 241million farms was 057 ha

Of increasing concern is the trend towards decreasingfarm sizes in all countries due to the subdivision ofexisting land Table 4 gives an idea of this trend Withoutexception farm landholdings are decreasing and willcontinue to do so There are inadequate data on this trendwith specific reference to small farms in rainfed areas butthere is no doubt that the trend is also found in theseareas

There appear to be few data on the extent of thecontribution by small farms to food production especiallyby animals However remembering that mixed farmsystems are the predominant production systems in Asiaand that the bulk of the milk ruminant meats and a fairshare of non-ruminant meats and eggs come from thesesystems it follows that the contribution by small farms to

foods of animal origin is quite significant With crops it ispertinent to note from FAO (2005) data that with farms oflt 2 ha of land the proportion of cropland was 69 inBangladesh (1996ndash97) 58 in China (1997) and 36 inIndia (1995ndash96)

Small farms and poverty

The first of the eight Millennium Development Goalsconcerns poverty The objective is to eradicate extremepoverty and hunger by halving the proportion of peoplewhose income is less than US$1day and those who sufferfrom hunger (UN 2001) Small farm systems and espe-cially those in the harsher areas have a relatively largeproportion of poor people concentrated in them andaddressing both poverty and hunger are therefore closelylinked with improved productivity from these farms Theextremely poor own less land especially irrigated landand depend on subsistence agriculture for a large part oftheir income Data from Bangladesh indicate that povertyis correlated with the amount of land a householdcontrols (Human Development Report 2001) The severityof poverty and hunger appears to be associated with thesize of farms and Singh (2004) reported that in India theincidence of poverty and hunger among those farmerswhose landholdings were under 05 ha was 38 and 32

14 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Figure 7 Integration of sheep with coconut production in thePhilippinesPhoto copy C Devendra

Figure 8 Cattle integrated with oil palm in MalaysiaPhoto copy C Devendra

respectively With larger farms of more than 4 ha theincidence was reduced by 13 and 12 respectively

In the rural areas poverty is a rural dilemma The ruralpoor depend to a very large extent directly or indirectlyon the farm for at least four major objectives incomesbuilding assets food security and improved livelihoodsPro-poor development objectives therefore need to make aconcerted effort to address these objectives and thewidening gap between the lsquohavesrsquo in the high-potentialareas and the lsquohave-notsrsquo in the rainfed zones Develop-ment efforts and investment aid thus remain a majorchallenge for the development community since thealleviation of poverty and increased resourcefulness willinfluence increased productivity

These poor people are disadvantaged in a multitude ofways the elements of which consist of variousinterrelated issues inter alia including chronic hungermalnutrition and ill health inadequate or no access tomost amenities deprivation and despair These togetherresult in a continuing syndrome of a povertyndashadaptationndashfragile livesndashlittle hopendashlow life expectancy complex inwhich the potential to be fully participatory andproductive is significantly reduced Poor farmers long forand dream of dignity self-reliance and empowerment(Devendra and Chantalakhana 2002)

Table 5 presents the proportion of poor livestockkeepers by production system and region and severalobservations are relevant to this First across regionsmixed rainfed systems had the highest proportion of poor

Table 3 Variation in the size of small farms in some countries

Country Definition

Bangladesh (a) Subsistence farmerscroppers lt 04 ha(b) Viable and potentially viable owners 04ndash08 ha

India (a) Small farmers 2ndash4 ha of dry land (1 ha dry land = 08 ha of wetland)(b) Marginal farmers 08ndash2 ha of dry land(c) Agricultual labourers lt 08 ha of dry land

Indonesia (a) Java 066 ha(b) Average size 12 ha

Korea lt 1 haMalaysia (a) Rice faros 16ndash17 ha

(b) Rubber smallholdings 21 haNepal (a) Terai 4 bighas (25 ha)

(b) Hills 175 bighas (10 ha)Philippines Average size 28 haSri Lanka (a) Agricultural households 12 ha

(b) Rice-cultivating households 03 haThailand Non-canal-irrigated areas 24 ha

Source FAO 2001 2004

Table 4 Trends in the average size of farms in selectedcountries

Country Year Average farm size (ha)

China 1980 061990 041999 04

India 1971 231991 16

1995ndash96 14Indonesia 1973 11

1993 09Nepal 1992 10

2002 08Pakistan 1971ndash73 53

1989 382000 21

Philippines 1971 361991 22

Source FAO 2001 2004 data on China are from Fan and Chang-Kang 2003

livestock keepers Within these systems and withinregions South Asia and South-east and East Asiaaccounted for 59ndash60 of total poor livestock keepersMixed irrigated systems were the next highest with 29ndash337 The higher number of poor livestock keepers in themixed farming systems in rainfed areas is consistent withthe higher proportion of rural poor found in thecombined marginal arid lands forests and woodlands(Table 1)

About 14 of poor livestock keepers are in the landlesscategory mainly in the arid and semi-arid regions (Table1) and are found mainly in the arid and semi-arid Hindu-Kush Himalayan region Mongolia China Pakistan andIndia Animal production involves zero-grazing practicesand extensive systems that are associated with resource-

15Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Table 5 Proportion of poor livestock keepers within production system by region ()

Production Developing Sub-Saharan N Africa and South East and Latin Americasystem countries Africa Near East Asia S E Asia and Caribbean

Grassland-based systems 71 131 143 25 18 90Mixed rainfed systems 660 779 566 601 593 679Mixed irrigated systems 185 04 169 337 290 36Landless 84 85 121 37 99 195

Source Thornton et al 2002

poor nomads transhumants or agricultural labourers andseasonal migrants with small ruminants cattle andcamels The movements are annual cycles that aretriggered by reduced feed and water supplies inadequatemarket opportunities and loss-minimizing strategies(Devendra 1998) This is also a way of life for the poorand the ownership of animals enables survival and alsofood and financial security

Within Asia the largest numbers of poor people arefound in India The country has reduced absolute povertyfrom about 55 in the 1970s to about 35 today Thepercentage of rural poor out of the total poor is about79 as a consequence of which the major focus is on thisrural sector and ways to stimulate agricultural growth toovercome persistent poverty Associated with thissituation however are the very high infant mortalityrates a high percentage of infants not surviving to age 40years and underweight children under the age of fiveyears (Human Development Report 2001)

Role and contribution of animals

Animals play an important role in small farm systems andmake a number of valuable contributions They occupy animportant economic and ecological niche in these systemsthroughout Asia Animals are widely owned by smallfarmers for a variety of advantageous reasons (Devendra1983 Chantalakhana 1990)

bull diversification in the use of production resources andreduction of socioeconomic risks

bull promotion of linkages between system components(land crops and water)

bull generation of value-added products (eg meat milkeggs and skins)

bull income generation investment insurance andeconomic security

bull supply of draught power for crop cultivationtransportation and haulage operations

bull contribution to soil fertility through nutrient cycling(dung and urine)

bull prestige social and recreational valuesbull contribution to sustainable agriculture and environ-

mental protection andbull development of stable farm households

The role and contributions of animals in small farms arefar more varied and complex than in specializedcommercial farms due to the close and varied relation-ships with farm families interactions with crops socialvalues and prevailing agricultural systems The

multipurpose roles and contributions by animalsgenerally fall into four categories

(1) household benefits(2) increased productivity in integrated farming systems(3) sustainability of agricultural systems and environ-

mental integrity and(4) enhancement of rural and social stability

The many functions of animals are well known howeverthere are important additional features and implicationsconcerning the role of animals in small farms These are asfollows

First the irrigated areas are home to the majority ofswamp buffaloes some cattle pigs and poultry and theperi-urban and urban areas have the bulk of the landlessindustrial pig and poultry production systems Outside ofthese areas and within the rainfed lowlands and uplands51ndash55 of the total population of cattle and smallruminants in Asia is kept (TAC 1992) including smallerpopulations of native pigs and poultry In the lattersituation therefore the value of these species and theircontributions increase with the decreasing quality of theecosystem in the face of harsher biophysical factors Inthese circumstances the ownership of animals is vitalfor survival financial (lsquobanks on hoovesrsquo) and foodsecurity production of dung to sustain cropproduction and enhancement of the natural resourcebase

Second the interactions with the environment inrainfed environments are much more serious such as inovergrazing lsquoslash and burnrsquo issues and depletion anddegradation of the natural resources Improvedproduction systems that involve controlled managementof grazing animals are therefore vital to maintain environ-mental integrity

Third the presence of a relatively large proportion ofruminant animals in the rainfed areas clearly implies aneed for their development and for an emphasis on theseareas A focus on improved animal production systems istherefore a most important prerequisite for promotingtotal factor productivity in these same areas

A fundamental prerequisite for developing andincreasing productivity from animals in the rainfedareas promoting efficient natural resource managementand protection of the environment is the need toconsider research and development in holistic terms Aholistic approach backed by systems perspectives isvital for dealing with the numerous positive andnegative interactions and heterogeneity of small farmsystems

16 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Strategy for developing small farms address-ing major constraints and opportunities

The strategy for the development of small farms needs toaddress several issues and constraints in order to pursueopportunities for productivity enhancement These are asfollows

Institutional support for research and developmentThe first requirement is a belief in the potentialimportance and contribution of small farms and thereforetheir development in Asia in the future Institutionalcommitment support for and a reorientation of researchand development philosophy and recognition of thecomplexity of the issues involved are fundamental to thisendeavour An agenda for research and developmentprerogatives is required that includes the following

bull programme focus and target AEZsbull a clear set of objectivesbull prioritization of effort for multidisciplinary and partici-

patory approaches that respond to the needs of smallfarmers

bull linkages with development agents and the privatesector

bull a time framebull potential biological and socioeconomic benefits and

impacts andbull potential lsquospilloversrsquo to other locations and regions

(Alston 2002) including trans-regionally

Without these considerations much needed improve-ments in the productivity of small farms and livelihoodsof small farmers are unlikely to be achieved

Natural resource managementUnderstanding the natural resource base is essential forits effective management and to optimize productionNRM involves the components (land crops animals andwater) as well as their synergies the interactions of thecomponents and their positive and negativeimplications Associated aspects related to thistask include the following

bull importance of indigenous knowledge and traditionalmethods used by farmers to meet their objectives andneeds

bull biodiversitybull community-based NRM practicesbull integration of NRM components and production

systemsbull productivity-enhancing and needs-based technologiesbull issues of sustainability and sustainable development

andbull development of multidisciplinary models and partner-

ships that target the development of small farmsystems

The benefits of improved NRM technology applicationand opportunities for productivity enhancement are many(Devendra 2001) This is clearly reflected in a recentreview of the benefits of cropndashanimal interactions andattendant economic advantages from 31 studies in 11countries concerning small farms across a variety ofAEZs mixed farming systems various species of animals

and both annual and perennial crops in Asia (Devendra2007) The range of farming systems involved and moreparticularly the application of needs-based newtechnologies in individual countries demonstrate whatcan also be achieved in terms of the types and extent ofbenefits in small farms Effective NRM has necessarily tobe very much participatory and needs to build onindigenous knowledge and traditional systems The needfor trust reciprocity and connectedness in institutions inthe collective management and improvement of naturalresources is equally important and has been emphasized(Pretty 2003)

Targeting more effective NRM in small farms is there-fore urgent and is also justified by the following factors

bull the need for increased productivity in Asia with itsmassive human populations population growth rateand poor people

bull distinct opportunities for productivity enhancementbased on the knowledge already available

bull focusing more attention on the application of locallygenerated agricultural technologies and theirspillovers which will promote increased self-reliance

bull investments in productivity-enhancing research anddevelopment which are decreasing and difficult toobtain and

bull effective use of NRM which also has the advantage ofpreserving indigenous knowledge traditional systemsand biodiversity

Targeting research and development of rainfed areasThe rationale and justification for targeting the rainfedareas in Asia are related to three important reasonsinadequate availability of arable land the need to increaseproductivity from animals to match projected humanneeds and the alleviation of poverty (Devendra 2000a)The decreasing availability of arable land with humanpopulation increase is reflected in the projected decreasefrom between 017 and 10 haperson in 198890 tobetween 005 and 030 haperson by 2010 (FAO 1998)Inadequate arable land is associated with the followingreasons

bull demand for agricultural land to meet human needs eghousing recreation and industrialization

bull expansion of crop production to ceiling levelsbull increasing and very high animal densitiesbull increased urbanization and use of arable land andbull growing environmental concerns due to very intensive

crop production eg acidification and salinization withrice cultivation and human health risks due to expand-ing peri-urban poultry and pig production

Poverty is a major concern since the rainfed areas alsohave large populations of the poorest of the poor the vastmajority of whom live below the US$1day yardstick It isestimated that about 678 million of the rural poor keeplivestock in developing countries and this representstwo-thirds of the rural poor (Livestock in Development1999) The poverty dimension includes eight elements(IFAD 2001) material deprivation lack of assetsisolation alienation dependence lack of decision-makingpower vulnerability to external shocks and insecurity

These circumstances place much stress on the use of

17Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

natural resources and thus force a need to look beyondthe use of arable land in the irrigated areas and to focusmuch needed attention on the more difficult rainfed areasFor example rainfed lowland and upland areas areunderutilized This is reflected in the availability ofapproximately 141 times 106 ha of land or 43 of the totalarable land in Asia (TAC 1992)

The rainfed areas have been constrained by manyfactors such as roads and market access and hence havebeen relatively underutilized and also bypassed byresearch and development The development of ruralroads is especially significant and in China for exampleit has been shown that every yuan invested in low-qualityroads yielded five yuan of rural non-farm gross domesticproduct (GDP) Moreover low-quality roads raise morepeople out of poverty per yuan than high-quality roads(Fan and Chan-Kang 2005) Increased rural roads alsocontribute to market access Water is another constraintand without adequate irrigation systems rainfed areashave not been able to increase productivity and capacityThese constraints can however be overcome by increasedresearch and development attention technology deliveryand market-oriented production systems It is alsoimportant to note that in studies in India (Fan Hazell andThorat 2000) and China (Fan Zhang and Zhang 2000)the returns on investment are very much higher in theseareas compared with areas that have benefited from thegreen revolution

The strategy for the development of small farms musttherefore give priority to rainfed areas especially to thepotentially more important locations Within theseanimal production can strategically serve as the entrypoint to address food production pro-poor initiativescollective management and improvement of the naturalresources that are needs-led Interdisciplinary researchand development efforts that target AEZs serve to addressthe major constraints and opportunities

The systems approach and interdisciplinarityA notable and consistent weakness of the research anddevelopment process and programmes in most nationalagricultural systems concerned with animal production inAsia is the near absence of the use of the systemsapproach Much of the research continues along strongdisciplinary lines without reference to the needs of thesmall farm systems and the AEZs where they are found(Devendra 1996 2006) Despite the dominant emphasison mixed farming in Asia research on cropndashanimalsystems is seldom integrated and with rare exceptionsvery few institutions recognize the importance of trainingin systems research As a consequence the complex andinterrelated systems-based problems in cropndashanimalsystems are not addressed in holistic terms This tendencyexplains why improved productivity from animals insmall farm systems is slow to be realized To a very largeextent the same reasons also apply to the general neglectof the rainfed areas the inadequate productivity fromsmall farm systems therein and the contribution fromanimals

The systems approach requires multi-andinterdisciplinary interpretation of the differentcomponents of the system and biophysical environmentidentified through detailed analyses of the constraints

needs and opportunities These ensure that the individualcomponents interactions and contributions can focus onthe whole system Considering the complexities of smallfarm systems the heterogeneity of the biophysicalenvironment and the various types of mixed farmingactivities therein systems perspectives are therefore ofparamount importance in improving understanding anddevelopment of the increased contribution of these farms

The methodology for systems research is distinct andfollows several sequential steps

(1) site selection(2) site description and characterization (diagnosis)(3) planning of on-farm research(4) on-farm testing and validation of alternatives(5) dissemination of results and(6) impact assessment

The systems approach needs to be backed by otherimportant requirements

bull recognition of the importance of interdisciplinaryparticipatory approaches

bull formulation of research programmes that havecommunity-based participation to set a commonagenda and create ownership (this should involve bothproduction and post-production systems)

bull programmes that are needs-led and have institutionaland structural commitment

bull establishment of effective participatory planning inter-institutional coordination and collaboration researchmanagement dissemination of information andresolution of feedback issues

bull long-term commitment to achieving impacts andbull training in agricultural systems and systems

methodologies at various levels

Associated with these methodologies much more can alsobe done to improve the socioeconomic understanding ofthe rural landless poor This includes taking into accountinter alia their way of life and aspirations their seasonalmovements together with their moving flocks of camelscattle goats and sheep reasons for the choice and extentof animal ownership constraints to their livelihoods andloss-minimizing strategies These and the foregoing issuesjustify further research investments to improve thesituation

Feed resources and nutritionForemost among the constraints to animal producton arefeed resources and nutrition which constitute the majorconstraint throughout South-east Asia (Devendra et al1997) and South Asia (Devendra et al 2000) The strategyfor feed resource use needs to take cognizance of thefollowing interrelated issues (Devendra 2000b)

bull knowledge of the totality of available feeds (grassesand forages crop residues agro-industrial by-productsand non-conventional sources)

bull appropriateness and effective use within productionsystems

bull feeds and their use should be identified with farmingsystems and self-reliance and

bull potential promotion of linkages between rural andperi-urban areas in the use of production inputs

18 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

intensification nutrient flows and marketing ofproduce that is consistent with environmental integrity

Given the critical long dry seasons and feed shortages inthese environments together with the possibilities ofincreasing feed production to overcome the shortages thesynchronization of feed availability to match speciesrequirements along with methods of conservation aremajor opportunities An example of this approachincludes foodndashfeed cropping eg rice and mung beancassava and cowpea (Devendra Sevilla and Pezo 2001)forage production in rice bunds and under tree cropsalley cropping planting tree legumes such as Gliricidia orLeucaena for forage production and the use of multi-nutrient block licks (MNBL) Other options include thedevelopment and promotion of dual-purpose (seeds andforage) sorghum millet and groundnut with resistance tofoliar diseases and higher biomass yields in southernIndia (Blummel et al 2003) especially to support dairyproduction and reduced fallows The resolution ofconstraints can produce significant impacts on increasedper animal performance and improved livelihoods ofresource-poor farmers and can enhance existingproductivity gaps in these areas The final objective ofthese improvements should be the development ofsustainable all-year-round feeding systems

Access to technologies and delivery systemsAccess to improved and appropriate technologies is amajor constraint with small farmers The problem isparticularly manifested among small farmers and smallfarms in the rainfed areas that have been bypassed by thegreen revolution These same areas are also often remoteand have poor communications resulting in furtherdifficulties For these and other reasons researchprogrammes have tended to ignore these situationsAssociated with access to improved technologies areweak delivery systems which do not facilitate effectivetechnology transfer and adoption to accelerateproductivity This is a major weakness in researchprogrammes that do not formulate and ensureparticipatory adaptive research and on-farm developmentactivities or strengthening of effective researchndashextensionlinkages to ensure maximum adoption

It is of interest to note that analyses of seven countrycase studies (Meinzen-Dick et al 2004) have shown thatthree main factors affected technology adoption

bull vulnerability ndash whether the technologies were expectedto increase or decrease peoplersquos vulnerability to loss ofincome bad health natural disasters and other factors

bull assets ndash whether farmers had the assets necessary fortechnology adoption ndash especially if they were poor and

bull institutions ndash whether institutions (such as agriculturalextension services government policies non-govern-mental organizations private sector gender rolesmarkets for inputs and outputs etc) encouraged ordiscouraged adoption and represented the interests ofpoor people

Markets and marketingSmall farmers have major problems coping with a rangeof difficulties in the face of the complexity and generalinefficiency of the prevailing marketing chains Foremost

among these is access to marketing and to the marketingchain At present inadequate access to market outlets andweak marketing arrangements represent a majorconstraint to the production to consumption systems and tothe owners and producers of animals As a consequencesmall farmers are often denied compelling opportunitiesand economic benefits The market chain involves ruralperi-urban urban and international markets and a majorchallenge will lie in ways to link small farmers with thesemarkets and marketing systems

Rural markets are especially important to rural com-munities and their households and are also used for thesale of live animals for slaughter in the urban areas Inorder to provide good links between rural and urbanmarkets appropriate infrastructural and communicationfacilities must be in place in addition to collection andprocessing centres Without improved marketing andtransport systems the prevailing systems constitute majorconstraints to the sale of animals and products from smallfarms Because of the greater market demand for animalproducts in urban areas transport facilities becomeessential Urban markets are the outlets for exports andpromote international trade

Considerable opportunities exist for participation inthe international trade of meats in the Middle East regionTo compete in world markets however quality standardsprocessing and storage facilities become essentialAdditionally for the Muslim world and the huge marketsin the Middle East meeting lsquohalalrsquo standards is also vitalAssociated with international trade is the impact ofglobalization and the lowering of tariff and non-tariffbarriers involving opening up market opportunities forcountries on the one hand and on the other severecompetitiveness for low-cost products Efficientproduction post-production to consumption and market-ing systems are therefore crucial to maintain a sustainableand competitive position

Policy issues

A number of policy issues need to be resolved to supportthe future development of small farms and increasedcontributions from them Such policies will also besupportive of increased investments in their developmentas well as pro-poor initiatives For reasons of brevitythese will not be discussed in detail but are identifiedinter alia as follows

bull A first essential is affirmative development policy forimproved understanding of small farms currentsituation and trends and potential future contribu-tions

bull The aspirations of small farmers and the syndrome of apovertyndashadaptationndashfragile livesndashlittle hopendashlow lifeexpectancy complex will need new attention onaccount of globalization and their vulnerability Socio-economic research can make a major contribution here

bull Associated with the above is the role of animals as theentry point for development especially in the moredifficult rainfed environments outside of the irrigatedareas that have been bypassed by the green revolution

bull Research and development on the complexity andheterogeneity of small farm systems NRM and cropndash

19Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

soilndashanimal interactions must necessarily be inter-disciplinary and holistic At present knowledge ofsystems perspectives and adaptive research at the farmlevel are major limitations in most countries Theserepresent major and urgent training needs at thecollege and university levels

bull Animal production in small farm systems has to beseen in the broader context of productionndashpost-productionndashconsumption systems

bull Among the ruminant production systems integrationwith tree crops despite the economic benefits of addedvalue is still underestimated Policy interventions arerequired to stimulate the development of more inte-grated systems with animals for example through taxincentives and also to encourage increased privatesector investment

bull Policy is required to support micro-credit schemesaccess to markets and public services

bull The market chain involves rural urban and inter-national markets Rural markets are especiallyimportant to rural communities and for the sale of liveanimals for slaughter to urban areas At present theruralndashurban market linkages are weak and appropriatepolicies are required to provide improvements to thesecollection and processing centres as well asinfrastructural and communication facilities and toprovide links to international markets

Development pathways

Considered together the challenges for the future of smallfarms in Asia include the following inter alia

bull Based on constraint analyses through community-based participation there should be a focus on priorityneeds to improve animal production systems

bull Diversification should be improved through theappropriate mix of animals with annual or perennialcrops appropriate to mixed farming to intensify pro-duction in rainfed areas

bull Create increased access to information improvedtechnologies and delivery systems which canpotentially impact on total production increasessocioeconomic benefits improved livelihoods andsustainable development

bull Strengthen empowerment to include informal trainingat various levels gender equity and also effectivedissemination of information

bull Promote the formation of cooperatives farmer organi-zations focus groups and farmer-managed revolvingfunds to enhance decision making and resource plan-ning These enhance reduced transaction costs andimproved marketing to obtain better returns for theproduce The successful Anand model of IndiarsquoslsquoOperation Floodrsquo involved making farmersshareholders in the whole chain of marketing andprocessing milk and is worthy of note and emulation

bull Promote pro-poor initiatives that are consistent withincome growth socioeconomic benefits improvedlivelihoods and self-reliance

Cooperative development is largely dependent on thecapacity of farmers to be self-reliant so as to benefit fromeconomies of scale bargaining power competitiveness in

agribusiness as well as reduced market risksAgricultural cooperatives are very variable in Asia andthese remain to be more fully developed in manycountries In China for example cooperatives are verylimited and a nationwide need for their establishment toovercome natural and market risks has recently beensuggested (Chuanmin and Falla 2006) Fully developedcooperatives are dynamic contribute significantly to ruraldevelopment and can enable small farm systems torespond to market dictates and consumer needs

Conclusions

Small farm systems will remain an integral part of Asianagriculture and will continue to occupy a predominantposition in food production within an overwhelmingpanorama of varied agricultural activities in the variousAEZs These small farms are models of diversification inNRM and resilience They will continue to play animportant contributory role in the production of a highproportion of ruminant meats and milk in particular andin enhancing the natural resource base They will alsohelp alleviate poverty hunger and food insecurity for thesizeable populations of rural poor despite the threat ofincreasing globalization economies of scaleintensification and commercialization in the foreseeablefuture There are major constraints to their developmentof course but there are also compelling opportunities andeconomic benefits that involve community-based manage-ment of natural resources Social and effectivedevelopment policies are also needed that can togetherstimulate increased contributions from these farms to thefood chain ndash within an enabling economic environment ndashand can spur agricultural development

ReferencesAdams D and Coward E W (1972) Small Farmer Development

Strategies Agricultural Development Council New YorkAlston J (2002) lsquoSpilloversrsquo Australian Journal of Agricultural

Research and Resource Economics Vol 48 pp 315ndash336Blummel M Zerbini E Reddy B V S Hash C T Bidinger

F and Khan A A (2003) lsquoImproving the production andutilisation of sorghum and millet in livestock feed progresstowards dual-purpose genotypesrsquo Field Crops Research Vol 84pp 143ndash158

CGIARTAC ndash Consultative Group on International AgriculturalResearchTechnical Advisory Committee (2000) lsquoCGIARpriorities for marginal landsrsquo CGIAR Washingtion DC(mimeograph)

Chantalakhana C (1990) lsquoSmall farm animal production andsustainable agriculturersquo Proceedings III AsianndashAustralasianAnimal Science Congress 27 Mayndash1 June Taipei Taiwan Vol 2 pp39ndash58

Chantalakhana C and Skunmun P (2002) Sustainable Small-holder Animal Systems in the Tropics Kasetsart University PressBangkok

Chuanmin S and Falla J S (2006) lsquoAgro-industrialization acomparative study of China and developed countriesrsquo Outlookon Agriculture Vol 35 No 3 pp 177ndash182

Delgado C Rosegrant M Steinfeld H Ehui S and CourboisC (1999) lsquoLivestock to 2020 The next food revolutionrsquo FoodAgriculture and the Environment Discussion Paper No 28 Interna-tional Food Policy Research Institute Washington DC

Devendra C (1983) lsquoSmall farm systems combining crops andanimalsrsquo Proceedings of Fifth World Conference in AnimalProduction14ndash18 August Tokyo Japan Vol 1 pp 173ndash191

12 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Table 1 Distribution of land types by region

Land type ( of total land) Rural populationRegion Favoured Marginal Sparsely populated Forest and living in favoured

arid lands woodlands lands ()

Asia 166 300 185 346 370Latin America and Caribbean 96 203 81 619 340Sub-Saharan Africa 85 231 246 437 270Near East and North America 78 226 658 39 240Total (105 countries) 107 240 259 394 350

Source CGIARTAC 2000

areas and 42 in high-potential rainfed areas (Fan andHazell 2000)

It is important to stress that some of the rainfed areasare potentially very useful such as the lowland areasimmediately outside the irrigated zones In comparisonwith farms in the high-potential favoured or irrigatedareas that significantly benefited from various policysupport the rainfed areas were bypassed by the greenrevolution and had very limited access to the many policyissues and resource inputs of national governments Quitejustifiably therefore official support (similar to that of theirrigated areas) is now necessary to give greater emphasisto these regions With improved technologicalinterventions increased resource use and opportunitiesfor improved NRM and animal production these areascan produce more food in the future (Devendra 2000a)

The rainfed AEZs of relevance are as follows

bull rainfed temperate and tropical highlands ndash mainly theHindu-KushHimalayan region

bull rainfed humidsubhumid tropical systems ndash mainlycountries in Indo-China South-east and East Asia andthe Pacific Islands parts of South Asia to includeBangladesh and Sri Lanka and

bull rainfed aridsemi-arid tropical systems ndash mainlycountries in South Asia excluding Nepal and Bangla-desh

Among these rainfed humidsubhumid and rainfed aridsemi-arid tropical systems are priority AEZs Table 2 givessome indication of the household characteristicsbiophysical data and patterns of farming systems on fiverainfed locations in China Indonesia the PhilippinesThailand and Vietnam The average annual rainfall wasbetween 1500 and 2300 mm rice-based cropping systemswere common but this also included other annual cropsand tree crops Both ruminants and non-ruminants werereared and the presence of both animal and cropdiversity provided a variety of cropndashanimal interactions(Devendra and Thomas 2002) the effects of which onproductivity peoplersquos livelihoods and sustainableagriculture provide major opportunities for research anddevelopment activities The overriding major constraintwas the 5ndash7 months of dry periods There was a 10ndash25level of contribution by animals to total farm income(Devendra 2005)

A few countries for example China India andIndonesia have given priority to the development ofthese rainfed areas In China for example the north-

western region is given priority for the intensification ofagricultural production and creation of lsquoclimate-freersquoagriculture in the grasslands through irrigation fromunderground aquifers with the objective of making thearea a bread and -meal basket to meet Chinarsquos growingdemand for protein-rich diets However populationpressures on these grasslands have been increasing withresultant increased poverty rates degradation and duststorms (MEA 2005)

Farms in plantation agriculture These are farms thatare found within large plantations that usually involvetree crops such as coconuts citrus oil palm and rubberRelative land areas are therefore larger because of the treecrops These include government settlement schemes suchas the Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) inMalaysia and the transmigration schemes in SumatraIndonesia In the latter five hectares of land parcels areallocated to resettle people away from Java through themanagement of rubber-based agriculture and animalproduction The animals reared are beef cattle smallruminants and poultry

Integrated tree cropsndashruminants production systemsare underestimated in Asia These systems have muchpotential to promote effective NRM productivity gainsand sustainability In this context integration withcoconut systems in the Philippines (Figure 7) oil palm inMalaysia (Figure 8) and rubber in Indonesia are goodexamples

Size of holdings trends and contribution

The small size of farm holdings is one of the characteristicfeatures of Asian farming systems Nevertheless there isconsiderable variation between AEZs and countrieswhich is reflected in the various definitions used todescribe both small farms (Table 3) and small farmers

The size of farms varies from country to country butspecific attempts have been made to classify small farmsin which the yardstick of less than 2 ha has often beenused The classification of farms is also influenced by landquality In India for example small farmers marginalfarmers or agricultural labourers are those with 2ndash4 08ndash2and lt 08 ha of dryland respectively In the Philippinesand Thailand small farms have land sizes of 28 ha and12 ha respectively Using a definition of a small farm ashaving a land area less than 2 ha it has been reported thatan overwhelming majority (87) of the 470 million smallfarms worldwide is found in Asia (Nagayets 2005) It was

13Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Table 2 Some household attributes and biophysical characteristics in rainfed farming systems in five countries in South-east and EastAsia

Item Vietnam Thailand Indonesia Philippines China

Household attributesAverage farm size (ha) 259 plusmn 197 524 plusmn 274 055 plusmn 073 126 plusmn 045 027 plusmn 012Household size (persons) 494 plusmn 174 479 plusmn 208 446 plusmn 154 552 plusmn 233 473 plusmn 129Percentage of farms managed by women 284 316 42 300 260

Biophysical characteristicsLocation Dong Tam Amphur Muang Dangiang Don Montano Bixi Xiang

Bin Phuoc Mahasarakham Cilawu Garut Umingan NanjianPangasinan Yunnan

Mean annual rainfall (mm) 2170 1500 2200 2300 760Dry season (months) 6 6ndash7 5ndash6 6 7

Farming systemsPredominant cropndashanimal systems Rice-based Rice-based Rice-based cattle Rice-based beef Wheat

beef cattle dairy cattle fattening and cattle and goat maize-basedproduction production sheep raising production beef cattle

and goatsproduction

Predominant animal species1 BC Pi Po DC Pi Po BC Bu S G Fi BC Bu G Pi Po BC Bu GPi Po

Number of animals (TLUs)2 067 plusmn 169 734 plusmn 432 070 plusmn 078 226 plusmn 197 107 plusmn 073Main cropndashanimal interactions Crop residues Crop residues Crop residues Crop residues Crop

as feeds use as feed manure as feed manure as feed manure residues asof draught as fertilizer use as fertilizer as fertilizer feed manureanimals of draught as fertilizers

animals use ofdraughtanimals

Contribution of livestock to total income () 13 10ndash20 10ndash15 15ndash20 20ndash25

1 BC = beef cattle DC = dairy cattle Bu = buffaloes S = sheep G = goats Pi = pigs Po = poultry Fi = fish2 TLU = tropical livestock unit equivalent to a ruminant animal of 250 kg body weight Only ruminant species have been consideredfor its estimation according to the following equivalencies cattle and buffalo = 10 sheep and goats = 001 in all species mature male= 10 mature female = 075 growing animal = 05 pre-weaned animal = 025Source Devendra 2005

further estimated that China alone accounted for about402 of these farms followed by India (23) Theaverage farm size in Asia is reported to be 16 ha (vonBraun 2005) but the average size of small farms in mostcountries is much lower than this (Table 3) In Asia alsosome 527 of farms across many countries have lt10 hawith the smallest farm sizes of 03 ha being found in SriLanka 04 ha in Indonesia and 060 ha in Bangladesh InChina Chuanmin and Falla (2006) have recently reportedthat in the year 2000 the average farm size of over 241million farms was 057 ha

Of increasing concern is the trend towards decreasingfarm sizes in all countries due to the subdivision ofexisting land Table 4 gives an idea of this trend Withoutexception farm landholdings are decreasing and willcontinue to do so There are inadequate data on this trendwith specific reference to small farms in rainfed areas butthere is no doubt that the trend is also found in theseareas

There appear to be few data on the extent of thecontribution by small farms to food production especiallyby animals However remembering that mixed farmsystems are the predominant production systems in Asiaand that the bulk of the milk ruminant meats and a fairshare of non-ruminant meats and eggs come from thesesystems it follows that the contribution by small farms to

foods of animal origin is quite significant With crops it ispertinent to note from FAO (2005) data that with farms oflt 2 ha of land the proportion of cropland was 69 inBangladesh (1996ndash97) 58 in China (1997) and 36 inIndia (1995ndash96)

Small farms and poverty

The first of the eight Millennium Development Goalsconcerns poverty The objective is to eradicate extremepoverty and hunger by halving the proportion of peoplewhose income is less than US$1day and those who sufferfrom hunger (UN 2001) Small farm systems and espe-cially those in the harsher areas have a relatively largeproportion of poor people concentrated in them andaddressing both poverty and hunger are therefore closelylinked with improved productivity from these farms Theextremely poor own less land especially irrigated landand depend on subsistence agriculture for a large part oftheir income Data from Bangladesh indicate that povertyis correlated with the amount of land a householdcontrols (Human Development Report 2001) The severityof poverty and hunger appears to be associated with thesize of farms and Singh (2004) reported that in India theincidence of poverty and hunger among those farmerswhose landholdings were under 05 ha was 38 and 32

14 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Figure 7 Integration of sheep with coconut production in thePhilippinesPhoto copy C Devendra

Figure 8 Cattle integrated with oil palm in MalaysiaPhoto copy C Devendra

respectively With larger farms of more than 4 ha theincidence was reduced by 13 and 12 respectively

In the rural areas poverty is a rural dilemma The ruralpoor depend to a very large extent directly or indirectlyon the farm for at least four major objectives incomesbuilding assets food security and improved livelihoodsPro-poor development objectives therefore need to make aconcerted effort to address these objectives and thewidening gap between the lsquohavesrsquo in the high-potentialareas and the lsquohave-notsrsquo in the rainfed zones Develop-ment efforts and investment aid thus remain a majorchallenge for the development community since thealleviation of poverty and increased resourcefulness willinfluence increased productivity

These poor people are disadvantaged in a multitude ofways the elements of which consist of variousinterrelated issues inter alia including chronic hungermalnutrition and ill health inadequate or no access tomost amenities deprivation and despair These togetherresult in a continuing syndrome of a povertyndashadaptationndashfragile livesndashlittle hopendashlow life expectancy complex inwhich the potential to be fully participatory andproductive is significantly reduced Poor farmers long forand dream of dignity self-reliance and empowerment(Devendra and Chantalakhana 2002)

Table 5 presents the proportion of poor livestockkeepers by production system and region and severalobservations are relevant to this First across regionsmixed rainfed systems had the highest proportion of poor

Table 3 Variation in the size of small farms in some countries

Country Definition

Bangladesh (a) Subsistence farmerscroppers lt 04 ha(b) Viable and potentially viable owners 04ndash08 ha

India (a) Small farmers 2ndash4 ha of dry land (1 ha dry land = 08 ha of wetland)(b) Marginal farmers 08ndash2 ha of dry land(c) Agricultual labourers lt 08 ha of dry land

Indonesia (a) Java 066 ha(b) Average size 12 ha

Korea lt 1 haMalaysia (a) Rice faros 16ndash17 ha

(b) Rubber smallholdings 21 haNepal (a) Terai 4 bighas (25 ha)

(b) Hills 175 bighas (10 ha)Philippines Average size 28 haSri Lanka (a) Agricultural households 12 ha

(b) Rice-cultivating households 03 haThailand Non-canal-irrigated areas 24 ha

Source FAO 2001 2004

Table 4 Trends in the average size of farms in selectedcountries

Country Year Average farm size (ha)

China 1980 061990 041999 04

India 1971 231991 16

1995ndash96 14Indonesia 1973 11

1993 09Nepal 1992 10

2002 08Pakistan 1971ndash73 53

1989 382000 21

Philippines 1971 361991 22

Source FAO 2001 2004 data on China are from Fan and Chang-Kang 2003

livestock keepers Within these systems and withinregions South Asia and South-east and East Asiaaccounted for 59ndash60 of total poor livestock keepersMixed irrigated systems were the next highest with 29ndash337 The higher number of poor livestock keepers in themixed farming systems in rainfed areas is consistent withthe higher proportion of rural poor found in thecombined marginal arid lands forests and woodlands(Table 1)

About 14 of poor livestock keepers are in the landlesscategory mainly in the arid and semi-arid regions (Table1) and are found mainly in the arid and semi-arid Hindu-Kush Himalayan region Mongolia China Pakistan andIndia Animal production involves zero-grazing practicesand extensive systems that are associated with resource-

15Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Table 5 Proportion of poor livestock keepers within production system by region ()

Production Developing Sub-Saharan N Africa and South East and Latin Americasystem countries Africa Near East Asia S E Asia and Caribbean

Grassland-based systems 71 131 143 25 18 90Mixed rainfed systems 660 779 566 601 593 679Mixed irrigated systems 185 04 169 337 290 36Landless 84 85 121 37 99 195

Source Thornton et al 2002

poor nomads transhumants or agricultural labourers andseasonal migrants with small ruminants cattle andcamels The movements are annual cycles that aretriggered by reduced feed and water supplies inadequatemarket opportunities and loss-minimizing strategies(Devendra 1998) This is also a way of life for the poorand the ownership of animals enables survival and alsofood and financial security

Within Asia the largest numbers of poor people arefound in India The country has reduced absolute povertyfrom about 55 in the 1970s to about 35 today Thepercentage of rural poor out of the total poor is about79 as a consequence of which the major focus is on thisrural sector and ways to stimulate agricultural growth toovercome persistent poverty Associated with thissituation however are the very high infant mortalityrates a high percentage of infants not surviving to age 40years and underweight children under the age of fiveyears (Human Development Report 2001)

Role and contribution of animals

Animals play an important role in small farm systems andmake a number of valuable contributions They occupy animportant economic and ecological niche in these systemsthroughout Asia Animals are widely owned by smallfarmers for a variety of advantageous reasons (Devendra1983 Chantalakhana 1990)

bull diversification in the use of production resources andreduction of socioeconomic risks

bull promotion of linkages between system components(land crops and water)

bull generation of value-added products (eg meat milkeggs and skins)

bull income generation investment insurance andeconomic security

bull supply of draught power for crop cultivationtransportation and haulage operations

bull contribution to soil fertility through nutrient cycling(dung and urine)

bull prestige social and recreational valuesbull contribution to sustainable agriculture and environ-

mental protection andbull development of stable farm households

The role and contributions of animals in small farms arefar more varied and complex than in specializedcommercial farms due to the close and varied relation-ships with farm families interactions with crops socialvalues and prevailing agricultural systems The

multipurpose roles and contributions by animalsgenerally fall into four categories

(1) household benefits(2) increased productivity in integrated farming systems(3) sustainability of agricultural systems and environ-

mental integrity and(4) enhancement of rural and social stability

The many functions of animals are well known howeverthere are important additional features and implicationsconcerning the role of animals in small farms These are asfollows

First the irrigated areas are home to the majority ofswamp buffaloes some cattle pigs and poultry and theperi-urban and urban areas have the bulk of the landlessindustrial pig and poultry production systems Outside ofthese areas and within the rainfed lowlands and uplands51ndash55 of the total population of cattle and smallruminants in Asia is kept (TAC 1992) including smallerpopulations of native pigs and poultry In the lattersituation therefore the value of these species and theircontributions increase with the decreasing quality of theecosystem in the face of harsher biophysical factors Inthese circumstances the ownership of animals is vitalfor survival financial (lsquobanks on hoovesrsquo) and foodsecurity production of dung to sustain cropproduction and enhancement of the natural resourcebase

Second the interactions with the environment inrainfed environments are much more serious such as inovergrazing lsquoslash and burnrsquo issues and depletion anddegradation of the natural resources Improvedproduction systems that involve controlled managementof grazing animals are therefore vital to maintain environ-mental integrity

Third the presence of a relatively large proportion ofruminant animals in the rainfed areas clearly implies aneed for their development and for an emphasis on theseareas A focus on improved animal production systems istherefore a most important prerequisite for promotingtotal factor productivity in these same areas

A fundamental prerequisite for developing andincreasing productivity from animals in the rainfedareas promoting efficient natural resource managementand protection of the environment is the need toconsider research and development in holistic terms Aholistic approach backed by systems perspectives isvital for dealing with the numerous positive andnegative interactions and heterogeneity of small farmsystems

16 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Strategy for developing small farms address-ing major constraints and opportunities

The strategy for the development of small farms needs toaddress several issues and constraints in order to pursueopportunities for productivity enhancement These are asfollows

Institutional support for research and developmentThe first requirement is a belief in the potentialimportance and contribution of small farms and thereforetheir development in Asia in the future Institutionalcommitment support for and a reorientation of researchand development philosophy and recognition of thecomplexity of the issues involved are fundamental to thisendeavour An agenda for research and developmentprerogatives is required that includes the following

bull programme focus and target AEZsbull a clear set of objectivesbull prioritization of effort for multidisciplinary and partici-

patory approaches that respond to the needs of smallfarmers

bull linkages with development agents and the privatesector

bull a time framebull potential biological and socioeconomic benefits and

impacts andbull potential lsquospilloversrsquo to other locations and regions

(Alston 2002) including trans-regionally

Without these considerations much needed improve-ments in the productivity of small farms and livelihoodsof small farmers are unlikely to be achieved

Natural resource managementUnderstanding the natural resource base is essential forits effective management and to optimize productionNRM involves the components (land crops animals andwater) as well as their synergies the interactions of thecomponents and their positive and negativeimplications Associated aspects related to thistask include the following

bull importance of indigenous knowledge and traditionalmethods used by farmers to meet their objectives andneeds

bull biodiversitybull community-based NRM practicesbull integration of NRM components and production

systemsbull productivity-enhancing and needs-based technologiesbull issues of sustainability and sustainable development

andbull development of multidisciplinary models and partner-

ships that target the development of small farmsystems

The benefits of improved NRM technology applicationand opportunities for productivity enhancement are many(Devendra 2001) This is clearly reflected in a recentreview of the benefits of cropndashanimal interactions andattendant economic advantages from 31 studies in 11countries concerning small farms across a variety ofAEZs mixed farming systems various species of animals

and both annual and perennial crops in Asia (Devendra2007) The range of farming systems involved and moreparticularly the application of needs-based newtechnologies in individual countries demonstrate whatcan also be achieved in terms of the types and extent ofbenefits in small farms Effective NRM has necessarily tobe very much participatory and needs to build onindigenous knowledge and traditional systems The needfor trust reciprocity and connectedness in institutions inthe collective management and improvement of naturalresources is equally important and has been emphasized(Pretty 2003)

Targeting more effective NRM in small farms is there-fore urgent and is also justified by the following factors

bull the need for increased productivity in Asia with itsmassive human populations population growth rateand poor people

bull distinct opportunities for productivity enhancementbased on the knowledge already available

bull focusing more attention on the application of locallygenerated agricultural technologies and theirspillovers which will promote increased self-reliance

bull investments in productivity-enhancing research anddevelopment which are decreasing and difficult toobtain and

bull effective use of NRM which also has the advantage ofpreserving indigenous knowledge traditional systemsand biodiversity

Targeting research and development of rainfed areasThe rationale and justification for targeting the rainfedareas in Asia are related to three important reasonsinadequate availability of arable land the need to increaseproductivity from animals to match projected humanneeds and the alleviation of poverty (Devendra 2000a)The decreasing availability of arable land with humanpopulation increase is reflected in the projected decreasefrom between 017 and 10 haperson in 198890 tobetween 005 and 030 haperson by 2010 (FAO 1998)Inadequate arable land is associated with the followingreasons

bull demand for agricultural land to meet human needs eghousing recreation and industrialization

bull expansion of crop production to ceiling levelsbull increasing and very high animal densitiesbull increased urbanization and use of arable land andbull growing environmental concerns due to very intensive

crop production eg acidification and salinization withrice cultivation and human health risks due to expand-ing peri-urban poultry and pig production

Poverty is a major concern since the rainfed areas alsohave large populations of the poorest of the poor the vastmajority of whom live below the US$1day yardstick It isestimated that about 678 million of the rural poor keeplivestock in developing countries and this representstwo-thirds of the rural poor (Livestock in Development1999) The poverty dimension includes eight elements(IFAD 2001) material deprivation lack of assetsisolation alienation dependence lack of decision-makingpower vulnerability to external shocks and insecurity

These circumstances place much stress on the use of

17Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

natural resources and thus force a need to look beyondthe use of arable land in the irrigated areas and to focusmuch needed attention on the more difficult rainfed areasFor example rainfed lowland and upland areas areunderutilized This is reflected in the availability ofapproximately 141 times 106 ha of land or 43 of the totalarable land in Asia (TAC 1992)

The rainfed areas have been constrained by manyfactors such as roads and market access and hence havebeen relatively underutilized and also bypassed byresearch and development The development of ruralroads is especially significant and in China for exampleit has been shown that every yuan invested in low-qualityroads yielded five yuan of rural non-farm gross domesticproduct (GDP) Moreover low-quality roads raise morepeople out of poverty per yuan than high-quality roads(Fan and Chan-Kang 2005) Increased rural roads alsocontribute to market access Water is another constraintand without adequate irrigation systems rainfed areashave not been able to increase productivity and capacityThese constraints can however be overcome by increasedresearch and development attention technology deliveryand market-oriented production systems It is alsoimportant to note that in studies in India (Fan Hazell andThorat 2000) and China (Fan Zhang and Zhang 2000)the returns on investment are very much higher in theseareas compared with areas that have benefited from thegreen revolution

The strategy for the development of small farms musttherefore give priority to rainfed areas especially to thepotentially more important locations Within theseanimal production can strategically serve as the entrypoint to address food production pro-poor initiativescollective management and improvement of the naturalresources that are needs-led Interdisciplinary researchand development efforts that target AEZs serve to addressthe major constraints and opportunities

The systems approach and interdisciplinarityA notable and consistent weakness of the research anddevelopment process and programmes in most nationalagricultural systems concerned with animal production inAsia is the near absence of the use of the systemsapproach Much of the research continues along strongdisciplinary lines without reference to the needs of thesmall farm systems and the AEZs where they are found(Devendra 1996 2006) Despite the dominant emphasison mixed farming in Asia research on cropndashanimalsystems is seldom integrated and with rare exceptionsvery few institutions recognize the importance of trainingin systems research As a consequence the complex andinterrelated systems-based problems in cropndashanimalsystems are not addressed in holistic terms This tendencyexplains why improved productivity from animals insmall farm systems is slow to be realized To a very largeextent the same reasons also apply to the general neglectof the rainfed areas the inadequate productivity fromsmall farm systems therein and the contribution fromanimals

The systems approach requires multi-andinterdisciplinary interpretation of the differentcomponents of the system and biophysical environmentidentified through detailed analyses of the constraints

needs and opportunities These ensure that the individualcomponents interactions and contributions can focus onthe whole system Considering the complexities of smallfarm systems the heterogeneity of the biophysicalenvironment and the various types of mixed farmingactivities therein systems perspectives are therefore ofparamount importance in improving understanding anddevelopment of the increased contribution of these farms

The methodology for systems research is distinct andfollows several sequential steps

(1) site selection(2) site description and characterization (diagnosis)(3) planning of on-farm research(4) on-farm testing and validation of alternatives(5) dissemination of results and(6) impact assessment

The systems approach needs to be backed by otherimportant requirements

bull recognition of the importance of interdisciplinaryparticipatory approaches

bull formulation of research programmes that havecommunity-based participation to set a commonagenda and create ownership (this should involve bothproduction and post-production systems)

bull programmes that are needs-led and have institutionaland structural commitment

bull establishment of effective participatory planning inter-institutional coordination and collaboration researchmanagement dissemination of information andresolution of feedback issues

bull long-term commitment to achieving impacts andbull training in agricultural systems and systems

methodologies at various levels

Associated with these methodologies much more can alsobe done to improve the socioeconomic understanding ofthe rural landless poor This includes taking into accountinter alia their way of life and aspirations their seasonalmovements together with their moving flocks of camelscattle goats and sheep reasons for the choice and extentof animal ownership constraints to their livelihoods andloss-minimizing strategies These and the foregoing issuesjustify further research investments to improve thesituation

Feed resources and nutritionForemost among the constraints to animal producton arefeed resources and nutrition which constitute the majorconstraint throughout South-east Asia (Devendra et al1997) and South Asia (Devendra et al 2000) The strategyfor feed resource use needs to take cognizance of thefollowing interrelated issues (Devendra 2000b)

bull knowledge of the totality of available feeds (grassesand forages crop residues agro-industrial by-productsand non-conventional sources)

bull appropriateness and effective use within productionsystems

bull feeds and their use should be identified with farmingsystems and self-reliance and

bull potential promotion of linkages between rural andperi-urban areas in the use of production inputs

18 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

intensification nutrient flows and marketing ofproduce that is consistent with environmental integrity

Given the critical long dry seasons and feed shortages inthese environments together with the possibilities ofincreasing feed production to overcome the shortages thesynchronization of feed availability to match speciesrequirements along with methods of conservation aremajor opportunities An example of this approachincludes foodndashfeed cropping eg rice and mung beancassava and cowpea (Devendra Sevilla and Pezo 2001)forage production in rice bunds and under tree cropsalley cropping planting tree legumes such as Gliricidia orLeucaena for forage production and the use of multi-nutrient block licks (MNBL) Other options include thedevelopment and promotion of dual-purpose (seeds andforage) sorghum millet and groundnut with resistance tofoliar diseases and higher biomass yields in southernIndia (Blummel et al 2003) especially to support dairyproduction and reduced fallows The resolution ofconstraints can produce significant impacts on increasedper animal performance and improved livelihoods ofresource-poor farmers and can enhance existingproductivity gaps in these areas The final objective ofthese improvements should be the development ofsustainable all-year-round feeding systems

Access to technologies and delivery systemsAccess to improved and appropriate technologies is amajor constraint with small farmers The problem isparticularly manifested among small farmers and smallfarms in the rainfed areas that have been bypassed by thegreen revolution These same areas are also often remoteand have poor communications resulting in furtherdifficulties For these and other reasons researchprogrammes have tended to ignore these situationsAssociated with access to improved technologies areweak delivery systems which do not facilitate effectivetechnology transfer and adoption to accelerateproductivity This is a major weakness in researchprogrammes that do not formulate and ensureparticipatory adaptive research and on-farm developmentactivities or strengthening of effective researchndashextensionlinkages to ensure maximum adoption

It is of interest to note that analyses of seven countrycase studies (Meinzen-Dick et al 2004) have shown thatthree main factors affected technology adoption

bull vulnerability ndash whether the technologies were expectedto increase or decrease peoplersquos vulnerability to loss ofincome bad health natural disasters and other factors

bull assets ndash whether farmers had the assets necessary fortechnology adoption ndash especially if they were poor and

bull institutions ndash whether institutions (such as agriculturalextension services government policies non-govern-mental organizations private sector gender rolesmarkets for inputs and outputs etc) encouraged ordiscouraged adoption and represented the interests ofpoor people

Markets and marketingSmall farmers have major problems coping with a rangeof difficulties in the face of the complexity and generalinefficiency of the prevailing marketing chains Foremost

among these is access to marketing and to the marketingchain At present inadequate access to market outlets andweak marketing arrangements represent a majorconstraint to the production to consumption systems and tothe owners and producers of animals As a consequencesmall farmers are often denied compelling opportunitiesand economic benefits The market chain involves ruralperi-urban urban and international markets and a majorchallenge will lie in ways to link small farmers with thesemarkets and marketing systems

Rural markets are especially important to rural com-munities and their households and are also used for thesale of live animals for slaughter in the urban areas Inorder to provide good links between rural and urbanmarkets appropriate infrastructural and communicationfacilities must be in place in addition to collection andprocessing centres Without improved marketing andtransport systems the prevailing systems constitute majorconstraints to the sale of animals and products from smallfarms Because of the greater market demand for animalproducts in urban areas transport facilities becomeessential Urban markets are the outlets for exports andpromote international trade

Considerable opportunities exist for participation inthe international trade of meats in the Middle East regionTo compete in world markets however quality standardsprocessing and storage facilities become essentialAdditionally for the Muslim world and the huge marketsin the Middle East meeting lsquohalalrsquo standards is also vitalAssociated with international trade is the impact ofglobalization and the lowering of tariff and non-tariffbarriers involving opening up market opportunities forcountries on the one hand and on the other severecompetitiveness for low-cost products Efficientproduction post-production to consumption and market-ing systems are therefore crucial to maintain a sustainableand competitive position

Policy issues

A number of policy issues need to be resolved to supportthe future development of small farms and increasedcontributions from them Such policies will also besupportive of increased investments in their developmentas well as pro-poor initiatives For reasons of brevitythese will not be discussed in detail but are identifiedinter alia as follows

bull A first essential is affirmative development policy forimproved understanding of small farms currentsituation and trends and potential future contribu-tions

bull The aspirations of small farmers and the syndrome of apovertyndashadaptationndashfragile livesndashlittle hopendashlow lifeexpectancy complex will need new attention onaccount of globalization and their vulnerability Socio-economic research can make a major contribution here

bull Associated with the above is the role of animals as theentry point for development especially in the moredifficult rainfed environments outside of the irrigatedareas that have been bypassed by the green revolution

bull Research and development on the complexity andheterogeneity of small farm systems NRM and cropndash

19Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

soilndashanimal interactions must necessarily be inter-disciplinary and holistic At present knowledge ofsystems perspectives and adaptive research at the farmlevel are major limitations in most countries Theserepresent major and urgent training needs at thecollege and university levels

bull Animal production in small farm systems has to beseen in the broader context of productionndashpost-productionndashconsumption systems

bull Among the ruminant production systems integrationwith tree crops despite the economic benefits of addedvalue is still underestimated Policy interventions arerequired to stimulate the development of more inte-grated systems with animals for example through taxincentives and also to encourage increased privatesector investment

bull Policy is required to support micro-credit schemesaccess to markets and public services

bull The market chain involves rural urban and inter-national markets Rural markets are especiallyimportant to rural communities and for the sale of liveanimals for slaughter to urban areas At present theruralndashurban market linkages are weak and appropriatepolicies are required to provide improvements to thesecollection and processing centres as well asinfrastructural and communication facilities and toprovide links to international markets

Development pathways

Considered together the challenges for the future of smallfarms in Asia include the following inter alia

bull Based on constraint analyses through community-based participation there should be a focus on priorityneeds to improve animal production systems

bull Diversification should be improved through theappropriate mix of animals with annual or perennialcrops appropriate to mixed farming to intensify pro-duction in rainfed areas

bull Create increased access to information improvedtechnologies and delivery systems which canpotentially impact on total production increasessocioeconomic benefits improved livelihoods andsustainable development

bull Strengthen empowerment to include informal trainingat various levels gender equity and also effectivedissemination of information

bull Promote the formation of cooperatives farmer organi-zations focus groups and farmer-managed revolvingfunds to enhance decision making and resource plan-ning These enhance reduced transaction costs andimproved marketing to obtain better returns for theproduce The successful Anand model of IndiarsquoslsquoOperation Floodrsquo involved making farmersshareholders in the whole chain of marketing andprocessing milk and is worthy of note and emulation

bull Promote pro-poor initiatives that are consistent withincome growth socioeconomic benefits improvedlivelihoods and self-reliance

Cooperative development is largely dependent on thecapacity of farmers to be self-reliant so as to benefit fromeconomies of scale bargaining power competitiveness in

agribusiness as well as reduced market risksAgricultural cooperatives are very variable in Asia andthese remain to be more fully developed in manycountries In China for example cooperatives are verylimited and a nationwide need for their establishment toovercome natural and market risks has recently beensuggested (Chuanmin and Falla 2006) Fully developedcooperatives are dynamic contribute significantly to ruraldevelopment and can enable small farm systems torespond to market dictates and consumer needs

Conclusions

Small farm systems will remain an integral part of Asianagriculture and will continue to occupy a predominantposition in food production within an overwhelmingpanorama of varied agricultural activities in the variousAEZs These small farms are models of diversification inNRM and resilience They will continue to play animportant contributory role in the production of a highproportion of ruminant meats and milk in particular andin enhancing the natural resource base They will alsohelp alleviate poverty hunger and food insecurity for thesizeable populations of rural poor despite the threat ofincreasing globalization economies of scaleintensification and commercialization in the foreseeablefuture There are major constraints to their developmentof course but there are also compelling opportunities andeconomic benefits that involve community-based manage-ment of natural resources Social and effectivedevelopment policies are also needed that can togetherstimulate increased contributions from these farms to thefood chain ndash within an enabling economic environment ndashand can spur agricultural development

ReferencesAdams D and Coward E W (1972) Small Farmer Development

Strategies Agricultural Development Council New YorkAlston J (2002) lsquoSpilloversrsquo Australian Journal of Agricultural

Research and Resource Economics Vol 48 pp 315ndash336Blummel M Zerbini E Reddy B V S Hash C T Bidinger

F and Khan A A (2003) lsquoImproving the production andutilisation of sorghum and millet in livestock feed progresstowards dual-purpose genotypesrsquo Field Crops Research Vol 84pp 143ndash158

CGIARTAC ndash Consultative Group on International AgriculturalResearchTechnical Advisory Committee (2000) lsquoCGIARpriorities for marginal landsrsquo CGIAR Washingtion DC(mimeograph)

Chantalakhana C (1990) lsquoSmall farm animal production andsustainable agriculturersquo Proceedings III AsianndashAustralasianAnimal Science Congress 27 Mayndash1 June Taipei Taiwan Vol 2 pp39ndash58

Chantalakhana C and Skunmun P (2002) Sustainable Small-holder Animal Systems in the Tropics Kasetsart University PressBangkok

Chuanmin S and Falla J S (2006) lsquoAgro-industrialization acomparative study of China and developed countriesrsquo Outlookon Agriculture Vol 35 No 3 pp 177ndash182

Delgado C Rosegrant M Steinfeld H Ehui S and CourboisC (1999) lsquoLivestock to 2020 The next food revolutionrsquo FoodAgriculture and the Environment Discussion Paper No 28 Interna-tional Food Policy Research Institute Washington DC

Devendra C (1983) lsquoSmall farm systems combining crops andanimalsrsquo Proceedings of Fifth World Conference in AnimalProduction14ndash18 August Tokyo Japan Vol 1 pp 173ndash191

13Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Table 2 Some household attributes and biophysical characteristics in rainfed farming systems in five countries in South-east and EastAsia

Item Vietnam Thailand Indonesia Philippines China

Household attributesAverage farm size (ha) 259 plusmn 197 524 plusmn 274 055 plusmn 073 126 plusmn 045 027 plusmn 012Household size (persons) 494 plusmn 174 479 plusmn 208 446 plusmn 154 552 plusmn 233 473 plusmn 129Percentage of farms managed by women 284 316 42 300 260

Biophysical characteristicsLocation Dong Tam Amphur Muang Dangiang Don Montano Bixi Xiang

Bin Phuoc Mahasarakham Cilawu Garut Umingan NanjianPangasinan Yunnan

Mean annual rainfall (mm) 2170 1500 2200 2300 760Dry season (months) 6 6ndash7 5ndash6 6 7

Farming systemsPredominant cropndashanimal systems Rice-based Rice-based Rice-based cattle Rice-based beef Wheat

beef cattle dairy cattle fattening and cattle and goat maize-basedproduction production sheep raising production beef cattle

and goatsproduction

Predominant animal species1 BC Pi Po DC Pi Po BC Bu S G Fi BC Bu G Pi Po BC Bu GPi Po

Number of animals (TLUs)2 067 plusmn 169 734 plusmn 432 070 plusmn 078 226 plusmn 197 107 plusmn 073Main cropndashanimal interactions Crop residues Crop residues Crop residues Crop residues Crop

as feeds use as feed manure as feed manure as feed manure residues asof draught as fertilizer use as fertilizer as fertilizer feed manureanimals of draught as fertilizers

animals use ofdraughtanimals

Contribution of livestock to total income () 13 10ndash20 10ndash15 15ndash20 20ndash25

1 BC = beef cattle DC = dairy cattle Bu = buffaloes S = sheep G = goats Pi = pigs Po = poultry Fi = fish2 TLU = tropical livestock unit equivalent to a ruminant animal of 250 kg body weight Only ruminant species have been consideredfor its estimation according to the following equivalencies cattle and buffalo = 10 sheep and goats = 001 in all species mature male= 10 mature female = 075 growing animal = 05 pre-weaned animal = 025Source Devendra 2005

further estimated that China alone accounted for about402 of these farms followed by India (23) Theaverage farm size in Asia is reported to be 16 ha (vonBraun 2005) but the average size of small farms in mostcountries is much lower than this (Table 3) In Asia alsosome 527 of farms across many countries have lt10 hawith the smallest farm sizes of 03 ha being found in SriLanka 04 ha in Indonesia and 060 ha in Bangladesh InChina Chuanmin and Falla (2006) have recently reportedthat in the year 2000 the average farm size of over 241million farms was 057 ha

Of increasing concern is the trend towards decreasingfarm sizes in all countries due to the subdivision ofexisting land Table 4 gives an idea of this trend Withoutexception farm landholdings are decreasing and willcontinue to do so There are inadequate data on this trendwith specific reference to small farms in rainfed areas butthere is no doubt that the trend is also found in theseareas

There appear to be few data on the extent of thecontribution by small farms to food production especiallyby animals However remembering that mixed farmsystems are the predominant production systems in Asiaand that the bulk of the milk ruminant meats and a fairshare of non-ruminant meats and eggs come from thesesystems it follows that the contribution by small farms to

foods of animal origin is quite significant With crops it ispertinent to note from FAO (2005) data that with farms oflt 2 ha of land the proportion of cropland was 69 inBangladesh (1996ndash97) 58 in China (1997) and 36 inIndia (1995ndash96)

Small farms and poverty

The first of the eight Millennium Development Goalsconcerns poverty The objective is to eradicate extremepoverty and hunger by halving the proportion of peoplewhose income is less than US$1day and those who sufferfrom hunger (UN 2001) Small farm systems and espe-cially those in the harsher areas have a relatively largeproportion of poor people concentrated in them andaddressing both poverty and hunger are therefore closelylinked with improved productivity from these farms Theextremely poor own less land especially irrigated landand depend on subsistence agriculture for a large part oftheir income Data from Bangladesh indicate that povertyis correlated with the amount of land a householdcontrols (Human Development Report 2001) The severityof poverty and hunger appears to be associated with thesize of farms and Singh (2004) reported that in India theincidence of poverty and hunger among those farmerswhose landholdings were under 05 ha was 38 and 32

14 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Figure 7 Integration of sheep with coconut production in thePhilippinesPhoto copy C Devendra

Figure 8 Cattle integrated with oil palm in MalaysiaPhoto copy C Devendra

respectively With larger farms of more than 4 ha theincidence was reduced by 13 and 12 respectively

In the rural areas poverty is a rural dilemma The ruralpoor depend to a very large extent directly or indirectlyon the farm for at least four major objectives incomesbuilding assets food security and improved livelihoodsPro-poor development objectives therefore need to make aconcerted effort to address these objectives and thewidening gap between the lsquohavesrsquo in the high-potentialareas and the lsquohave-notsrsquo in the rainfed zones Develop-ment efforts and investment aid thus remain a majorchallenge for the development community since thealleviation of poverty and increased resourcefulness willinfluence increased productivity

These poor people are disadvantaged in a multitude ofways the elements of which consist of variousinterrelated issues inter alia including chronic hungermalnutrition and ill health inadequate or no access tomost amenities deprivation and despair These togetherresult in a continuing syndrome of a povertyndashadaptationndashfragile livesndashlittle hopendashlow life expectancy complex inwhich the potential to be fully participatory andproductive is significantly reduced Poor farmers long forand dream of dignity self-reliance and empowerment(Devendra and Chantalakhana 2002)

Table 5 presents the proportion of poor livestockkeepers by production system and region and severalobservations are relevant to this First across regionsmixed rainfed systems had the highest proportion of poor

Table 3 Variation in the size of small farms in some countries

Country Definition

Bangladesh (a) Subsistence farmerscroppers lt 04 ha(b) Viable and potentially viable owners 04ndash08 ha

India (a) Small farmers 2ndash4 ha of dry land (1 ha dry land = 08 ha of wetland)(b) Marginal farmers 08ndash2 ha of dry land(c) Agricultual labourers lt 08 ha of dry land

Indonesia (a) Java 066 ha(b) Average size 12 ha

Korea lt 1 haMalaysia (a) Rice faros 16ndash17 ha

(b) Rubber smallholdings 21 haNepal (a) Terai 4 bighas (25 ha)

(b) Hills 175 bighas (10 ha)Philippines Average size 28 haSri Lanka (a) Agricultural households 12 ha

(b) Rice-cultivating households 03 haThailand Non-canal-irrigated areas 24 ha

Source FAO 2001 2004

Table 4 Trends in the average size of farms in selectedcountries

Country Year Average farm size (ha)

China 1980 061990 041999 04

India 1971 231991 16

1995ndash96 14Indonesia 1973 11

1993 09Nepal 1992 10

2002 08Pakistan 1971ndash73 53

1989 382000 21

Philippines 1971 361991 22

Source FAO 2001 2004 data on China are from Fan and Chang-Kang 2003

livestock keepers Within these systems and withinregions South Asia and South-east and East Asiaaccounted for 59ndash60 of total poor livestock keepersMixed irrigated systems were the next highest with 29ndash337 The higher number of poor livestock keepers in themixed farming systems in rainfed areas is consistent withthe higher proportion of rural poor found in thecombined marginal arid lands forests and woodlands(Table 1)

About 14 of poor livestock keepers are in the landlesscategory mainly in the arid and semi-arid regions (Table1) and are found mainly in the arid and semi-arid Hindu-Kush Himalayan region Mongolia China Pakistan andIndia Animal production involves zero-grazing practicesand extensive systems that are associated with resource-

15Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Table 5 Proportion of poor livestock keepers within production system by region ()

Production Developing Sub-Saharan N Africa and South East and Latin Americasystem countries Africa Near East Asia S E Asia and Caribbean

Grassland-based systems 71 131 143 25 18 90Mixed rainfed systems 660 779 566 601 593 679Mixed irrigated systems 185 04 169 337 290 36Landless 84 85 121 37 99 195

Source Thornton et al 2002

poor nomads transhumants or agricultural labourers andseasonal migrants with small ruminants cattle andcamels The movements are annual cycles that aretriggered by reduced feed and water supplies inadequatemarket opportunities and loss-minimizing strategies(Devendra 1998) This is also a way of life for the poorand the ownership of animals enables survival and alsofood and financial security

Within Asia the largest numbers of poor people arefound in India The country has reduced absolute povertyfrom about 55 in the 1970s to about 35 today Thepercentage of rural poor out of the total poor is about79 as a consequence of which the major focus is on thisrural sector and ways to stimulate agricultural growth toovercome persistent poverty Associated with thissituation however are the very high infant mortalityrates a high percentage of infants not surviving to age 40years and underweight children under the age of fiveyears (Human Development Report 2001)

Role and contribution of animals

Animals play an important role in small farm systems andmake a number of valuable contributions They occupy animportant economic and ecological niche in these systemsthroughout Asia Animals are widely owned by smallfarmers for a variety of advantageous reasons (Devendra1983 Chantalakhana 1990)

bull diversification in the use of production resources andreduction of socioeconomic risks

bull promotion of linkages between system components(land crops and water)

bull generation of value-added products (eg meat milkeggs and skins)

bull income generation investment insurance andeconomic security

bull supply of draught power for crop cultivationtransportation and haulage operations

bull contribution to soil fertility through nutrient cycling(dung and urine)

bull prestige social and recreational valuesbull contribution to sustainable agriculture and environ-

mental protection andbull development of stable farm households

The role and contributions of animals in small farms arefar more varied and complex than in specializedcommercial farms due to the close and varied relation-ships with farm families interactions with crops socialvalues and prevailing agricultural systems The

multipurpose roles and contributions by animalsgenerally fall into four categories

(1) household benefits(2) increased productivity in integrated farming systems(3) sustainability of agricultural systems and environ-

mental integrity and(4) enhancement of rural and social stability

The many functions of animals are well known howeverthere are important additional features and implicationsconcerning the role of animals in small farms These are asfollows

First the irrigated areas are home to the majority ofswamp buffaloes some cattle pigs and poultry and theperi-urban and urban areas have the bulk of the landlessindustrial pig and poultry production systems Outside ofthese areas and within the rainfed lowlands and uplands51ndash55 of the total population of cattle and smallruminants in Asia is kept (TAC 1992) including smallerpopulations of native pigs and poultry In the lattersituation therefore the value of these species and theircontributions increase with the decreasing quality of theecosystem in the face of harsher biophysical factors Inthese circumstances the ownership of animals is vitalfor survival financial (lsquobanks on hoovesrsquo) and foodsecurity production of dung to sustain cropproduction and enhancement of the natural resourcebase

Second the interactions with the environment inrainfed environments are much more serious such as inovergrazing lsquoslash and burnrsquo issues and depletion anddegradation of the natural resources Improvedproduction systems that involve controlled managementof grazing animals are therefore vital to maintain environ-mental integrity

Third the presence of a relatively large proportion ofruminant animals in the rainfed areas clearly implies aneed for their development and for an emphasis on theseareas A focus on improved animal production systems istherefore a most important prerequisite for promotingtotal factor productivity in these same areas

A fundamental prerequisite for developing andincreasing productivity from animals in the rainfedareas promoting efficient natural resource managementand protection of the environment is the need toconsider research and development in holistic terms Aholistic approach backed by systems perspectives isvital for dealing with the numerous positive andnegative interactions and heterogeneity of small farmsystems

16 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Strategy for developing small farms address-ing major constraints and opportunities

The strategy for the development of small farms needs toaddress several issues and constraints in order to pursueopportunities for productivity enhancement These are asfollows

Institutional support for research and developmentThe first requirement is a belief in the potentialimportance and contribution of small farms and thereforetheir development in Asia in the future Institutionalcommitment support for and a reorientation of researchand development philosophy and recognition of thecomplexity of the issues involved are fundamental to thisendeavour An agenda for research and developmentprerogatives is required that includes the following

bull programme focus and target AEZsbull a clear set of objectivesbull prioritization of effort for multidisciplinary and partici-

patory approaches that respond to the needs of smallfarmers

bull linkages with development agents and the privatesector

bull a time framebull potential biological and socioeconomic benefits and

impacts andbull potential lsquospilloversrsquo to other locations and regions

(Alston 2002) including trans-regionally

Without these considerations much needed improve-ments in the productivity of small farms and livelihoodsof small farmers are unlikely to be achieved

Natural resource managementUnderstanding the natural resource base is essential forits effective management and to optimize productionNRM involves the components (land crops animals andwater) as well as their synergies the interactions of thecomponents and their positive and negativeimplications Associated aspects related to thistask include the following

bull importance of indigenous knowledge and traditionalmethods used by farmers to meet their objectives andneeds

bull biodiversitybull community-based NRM practicesbull integration of NRM components and production

systemsbull productivity-enhancing and needs-based technologiesbull issues of sustainability and sustainable development

andbull development of multidisciplinary models and partner-

ships that target the development of small farmsystems

The benefits of improved NRM technology applicationand opportunities for productivity enhancement are many(Devendra 2001) This is clearly reflected in a recentreview of the benefits of cropndashanimal interactions andattendant economic advantages from 31 studies in 11countries concerning small farms across a variety ofAEZs mixed farming systems various species of animals

and both annual and perennial crops in Asia (Devendra2007) The range of farming systems involved and moreparticularly the application of needs-based newtechnologies in individual countries demonstrate whatcan also be achieved in terms of the types and extent ofbenefits in small farms Effective NRM has necessarily tobe very much participatory and needs to build onindigenous knowledge and traditional systems The needfor trust reciprocity and connectedness in institutions inthe collective management and improvement of naturalresources is equally important and has been emphasized(Pretty 2003)

Targeting more effective NRM in small farms is there-fore urgent and is also justified by the following factors

bull the need for increased productivity in Asia with itsmassive human populations population growth rateand poor people

bull distinct opportunities for productivity enhancementbased on the knowledge already available

bull focusing more attention on the application of locallygenerated agricultural technologies and theirspillovers which will promote increased self-reliance

bull investments in productivity-enhancing research anddevelopment which are decreasing and difficult toobtain and

bull effective use of NRM which also has the advantage ofpreserving indigenous knowledge traditional systemsand biodiversity

Targeting research and development of rainfed areasThe rationale and justification for targeting the rainfedareas in Asia are related to three important reasonsinadequate availability of arable land the need to increaseproductivity from animals to match projected humanneeds and the alleviation of poverty (Devendra 2000a)The decreasing availability of arable land with humanpopulation increase is reflected in the projected decreasefrom between 017 and 10 haperson in 198890 tobetween 005 and 030 haperson by 2010 (FAO 1998)Inadequate arable land is associated with the followingreasons

bull demand for agricultural land to meet human needs eghousing recreation and industrialization

bull expansion of crop production to ceiling levelsbull increasing and very high animal densitiesbull increased urbanization and use of arable land andbull growing environmental concerns due to very intensive

crop production eg acidification and salinization withrice cultivation and human health risks due to expand-ing peri-urban poultry and pig production

Poverty is a major concern since the rainfed areas alsohave large populations of the poorest of the poor the vastmajority of whom live below the US$1day yardstick It isestimated that about 678 million of the rural poor keeplivestock in developing countries and this representstwo-thirds of the rural poor (Livestock in Development1999) The poverty dimension includes eight elements(IFAD 2001) material deprivation lack of assetsisolation alienation dependence lack of decision-makingpower vulnerability to external shocks and insecurity

These circumstances place much stress on the use of

17Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

natural resources and thus force a need to look beyondthe use of arable land in the irrigated areas and to focusmuch needed attention on the more difficult rainfed areasFor example rainfed lowland and upland areas areunderutilized This is reflected in the availability ofapproximately 141 times 106 ha of land or 43 of the totalarable land in Asia (TAC 1992)

The rainfed areas have been constrained by manyfactors such as roads and market access and hence havebeen relatively underutilized and also bypassed byresearch and development The development of ruralroads is especially significant and in China for exampleit has been shown that every yuan invested in low-qualityroads yielded five yuan of rural non-farm gross domesticproduct (GDP) Moreover low-quality roads raise morepeople out of poverty per yuan than high-quality roads(Fan and Chan-Kang 2005) Increased rural roads alsocontribute to market access Water is another constraintand without adequate irrigation systems rainfed areashave not been able to increase productivity and capacityThese constraints can however be overcome by increasedresearch and development attention technology deliveryand market-oriented production systems It is alsoimportant to note that in studies in India (Fan Hazell andThorat 2000) and China (Fan Zhang and Zhang 2000)the returns on investment are very much higher in theseareas compared with areas that have benefited from thegreen revolution

The strategy for the development of small farms musttherefore give priority to rainfed areas especially to thepotentially more important locations Within theseanimal production can strategically serve as the entrypoint to address food production pro-poor initiativescollective management and improvement of the naturalresources that are needs-led Interdisciplinary researchand development efforts that target AEZs serve to addressthe major constraints and opportunities

The systems approach and interdisciplinarityA notable and consistent weakness of the research anddevelopment process and programmes in most nationalagricultural systems concerned with animal production inAsia is the near absence of the use of the systemsapproach Much of the research continues along strongdisciplinary lines without reference to the needs of thesmall farm systems and the AEZs where they are found(Devendra 1996 2006) Despite the dominant emphasison mixed farming in Asia research on cropndashanimalsystems is seldom integrated and with rare exceptionsvery few institutions recognize the importance of trainingin systems research As a consequence the complex andinterrelated systems-based problems in cropndashanimalsystems are not addressed in holistic terms This tendencyexplains why improved productivity from animals insmall farm systems is slow to be realized To a very largeextent the same reasons also apply to the general neglectof the rainfed areas the inadequate productivity fromsmall farm systems therein and the contribution fromanimals

The systems approach requires multi-andinterdisciplinary interpretation of the differentcomponents of the system and biophysical environmentidentified through detailed analyses of the constraints

needs and opportunities These ensure that the individualcomponents interactions and contributions can focus onthe whole system Considering the complexities of smallfarm systems the heterogeneity of the biophysicalenvironment and the various types of mixed farmingactivities therein systems perspectives are therefore ofparamount importance in improving understanding anddevelopment of the increased contribution of these farms

The methodology for systems research is distinct andfollows several sequential steps

(1) site selection(2) site description and characterization (diagnosis)(3) planning of on-farm research(4) on-farm testing and validation of alternatives(5) dissemination of results and(6) impact assessment

The systems approach needs to be backed by otherimportant requirements

bull recognition of the importance of interdisciplinaryparticipatory approaches

bull formulation of research programmes that havecommunity-based participation to set a commonagenda and create ownership (this should involve bothproduction and post-production systems)

bull programmes that are needs-led and have institutionaland structural commitment

bull establishment of effective participatory planning inter-institutional coordination and collaboration researchmanagement dissemination of information andresolution of feedback issues

bull long-term commitment to achieving impacts andbull training in agricultural systems and systems

methodologies at various levels

Associated with these methodologies much more can alsobe done to improve the socioeconomic understanding ofthe rural landless poor This includes taking into accountinter alia their way of life and aspirations their seasonalmovements together with their moving flocks of camelscattle goats and sheep reasons for the choice and extentof animal ownership constraints to their livelihoods andloss-minimizing strategies These and the foregoing issuesjustify further research investments to improve thesituation

Feed resources and nutritionForemost among the constraints to animal producton arefeed resources and nutrition which constitute the majorconstraint throughout South-east Asia (Devendra et al1997) and South Asia (Devendra et al 2000) The strategyfor feed resource use needs to take cognizance of thefollowing interrelated issues (Devendra 2000b)

bull knowledge of the totality of available feeds (grassesand forages crop residues agro-industrial by-productsand non-conventional sources)

bull appropriateness and effective use within productionsystems

bull feeds and their use should be identified with farmingsystems and self-reliance and

bull potential promotion of linkages between rural andperi-urban areas in the use of production inputs

18 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

intensification nutrient flows and marketing ofproduce that is consistent with environmental integrity

Given the critical long dry seasons and feed shortages inthese environments together with the possibilities ofincreasing feed production to overcome the shortages thesynchronization of feed availability to match speciesrequirements along with methods of conservation aremajor opportunities An example of this approachincludes foodndashfeed cropping eg rice and mung beancassava and cowpea (Devendra Sevilla and Pezo 2001)forage production in rice bunds and under tree cropsalley cropping planting tree legumes such as Gliricidia orLeucaena for forage production and the use of multi-nutrient block licks (MNBL) Other options include thedevelopment and promotion of dual-purpose (seeds andforage) sorghum millet and groundnut with resistance tofoliar diseases and higher biomass yields in southernIndia (Blummel et al 2003) especially to support dairyproduction and reduced fallows The resolution ofconstraints can produce significant impacts on increasedper animal performance and improved livelihoods ofresource-poor farmers and can enhance existingproductivity gaps in these areas The final objective ofthese improvements should be the development ofsustainable all-year-round feeding systems

Access to technologies and delivery systemsAccess to improved and appropriate technologies is amajor constraint with small farmers The problem isparticularly manifested among small farmers and smallfarms in the rainfed areas that have been bypassed by thegreen revolution These same areas are also often remoteand have poor communications resulting in furtherdifficulties For these and other reasons researchprogrammes have tended to ignore these situationsAssociated with access to improved technologies areweak delivery systems which do not facilitate effectivetechnology transfer and adoption to accelerateproductivity This is a major weakness in researchprogrammes that do not formulate and ensureparticipatory adaptive research and on-farm developmentactivities or strengthening of effective researchndashextensionlinkages to ensure maximum adoption

It is of interest to note that analyses of seven countrycase studies (Meinzen-Dick et al 2004) have shown thatthree main factors affected technology adoption

bull vulnerability ndash whether the technologies were expectedto increase or decrease peoplersquos vulnerability to loss ofincome bad health natural disasters and other factors

bull assets ndash whether farmers had the assets necessary fortechnology adoption ndash especially if they were poor and

bull institutions ndash whether institutions (such as agriculturalextension services government policies non-govern-mental organizations private sector gender rolesmarkets for inputs and outputs etc) encouraged ordiscouraged adoption and represented the interests ofpoor people

Markets and marketingSmall farmers have major problems coping with a rangeof difficulties in the face of the complexity and generalinefficiency of the prevailing marketing chains Foremost

among these is access to marketing and to the marketingchain At present inadequate access to market outlets andweak marketing arrangements represent a majorconstraint to the production to consumption systems and tothe owners and producers of animals As a consequencesmall farmers are often denied compelling opportunitiesand economic benefits The market chain involves ruralperi-urban urban and international markets and a majorchallenge will lie in ways to link small farmers with thesemarkets and marketing systems

Rural markets are especially important to rural com-munities and their households and are also used for thesale of live animals for slaughter in the urban areas Inorder to provide good links between rural and urbanmarkets appropriate infrastructural and communicationfacilities must be in place in addition to collection andprocessing centres Without improved marketing andtransport systems the prevailing systems constitute majorconstraints to the sale of animals and products from smallfarms Because of the greater market demand for animalproducts in urban areas transport facilities becomeessential Urban markets are the outlets for exports andpromote international trade

Considerable opportunities exist for participation inthe international trade of meats in the Middle East regionTo compete in world markets however quality standardsprocessing and storage facilities become essentialAdditionally for the Muslim world and the huge marketsin the Middle East meeting lsquohalalrsquo standards is also vitalAssociated with international trade is the impact ofglobalization and the lowering of tariff and non-tariffbarriers involving opening up market opportunities forcountries on the one hand and on the other severecompetitiveness for low-cost products Efficientproduction post-production to consumption and market-ing systems are therefore crucial to maintain a sustainableand competitive position

Policy issues

A number of policy issues need to be resolved to supportthe future development of small farms and increasedcontributions from them Such policies will also besupportive of increased investments in their developmentas well as pro-poor initiatives For reasons of brevitythese will not be discussed in detail but are identifiedinter alia as follows

bull A first essential is affirmative development policy forimproved understanding of small farms currentsituation and trends and potential future contribu-tions

bull The aspirations of small farmers and the syndrome of apovertyndashadaptationndashfragile livesndashlittle hopendashlow lifeexpectancy complex will need new attention onaccount of globalization and their vulnerability Socio-economic research can make a major contribution here

bull Associated with the above is the role of animals as theentry point for development especially in the moredifficult rainfed environments outside of the irrigatedareas that have been bypassed by the green revolution

bull Research and development on the complexity andheterogeneity of small farm systems NRM and cropndash

19Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

soilndashanimal interactions must necessarily be inter-disciplinary and holistic At present knowledge ofsystems perspectives and adaptive research at the farmlevel are major limitations in most countries Theserepresent major and urgent training needs at thecollege and university levels

bull Animal production in small farm systems has to beseen in the broader context of productionndashpost-productionndashconsumption systems

bull Among the ruminant production systems integrationwith tree crops despite the economic benefits of addedvalue is still underestimated Policy interventions arerequired to stimulate the development of more inte-grated systems with animals for example through taxincentives and also to encourage increased privatesector investment

bull Policy is required to support micro-credit schemesaccess to markets and public services

bull The market chain involves rural urban and inter-national markets Rural markets are especiallyimportant to rural communities and for the sale of liveanimals for slaughter to urban areas At present theruralndashurban market linkages are weak and appropriatepolicies are required to provide improvements to thesecollection and processing centres as well asinfrastructural and communication facilities and toprovide links to international markets

Development pathways

Considered together the challenges for the future of smallfarms in Asia include the following inter alia

bull Based on constraint analyses through community-based participation there should be a focus on priorityneeds to improve animal production systems

bull Diversification should be improved through theappropriate mix of animals with annual or perennialcrops appropriate to mixed farming to intensify pro-duction in rainfed areas

bull Create increased access to information improvedtechnologies and delivery systems which canpotentially impact on total production increasessocioeconomic benefits improved livelihoods andsustainable development

bull Strengthen empowerment to include informal trainingat various levels gender equity and also effectivedissemination of information

bull Promote the formation of cooperatives farmer organi-zations focus groups and farmer-managed revolvingfunds to enhance decision making and resource plan-ning These enhance reduced transaction costs andimproved marketing to obtain better returns for theproduce The successful Anand model of IndiarsquoslsquoOperation Floodrsquo involved making farmersshareholders in the whole chain of marketing andprocessing milk and is worthy of note and emulation

bull Promote pro-poor initiatives that are consistent withincome growth socioeconomic benefits improvedlivelihoods and self-reliance

Cooperative development is largely dependent on thecapacity of farmers to be self-reliant so as to benefit fromeconomies of scale bargaining power competitiveness in

agribusiness as well as reduced market risksAgricultural cooperatives are very variable in Asia andthese remain to be more fully developed in manycountries In China for example cooperatives are verylimited and a nationwide need for their establishment toovercome natural and market risks has recently beensuggested (Chuanmin and Falla 2006) Fully developedcooperatives are dynamic contribute significantly to ruraldevelopment and can enable small farm systems torespond to market dictates and consumer needs

Conclusions

Small farm systems will remain an integral part of Asianagriculture and will continue to occupy a predominantposition in food production within an overwhelmingpanorama of varied agricultural activities in the variousAEZs These small farms are models of diversification inNRM and resilience They will continue to play animportant contributory role in the production of a highproportion of ruminant meats and milk in particular andin enhancing the natural resource base They will alsohelp alleviate poverty hunger and food insecurity for thesizeable populations of rural poor despite the threat ofincreasing globalization economies of scaleintensification and commercialization in the foreseeablefuture There are major constraints to their developmentof course but there are also compelling opportunities andeconomic benefits that involve community-based manage-ment of natural resources Social and effectivedevelopment policies are also needed that can togetherstimulate increased contributions from these farms to thefood chain ndash within an enabling economic environment ndashand can spur agricultural development

ReferencesAdams D and Coward E W (1972) Small Farmer Development

Strategies Agricultural Development Council New YorkAlston J (2002) lsquoSpilloversrsquo Australian Journal of Agricultural

Research and Resource Economics Vol 48 pp 315ndash336Blummel M Zerbini E Reddy B V S Hash C T Bidinger

F and Khan A A (2003) lsquoImproving the production andutilisation of sorghum and millet in livestock feed progresstowards dual-purpose genotypesrsquo Field Crops Research Vol 84pp 143ndash158

CGIARTAC ndash Consultative Group on International AgriculturalResearchTechnical Advisory Committee (2000) lsquoCGIARpriorities for marginal landsrsquo CGIAR Washingtion DC(mimeograph)

Chantalakhana C (1990) lsquoSmall farm animal production andsustainable agriculturersquo Proceedings III AsianndashAustralasianAnimal Science Congress 27 Mayndash1 June Taipei Taiwan Vol 2 pp39ndash58

Chantalakhana C and Skunmun P (2002) Sustainable Small-holder Animal Systems in the Tropics Kasetsart University PressBangkok

Chuanmin S and Falla J S (2006) lsquoAgro-industrialization acomparative study of China and developed countriesrsquo Outlookon Agriculture Vol 35 No 3 pp 177ndash182

Delgado C Rosegrant M Steinfeld H Ehui S and CourboisC (1999) lsquoLivestock to 2020 The next food revolutionrsquo FoodAgriculture and the Environment Discussion Paper No 28 Interna-tional Food Policy Research Institute Washington DC

Devendra C (1983) lsquoSmall farm systems combining crops andanimalsrsquo Proceedings of Fifth World Conference in AnimalProduction14ndash18 August Tokyo Japan Vol 1 pp 173ndash191

14 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Figure 7 Integration of sheep with coconut production in thePhilippinesPhoto copy C Devendra

Figure 8 Cattle integrated with oil palm in MalaysiaPhoto copy C Devendra

respectively With larger farms of more than 4 ha theincidence was reduced by 13 and 12 respectively

In the rural areas poverty is a rural dilemma The ruralpoor depend to a very large extent directly or indirectlyon the farm for at least four major objectives incomesbuilding assets food security and improved livelihoodsPro-poor development objectives therefore need to make aconcerted effort to address these objectives and thewidening gap between the lsquohavesrsquo in the high-potentialareas and the lsquohave-notsrsquo in the rainfed zones Develop-ment efforts and investment aid thus remain a majorchallenge for the development community since thealleviation of poverty and increased resourcefulness willinfluence increased productivity

These poor people are disadvantaged in a multitude ofways the elements of which consist of variousinterrelated issues inter alia including chronic hungermalnutrition and ill health inadequate or no access tomost amenities deprivation and despair These togetherresult in a continuing syndrome of a povertyndashadaptationndashfragile livesndashlittle hopendashlow life expectancy complex inwhich the potential to be fully participatory andproductive is significantly reduced Poor farmers long forand dream of dignity self-reliance and empowerment(Devendra and Chantalakhana 2002)

Table 5 presents the proportion of poor livestockkeepers by production system and region and severalobservations are relevant to this First across regionsmixed rainfed systems had the highest proportion of poor

Table 3 Variation in the size of small farms in some countries

Country Definition

Bangladesh (a) Subsistence farmerscroppers lt 04 ha(b) Viable and potentially viable owners 04ndash08 ha

India (a) Small farmers 2ndash4 ha of dry land (1 ha dry land = 08 ha of wetland)(b) Marginal farmers 08ndash2 ha of dry land(c) Agricultual labourers lt 08 ha of dry land

Indonesia (a) Java 066 ha(b) Average size 12 ha

Korea lt 1 haMalaysia (a) Rice faros 16ndash17 ha

(b) Rubber smallholdings 21 haNepal (a) Terai 4 bighas (25 ha)

(b) Hills 175 bighas (10 ha)Philippines Average size 28 haSri Lanka (a) Agricultural households 12 ha

(b) Rice-cultivating households 03 haThailand Non-canal-irrigated areas 24 ha

Source FAO 2001 2004

Table 4 Trends in the average size of farms in selectedcountries

Country Year Average farm size (ha)

China 1980 061990 041999 04

India 1971 231991 16

1995ndash96 14Indonesia 1973 11

1993 09Nepal 1992 10

2002 08Pakistan 1971ndash73 53

1989 382000 21

Philippines 1971 361991 22

Source FAO 2001 2004 data on China are from Fan and Chang-Kang 2003

livestock keepers Within these systems and withinregions South Asia and South-east and East Asiaaccounted for 59ndash60 of total poor livestock keepersMixed irrigated systems were the next highest with 29ndash337 The higher number of poor livestock keepers in themixed farming systems in rainfed areas is consistent withthe higher proportion of rural poor found in thecombined marginal arid lands forests and woodlands(Table 1)

About 14 of poor livestock keepers are in the landlesscategory mainly in the arid and semi-arid regions (Table1) and are found mainly in the arid and semi-arid Hindu-Kush Himalayan region Mongolia China Pakistan andIndia Animal production involves zero-grazing practicesand extensive systems that are associated with resource-

15Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Table 5 Proportion of poor livestock keepers within production system by region ()

Production Developing Sub-Saharan N Africa and South East and Latin Americasystem countries Africa Near East Asia S E Asia and Caribbean

Grassland-based systems 71 131 143 25 18 90Mixed rainfed systems 660 779 566 601 593 679Mixed irrigated systems 185 04 169 337 290 36Landless 84 85 121 37 99 195

Source Thornton et al 2002

poor nomads transhumants or agricultural labourers andseasonal migrants with small ruminants cattle andcamels The movements are annual cycles that aretriggered by reduced feed and water supplies inadequatemarket opportunities and loss-minimizing strategies(Devendra 1998) This is also a way of life for the poorand the ownership of animals enables survival and alsofood and financial security

Within Asia the largest numbers of poor people arefound in India The country has reduced absolute povertyfrom about 55 in the 1970s to about 35 today Thepercentage of rural poor out of the total poor is about79 as a consequence of which the major focus is on thisrural sector and ways to stimulate agricultural growth toovercome persistent poverty Associated with thissituation however are the very high infant mortalityrates a high percentage of infants not surviving to age 40years and underweight children under the age of fiveyears (Human Development Report 2001)

Role and contribution of animals

Animals play an important role in small farm systems andmake a number of valuable contributions They occupy animportant economic and ecological niche in these systemsthroughout Asia Animals are widely owned by smallfarmers for a variety of advantageous reasons (Devendra1983 Chantalakhana 1990)

bull diversification in the use of production resources andreduction of socioeconomic risks

bull promotion of linkages between system components(land crops and water)

bull generation of value-added products (eg meat milkeggs and skins)

bull income generation investment insurance andeconomic security

bull supply of draught power for crop cultivationtransportation and haulage operations

bull contribution to soil fertility through nutrient cycling(dung and urine)

bull prestige social and recreational valuesbull contribution to sustainable agriculture and environ-

mental protection andbull development of stable farm households

The role and contributions of animals in small farms arefar more varied and complex than in specializedcommercial farms due to the close and varied relation-ships with farm families interactions with crops socialvalues and prevailing agricultural systems The

multipurpose roles and contributions by animalsgenerally fall into four categories

(1) household benefits(2) increased productivity in integrated farming systems(3) sustainability of agricultural systems and environ-

mental integrity and(4) enhancement of rural and social stability

The many functions of animals are well known howeverthere are important additional features and implicationsconcerning the role of animals in small farms These are asfollows

First the irrigated areas are home to the majority ofswamp buffaloes some cattle pigs and poultry and theperi-urban and urban areas have the bulk of the landlessindustrial pig and poultry production systems Outside ofthese areas and within the rainfed lowlands and uplands51ndash55 of the total population of cattle and smallruminants in Asia is kept (TAC 1992) including smallerpopulations of native pigs and poultry In the lattersituation therefore the value of these species and theircontributions increase with the decreasing quality of theecosystem in the face of harsher biophysical factors Inthese circumstances the ownership of animals is vitalfor survival financial (lsquobanks on hoovesrsquo) and foodsecurity production of dung to sustain cropproduction and enhancement of the natural resourcebase

Second the interactions with the environment inrainfed environments are much more serious such as inovergrazing lsquoslash and burnrsquo issues and depletion anddegradation of the natural resources Improvedproduction systems that involve controlled managementof grazing animals are therefore vital to maintain environ-mental integrity

Third the presence of a relatively large proportion ofruminant animals in the rainfed areas clearly implies aneed for their development and for an emphasis on theseareas A focus on improved animal production systems istherefore a most important prerequisite for promotingtotal factor productivity in these same areas

A fundamental prerequisite for developing andincreasing productivity from animals in the rainfedareas promoting efficient natural resource managementand protection of the environment is the need toconsider research and development in holistic terms Aholistic approach backed by systems perspectives isvital for dealing with the numerous positive andnegative interactions and heterogeneity of small farmsystems

16 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Strategy for developing small farms address-ing major constraints and opportunities

The strategy for the development of small farms needs toaddress several issues and constraints in order to pursueopportunities for productivity enhancement These are asfollows

Institutional support for research and developmentThe first requirement is a belief in the potentialimportance and contribution of small farms and thereforetheir development in Asia in the future Institutionalcommitment support for and a reorientation of researchand development philosophy and recognition of thecomplexity of the issues involved are fundamental to thisendeavour An agenda for research and developmentprerogatives is required that includes the following

bull programme focus and target AEZsbull a clear set of objectivesbull prioritization of effort for multidisciplinary and partici-

patory approaches that respond to the needs of smallfarmers

bull linkages with development agents and the privatesector

bull a time framebull potential biological and socioeconomic benefits and

impacts andbull potential lsquospilloversrsquo to other locations and regions

(Alston 2002) including trans-regionally

Without these considerations much needed improve-ments in the productivity of small farms and livelihoodsof small farmers are unlikely to be achieved

Natural resource managementUnderstanding the natural resource base is essential forits effective management and to optimize productionNRM involves the components (land crops animals andwater) as well as their synergies the interactions of thecomponents and their positive and negativeimplications Associated aspects related to thistask include the following

bull importance of indigenous knowledge and traditionalmethods used by farmers to meet their objectives andneeds

bull biodiversitybull community-based NRM practicesbull integration of NRM components and production

systemsbull productivity-enhancing and needs-based technologiesbull issues of sustainability and sustainable development

andbull development of multidisciplinary models and partner-

ships that target the development of small farmsystems

The benefits of improved NRM technology applicationand opportunities for productivity enhancement are many(Devendra 2001) This is clearly reflected in a recentreview of the benefits of cropndashanimal interactions andattendant economic advantages from 31 studies in 11countries concerning small farms across a variety ofAEZs mixed farming systems various species of animals

and both annual and perennial crops in Asia (Devendra2007) The range of farming systems involved and moreparticularly the application of needs-based newtechnologies in individual countries demonstrate whatcan also be achieved in terms of the types and extent ofbenefits in small farms Effective NRM has necessarily tobe very much participatory and needs to build onindigenous knowledge and traditional systems The needfor trust reciprocity and connectedness in institutions inthe collective management and improvement of naturalresources is equally important and has been emphasized(Pretty 2003)

Targeting more effective NRM in small farms is there-fore urgent and is also justified by the following factors

bull the need for increased productivity in Asia with itsmassive human populations population growth rateand poor people

bull distinct opportunities for productivity enhancementbased on the knowledge already available

bull focusing more attention on the application of locallygenerated agricultural technologies and theirspillovers which will promote increased self-reliance

bull investments in productivity-enhancing research anddevelopment which are decreasing and difficult toobtain and

bull effective use of NRM which also has the advantage ofpreserving indigenous knowledge traditional systemsand biodiversity

Targeting research and development of rainfed areasThe rationale and justification for targeting the rainfedareas in Asia are related to three important reasonsinadequate availability of arable land the need to increaseproductivity from animals to match projected humanneeds and the alleviation of poverty (Devendra 2000a)The decreasing availability of arable land with humanpopulation increase is reflected in the projected decreasefrom between 017 and 10 haperson in 198890 tobetween 005 and 030 haperson by 2010 (FAO 1998)Inadequate arable land is associated with the followingreasons

bull demand for agricultural land to meet human needs eghousing recreation and industrialization

bull expansion of crop production to ceiling levelsbull increasing and very high animal densitiesbull increased urbanization and use of arable land andbull growing environmental concerns due to very intensive

crop production eg acidification and salinization withrice cultivation and human health risks due to expand-ing peri-urban poultry and pig production

Poverty is a major concern since the rainfed areas alsohave large populations of the poorest of the poor the vastmajority of whom live below the US$1day yardstick It isestimated that about 678 million of the rural poor keeplivestock in developing countries and this representstwo-thirds of the rural poor (Livestock in Development1999) The poverty dimension includes eight elements(IFAD 2001) material deprivation lack of assetsisolation alienation dependence lack of decision-makingpower vulnerability to external shocks and insecurity

These circumstances place much stress on the use of

17Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

natural resources and thus force a need to look beyondthe use of arable land in the irrigated areas and to focusmuch needed attention on the more difficult rainfed areasFor example rainfed lowland and upland areas areunderutilized This is reflected in the availability ofapproximately 141 times 106 ha of land or 43 of the totalarable land in Asia (TAC 1992)

The rainfed areas have been constrained by manyfactors such as roads and market access and hence havebeen relatively underutilized and also bypassed byresearch and development The development of ruralroads is especially significant and in China for exampleit has been shown that every yuan invested in low-qualityroads yielded five yuan of rural non-farm gross domesticproduct (GDP) Moreover low-quality roads raise morepeople out of poverty per yuan than high-quality roads(Fan and Chan-Kang 2005) Increased rural roads alsocontribute to market access Water is another constraintand without adequate irrigation systems rainfed areashave not been able to increase productivity and capacityThese constraints can however be overcome by increasedresearch and development attention technology deliveryand market-oriented production systems It is alsoimportant to note that in studies in India (Fan Hazell andThorat 2000) and China (Fan Zhang and Zhang 2000)the returns on investment are very much higher in theseareas compared with areas that have benefited from thegreen revolution

The strategy for the development of small farms musttherefore give priority to rainfed areas especially to thepotentially more important locations Within theseanimal production can strategically serve as the entrypoint to address food production pro-poor initiativescollective management and improvement of the naturalresources that are needs-led Interdisciplinary researchand development efforts that target AEZs serve to addressthe major constraints and opportunities

The systems approach and interdisciplinarityA notable and consistent weakness of the research anddevelopment process and programmes in most nationalagricultural systems concerned with animal production inAsia is the near absence of the use of the systemsapproach Much of the research continues along strongdisciplinary lines without reference to the needs of thesmall farm systems and the AEZs where they are found(Devendra 1996 2006) Despite the dominant emphasison mixed farming in Asia research on cropndashanimalsystems is seldom integrated and with rare exceptionsvery few institutions recognize the importance of trainingin systems research As a consequence the complex andinterrelated systems-based problems in cropndashanimalsystems are not addressed in holistic terms This tendencyexplains why improved productivity from animals insmall farm systems is slow to be realized To a very largeextent the same reasons also apply to the general neglectof the rainfed areas the inadequate productivity fromsmall farm systems therein and the contribution fromanimals

The systems approach requires multi-andinterdisciplinary interpretation of the differentcomponents of the system and biophysical environmentidentified through detailed analyses of the constraints

needs and opportunities These ensure that the individualcomponents interactions and contributions can focus onthe whole system Considering the complexities of smallfarm systems the heterogeneity of the biophysicalenvironment and the various types of mixed farmingactivities therein systems perspectives are therefore ofparamount importance in improving understanding anddevelopment of the increased contribution of these farms

The methodology for systems research is distinct andfollows several sequential steps

(1) site selection(2) site description and characterization (diagnosis)(3) planning of on-farm research(4) on-farm testing and validation of alternatives(5) dissemination of results and(6) impact assessment

The systems approach needs to be backed by otherimportant requirements

bull recognition of the importance of interdisciplinaryparticipatory approaches

bull formulation of research programmes that havecommunity-based participation to set a commonagenda and create ownership (this should involve bothproduction and post-production systems)

bull programmes that are needs-led and have institutionaland structural commitment

bull establishment of effective participatory planning inter-institutional coordination and collaboration researchmanagement dissemination of information andresolution of feedback issues

bull long-term commitment to achieving impacts andbull training in agricultural systems and systems

methodologies at various levels

Associated with these methodologies much more can alsobe done to improve the socioeconomic understanding ofthe rural landless poor This includes taking into accountinter alia their way of life and aspirations their seasonalmovements together with their moving flocks of camelscattle goats and sheep reasons for the choice and extentof animal ownership constraints to their livelihoods andloss-minimizing strategies These and the foregoing issuesjustify further research investments to improve thesituation

Feed resources and nutritionForemost among the constraints to animal producton arefeed resources and nutrition which constitute the majorconstraint throughout South-east Asia (Devendra et al1997) and South Asia (Devendra et al 2000) The strategyfor feed resource use needs to take cognizance of thefollowing interrelated issues (Devendra 2000b)

bull knowledge of the totality of available feeds (grassesand forages crop residues agro-industrial by-productsand non-conventional sources)

bull appropriateness and effective use within productionsystems

bull feeds and their use should be identified with farmingsystems and self-reliance and

bull potential promotion of linkages between rural andperi-urban areas in the use of production inputs

18 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

intensification nutrient flows and marketing ofproduce that is consistent with environmental integrity

Given the critical long dry seasons and feed shortages inthese environments together with the possibilities ofincreasing feed production to overcome the shortages thesynchronization of feed availability to match speciesrequirements along with methods of conservation aremajor opportunities An example of this approachincludes foodndashfeed cropping eg rice and mung beancassava and cowpea (Devendra Sevilla and Pezo 2001)forage production in rice bunds and under tree cropsalley cropping planting tree legumes such as Gliricidia orLeucaena for forage production and the use of multi-nutrient block licks (MNBL) Other options include thedevelopment and promotion of dual-purpose (seeds andforage) sorghum millet and groundnut with resistance tofoliar diseases and higher biomass yields in southernIndia (Blummel et al 2003) especially to support dairyproduction and reduced fallows The resolution ofconstraints can produce significant impacts on increasedper animal performance and improved livelihoods ofresource-poor farmers and can enhance existingproductivity gaps in these areas The final objective ofthese improvements should be the development ofsustainable all-year-round feeding systems

Access to technologies and delivery systemsAccess to improved and appropriate technologies is amajor constraint with small farmers The problem isparticularly manifested among small farmers and smallfarms in the rainfed areas that have been bypassed by thegreen revolution These same areas are also often remoteand have poor communications resulting in furtherdifficulties For these and other reasons researchprogrammes have tended to ignore these situationsAssociated with access to improved technologies areweak delivery systems which do not facilitate effectivetechnology transfer and adoption to accelerateproductivity This is a major weakness in researchprogrammes that do not formulate and ensureparticipatory adaptive research and on-farm developmentactivities or strengthening of effective researchndashextensionlinkages to ensure maximum adoption

It is of interest to note that analyses of seven countrycase studies (Meinzen-Dick et al 2004) have shown thatthree main factors affected technology adoption

bull vulnerability ndash whether the technologies were expectedto increase or decrease peoplersquos vulnerability to loss ofincome bad health natural disasters and other factors

bull assets ndash whether farmers had the assets necessary fortechnology adoption ndash especially if they were poor and

bull institutions ndash whether institutions (such as agriculturalextension services government policies non-govern-mental organizations private sector gender rolesmarkets for inputs and outputs etc) encouraged ordiscouraged adoption and represented the interests ofpoor people

Markets and marketingSmall farmers have major problems coping with a rangeof difficulties in the face of the complexity and generalinefficiency of the prevailing marketing chains Foremost

among these is access to marketing and to the marketingchain At present inadequate access to market outlets andweak marketing arrangements represent a majorconstraint to the production to consumption systems and tothe owners and producers of animals As a consequencesmall farmers are often denied compelling opportunitiesand economic benefits The market chain involves ruralperi-urban urban and international markets and a majorchallenge will lie in ways to link small farmers with thesemarkets and marketing systems

Rural markets are especially important to rural com-munities and their households and are also used for thesale of live animals for slaughter in the urban areas Inorder to provide good links between rural and urbanmarkets appropriate infrastructural and communicationfacilities must be in place in addition to collection andprocessing centres Without improved marketing andtransport systems the prevailing systems constitute majorconstraints to the sale of animals and products from smallfarms Because of the greater market demand for animalproducts in urban areas transport facilities becomeessential Urban markets are the outlets for exports andpromote international trade

Considerable opportunities exist for participation inthe international trade of meats in the Middle East regionTo compete in world markets however quality standardsprocessing and storage facilities become essentialAdditionally for the Muslim world and the huge marketsin the Middle East meeting lsquohalalrsquo standards is also vitalAssociated with international trade is the impact ofglobalization and the lowering of tariff and non-tariffbarriers involving opening up market opportunities forcountries on the one hand and on the other severecompetitiveness for low-cost products Efficientproduction post-production to consumption and market-ing systems are therefore crucial to maintain a sustainableand competitive position

Policy issues

A number of policy issues need to be resolved to supportthe future development of small farms and increasedcontributions from them Such policies will also besupportive of increased investments in their developmentas well as pro-poor initiatives For reasons of brevitythese will not be discussed in detail but are identifiedinter alia as follows

bull A first essential is affirmative development policy forimproved understanding of small farms currentsituation and trends and potential future contribu-tions

bull The aspirations of small farmers and the syndrome of apovertyndashadaptationndashfragile livesndashlittle hopendashlow lifeexpectancy complex will need new attention onaccount of globalization and their vulnerability Socio-economic research can make a major contribution here

bull Associated with the above is the role of animals as theentry point for development especially in the moredifficult rainfed environments outside of the irrigatedareas that have been bypassed by the green revolution

bull Research and development on the complexity andheterogeneity of small farm systems NRM and cropndash

19Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

soilndashanimal interactions must necessarily be inter-disciplinary and holistic At present knowledge ofsystems perspectives and adaptive research at the farmlevel are major limitations in most countries Theserepresent major and urgent training needs at thecollege and university levels

bull Animal production in small farm systems has to beseen in the broader context of productionndashpost-productionndashconsumption systems

bull Among the ruminant production systems integrationwith tree crops despite the economic benefits of addedvalue is still underestimated Policy interventions arerequired to stimulate the development of more inte-grated systems with animals for example through taxincentives and also to encourage increased privatesector investment

bull Policy is required to support micro-credit schemesaccess to markets and public services

bull The market chain involves rural urban and inter-national markets Rural markets are especiallyimportant to rural communities and for the sale of liveanimals for slaughter to urban areas At present theruralndashurban market linkages are weak and appropriatepolicies are required to provide improvements to thesecollection and processing centres as well asinfrastructural and communication facilities and toprovide links to international markets

Development pathways

Considered together the challenges for the future of smallfarms in Asia include the following inter alia

bull Based on constraint analyses through community-based participation there should be a focus on priorityneeds to improve animal production systems

bull Diversification should be improved through theappropriate mix of animals with annual or perennialcrops appropriate to mixed farming to intensify pro-duction in rainfed areas

bull Create increased access to information improvedtechnologies and delivery systems which canpotentially impact on total production increasessocioeconomic benefits improved livelihoods andsustainable development

bull Strengthen empowerment to include informal trainingat various levels gender equity and also effectivedissemination of information

bull Promote the formation of cooperatives farmer organi-zations focus groups and farmer-managed revolvingfunds to enhance decision making and resource plan-ning These enhance reduced transaction costs andimproved marketing to obtain better returns for theproduce The successful Anand model of IndiarsquoslsquoOperation Floodrsquo involved making farmersshareholders in the whole chain of marketing andprocessing milk and is worthy of note and emulation

bull Promote pro-poor initiatives that are consistent withincome growth socioeconomic benefits improvedlivelihoods and self-reliance

Cooperative development is largely dependent on thecapacity of farmers to be self-reliant so as to benefit fromeconomies of scale bargaining power competitiveness in

agribusiness as well as reduced market risksAgricultural cooperatives are very variable in Asia andthese remain to be more fully developed in manycountries In China for example cooperatives are verylimited and a nationwide need for their establishment toovercome natural and market risks has recently beensuggested (Chuanmin and Falla 2006) Fully developedcooperatives are dynamic contribute significantly to ruraldevelopment and can enable small farm systems torespond to market dictates and consumer needs

Conclusions

Small farm systems will remain an integral part of Asianagriculture and will continue to occupy a predominantposition in food production within an overwhelmingpanorama of varied agricultural activities in the variousAEZs These small farms are models of diversification inNRM and resilience They will continue to play animportant contributory role in the production of a highproportion of ruminant meats and milk in particular andin enhancing the natural resource base They will alsohelp alleviate poverty hunger and food insecurity for thesizeable populations of rural poor despite the threat ofincreasing globalization economies of scaleintensification and commercialization in the foreseeablefuture There are major constraints to their developmentof course but there are also compelling opportunities andeconomic benefits that involve community-based manage-ment of natural resources Social and effectivedevelopment policies are also needed that can togetherstimulate increased contributions from these farms to thefood chain ndash within an enabling economic environment ndashand can spur agricultural development

ReferencesAdams D and Coward E W (1972) Small Farmer Development

Strategies Agricultural Development Council New YorkAlston J (2002) lsquoSpilloversrsquo Australian Journal of Agricultural

Research and Resource Economics Vol 48 pp 315ndash336Blummel M Zerbini E Reddy B V S Hash C T Bidinger

F and Khan A A (2003) lsquoImproving the production andutilisation of sorghum and millet in livestock feed progresstowards dual-purpose genotypesrsquo Field Crops Research Vol 84pp 143ndash158

CGIARTAC ndash Consultative Group on International AgriculturalResearchTechnical Advisory Committee (2000) lsquoCGIARpriorities for marginal landsrsquo CGIAR Washingtion DC(mimeograph)

Chantalakhana C (1990) lsquoSmall farm animal production andsustainable agriculturersquo Proceedings III AsianndashAustralasianAnimal Science Congress 27 Mayndash1 June Taipei Taiwan Vol 2 pp39ndash58

Chantalakhana C and Skunmun P (2002) Sustainable Small-holder Animal Systems in the Tropics Kasetsart University PressBangkok

Chuanmin S and Falla J S (2006) lsquoAgro-industrialization acomparative study of China and developed countriesrsquo Outlookon Agriculture Vol 35 No 3 pp 177ndash182

Delgado C Rosegrant M Steinfeld H Ehui S and CourboisC (1999) lsquoLivestock to 2020 The next food revolutionrsquo FoodAgriculture and the Environment Discussion Paper No 28 Interna-tional Food Policy Research Institute Washington DC

Devendra C (1983) lsquoSmall farm systems combining crops andanimalsrsquo Proceedings of Fifth World Conference in AnimalProduction14ndash18 August Tokyo Japan Vol 1 pp 173ndash191

15Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Table 5 Proportion of poor livestock keepers within production system by region ()

Production Developing Sub-Saharan N Africa and South East and Latin Americasystem countries Africa Near East Asia S E Asia and Caribbean

Grassland-based systems 71 131 143 25 18 90Mixed rainfed systems 660 779 566 601 593 679Mixed irrigated systems 185 04 169 337 290 36Landless 84 85 121 37 99 195

Source Thornton et al 2002

poor nomads transhumants or agricultural labourers andseasonal migrants with small ruminants cattle andcamels The movements are annual cycles that aretriggered by reduced feed and water supplies inadequatemarket opportunities and loss-minimizing strategies(Devendra 1998) This is also a way of life for the poorand the ownership of animals enables survival and alsofood and financial security

Within Asia the largest numbers of poor people arefound in India The country has reduced absolute povertyfrom about 55 in the 1970s to about 35 today Thepercentage of rural poor out of the total poor is about79 as a consequence of which the major focus is on thisrural sector and ways to stimulate agricultural growth toovercome persistent poverty Associated with thissituation however are the very high infant mortalityrates a high percentage of infants not surviving to age 40years and underweight children under the age of fiveyears (Human Development Report 2001)

Role and contribution of animals

Animals play an important role in small farm systems andmake a number of valuable contributions They occupy animportant economic and ecological niche in these systemsthroughout Asia Animals are widely owned by smallfarmers for a variety of advantageous reasons (Devendra1983 Chantalakhana 1990)

bull diversification in the use of production resources andreduction of socioeconomic risks

bull promotion of linkages between system components(land crops and water)

bull generation of value-added products (eg meat milkeggs and skins)

bull income generation investment insurance andeconomic security

bull supply of draught power for crop cultivationtransportation and haulage operations

bull contribution to soil fertility through nutrient cycling(dung and urine)

bull prestige social and recreational valuesbull contribution to sustainable agriculture and environ-

mental protection andbull development of stable farm households

The role and contributions of animals in small farms arefar more varied and complex than in specializedcommercial farms due to the close and varied relation-ships with farm families interactions with crops socialvalues and prevailing agricultural systems The

multipurpose roles and contributions by animalsgenerally fall into four categories

(1) household benefits(2) increased productivity in integrated farming systems(3) sustainability of agricultural systems and environ-

mental integrity and(4) enhancement of rural and social stability

The many functions of animals are well known howeverthere are important additional features and implicationsconcerning the role of animals in small farms These are asfollows

First the irrigated areas are home to the majority ofswamp buffaloes some cattle pigs and poultry and theperi-urban and urban areas have the bulk of the landlessindustrial pig and poultry production systems Outside ofthese areas and within the rainfed lowlands and uplands51ndash55 of the total population of cattle and smallruminants in Asia is kept (TAC 1992) including smallerpopulations of native pigs and poultry In the lattersituation therefore the value of these species and theircontributions increase with the decreasing quality of theecosystem in the face of harsher biophysical factors Inthese circumstances the ownership of animals is vitalfor survival financial (lsquobanks on hoovesrsquo) and foodsecurity production of dung to sustain cropproduction and enhancement of the natural resourcebase

Second the interactions with the environment inrainfed environments are much more serious such as inovergrazing lsquoslash and burnrsquo issues and depletion anddegradation of the natural resources Improvedproduction systems that involve controlled managementof grazing animals are therefore vital to maintain environ-mental integrity

Third the presence of a relatively large proportion ofruminant animals in the rainfed areas clearly implies aneed for their development and for an emphasis on theseareas A focus on improved animal production systems istherefore a most important prerequisite for promotingtotal factor productivity in these same areas

A fundamental prerequisite for developing andincreasing productivity from animals in the rainfedareas promoting efficient natural resource managementand protection of the environment is the need toconsider research and development in holistic terms Aholistic approach backed by systems perspectives isvital for dealing with the numerous positive andnegative interactions and heterogeneity of small farmsystems

16 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Strategy for developing small farms address-ing major constraints and opportunities

The strategy for the development of small farms needs toaddress several issues and constraints in order to pursueopportunities for productivity enhancement These are asfollows

Institutional support for research and developmentThe first requirement is a belief in the potentialimportance and contribution of small farms and thereforetheir development in Asia in the future Institutionalcommitment support for and a reorientation of researchand development philosophy and recognition of thecomplexity of the issues involved are fundamental to thisendeavour An agenda for research and developmentprerogatives is required that includes the following

bull programme focus and target AEZsbull a clear set of objectivesbull prioritization of effort for multidisciplinary and partici-

patory approaches that respond to the needs of smallfarmers

bull linkages with development agents and the privatesector

bull a time framebull potential biological and socioeconomic benefits and

impacts andbull potential lsquospilloversrsquo to other locations and regions

(Alston 2002) including trans-regionally

Without these considerations much needed improve-ments in the productivity of small farms and livelihoodsof small farmers are unlikely to be achieved

Natural resource managementUnderstanding the natural resource base is essential forits effective management and to optimize productionNRM involves the components (land crops animals andwater) as well as their synergies the interactions of thecomponents and their positive and negativeimplications Associated aspects related to thistask include the following

bull importance of indigenous knowledge and traditionalmethods used by farmers to meet their objectives andneeds

bull biodiversitybull community-based NRM practicesbull integration of NRM components and production

systemsbull productivity-enhancing and needs-based technologiesbull issues of sustainability and sustainable development

andbull development of multidisciplinary models and partner-

ships that target the development of small farmsystems

The benefits of improved NRM technology applicationand opportunities for productivity enhancement are many(Devendra 2001) This is clearly reflected in a recentreview of the benefits of cropndashanimal interactions andattendant economic advantages from 31 studies in 11countries concerning small farms across a variety ofAEZs mixed farming systems various species of animals

and both annual and perennial crops in Asia (Devendra2007) The range of farming systems involved and moreparticularly the application of needs-based newtechnologies in individual countries demonstrate whatcan also be achieved in terms of the types and extent ofbenefits in small farms Effective NRM has necessarily tobe very much participatory and needs to build onindigenous knowledge and traditional systems The needfor trust reciprocity and connectedness in institutions inthe collective management and improvement of naturalresources is equally important and has been emphasized(Pretty 2003)

Targeting more effective NRM in small farms is there-fore urgent and is also justified by the following factors

bull the need for increased productivity in Asia with itsmassive human populations population growth rateand poor people

bull distinct opportunities for productivity enhancementbased on the knowledge already available

bull focusing more attention on the application of locallygenerated agricultural technologies and theirspillovers which will promote increased self-reliance

bull investments in productivity-enhancing research anddevelopment which are decreasing and difficult toobtain and

bull effective use of NRM which also has the advantage ofpreserving indigenous knowledge traditional systemsand biodiversity

Targeting research and development of rainfed areasThe rationale and justification for targeting the rainfedareas in Asia are related to three important reasonsinadequate availability of arable land the need to increaseproductivity from animals to match projected humanneeds and the alleviation of poverty (Devendra 2000a)The decreasing availability of arable land with humanpopulation increase is reflected in the projected decreasefrom between 017 and 10 haperson in 198890 tobetween 005 and 030 haperson by 2010 (FAO 1998)Inadequate arable land is associated with the followingreasons

bull demand for agricultural land to meet human needs eghousing recreation and industrialization

bull expansion of crop production to ceiling levelsbull increasing and very high animal densitiesbull increased urbanization and use of arable land andbull growing environmental concerns due to very intensive

crop production eg acidification and salinization withrice cultivation and human health risks due to expand-ing peri-urban poultry and pig production

Poverty is a major concern since the rainfed areas alsohave large populations of the poorest of the poor the vastmajority of whom live below the US$1day yardstick It isestimated that about 678 million of the rural poor keeplivestock in developing countries and this representstwo-thirds of the rural poor (Livestock in Development1999) The poverty dimension includes eight elements(IFAD 2001) material deprivation lack of assetsisolation alienation dependence lack of decision-makingpower vulnerability to external shocks and insecurity

These circumstances place much stress on the use of

17Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

natural resources and thus force a need to look beyondthe use of arable land in the irrigated areas and to focusmuch needed attention on the more difficult rainfed areasFor example rainfed lowland and upland areas areunderutilized This is reflected in the availability ofapproximately 141 times 106 ha of land or 43 of the totalarable land in Asia (TAC 1992)

The rainfed areas have been constrained by manyfactors such as roads and market access and hence havebeen relatively underutilized and also bypassed byresearch and development The development of ruralroads is especially significant and in China for exampleit has been shown that every yuan invested in low-qualityroads yielded five yuan of rural non-farm gross domesticproduct (GDP) Moreover low-quality roads raise morepeople out of poverty per yuan than high-quality roads(Fan and Chan-Kang 2005) Increased rural roads alsocontribute to market access Water is another constraintand without adequate irrigation systems rainfed areashave not been able to increase productivity and capacityThese constraints can however be overcome by increasedresearch and development attention technology deliveryand market-oriented production systems It is alsoimportant to note that in studies in India (Fan Hazell andThorat 2000) and China (Fan Zhang and Zhang 2000)the returns on investment are very much higher in theseareas compared with areas that have benefited from thegreen revolution

The strategy for the development of small farms musttherefore give priority to rainfed areas especially to thepotentially more important locations Within theseanimal production can strategically serve as the entrypoint to address food production pro-poor initiativescollective management and improvement of the naturalresources that are needs-led Interdisciplinary researchand development efforts that target AEZs serve to addressthe major constraints and opportunities

The systems approach and interdisciplinarityA notable and consistent weakness of the research anddevelopment process and programmes in most nationalagricultural systems concerned with animal production inAsia is the near absence of the use of the systemsapproach Much of the research continues along strongdisciplinary lines without reference to the needs of thesmall farm systems and the AEZs where they are found(Devendra 1996 2006) Despite the dominant emphasison mixed farming in Asia research on cropndashanimalsystems is seldom integrated and with rare exceptionsvery few institutions recognize the importance of trainingin systems research As a consequence the complex andinterrelated systems-based problems in cropndashanimalsystems are not addressed in holistic terms This tendencyexplains why improved productivity from animals insmall farm systems is slow to be realized To a very largeextent the same reasons also apply to the general neglectof the rainfed areas the inadequate productivity fromsmall farm systems therein and the contribution fromanimals

The systems approach requires multi-andinterdisciplinary interpretation of the differentcomponents of the system and biophysical environmentidentified through detailed analyses of the constraints

needs and opportunities These ensure that the individualcomponents interactions and contributions can focus onthe whole system Considering the complexities of smallfarm systems the heterogeneity of the biophysicalenvironment and the various types of mixed farmingactivities therein systems perspectives are therefore ofparamount importance in improving understanding anddevelopment of the increased contribution of these farms

The methodology for systems research is distinct andfollows several sequential steps

(1) site selection(2) site description and characterization (diagnosis)(3) planning of on-farm research(4) on-farm testing and validation of alternatives(5) dissemination of results and(6) impact assessment

The systems approach needs to be backed by otherimportant requirements

bull recognition of the importance of interdisciplinaryparticipatory approaches

bull formulation of research programmes that havecommunity-based participation to set a commonagenda and create ownership (this should involve bothproduction and post-production systems)

bull programmes that are needs-led and have institutionaland structural commitment

bull establishment of effective participatory planning inter-institutional coordination and collaboration researchmanagement dissemination of information andresolution of feedback issues

bull long-term commitment to achieving impacts andbull training in agricultural systems and systems

methodologies at various levels

Associated with these methodologies much more can alsobe done to improve the socioeconomic understanding ofthe rural landless poor This includes taking into accountinter alia their way of life and aspirations their seasonalmovements together with their moving flocks of camelscattle goats and sheep reasons for the choice and extentof animal ownership constraints to their livelihoods andloss-minimizing strategies These and the foregoing issuesjustify further research investments to improve thesituation

Feed resources and nutritionForemost among the constraints to animal producton arefeed resources and nutrition which constitute the majorconstraint throughout South-east Asia (Devendra et al1997) and South Asia (Devendra et al 2000) The strategyfor feed resource use needs to take cognizance of thefollowing interrelated issues (Devendra 2000b)

bull knowledge of the totality of available feeds (grassesand forages crop residues agro-industrial by-productsand non-conventional sources)

bull appropriateness and effective use within productionsystems

bull feeds and their use should be identified with farmingsystems and self-reliance and

bull potential promotion of linkages between rural andperi-urban areas in the use of production inputs

18 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

intensification nutrient flows and marketing ofproduce that is consistent with environmental integrity

Given the critical long dry seasons and feed shortages inthese environments together with the possibilities ofincreasing feed production to overcome the shortages thesynchronization of feed availability to match speciesrequirements along with methods of conservation aremajor opportunities An example of this approachincludes foodndashfeed cropping eg rice and mung beancassava and cowpea (Devendra Sevilla and Pezo 2001)forage production in rice bunds and under tree cropsalley cropping planting tree legumes such as Gliricidia orLeucaena for forage production and the use of multi-nutrient block licks (MNBL) Other options include thedevelopment and promotion of dual-purpose (seeds andforage) sorghum millet and groundnut with resistance tofoliar diseases and higher biomass yields in southernIndia (Blummel et al 2003) especially to support dairyproduction and reduced fallows The resolution ofconstraints can produce significant impacts on increasedper animal performance and improved livelihoods ofresource-poor farmers and can enhance existingproductivity gaps in these areas The final objective ofthese improvements should be the development ofsustainable all-year-round feeding systems

Access to technologies and delivery systemsAccess to improved and appropriate technologies is amajor constraint with small farmers The problem isparticularly manifested among small farmers and smallfarms in the rainfed areas that have been bypassed by thegreen revolution These same areas are also often remoteand have poor communications resulting in furtherdifficulties For these and other reasons researchprogrammes have tended to ignore these situationsAssociated with access to improved technologies areweak delivery systems which do not facilitate effectivetechnology transfer and adoption to accelerateproductivity This is a major weakness in researchprogrammes that do not formulate and ensureparticipatory adaptive research and on-farm developmentactivities or strengthening of effective researchndashextensionlinkages to ensure maximum adoption

It is of interest to note that analyses of seven countrycase studies (Meinzen-Dick et al 2004) have shown thatthree main factors affected technology adoption

bull vulnerability ndash whether the technologies were expectedto increase or decrease peoplersquos vulnerability to loss ofincome bad health natural disasters and other factors

bull assets ndash whether farmers had the assets necessary fortechnology adoption ndash especially if they were poor and

bull institutions ndash whether institutions (such as agriculturalextension services government policies non-govern-mental organizations private sector gender rolesmarkets for inputs and outputs etc) encouraged ordiscouraged adoption and represented the interests ofpoor people

Markets and marketingSmall farmers have major problems coping with a rangeof difficulties in the face of the complexity and generalinefficiency of the prevailing marketing chains Foremost

among these is access to marketing and to the marketingchain At present inadequate access to market outlets andweak marketing arrangements represent a majorconstraint to the production to consumption systems and tothe owners and producers of animals As a consequencesmall farmers are often denied compelling opportunitiesand economic benefits The market chain involves ruralperi-urban urban and international markets and a majorchallenge will lie in ways to link small farmers with thesemarkets and marketing systems

Rural markets are especially important to rural com-munities and their households and are also used for thesale of live animals for slaughter in the urban areas Inorder to provide good links between rural and urbanmarkets appropriate infrastructural and communicationfacilities must be in place in addition to collection andprocessing centres Without improved marketing andtransport systems the prevailing systems constitute majorconstraints to the sale of animals and products from smallfarms Because of the greater market demand for animalproducts in urban areas transport facilities becomeessential Urban markets are the outlets for exports andpromote international trade

Considerable opportunities exist for participation inthe international trade of meats in the Middle East regionTo compete in world markets however quality standardsprocessing and storage facilities become essentialAdditionally for the Muslim world and the huge marketsin the Middle East meeting lsquohalalrsquo standards is also vitalAssociated with international trade is the impact ofglobalization and the lowering of tariff and non-tariffbarriers involving opening up market opportunities forcountries on the one hand and on the other severecompetitiveness for low-cost products Efficientproduction post-production to consumption and market-ing systems are therefore crucial to maintain a sustainableand competitive position

Policy issues

A number of policy issues need to be resolved to supportthe future development of small farms and increasedcontributions from them Such policies will also besupportive of increased investments in their developmentas well as pro-poor initiatives For reasons of brevitythese will not be discussed in detail but are identifiedinter alia as follows

bull A first essential is affirmative development policy forimproved understanding of small farms currentsituation and trends and potential future contribu-tions

bull The aspirations of small farmers and the syndrome of apovertyndashadaptationndashfragile livesndashlittle hopendashlow lifeexpectancy complex will need new attention onaccount of globalization and their vulnerability Socio-economic research can make a major contribution here

bull Associated with the above is the role of animals as theentry point for development especially in the moredifficult rainfed environments outside of the irrigatedareas that have been bypassed by the green revolution

bull Research and development on the complexity andheterogeneity of small farm systems NRM and cropndash

19Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

soilndashanimal interactions must necessarily be inter-disciplinary and holistic At present knowledge ofsystems perspectives and adaptive research at the farmlevel are major limitations in most countries Theserepresent major and urgent training needs at thecollege and university levels

bull Animal production in small farm systems has to beseen in the broader context of productionndashpost-productionndashconsumption systems

bull Among the ruminant production systems integrationwith tree crops despite the economic benefits of addedvalue is still underestimated Policy interventions arerequired to stimulate the development of more inte-grated systems with animals for example through taxincentives and also to encourage increased privatesector investment

bull Policy is required to support micro-credit schemesaccess to markets and public services

bull The market chain involves rural urban and inter-national markets Rural markets are especiallyimportant to rural communities and for the sale of liveanimals for slaughter to urban areas At present theruralndashurban market linkages are weak and appropriatepolicies are required to provide improvements to thesecollection and processing centres as well asinfrastructural and communication facilities and toprovide links to international markets

Development pathways

Considered together the challenges for the future of smallfarms in Asia include the following inter alia

bull Based on constraint analyses through community-based participation there should be a focus on priorityneeds to improve animal production systems

bull Diversification should be improved through theappropriate mix of animals with annual or perennialcrops appropriate to mixed farming to intensify pro-duction in rainfed areas

bull Create increased access to information improvedtechnologies and delivery systems which canpotentially impact on total production increasessocioeconomic benefits improved livelihoods andsustainable development

bull Strengthen empowerment to include informal trainingat various levels gender equity and also effectivedissemination of information

bull Promote the formation of cooperatives farmer organi-zations focus groups and farmer-managed revolvingfunds to enhance decision making and resource plan-ning These enhance reduced transaction costs andimproved marketing to obtain better returns for theproduce The successful Anand model of IndiarsquoslsquoOperation Floodrsquo involved making farmersshareholders in the whole chain of marketing andprocessing milk and is worthy of note and emulation

bull Promote pro-poor initiatives that are consistent withincome growth socioeconomic benefits improvedlivelihoods and self-reliance

Cooperative development is largely dependent on thecapacity of farmers to be self-reliant so as to benefit fromeconomies of scale bargaining power competitiveness in

agribusiness as well as reduced market risksAgricultural cooperatives are very variable in Asia andthese remain to be more fully developed in manycountries In China for example cooperatives are verylimited and a nationwide need for their establishment toovercome natural and market risks has recently beensuggested (Chuanmin and Falla 2006) Fully developedcooperatives are dynamic contribute significantly to ruraldevelopment and can enable small farm systems torespond to market dictates and consumer needs

Conclusions

Small farm systems will remain an integral part of Asianagriculture and will continue to occupy a predominantposition in food production within an overwhelmingpanorama of varied agricultural activities in the variousAEZs These small farms are models of diversification inNRM and resilience They will continue to play animportant contributory role in the production of a highproportion of ruminant meats and milk in particular andin enhancing the natural resource base They will alsohelp alleviate poverty hunger and food insecurity for thesizeable populations of rural poor despite the threat ofincreasing globalization economies of scaleintensification and commercialization in the foreseeablefuture There are major constraints to their developmentof course but there are also compelling opportunities andeconomic benefits that involve community-based manage-ment of natural resources Social and effectivedevelopment policies are also needed that can togetherstimulate increased contributions from these farms to thefood chain ndash within an enabling economic environment ndashand can spur agricultural development

ReferencesAdams D and Coward E W (1972) Small Farmer Development

Strategies Agricultural Development Council New YorkAlston J (2002) lsquoSpilloversrsquo Australian Journal of Agricultural

Research and Resource Economics Vol 48 pp 315ndash336Blummel M Zerbini E Reddy B V S Hash C T Bidinger

F and Khan A A (2003) lsquoImproving the production andutilisation of sorghum and millet in livestock feed progresstowards dual-purpose genotypesrsquo Field Crops Research Vol 84pp 143ndash158

CGIARTAC ndash Consultative Group on International AgriculturalResearchTechnical Advisory Committee (2000) lsquoCGIARpriorities for marginal landsrsquo CGIAR Washingtion DC(mimeograph)

Chantalakhana C (1990) lsquoSmall farm animal production andsustainable agriculturersquo Proceedings III AsianndashAustralasianAnimal Science Congress 27 Mayndash1 June Taipei Taiwan Vol 2 pp39ndash58

Chantalakhana C and Skunmun P (2002) Sustainable Small-holder Animal Systems in the Tropics Kasetsart University PressBangkok

Chuanmin S and Falla J S (2006) lsquoAgro-industrialization acomparative study of China and developed countriesrsquo Outlookon Agriculture Vol 35 No 3 pp 177ndash182

Delgado C Rosegrant M Steinfeld H Ehui S and CourboisC (1999) lsquoLivestock to 2020 The next food revolutionrsquo FoodAgriculture and the Environment Discussion Paper No 28 Interna-tional Food Policy Research Institute Washington DC

Devendra C (1983) lsquoSmall farm systems combining crops andanimalsrsquo Proceedings of Fifth World Conference in AnimalProduction14ndash18 August Tokyo Japan Vol 1 pp 173ndash191

16 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Strategy for developing small farms address-ing major constraints and opportunities

The strategy for the development of small farms needs toaddress several issues and constraints in order to pursueopportunities for productivity enhancement These are asfollows

Institutional support for research and developmentThe first requirement is a belief in the potentialimportance and contribution of small farms and thereforetheir development in Asia in the future Institutionalcommitment support for and a reorientation of researchand development philosophy and recognition of thecomplexity of the issues involved are fundamental to thisendeavour An agenda for research and developmentprerogatives is required that includes the following

bull programme focus and target AEZsbull a clear set of objectivesbull prioritization of effort for multidisciplinary and partici-

patory approaches that respond to the needs of smallfarmers

bull linkages with development agents and the privatesector

bull a time framebull potential biological and socioeconomic benefits and

impacts andbull potential lsquospilloversrsquo to other locations and regions

(Alston 2002) including trans-regionally

Without these considerations much needed improve-ments in the productivity of small farms and livelihoodsof small farmers are unlikely to be achieved

Natural resource managementUnderstanding the natural resource base is essential forits effective management and to optimize productionNRM involves the components (land crops animals andwater) as well as their synergies the interactions of thecomponents and their positive and negativeimplications Associated aspects related to thistask include the following

bull importance of indigenous knowledge and traditionalmethods used by farmers to meet their objectives andneeds

bull biodiversitybull community-based NRM practicesbull integration of NRM components and production

systemsbull productivity-enhancing and needs-based technologiesbull issues of sustainability and sustainable development

andbull development of multidisciplinary models and partner-

ships that target the development of small farmsystems

The benefits of improved NRM technology applicationand opportunities for productivity enhancement are many(Devendra 2001) This is clearly reflected in a recentreview of the benefits of cropndashanimal interactions andattendant economic advantages from 31 studies in 11countries concerning small farms across a variety ofAEZs mixed farming systems various species of animals

and both annual and perennial crops in Asia (Devendra2007) The range of farming systems involved and moreparticularly the application of needs-based newtechnologies in individual countries demonstrate whatcan also be achieved in terms of the types and extent ofbenefits in small farms Effective NRM has necessarily tobe very much participatory and needs to build onindigenous knowledge and traditional systems The needfor trust reciprocity and connectedness in institutions inthe collective management and improvement of naturalresources is equally important and has been emphasized(Pretty 2003)

Targeting more effective NRM in small farms is there-fore urgent and is also justified by the following factors

bull the need for increased productivity in Asia with itsmassive human populations population growth rateand poor people

bull distinct opportunities for productivity enhancementbased on the knowledge already available

bull focusing more attention on the application of locallygenerated agricultural technologies and theirspillovers which will promote increased self-reliance

bull investments in productivity-enhancing research anddevelopment which are decreasing and difficult toobtain and

bull effective use of NRM which also has the advantage ofpreserving indigenous knowledge traditional systemsand biodiversity

Targeting research and development of rainfed areasThe rationale and justification for targeting the rainfedareas in Asia are related to three important reasonsinadequate availability of arable land the need to increaseproductivity from animals to match projected humanneeds and the alleviation of poverty (Devendra 2000a)The decreasing availability of arable land with humanpopulation increase is reflected in the projected decreasefrom between 017 and 10 haperson in 198890 tobetween 005 and 030 haperson by 2010 (FAO 1998)Inadequate arable land is associated with the followingreasons

bull demand for agricultural land to meet human needs eghousing recreation and industrialization

bull expansion of crop production to ceiling levelsbull increasing and very high animal densitiesbull increased urbanization and use of arable land andbull growing environmental concerns due to very intensive

crop production eg acidification and salinization withrice cultivation and human health risks due to expand-ing peri-urban poultry and pig production

Poverty is a major concern since the rainfed areas alsohave large populations of the poorest of the poor the vastmajority of whom live below the US$1day yardstick It isestimated that about 678 million of the rural poor keeplivestock in developing countries and this representstwo-thirds of the rural poor (Livestock in Development1999) The poverty dimension includes eight elements(IFAD 2001) material deprivation lack of assetsisolation alienation dependence lack of decision-makingpower vulnerability to external shocks and insecurity

These circumstances place much stress on the use of

17Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

natural resources and thus force a need to look beyondthe use of arable land in the irrigated areas and to focusmuch needed attention on the more difficult rainfed areasFor example rainfed lowland and upland areas areunderutilized This is reflected in the availability ofapproximately 141 times 106 ha of land or 43 of the totalarable land in Asia (TAC 1992)

The rainfed areas have been constrained by manyfactors such as roads and market access and hence havebeen relatively underutilized and also bypassed byresearch and development The development of ruralroads is especially significant and in China for exampleit has been shown that every yuan invested in low-qualityroads yielded five yuan of rural non-farm gross domesticproduct (GDP) Moreover low-quality roads raise morepeople out of poverty per yuan than high-quality roads(Fan and Chan-Kang 2005) Increased rural roads alsocontribute to market access Water is another constraintand without adequate irrigation systems rainfed areashave not been able to increase productivity and capacityThese constraints can however be overcome by increasedresearch and development attention technology deliveryand market-oriented production systems It is alsoimportant to note that in studies in India (Fan Hazell andThorat 2000) and China (Fan Zhang and Zhang 2000)the returns on investment are very much higher in theseareas compared with areas that have benefited from thegreen revolution

The strategy for the development of small farms musttherefore give priority to rainfed areas especially to thepotentially more important locations Within theseanimal production can strategically serve as the entrypoint to address food production pro-poor initiativescollective management and improvement of the naturalresources that are needs-led Interdisciplinary researchand development efforts that target AEZs serve to addressthe major constraints and opportunities

The systems approach and interdisciplinarityA notable and consistent weakness of the research anddevelopment process and programmes in most nationalagricultural systems concerned with animal production inAsia is the near absence of the use of the systemsapproach Much of the research continues along strongdisciplinary lines without reference to the needs of thesmall farm systems and the AEZs where they are found(Devendra 1996 2006) Despite the dominant emphasison mixed farming in Asia research on cropndashanimalsystems is seldom integrated and with rare exceptionsvery few institutions recognize the importance of trainingin systems research As a consequence the complex andinterrelated systems-based problems in cropndashanimalsystems are not addressed in holistic terms This tendencyexplains why improved productivity from animals insmall farm systems is slow to be realized To a very largeextent the same reasons also apply to the general neglectof the rainfed areas the inadequate productivity fromsmall farm systems therein and the contribution fromanimals

The systems approach requires multi-andinterdisciplinary interpretation of the differentcomponents of the system and biophysical environmentidentified through detailed analyses of the constraints

needs and opportunities These ensure that the individualcomponents interactions and contributions can focus onthe whole system Considering the complexities of smallfarm systems the heterogeneity of the biophysicalenvironment and the various types of mixed farmingactivities therein systems perspectives are therefore ofparamount importance in improving understanding anddevelopment of the increased contribution of these farms

The methodology for systems research is distinct andfollows several sequential steps

(1) site selection(2) site description and characterization (diagnosis)(3) planning of on-farm research(4) on-farm testing and validation of alternatives(5) dissemination of results and(6) impact assessment

The systems approach needs to be backed by otherimportant requirements

bull recognition of the importance of interdisciplinaryparticipatory approaches

bull formulation of research programmes that havecommunity-based participation to set a commonagenda and create ownership (this should involve bothproduction and post-production systems)

bull programmes that are needs-led and have institutionaland structural commitment

bull establishment of effective participatory planning inter-institutional coordination and collaboration researchmanagement dissemination of information andresolution of feedback issues

bull long-term commitment to achieving impacts andbull training in agricultural systems and systems

methodologies at various levels

Associated with these methodologies much more can alsobe done to improve the socioeconomic understanding ofthe rural landless poor This includes taking into accountinter alia their way of life and aspirations their seasonalmovements together with their moving flocks of camelscattle goats and sheep reasons for the choice and extentof animal ownership constraints to their livelihoods andloss-minimizing strategies These and the foregoing issuesjustify further research investments to improve thesituation

Feed resources and nutritionForemost among the constraints to animal producton arefeed resources and nutrition which constitute the majorconstraint throughout South-east Asia (Devendra et al1997) and South Asia (Devendra et al 2000) The strategyfor feed resource use needs to take cognizance of thefollowing interrelated issues (Devendra 2000b)

bull knowledge of the totality of available feeds (grassesand forages crop residues agro-industrial by-productsand non-conventional sources)

bull appropriateness and effective use within productionsystems

bull feeds and their use should be identified with farmingsystems and self-reliance and

bull potential promotion of linkages between rural andperi-urban areas in the use of production inputs

18 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

intensification nutrient flows and marketing ofproduce that is consistent with environmental integrity

Given the critical long dry seasons and feed shortages inthese environments together with the possibilities ofincreasing feed production to overcome the shortages thesynchronization of feed availability to match speciesrequirements along with methods of conservation aremajor opportunities An example of this approachincludes foodndashfeed cropping eg rice and mung beancassava and cowpea (Devendra Sevilla and Pezo 2001)forage production in rice bunds and under tree cropsalley cropping planting tree legumes such as Gliricidia orLeucaena for forage production and the use of multi-nutrient block licks (MNBL) Other options include thedevelopment and promotion of dual-purpose (seeds andforage) sorghum millet and groundnut with resistance tofoliar diseases and higher biomass yields in southernIndia (Blummel et al 2003) especially to support dairyproduction and reduced fallows The resolution ofconstraints can produce significant impacts on increasedper animal performance and improved livelihoods ofresource-poor farmers and can enhance existingproductivity gaps in these areas The final objective ofthese improvements should be the development ofsustainable all-year-round feeding systems

Access to technologies and delivery systemsAccess to improved and appropriate technologies is amajor constraint with small farmers The problem isparticularly manifested among small farmers and smallfarms in the rainfed areas that have been bypassed by thegreen revolution These same areas are also often remoteand have poor communications resulting in furtherdifficulties For these and other reasons researchprogrammes have tended to ignore these situationsAssociated with access to improved technologies areweak delivery systems which do not facilitate effectivetechnology transfer and adoption to accelerateproductivity This is a major weakness in researchprogrammes that do not formulate and ensureparticipatory adaptive research and on-farm developmentactivities or strengthening of effective researchndashextensionlinkages to ensure maximum adoption

It is of interest to note that analyses of seven countrycase studies (Meinzen-Dick et al 2004) have shown thatthree main factors affected technology adoption

bull vulnerability ndash whether the technologies were expectedto increase or decrease peoplersquos vulnerability to loss ofincome bad health natural disasters and other factors

bull assets ndash whether farmers had the assets necessary fortechnology adoption ndash especially if they were poor and

bull institutions ndash whether institutions (such as agriculturalextension services government policies non-govern-mental organizations private sector gender rolesmarkets for inputs and outputs etc) encouraged ordiscouraged adoption and represented the interests ofpoor people

Markets and marketingSmall farmers have major problems coping with a rangeof difficulties in the face of the complexity and generalinefficiency of the prevailing marketing chains Foremost

among these is access to marketing and to the marketingchain At present inadequate access to market outlets andweak marketing arrangements represent a majorconstraint to the production to consumption systems and tothe owners and producers of animals As a consequencesmall farmers are often denied compelling opportunitiesand economic benefits The market chain involves ruralperi-urban urban and international markets and a majorchallenge will lie in ways to link small farmers with thesemarkets and marketing systems

Rural markets are especially important to rural com-munities and their households and are also used for thesale of live animals for slaughter in the urban areas Inorder to provide good links between rural and urbanmarkets appropriate infrastructural and communicationfacilities must be in place in addition to collection andprocessing centres Without improved marketing andtransport systems the prevailing systems constitute majorconstraints to the sale of animals and products from smallfarms Because of the greater market demand for animalproducts in urban areas transport facilities becomeessential Urban markets are the outlets for exports andpromote international trade

Considerable opportunities exist for participation inthe international trade of meats in the Middle East regionTo compete in world markets however quality standardsprocessing and storage facilities become essentialAdditionally for the Muslim world and the huge marketsin the Middle East meeting lsquohalalrsquo standards is also vitalAssociated with international trade is the impact ofglobalization and the lowering of tariff and non-tariffbarriers involving opening up market opportunities forcountries on the one hand and on the other severecompetitiveness for low-cost products Efficientproduction post-production to consumption and market-ing systems are therefore crucial to maintain a sustainableand competitive position

Policy issues

A number of policy issues need to be resolved to supportthe future development of small farms and increasedcontributions from them Such policies will also besupportive of increased investments in their developmentas well as pro-poor initiatives For reasons of brevitythese will not be discussed in detail but are identifiedinter alia as follows

bull A first essential is affirmative development policy forimproved understanding of small farms currentsituation and trends and potential future contribu-tions

bull The aspirations of small farmers and the syndrome of apovertyndashadaptationndashfragile livesndashlittle hopendashlow lifeexpectancy complex will need new attention onaccount of globalization and their vulnerability Socio-economic research can make a major contribution here

bull Associated with the above is the role of animals as theentry point for development especially in the moredifficult rainfed environments outside of the irrigatedareas that have been bypassed by the green revolution

bull Research and development on the complexity andheterogeneity of small farm systems NRM and cropndash

19Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

soilndashanimal interactions must necessarily be inter-disciplinary and holistic At present knowledge ofsystems perspectives and adaptive research at the farmlevel are major limitations in most countries Theserepresent major and urgent training needs at thecollege and university levels

bull Animal production in small farm systems has to beseen in the broader context of productionndashpost-productionndashconsumption systems

bull Among the ruminant production systems integrationwith tree crops despite the economic benefits of addedvalue is still underestimated Policy interventions arerequired to stimulate the development of more inte-grated systems with animals for example through taxincentives and also to encourage increased privatesector investment

bull Policy is required to support micro-credit schemesaccess to markets and public services

bull The market chain involves rural urban and inter-national markets Rural markets are especiallyimportant to rural communities and for the sale of liveanimals for slaughter to urban areas At present theruralndashurban market linkages are weak and appropriatepolicies are required to provide improvements to thesecollection and processing centres as well asinfrastructural and communication facilities and toprovide links to international markets

Development pathways

Considered together the challenges for the future of smallfarms in Asia include the following inter alia

bull Based on constraint analyses through community-based participation there should be a focus on priorityneeds to improve animal production systems

bull Diversification should be improved through theappropriate mix of animals with annual or perennialcrops appropriate to mixed farming to intensify pro-duction in rainfed areas

bull Create increased access to information improvedtechnologies and delivery systems which canpotentially impact on total production increasessocioeconomic benefits improved livelihoods andsustainable development

bull Strengthen empowerment to include informal trainingat various levels gender equity and also effectivedissemination of information

bull Promote the formation of cooperatives farmer organi-zations focus groups and farmer-managed revolvingfunds to enhance decision making and resource plan-ning These enhance reduced transaction costs andimproved marketing to obtain better returns for theproduce The successful Anand model of IndiarsquoslsquoOperation Floodrsquo involved making farmersshareholders in the whole chain of marketing andprocessing milk and is worthy of note and emulation

bull Promote pro-poor initiatives that are consistent withincome growth socioeconomic benefits improvedlivelihoods and self-reliance

Cooperative development is largely dependent on thecapacity of farmers to be self-reliant so as to benefit fromeconomies of scale bargaining power competitiveness in

agribusiness as well as reduced market risksAgricultural cooperatives are very variable in Asia andthese remain to be more fully developed in manycountries In China for example cooperatives are verylimited and a nationwide need for their establishment toovercome natural and market risks has recently beensuggested (Chuanmin and Falla 2006) Fully developedcooperatives are dynamic contribute significantly to ruraldevelopment and can enable small farm systems torespond to market dictates and consumer needs

Conclusions

Small farm systems will remain an integral part of Asianagriculture and will continue to occupy a predominantposition in food production within an overwhelmingpanorama of varied agricultural activities in the variousAEZs These small farms are models of diversification inNRM and resilience They will continue to play animportant contributory role in the production of a highproportion of ruminant meats and milk in particular andin enhancing the natural resource base They will alsohelp alleviate poverty hunger and food insecurity for thesizeable populations of rural poor despite the threat ofincreasing globalization economies of scaleintensification and commercialization in the foreseeablefuture There are major constraints to their developmentof course but there are also compelling opportunities andeconomic benefits that involve community-based manage-ment of natural resources Social and effectivedevelopment policies are also needed that can togetherstimulate increased contributions from these farms to thefood chain ndash within an enabling economic environment ndashand can spur agricultural development

ReferencesAdams D and Coward E W (1972) Small Farmer Development

Strategies Agricultural Development Council New YorkAlston J (2002) lsquoSpilloversrsquo Australian Journal of Agricultural

Research and Resource Economics Vol 48 pp 315ndash336Blummel M Zerbini E Reddy B V S Hash C T Bidinger

F and Khan A A (2003) lsquoImproving the production andutilisation of sorghum and millet in livestock feed progresstowards dual-purpose genotypesrsquo Field Crops Research Vol 84pp 143ndash158

CGIARTAC ndash Consultative Group on International AgriculturalResearchTechnical Advisory Committee (2000) lsquoCGIARpriorities for marginal landsrsquo CGIAR Washingtion DC(mimeograph)

Chantalakhana C (1990) lsquoSmall farm animal production andsustainable agriculturersquo Proceedings III AsianndashAustralasianAnimal Science Congress 27 Mayndash1 June Taipei Taiwan Vol 2 pp39ndash58

Chantalakhana C and Skunmun P (2002) Sustainable Small-holder Animal Systems in the Tropics Kasetsart University PressBangkok

Chuanmin S and Falla J S (2006) lsquoAgro-industrialization acomparative study of China and developed countriesrsquo Outlookon Agriculture Vol 35 No 3 pp 177ndash182

Delgado C Rosegrant M Steinfeld H Ehui S and CourboisC (1999) lsquoLivestock to 2020 The next food revolutionrsquo FoodAgriculture and the Environment Discussion Paper No 28 Interna-tional Food Policy Research Institute Washington DC

Devendra C (1983) lsquoSmall farm systems combining crops andanimalsrsquo Proceedings of Fifth World Conference in AnimalProduction14ndash18 August Tokyo Japan Vol 1 pp 173ndash191

17Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

natural resources and thus force a need to look beyondthe use of arable land in the irrigated areas and to focusmuch needed attention on the more difficult rainfed areasFor example rainfed lowland and upland areas areunderutilized This is reflected in the availability ofapproximately 141 times 106 ha of land or 43 of the totalarable land in Asia (TAC 1992)

The rainfed areas have been constrained by manyfactors such as roads and market access and hence havebeen relatively underutilized and also bypassed byresearch and development The development of ruralroads is especially significant and in China for exampleit has been shown that every yuan invested in low-qualityroads yielded five yuan of rural non-farm gross domesticproduct (GDP) Moreover low-quality roads raise morepeople out of poverty per yuan than high-quality roads(Fan and Chan-Kang 2005) Increased rural roads alsocontribute to market access Water is another constraintand without adequate irrigation systems rainfed areashave not been able to increase productivity and capacityThese constraints can however be overcome by increasedresearch and development attention technology deliveryand market-oriented production systems It is alsoimportant to note that in studies in India (Fan Hazell andThorat 2000) and China (Fan Zhang and Zhang 2000)the returns on investment are very much higher in theseareas compared with areas that have benefited from thegreen revolution

The strategy for the development of small farms musttherefore give priority to rainfed areas especially to thepotentially more important locations Within theseanimal production can strategically serve as the entrypoint to address food production pro-poor initiativescollective management and improvement of the naturalresources that are needs-led Interdisciplinary researchand development efforts that target AEZs serve to addressthe major constraints and opportunities

The systems approach and interdisciplinarityA notable and consistent weakness of the research anddevelopment process and programmes in most nationalagricultural systems concerned with animal production inAsia is the near absence of the use of the systemsapproach Much of the research continues along strongdisciplinary lines without reference to the needs of thesmall farm systems and the AEZs where they are found(Devendra 1996 2006) Despite the dominant emphasison mixed farming in Asia research on cropndashanimalsystems is seldom integrated and with rare exceptionsvery few institutions recognize the importance of trainingin systems research As a consequence the complex andinterrelated systems-based problems in cropndashanimalsystems are not addressed in holistic terms This tendencyexplains why improved productivity from animals insmall farm systems is slow to be realized To a very largeextent the same reasons also apply to the general neglectof the rainfed areas the inadequate productivity fromsmall farm systems therein and the contribution fromanimals

The systems approach requires multi-andinterdisciplinary interpretation of the differentcomponents of the system and biophysical environmentidentified through detailed analyses of the constraints

needs and opportunities These ensure that the individualcomponents interactions and contributions can focus onthe whole system Considering the complexities of smallfarm systems the heterogeneity of the biophysicalenvironment and the various types of mixed farmingactivities therein systems perspectives are therefore ofparamount importance in improving understanding anddevelopment of the increased contribution of these farms

The methodology for systems research is distinct andfollows several sequential steps

(1) site selection(2) site description and characterization (diagnosis)(3) planning of on-farm research(4) on-farm testing and validation of alternatives(5) dissemination of results and(6) impact assessment

The systems approach needs to be backed by otherimportant requirements

bull recognition of the importance of interdisciplinaryparticipatory approaches

bull formulation of research programmes that havecommunity-based participation to set a commonagenda and create ownership (this should involve bothproduction and post-production systems)

bull programmes that are needs-led and have institutionaland structural commitment

bull establishment of effective participatory planning inter-institutional coordination and collaboration researchmanagement dissemination of information andresolution of feedback issues

bull long-term commitment to achieving impacts andbull training in agricultural systems and systems

methodologies at various levels

Associated with these methodologies much more can alsobe done to improve the socioeconomic understanding ofthe rural landless poor This includes taking into accountinter alia their way of life and aspirations their seasonalmovements together with their moving flocks of camelscattle goats and sheep reasons for the choice and extentof animal ownership constraints to their livelihoods andloss-minimizing strategies These and the foregoing issuesjustify further research investments to improve thesituation

Feed resources and nutritionForemost among the constraints to animal producton arefeed resources and nutrition which constitute the majorconstraint throughout South-east Asia (Devendra et al1997) and South Asia (Devendra et al 2000) The strategyfor feed resource use needs to take cognizance of thefollowing interrelated issues (Devendra 2000b)

bull knowledge of the totality of available feeds (grassesand forages crop residues agro-industrial by-productsand non-conventional sources)

bull appropriateness and effective use within productionsystems

bull feeds and their use should be identified with farmingsystems and self-reliance and

bull potential promotion of linkages between rural andperi-urban areas in the use of production inputs

18 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

intensification nutrient flows and marketing ofproduce that is consistent with environmental integrity

Given the critical long dry seasons and feed shortages inthese environments together with the possibilities ofincreasing feed production to overcome the shortages thesynchronization of feed availability to match speciesrequirements along with methods of conservation aremajor opportunities An example of this approachincludes foodndashfeed cropping eg rice and mung beancassava and cowpea (Devendra Sevilla and Pezo 2001)forage production in rice bunds and under tree cropsalley cropping planting tree legumes such as Gliricidia orLeucaena for forage production and the use of multi-nutrient block licks (MNBL) Other options include thedevelopment and promotion of dual-purpose (seeds andforage) sorghum millet and groundnut with resistance tofoliar diseases and higher biomass yields in southernIndia (Blummel et al 2003) especially to support dairyproduction and reduced fallows The resolution ofconstraints can produce significant impacts on increasedper animal performance and improved livelihoods ofresource-poor farmers and can enhance existingproductivity gaps in these areas The final objective ofthese improvements should be the development ofsustainable all-year-round feeding systems

Access to technologies and delivery systemsAccess to improved and appropriate technologies is amajor constraint with small farmers The problem isparticularly manifested among small farmers and smallfarms in the rainfed areas that have been bypassed by thegreen revolution These same areas are also often remoteand have poor communications resulting in furtherdifficulties For these and other reasons researchprogrammes have tended to ignore these situationsAssociated with access to improved technologies areweak delivery systems which do not facilitate effectivetechnology transfer and adoption to accelerateproductivity This is a major weakness in researchprogrammes that do not formulate and ensureparticipatory adaptive research and on-farm developmentactivities or strengthening of effective researchndashextensionlinkages to ensure maximum adoption

It is of interest to note that analyses of seven countrycase studies (Meinzen-Dick et al 2004) have shown thatthree main factors affected technology adoption

bull vulnerability ndash whether the technologies were expectedto increase or decrease peoplersquos vulnerability to loss ofincome bad health natural disasters and other factors

bull assets ndash whether farmers had the assets necessary fortechnology adoption ndash especially if they were poor and

bull institutions ndash whether institutions (such as agriculturalextension services government policies non-govern-mental organizations private sector gender rolesmarkets for inputs and outputs etc) encouraged ordiscouraged adoption and represented the interests ofpoor people

Markets and marketingSmall farmers have major problems coping with a rangeof difficulties in the face of the complexity and generalinefficiency of the prevailing marketing chains Foremost

among these is access to marketing and to the marketingchain At present inadequate access to market outlets andweak marketing arrangements represent a majorconstraint to the production to consumption systems and tothe owners and producers of animals As a consequencesmall farmers are often denied compelling opportunitiesand economic benefits The market chain involves ruralperi-urban urban and international markets and a majorchallenge will lie in ways to link small farmers with thesemarkets and marketing systems

Rural markets are especially important to rural com-munities and their households and are also used for thesale of live animals for slaughter in the urban areas Inorder to provide good links between rural and urbanmarkets appropriate infrastructural and communicationfacilities must be in place in addition to collection andprocessing centres Without improved marketing andtransport systems the prevailing systems constitute majorconstraints to the sale of animals and products from smallfarms Because of the greater market demand for animalproducts in urban areas transport facilities becomeessential Urban markets are the outlets for exports andpromote international trade

Considerable opportunities exist for participation inthe international trade of meats in the Middle East regionTo compete in world markets however quality standardsprocessing and storage facilities become essentialAdditionally for the Muslim world and the huge marketsin the Middle East meeting lsquohalalrsquo standards is also vitalAssociated with international trade is the impact ofglobalization and the lowering of tariff and non-tariffbarriers involving opening up market opportunities forcountries on the one hand and on the other severecompetitiveness for low-cost products Efficientproduction post-production to consumption and market-ing systems are therefore crucial to maintain a sustainableand competitive position

Policy issues

A number of policy issues need to be resolved to supportthe future development of small farms and increasedcontributions from them Such policies will also besupportive of increased investments in their developmentas well as pro-poor initiatives For reasons of brevitythese will not be discussed in detail but are identifiedinter alia as follows

bull A first essential is affirmative development policy forimproved understanding of small farms currentsituation and trends and potential future contribu-tions

bull The aspirations of small farmers and the syndrome of apovertyndashadaptationndashfragile livesndashlittle hopendashlow lifeexpectancy complex will need new attention onaccount of globalization and their vulnerability Socio-economic research can make a major contribution here

bull Associated with the above is the role of animals as theentry point for development especially in the moredifficult rainfed environments outside of the irrigatedareas that have been bypassed by the green revolution

bull Research and development on the complexity andheterogeneity of small farm systems NRM and cropndash

19Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

soilndashanimal interactions must necessarily be inter-disciplinary and holistic At present knowledge ofsystems perspectives and adaptive research at the farmlevel are major limitations in most countries Theserepresent major and urgent training needs at thecollege and university levels

bull Animal production in small farm systems has to beseen in the broader context of productionndashpost-productionndashconsumption systems

bull Among the ruminant production systems integrationwith tree crops despite the economic benefits of addedvalue is still underestimated Policy interventions arerequired to stimulate the development of more inte-grated systems with animals for example through taxincentives and also to encourage increased privatesector investment

bull Policy is required to support micro-credit schemesaccess to markets and public services

bull The market chain involves rural urban and inter-national markets Rural markets are especiallyimportant to rural communities and for the sale of liveanimals for slaughter to urban areas At present theruralndashurban market linkages are weak and appropriatepolicies are required to provide improvements to thesecollection and processing centres as well asinfrastructural and communication facilities and toprovide links to international markets

Development pathways

Considered together the challenges for the future of smallfarms in Asia include the following inter alia

bull Based on constraint analyses through community-based participation there should be a focus on priorityneeds to improve animal production systems

bull Diversification should be improved through theappropriate mix of animals with annual or perennialcrops appropriate to mixed farming to intensify pro-duction in rainfed areas

bull Create increased access to information improvedtechnologies and delivery systems which canpotentially impact on total production increasessocioeconomic benefits improved livelihoods andsustainable development

bull Strengthen empowerment to include informal trainingat various levels gender equity and also effectivedissemination of information

bull Promote the formation of cooperatives farmer organi-zations focus groups and farmer-managed revolvingfunds to enhance decision making and resource plan-ning These enhance reduced transaction costs andimproved marketing to obtain better returns for theproduce The successful Anand model of IndiarsquoslsquoOperation Floodrsquo involved making farmersshareholders in the whole chain of marketing andprocessing milk and is worthy of note and emulation

bull Promote pro-poor initiatives that are consistent withincome growth socioeconomic benefits improvedlivelihoods and self-reliance

Cooperative development is largely dependent on thecapacity of farmers to be self-reliant so as to benefit fromeconomies of scale bargaining power competitiveness in

agribusiness as well as reduced market risksAgricultural cooperatives are very variable in Asia andthese remain to be more fully developed in manycountries In China for example cooperatives are verylimited and a nationwide need for their establishment toovercome natural and market risks has recently beensuggested (Chuanmin and Falla 2006) Fully developedcooperatives are dynamic contribute significantly to ruraldevelopment and can enable small farm systems torespond to market dictates and consumer needs

Conclusions

Small farm systems will remain an integral part of Asianagriculture and will continue to occupy a predominantposition in food production within an overwhelmingpanorama of varied agricultural activities in the variousAEZs These small farms are models of diversification inNRM and resilience They will continue to play animportant contributory role in the production of a highproportion of ruminant meats and milk in particular andin enhancing the natural resource base They will alsohelp alleviate poverty hunger and food insecurity for thesizeable populations of rural poor despite the threat ofincreasing globalization economies of scaleintensification and commercialization in the foreseeablefuture There are major constraints to their developmentof course but there are also compelling opportunities andeconomic benefits that involve community-based manage-ment of natural resources Social and effectivedevelopment policies are also needed that can togetherstimulate increased contributions from these farms to thefood chain ndash within an enabling economic environment ndashand can spur agricultural development

ReferencesAdams D and Coward E W (1972) Small Farmer Development

Strategies Agricultural Development Council New YorkAlston J (2002) lsquoSpilloversrsquo Australian Journal of Agricultural

Research and Resource Economics Vol 48 pp 315ndash336Blummel M Zerbini E Reddy B V S Hash C T Bidinger

F and Khan A A (2003) lsquoImproving the production andutilisation of sorghum and millet in livestock feed progresstowards dual-purpose genotypesrsquo Field Crops Research Vol 84pp 143ndash158

CGIARTAC ndash Consultative Group on International AgriculturalResearchTechnical Advisory Committee (2000) lsquoCGIARpriorities for marginal landsrsquo CGIAR Washingtion DC(mimeograph)

Chantalakhana C (1990) lsquoSmall farm animal production andsustainable agriculturersquo Proceedings III AsianndashAustralasianAnimal Science Congress 27 Mayndash1 June Taipei Taiwan Vol 2 pp39ndash58

Chantalakhana C and Skunmun P (2002) Sustainable Small-holder Animal Systems in the Tropics Kasetsart University PressBangkok

Chuanmin S and Falla J S (2006) lsquoAgro-industrialization acomparative study of China and developed countriesrsquo Outlookon Agriculture Vol 35 No 3 pp 177ndash182

Delgado C Rosegrant M Steinfeld H Ehui S and CourboisC (1999) lsquoLivestock to 2020 The next food revolutionrsquo FoodAgriculture and the Environment Discussion Paper No 28 Interna-tional Food Policy Research Institute Washington DC

Devendra C (1983) lsquoSmall farm systems combining crops andanimalsrsquo Proceedings of Fifth World Conference in AnimalProduction14ndash18 August Tokyo Japan Vol 1 pp 173ndash191

18 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

intensification nutrient flows and marketing ofproduce that is consistent with environmental integrity

Given the critical long dry seasons and feed shortages inthese environments together with the possibilities ofincreasing feed production to overcome the shortages thesynchronization of feed availability to match speciesrequirements along with methods of conservation aremajor opportunities An example of this approachincludes foodndashfeed cropping eg rice and mung beancassava and cowpea (Devendra Sevilla and Pezo 2001)forage production in rice bunds and under tree cropsalley cropping planting tree legumes such as Gliricidia orLeucaena for forage production and the use of multi-nutrient block licks (MNBL) Other options include thedevelopment and promotion of dual-purpose (seeds andforage) sorghum millet and groundnut with resistance tofoliar diseases and higher biomass yields in southernIndia (Blummel et al 2003) especially to support dairyproduction and reduced fallows The resolution ofconstraints can produce significant impacts on increasedper animal performance and improved livelihoods ofresource-poor farmers and can enhance existingproductivity gaps in these areas The final objective ofthese improvements should be the development ofsustainable all-year-round feeding systems

Access to technologies and delivery systemsAccess to improved and appropriate technologies is amajor constraint with small farmers The problem isparticularly manifested among small farmers and smallfarms in the rainfed areas that have been bypassed by thegreen revolution These same areas are also often remoteand have poor communications resulting in furtherdifficulties For these and other reasons researchprogrammes have tended to ignore these situationsAssociated with access to improved technologies areweak delivery systems which do not facilitate effectivetechnology transfer and adoption to accelerateproductivity This is a major weakness in researchprogrammes that do not formulate and ensureparticipatory adaptive research and on-farm developmentactivities or strengthening of effective researchndashextensionlinkages to ensure maximum adoption

It is of interest to note that analyses of seven countrycase studies (Meinzen-Dick et al 2004) have shown thatthree main factors affected technology adoption

bull vulnerability ndash whether the technologies were expectedto increase or decrease peoplersquos vulnerability to loss ofincome bad health natural disasters and other factors

bull assets ndash whether farmers had the assets necessary fortechnology adoption ndash especially if they were poor and

bull institutions ndash whether institutions (such as agriculturalextension services government policies non-govern-mental organizations private sector gender rolesmarkets for inputs and outputs etc) encouraged ordiscouraged adoption and represented the interests ofpoor people

Markets and marketingSmall farmers have major problems coping with a rangeof difficulties in the face of the complexity and generalinefficiency of the prevailing marketing chains Foremost

among these is access to marketing and to the marketingchain At present inadequate access to market outlets andweak marketing arrangements represent a majorconstraint to the production to consumption systems and tothe owners and producers of animals As a consequencesmall farmers are often denied compelling opportunitiesand economic benefits The market chain involves ruralperi-urban urban and international markets and a majorchallenge will lie in ways to link small farmers with thesemarkets and marketing systems

Rural markets are especially important to rural com-munities and their households and are also used for thesale of live animals for slaughter in the urban areas Inorder to provide good links between rural and urbanmarkets appropriate infrastructural and communicationfacilities must be in place in addition to collection andprocessing centres Without improved marketing andtransport systems the prevailing systems constitute majorconstraints to the sale of animals and products from smallfarms Because of the greater market demand for animalproducts in urban areas transport facilities becomeessential Urban markets are the outlets for exports andpromote international trade

Considerable opportunities exist for participation inthe international trade of meats in the Middle East regionTo compete in world markets however quality standardsprocessing and storage facilities become essentialAdditionally for the Muslim world and the huge marketsin the Middle East meeting lsquohalalrsquo standards is also vitalAssociated with international trade is the impact ofglobalization and the lowering of tariff and non-tariffbarriers involving opening up market opportunities forcountries on the one hand and on the other severecompetitiveness for low-cost products Efficientproduction post-production to consumption and market-ing systems are therefore crucial to maintain a sustainableand competitive position

Policy issues

A number of policy issues need to be resolved to supportthe future development of small farms and increasedcontributions from them Such policies will also besupportive of increased investments in their developmentas well as pro-poor initiatives For reasons of brevitythese will not be discussed in detail but are identifiedinter alia as follows

bull A first essential is affirmative development policy forimproved understanding of small farms currentsituation and trends and potential future contribu-tions

bull The aspirations of small farmers and the syndrome of apovertyndashadaptationndashfragile livesndashlittle hopendashlow lifeexpectancy complex will need new attention onaccount of globalization and their vulnerability Socio-economic research can make a major contribution here

bull Associated with the above is the role of animals as theentry point for development especially in the moredifficult rainfed environments outside of the irrigatedareas that have been bypassed by the green revolution

bull Research and development on the complexity andheterogeneity of small farm systems NRM and cropndash

19Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

soilndashanimal interactions must necessarily be inter-disciplinary and holistic At present knowledge ofsystems perspectives and adaptive research at the farmlevel are major limitations in most countries Theserepresent major and urgent training needs at thecollege and university levels

bull Animal production in small farm systems has to beseen in the broader context of productionndashpost-productionndashconsumption systems

bull Among the ruminant production systems integrationwith tree crops despite the economic benefits of addedvalue is still underestimated Policy interventions arerequired to stimulate the development of more inte-grated systems with animals for example through taxincentives and also to encourage increased privatesector investment

bull Policy is required to support micro-credit schemesaccess to markets and public services

bull The market chain involves rural urban and inter-national markets Rural markets are especiallyimportant to rural communities and for the sale of liveanimals for slaughter to urban areas At present theruralndashurban market linkages are weak and appropriatepolicies are required to provide improvements to thesecollection and processing centres as well asinfrastructural and communication facilities and toprovide links to international markets

Development pathways

Considered together the challenges for the future of smallfarms in Asia include the following inter alia

bull Based on constraint analyses through community-based participation there should be a focus on priorityneeds to improve animal production systems

bull Diversification should be improved through theappropriate mix of animals with annual or perennialcrops appropriate to mixed farming to intensify pro-duction in rainfed areas

bull Create increased access to information improvedtechnologies and delivery systems which canpotentially impact on total production increasessocioeconomic benefits improved livelihoods andsustainable development

bull Strengthen empowerment to include informal trainingat various levels gender equity and also effectivedissemination of information

bull Promote the formation of cooperatives farmer organi-zations focus groups and farmer-managed revolvingfunds to enhance decision making and resource plan-ning These enhance reduced transaction costs andimproved marketing to obtain better returns for theproduce The successful Anand model of IndiarsquoslsquoOperation Floodrsquo involved making farmersshareholders in the whole chain of marketing andprocessing milk and is worthy of note and emulation

bull Promote pro-poor initiatives that are consistent withincome growth socioeconomic benefits improvedlivelihoods and self-reliance

Cooperative development is largely dependent on thecapacity of farmers to be self-reliant so as to benefit fromeconomies of scale bargaining power competitiveness in

agribusiness as well as reduced market risksAgricultural cooperatives are very variable in Asia andthese remain to be more fully developed in manycountries In China for example cooperatives are verylimited and a nationwide need for their establishment toovercome natural and market risks has recently beensuggested (Chuanmin and Falla 2006) Fully developedcooperatives are dynamic contribute significantly to ruraldevelopment and can enable small farm systems torespond to market dictates and consumer needs

Conclusions

Small farm systems will remain an integral part of Asianagriculture and will continue to occupy a predominantposition in food production within an overwhelmingpanorama of varied agricultural activities in the variousAEZs These small farms are models of diversification inNRM and resilience They will continue to play animportant contributory role in the production of a highproportion of ruminant meats and milk in particular andin enhancing the natural resource base They will alsohelp alleviate poverty hunger and food insecurity for thesizeable populations of rural poor despite the threat ofincreasing globalization economies of scaleintensification and commercialization in the foreseeablefuture There are major constraints to their developmentof course but there are also compelling opportunities andeconomic benefits that involve community-based manage-ment of natural resources Social and effectivedevelopment policies are also needed that can togetherstimulate increased contributions from these farms to thefood chain ndash within an enabling economic environment ndashand can spur agricultural development

ReferencesAdams D and Coward E W (1972) Small Farmer Development

Strategies Agricultural Development Council New YorkAlston J (2002) lsquoSpilloversrsquo Australian Journal of Agricultural

Research and Resource Economics Vol 48 pp 315ndash336Blummel M Zerbini E Reddy B V S Hash C T Bidinger

F and Khan A A (2003) lsquoImproving the production andutilisation of sorghum and millet in livestock feed progresstowards dual-purpose genotypesrsquo Field Crops Research Vol 84pp 143ndash158

CGIARTAC ndash Consultative Group on International AgriculturalResearchTechnical Advisory Committee (2000) lsquoCGIARpriorities for marginal landsrsquo CGIAR Washingtion DC(mimeograph)

Chantalakhana C (1990) lsquoSmall farm animal production andsustainable agriculturersquo Proceedings III AsianndashAustralasianAnimal Science Congress 27 Mayndash1 June Taipei Taiwan Vol 2 pp39ndash58

Chantalakhana C and Skunmun P (2002) Sustainable Small-holder Animal Systems in the Tropics Kasetsart University PressBangkok

Chuanmin S and Falla J S (2006) lsquoAgro-industrialization acomparative study of China and developed countriesrsquo Outlookon Agriculture Vol 35 No 3 pp 177ndash182

Delgado C Rosegrant M Steinfeld H Ehui S and CourboisC (1999) lsquoLivestock to 2020 The next food revolutionrsquo FoodAgriculture and the Environment Discussion Paper No 28 Interna-tional Food Policy Research Institute Washington DC

Devendra C (1983) lsquoSmall farm systems combining crops andanimalsrsquo Proceedings of Fifth World Conference in AnimalProduction14ndash18 August Tokyo Japan Vol 1 pp 173ndash191

19Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

soilndashanimal interactions must necessarily be inter-disciplinary and holistic At present knowledge ofsystems perspectives and adaptive research at the farmlevel are major limitations in most countries Theserepresent major and urgent training needs at thecollege and university levels

bull Animal production in small farm systems has to beseen in the broader context of productionndashpost-productionndashconsumption systems

bull Among the ruminant production systems integrationwith tree crops despite the economic benefits of addedvalue is still underestimated Policy interventions arerequired to stimulate the development of more inte-grated systems with animals for example through taxincentives and also to encourage increased privatesector investment

bull Policy is required to support micro-credit schemesaccess to markets and public services

bull The market chain involves rural urban and inter-national markets Rural markets are especiallyimportant to rural communities and for the sale of liveanimals for slaughter to urban areas At present theruralndashurban market linkages are weak and appropriatepolicies are required to provide improvements to thesecollection and processing centres as well asinfrastructural and communication facilities and toprovide links to international markets

Development pathways

Considered together the challenges for the future of smallfarms in Asia include the following inter alia

bull Based on constraint analyses through community-based participation there should be a focus on priorityneeds to improve animal production systems

bull Diversification should be improved through theappropriate mix of animals with annual or perennialcrops appropriate to mixed farming to intensify pro-duction in rainfed areas

bull Create increased access to information improvedtechnologies and delivery systems which canpotentially impact on total production increasessocioeconomic benefits improved livelihoods andsustainable development

bull Strengthen empowerment to include informal trainingat various levels gender equity and also effectivedissemination of information

bull Promote the formation of cooperatives farmer organi-zations focus groups and farmer-managed revolvingfunds to enhance decision making and resource plan-ning These enhance reduced transaction costs andimproved marketing to obtain better returns for theproduce The successful Anand model of IndiarsquoslsquoOperation Floodrsquo involved making farmersshareholders in the whole chain of marketing andprocessing milk and is worthy of note and emulation

bull Promote pro-poor initiatives that are consistent withincome growth socioeconomic benefits improvedlivelihoods and self-reliance

Cooperative development is largely dependent on thecapacity of farmers to be self-reliant so as to benefit fromeconomies of scale bargaining power competitiveness in

agribusiness as well as reduced market risksAgricultural cooperatives are very variable in Asia andthese remain to be more fully developed in manycountries In China for example cooperatives are verylimited and a nationwide need for their establishment toovercome natural and market risks has recently beensuggested (Chuanmin and Falla 2006) Fully developedcooperatives are dynamic contribute significantly to ruraldevelopment and can enable small farm systems torespond to market dictates and consumer needs

Conclusions

Small farm systems will remain an integral part of Asianagriculture and will continue to occupy a predominantposition in food production within an overwhelmingpanorama of varied agricultural activities in the variousAEZs These small farms are models of diversification inNRM and resilience They will continue to play animportant contributory role in the production of a highproportion of ruminant meats and milk in particular andin enhancing the natural resource base They will alsohelp alleviate poverty hunger and food insecurity for thesizeable populations of rural poor despite the threat ofincreasing globalization economies of scaleintensification and commercialization in the foreseeablefuture There are major constraints to their developmentof course but there are also compelling opportunities andeconomic benefits that involve community-based manage-ment of natural resources Social and effectivedevelopment policies are also needed that can togetherstimulate increased contributions from these farms to thefood chain ndash within an enabling economic environment ndashand can spur agricultural development

ReferencesAdams D and Coward E W (1972) Small Farmer Development

Strategies Agricultural Development Council New YorkAlston J (2002) lsquoSpilloversrsquo Australian Journal of Agricultural

Research and Resource Economics Vol 48 pp 315ndash336Blummel M Zerbini E Reddy B V S Hash C T Bidinger

F and Khan A A (2003) lsquoImproving the production andutilisation of sorghum and millet in livestock feed progresstowards dual-purpose genotypesrsquo Field Crops Research Vol 84pp 143ndash158

CGIARTAC ndash Consultative Group on International AgriculturalResearchTechnical Advisory Committee (2000) lsquoCGIARpriorities for marginal landsrsquo CGIAR Washingtion DC(mimeograph)

Chantalakhana C (1990) lsquoSmall farm animal production andsustainable agriculturersquo Proceedings III AsianndashAustralasianAnimal Science Congress 27 Mayndash1 June Taipei Taiwan Vol 2 pp39ndash58

Chantalakhana C and Skunmun P (2002) Sustainable Small-holder Animal Systems in the Tropics Kasetsart University PressBangkok

Chuanmin S and Falla J S (2006) lsquoAgro-industrialization acomparative study of China and developed countriesrsquo Outlookon Agriculture Vol 35 No 3 pp 177ndash182

Delgado C Rosegrant M Steinfeld H Ehui S and CourboisC (1999) lsquoLivestock to 2020 The next food revolutionrsquo FoodAgriculture and the Environment Discussion Paper No 28 Interna-tional Food Policy Research Institute Washington DC

Devendra C (1983) lsquoSmall farm systems combining crops andanimalsrsquo Proceedings of Fifth World Conference in AnimalProduction14ndash18 August Tokyo Japan Vol 1 pp 173ndash191

20 Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 36 No 1

Small farm systems to feed hungry Asia

Devendra C (1993) Sustainable Animal Production From SmallFarm Systems in South East Asia FAO Animal Production andHealth Paper No 106 FAO Rome

Devendra C (1996) lsquoPresent status of research and developmentand institutional considerations for animal production systemsin the AsiandashPacific regionrsquo Proceedings of V111 AsianndashAustrala-sian Animal Science Congress 13ndash18 October Seoul Korea pp28ndash34

Devendra C (1998) lsquoImprovement of small ruminants produc-tion systems in rainfed agro-ecological zones of Asiarsquo Annals ofArid Zone Vol 37 No 2 pp 215ndash232

Devendra C (2000a) lsquoAnimal production and rainfed agricul-ture in Asia potential opportunities for productivityenhancementrsquo Outlook on Agriculture Vol 29 No 3 pp 161ndash175

Devendra C (2000b) lsquoStrategies for improved feed utilizationand ruminant production systems in the Asian regionrsquo inStone G M ed Proceedings of 9th AsianndashAustralasian AnimalProduction Congress 3ndash7 July Sydney Vol B pp 51ndash58

Devendra C (2001) lsquoProductivity enhancement in animalproduction systems in Asiarsquo in Virmani S S Brar D SMamaril C P and Arboleda C R eds Proceedings of theAsian Agricultural Congress 24ndash27 April Manila pp 110ndash141

Devendra C (2002) lsquoCropndashanimal systems in Asia futureperspectivesrsquo Agricultural Systems Vol 71 Nos 1ndash2 pp 179ndash186

Devendra C (2004) lsquoMeeting the increased demand for animalproducts in Asia opportunities and challenges for researchrsquo inResponding to the Livestock Revolution Publication No 33 BritishSociety of Animal Science Penicuik pp 209ndash228

Devendra C (2005) lsquoImprovement of cropndashanimal systems inrainfed agriculture in South East Asiarsquo in Rawlinson PWachirapakorn C Pakdee P and Wanapat M eds Proceed-ings of International Conference on LivestockndashCrop Systems to Meetthe Challenges of Globalisation 14ndash18 November Khon Kaen Vol1 pp 220ndash231

Devendra C (2006) lsquoChallenges and opportunities for researchand development of small ruminants in Asiarsquo Proceedings of theX11 AsianndashAustralasian Animal Science Congress 18ndash22 Septem-ber Busan pp 1ndash14

Devendra C (2007) lsquoPerspectives on animal production systemsin Asiarsquo Livestock Science Vol 106 No 1 pp 1ndash18

Devendra C and Chantalakhana C (2002) lsquoAnimals poorpeople and food insecurity opportunities for improvedlivelihoods through efficient natural resource managementrsquoOutlook on Agriculture Vol 31 No 3 pp 161ndash175

Devendra C Sevilla C and Pezo D (2001) lsquoFoodndashfeedsystems in Asiarsquo AsianndashAustralasian Journal of Animal ScienceVol 14 No 5 pp 733ndash745

Devendra C and Thomas D (2002) lsquoCropndashanimal interactionsin mixed farming systems in Asiarsquo Agricultural Systems Vol 71Nos 1ndash2 pp 27ndash40

Devendra C Thomas D Jabbar M A and Kudo H (1997)Improvement of Livestock Production in CropndashAnimal Systems inthe Rainfed Agro-ecological Zones of South East Asiarsquo Interna-tional Livestock Research Institute Nairobi

Devendra C Thomas D Jabbar M A and Zerbini E (2000)Improvement of Livestock Production in CropndashAnimal Systems inAgro-ecological Zones of South Asia ILRI Nairobi

Fan S and Chan-Kang C (2003) lsquoIs small beautiful Farm sizeproductivity and poverty in Asian agriculturersquo plenary paper25th International Conference of Agricultural Economists 17 JulyDurban (mimeo)

Fan S and Chan-Kang C (2005) Road Development EconomicGrowth and Poverty in China Research Report No 138 IFPRIWashington DC pp viindashviii

Fan S and Hazel P (2000) lsquoShould developing countries investmore in less-favored lands An empirical analysis of ruralIndiarsquo Economic and Political Weekly Vol 35 No 17 pp 1455ndash1564

Fan S Hazell P and Thorat S (2000) lsquoTargeting publicinvestments by agroecological zone to achieve growth andpoverty alleviation goals in rural Indiarsquo Food Policy Vol 20 No4 pp 411ndash428

Fan S Zhang L and Zhang X (2000) lsquoGrowth and poverty inrural China the role of public investmentsrsquo Environment andProduction Technology Division Discussion Paper No 66 Inter-national Food Policy Research Institute Washington DC

FAO ndash Food and Agriculture Oganization (1998) lsquoSustainableagricultural production Implications of international agricul-tural researchrsquo FAO Research and Technology Paper No 4 FAORome

FAO (2001) Supplement to the Report of the 1990 World Censusof Agriculture FAO Rome

FAO (2004) World Census of Agriculture 1980 1990 and 2000Rounds FAO Statistics Division httpwwwfaoorgesesscensuswcaresdefaultaspgt accessed June 2005

FAO (2005) World Census on Agriculture FAO Rome Websitehttpwwwfaoorgesesscensuswcaresdefaultasap

Hodges J (2005) lsquoCheap food and feeding the worldsustainablyrsquo Livestock Production Science Vol 92 pp 1ndash16

Human Development Report (2001) Human Development ReportOxford University Press New York

IFAD (2001) Rural Poverty Report 2001 The Challenge for EndingRural Poverty Oxford University Press New York

Lipton M (2005) lsquoThe family farm in a globalizing worldrsquo 2020Discussion Paper No 40 IFPRI Washington DC

Livestock in Development (1999) Livestock in Poverty-FocusedDevelopment Anthony Rowe Ltd Chippenham

MEA ndash Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) lsquoCurrent stateand trendsrsquo in Hassan R Scholes R and Ash N edsEcosystem and Human Well-Being Vol 1 pp 133ndash134

Meinzen-Dick R Adaro M Haddad L and Hazell P (2004)Science and Poverty An Interdisciplinary Assessment of the Impactof Agricultural Research IFPRI Food Policy Report WashingtonDC

Nagayets O (2005) lsquoSmall farms current status and key trendsrsquoProceedings of the Future of Small Farms International FoodPolicy Research Institute Washington DC pp 355ndash356

Narayanan S and Gulati A (2002) lsquoGlobalisation and thesmallholders a review of issues approaches and implicationsrsquoDiscussion Paper No 50 Markets and Structural Studies Divi-sion IFPRI Washington DC

Pretty J (2003) lsquoSocial capital and collective management ofresourcesrsquo Science Vol 302 pp 1912ndash1915

Singh P (2004) lsquoAgricultural policy vision 2020rsquo BackgroundPaper for Vision 2020 Planning Commission Indian Council forAgricultural Research New Delhi (mimeograph)

Steinfeld H (1998) lsquoLivestock production in the Asia and Pacificregion current status issues and trendsrsquo World Animal Review(FAO) Vol 90 pp 14ndash21

TAC ndash Technical Advisory Committee (1992) Review of CGIARPriorities and Strategies Part 1 TAC Secretariat FAORome

Thornton P K Kushka R L et al (2002) lsquoMapping poverty andlivestock in the developing worldrsquo (mimeo) ILRI Nairobi

UN ndash United Nations (2001) Road Map Towards the Implementationof the United Nations Millennium Declaration Document A56326 UN New York

von Braun J (2005) lsquoSmall scale farmers in a liberalised tradeenvironmentrsquo in Huvio T Kola J and Lundstom J edsSmall Scale Farmers in a Liberalised Trade Environment Dept ofEconomics and Management Publication No 38 AgriculturalPolicy University of Helsinki Helsinki Website lt httphoneybeehelsinkifimmtalabsPuml 38pdfgt

Wapenham W A (1979) lsquoThe big problem of the small farmerrsquoILACO Symposium Arnhem Netherlands pp 29ndash51

World Bank (2003) lsquoReaching the poor A renewal strategyfor rural developmentrsquo World Bank Washingtion DC(mimeo)