Prof. Bert J. TugaFaculty, Professional Education

THE READER

ReadingCan be defined in many different ways.Is a process of putting meaning to the text.Is a process of getting meaning from the text.Is a psycholinguistic guessing game.Is the key to unlock the world of enlightenment.Is the basic tool for learning in all areas.Common to all definitions above is the concept of meaning. Reading and reading comprehension are inseparable.

DevelopmentalReading as a task is different from learning to walk or talk (upon maturation they will naturally develop). Reading is learned in a different way. Many factors should be considered like mental ability, environmental stimulations, etc.

Developmental in a sense that reading skills are developed from simple to complex, from the early part of life until adulthood.

Purposes of ReadingInformational ReadingRecreational/Pleasure ReadingFunctional Reading or Public Use

The three main groups of reading theoriesBottom-up of depicts reading starting with the input of some graphic signals or stimulus. The role of the reader is to get meaning from the text based on the stimulus or the words used. This is also called data-driven processing.

The three main groups of reading theoriesTop-down of depicts reading beginning with the cognitive processes occurring in the readers mind as he or she reads. The role of the reader is to give meaning to the text based on the information already held within the readers store of prior knowledge. This is also called concept-driven processing.

Interactive of depicts reading as the process of constructing meaning through the dynamic interaction among the readers existing knowledge, the information suggested by the written language, and the context of the reading situation

Aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at Cmabrigde Uinervtisy, it deosnt mttaer in waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoatnt tihng is taht the frist and lsat ltteer be at the rghit pclae. The rset can be a total mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit a porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae the huamn mnid deos not raed ervey lteter by istlef, but the wrod as a wlohe. Amzanig huh?Scrambled, Jumbled Words and Language Recognition Theory

Stages of Reading Development

Stage One. Emergent Literacy (Birth to Five Years)learn primarily through direct sensory contact and physical manipulation perception-based conclusionsexperience difficulty putting experiences into wordsrapid language growthexplore writing in the form of scribbles, letter-like forms, or invented spelling

egocentric love being read to and cannot hear their favorite tales often enough have poorly developed concept of causationlike the elements of rhyme, repetition, and alliteration

Stage 2. Early Reading (Kindergarten and First Grade)manipulate objects and ideas mentally can reason logicallyhave difficulty comprehending underlying principleshave evolving grasp of the alphabetic principle

Stage Three. Growing Independence (Grades Two and Three)Develop evolving fluencyExtensive reading of both fiction and nonfictionBecome more appreciative of stories involving the lives of othersJudge their reading affectively and personally rather than by using standardsMay have difficulty explaining why they like a selection.

Stage Four. Reading to Learn (Grades Four through Six)wide application of word-attack and comprehension skills much greater emphasis is placed on grasping informational textvocabulary and conceptual load increase significantlywords in listening vocabulary

Step 5. Abstract Reading (Grades Seven and Up)they can construct multiple hypothesesevaluations of readings become more elaborate and reflect an evolving set of standards for judging

Stages of Reading Devt (Other Model)Stage 0 Prereading Oral language development

Stage 1 Initial Reading Letters represent sounds Sound-spelling relationships

Stage 2 Confirmation and FluencyDecoding skills Fluency Additional strategies

Stage 3 Reading for Learning the New Expand vocabulariesBuild background and world knowledge Develop strategic habits

Stage 4 Multiple ViewpointsAnalyze texts critically Understand multiple points of view

Stage 5 Construction and Reconstruction Construct understanding based on analysis and synthesis

Reading Comprehensionthe capacity to perceive and understand the meanings communicated by texts

Levels of ComprehensionLiteral reading the linesInterpretative reading between the linesCritical- reading beyond the linesEvaluative/Creative- Metacognition

Generally reading comprehension skills are:

Note details

Locate answers to wh, how, why questionsDemonstrate knowledge of story grammar by being able to identify setting, characters and main events

Get the main idea

Distinguish big ideas from small ideasGive appropriate titleIdentify key sentenceSkim the general idea on what the material is aboutFind the topic sentence

Organize ideas

Classify related ideas/concepts under proper headingsGive a heading or title for texts

Sequence events

Perceive relationship

Identify cause effect relationshipGive cause effect relationship in paragraph/passages read

Six categories of reading questions you are sure to face.

Main Idea Questions that test your ability to find the central thought of a passage or to judge its significance often take the following form:The main point of the passage is toThe passage is primarily concerned withThe authors primary purpose in this passage is toThe chief theme of the passage can be best described asWhich of the following titles best describes the content of the passage?Which of the following statements best expresses the main idea of the passage?

Finding Specific Details Questions that test your ability to understand what the author states explicitly are often worded:

According to the authorThe author states all of the following EXCEPTAccording to the passage, the chief characteristic of the subject isWhich of the following statements is (are) best supported by the passage?Which of the following is NOT cited in the passage as evidence of

Drawing Inferences Questions that test your ability to go beyond the authors explicit statements and see what these statements imply may be worded:

It can be inferred from the passageThe passage suggests that the author would support which of the following views?The author implies thatThe author apparently feels thatAccording to the passage, it is likely thatThe passage is most likely directed toward an audience ofWhich of the following statements about can be inferred from the passage?

Tone/Attitude Questions that test your ability to sense an authors or characters emotional state often take the form:

The authors attitude to the problem can be best described asWhich of the following best describes the authors tone in the passage?The authors tone in the passage is that of a person attempting toThe authors presentation is marked by a tone ofThe passage indicates that the author experiences a feeling of

Determining the Meaning of Words from Their Context Questions that test your ability to work out the meaning of unfamiliar words from their context often are worded:

As it is used in the passage, the term can best be described asThe phrase is used in the passage to mean thatIn the passage, the word meansThe author uses the phrase to describe

Technique Questions that test your ability to recognize a passages method of organization or technique often are worded:

Which of the following best describes the development of this passage?In presenting the argument the author does all the following EXCEPTThe relationship between the second paragraph and the first paragraph can be best described asIn the passage, the author makes the central point primarily byThe organization of the passage can best be described as

Read the following ethnic passage and apply this tactic

Lois Mailou Jones is one example of an answer to the charge that there are no Black or female American artists to include in art history textbooks and classes. Beginning her formal art education at the School of the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, Lois Jones found herself strongly attracted to design rather than fine arts. After teaching for a while, she went to Paris to study, on the advice of the sculptor Meta Warrick Fuller.

It was in Paris that she first felt free to paint. Following her return to this country in 1938. Jones had an exhibit at the Vose Gallery in Boston, a major breakthrough for a Black artist at the time. Her work during this period consisted of excellent impressionist scenes of Paris.

It was not until the early 1940s, after she met the Black aesthetician Alain Locke, that she began to paint works like Mob Victim, which explicitly dealt with her own background as a Black American. Later, in the fifties, she went often to Haiti, which had yet another influence on her style. Then a sabbatical leave in Africa again changed her imagery. Indeed, the scope of this distinguished artists career so well spans the development of twentieth-century art that her work could be a textbook in itself.

Now look at a question on this passage. Its a good example of a main idea question.The passage primarily focuses on the

A. influence of Lois Jones on other artistsB. recognition given to Lois Jones for her workC. experiences that influence the work of Lois JonesD. obstacles that Lois Jones surmounted in her career techniques that characterize the work of Lois Jones

Look at the opening and summary sentences of the two paragraphs that make up the passage. Lois Mailou Jones is one example of Black or female American artists to include in art history textbooks and classes. It was in Paris she first felt free to paint. Indeed, the scope of (her) career so well spans the development of twentieth-century art. Note particularly the use of the signal word indeed to call your attention to the authors point. Lois Jones has had a vast range of experiences that have contributed to her work as an artist. The correct answer is Choice C.

Choice A is incorrect. The passage talks of influences on Lois Jones, not of Lois Joness influence on others. Choice B is incorrect. The passage mentions recognition given to Jones only in passing. Choice D is incorrect. There is nothing in the passage to support it. Choice E is incorrect. The passage never deals with specific questions of craft or technique.

Try this question on the authors technique, based on the previous passage about Lois Mailou Jones.Which of the following best summarizes the relationship of the first sentence to the rest of the passage?A. Assertion followed by supporting evidenceB. Challenge followed by debate pro and conC. Prediction followed by analysisD. Specific instance followed by generalizationsE. Objective reporting followed by personal reminiscences

The correct answer is Choice A. The author makes an assertion (a positive statement) about Joness importance and then proceeds to back it up with specific details from her career.

Choice B is incorrect. There is no debate for and against the authors thesis or point Jones; the only details given support that point. Choice C is incorrect. The author does not predict or foretell something that is going to happen; the author asserts or states positively something that is an accomplished fact. Choice D is incorrect. The authors opening general assertion is followed by specific details to support it, not the reverse. Choice E is incorrect. The author shares no personal memories or reminiscences of Jones; the writing is objective throughout.

This third question on the Jones passage is a title question. Note how it resembles questions on the passages purpose or main idea.Which of the following is the best for the passage?A. Unsung Black Artists of AmericaB. A Hard Row to Hoe: The Struggles of Lois JonesC. Locke and Jones: Two Black Artistic PioneersD. African and Haitian Influences on Lois Mailou JonesE. The Making of an Artist: Lois Mailou Jones

Of the titles suggested, Choice E is best. The passage refers to the many and varied experiences that have made Jones an important figure in the world of art. Following her progress step by step, it portrays the making of an artist.

Read the following scientific passage and apply this technique.

Prostaglandins are short-lived hormonelike substances made by most cells in the body after injury or shock. They are responsible for a number of physiological reactions. Prostaglandins have been shown to influence blood pressure, muscle contraction, and blood coagulation and are involved in producing pain, fever, and inflammation. When release from platelets minute discs in the blood a prostaglandin derivative called thromboxane makes the platelets clump together and thus initiates clotting.

In 1971, John Vane, a British researcher, discovered that aspirin interferes with the synthesis of prostaglandins. Scientists now know that aspirin relieves pain by inactivating cyclooxygenase, an enzyme that aids in initiating the synthesis of prostaglandins. When scientists realized that aspirin can also interfere with clotting, they began to wonder whether it could help prevent heart attacks and strokes, which are often caused by blood clots that block arteries in the chest and neck.

Studies now indicate that low daily dose aspirin can cut the risk of the second heart attack by about twenty percent and the risk of a second stroke by nearly half. It seems logical to assume that if the drug can prevent second heart attacks, it can also ward off an attack the first time around. Therefore, many doctors recommend an aspirin tablet every other day to people who have high blood pressure or other symptoms that increase the risk of heart attacks.

According to the passage, prostaglandins play a role in all of the following EXCEPT the

A. Clotting of bloodB. Sensation of painC. Contraction of musclesD. Manufacture of plateletsE. Inflammation of tissue

Watch out for questions containing the word EXCEPT. To answer them, you must go through each answer choice in turn, checking to see if you can find it supported in the passage. If you can find support for it, then you must rule it out. When you find an answer choice without support in the passage, thats the answer you want.

The last two sentences in the first paragraph are the key to this question. These two sentences cite the physiological reactions caused by prostaglandins. Check each of the answer choice against the information in these sentences.

Choice A is incorrect. Prostaglandins influence blood coagulation or clotting. Note the use of clotting, a synonym for coagulation, rather than the passages original wording.Choice B is incorrect. Prostaglandins are involved in producing pain.Choice C is incorrect. Prostaglandins influence muscle contraction.Choice E is incorrect. Prostaglandins are involved in producing inflammation.

The correct answer is Choice D. While prostaglandins do have an influence on platelets, they play a role in causing platelets to clump or gather together, not in manufacturing.

When asked to make inferences, base your answers on what the passage implies, not what it states directly.

In language, in thought and action, S.L. Hayakawa defines an inference as a statement about the unknown made on the basis of the known.

Inference questions require you to use your own judgment. You must not take anything directly stated by the author as an inference. Instead, you must look for clues in the passage that you can use in coming up with your conclusion. You should choose as your answer a statement which is a logical development of the information the author has provided.

Try this fairly easy inference question, based on the previous passage about prostaglandins.

The passage suggests that which of the following would be most likely to initiate the production of prostaglandins?

A. Taking aspirinB. Spraining an ankleC. Climbing stairsD. Flexing a muscleE. Running a fever

The justification for Choice B as an answer comes in the opening sentence, which states that prostaglandins are produced in response to injury or shock. Choice spraining ankle, is an example of an injury. As such, it is likely to initiate or set into motion the production of prostaglandins. None of the other choices is an example of an injury or shock. Thus, you can logically infer they are unlikely to start prostaglandin production going. Taking an aspirin, in fact, would interfere with or block prostaglandin production. Only Choice B is logical to suggest.

Now read this fiction passage, taken from the novel The Heart of the Matter by Graham Greene.

Imagine. Forty days in the boats! cried Mrs. Perrot. Everything over the river was still and blank.

The French behaved well this time at least, Dawson remarked.

Theyve only brought in the dying, the doctor retorted. They could have done less.

Dawson exclaimed and struck at his hand. Come inside, Mrs. Perrot said, The windows are netted. The stale air was heavy with the coming rains.

There are some cases of fever, said the doctor, but most are just exhaustion the worst disease. Its what most of us die of in the end.

Mrs. Perrot turned a knob; music from the London Orpheum filtered in. Dawson shifted uncomfortably; the Wurlitzer organ moaned and boomed. It seemed to him outrageously immodest.

Wilson came in to a welcome from Mrs. Perrot. A surprise to see you, Major Dawson.

Hardly, Wilson, Mr. Perrot injected. I told you hed be here. Dawson looked across at Wilson and saw him blush at Perrots betrayal, saw too that his eyes gave the lie to his youth.

Well, sneered Perrot, any scandals from the big city? Like a Huguenot imagining Rome, he built up a picture of frivolity, viciousness, and corruption. We bush-folk live quietly.

Mrs. Perrots mouth stiffened in the effort to ignore her husband in his familiar part. She pretended to listen to the old Viennese melodies.

None, Dawson answered, watching Mrs. Perrot with pity. People are too busy them what work is.

The evidence in the passage suggests that the story most likely takes place

A. on a boat during a tropical stormB. at a hospital during a wartime blackoutC. in a small town in FranceD. near a rice plantation in the tropicsE. among a group of people en route to a large Asian city

Go through the answer choices one by one. Remember that in answering inference questions you must go beyond the obvious, beyond what the author explicitly states, to look for logical implications of what the authors says.

The correct answer is Choice D, near a rice plantation in the tropics. Several lines in the passage suggest it: Perrots reference to bush-folk, people living in the tropical jungle or similar uncleared wilderness; Perrots comment about the work involved in growing rice; the references to fever and coming rains.

Choice A is incorrect. The people rescued have been in the boats for forty days. The story itself is not set on a boat.

Choice B is incorrect. Although the presence of a doctor and the talk of dying patients suggest a hospital and Dawsons comment implies that people elsewhere are concerned with a war, nothing in the passage suggests that it is set in a wartime blackout. The windows are not covered or blacked out to prevent light from getting out; instead, they are netted to prevent mosquitoes from getting in. (Note how Dawson exclaims and swats his hand; he has just been bitten by a mosquito)

Choice C is incorrect. Although the French are mentioned, nothing suggests that the story takes place in France, a European country not noted for uncleared wilderness or tropical rains.

Choice E is incorrect. Nothing in the passage suggests these people are en route elsewhere. In addition, Wilson could not logically pretend to be surprised by Dawsons presence if they were companions on a tour.

When asked about an attitude, mood, or tone, look for words that convey emotion, express values, or paint pictures.

In figuring out the attitude, mood, or tone of an author or character, take a close look at the specific language used. Is the author using adjectives to describe the subject? If so, are they words like fragrant, tranquil, magnanimous words with positive connotations? Or are they words like fetid, ruffled, stingy words with negative connotations?

When we speak, our tone of voice conveys our mood frustrated, cheerful, critical, gloomy, angry. When we write, our images and descriptive phrases get our feelings across.

The second question on the Greene passage is a tone question. Note that the question refers you to specific lines in which a particular character speaks. Those lines are repeated here so that you can easily refer to them.

Theyve only brought in the dying, the doctor retorted. They could hardly have done less.

There are some cases of fever, said the doctor, but most are just exhaustion the worst disease. Its what most of us die of in the end.

The tone of the doctors remarks (lines 5-6, 10-12) indicates that he is basically

A. unselfishB. magnanimousC. indifferentD. rich in patienceE. without illusions

Note that doctors use of only and hardly, words with negative sense. The doctor is deprecating or belittling what the French have done for the sufferers from the boats, the people who are dying from the exhaustion of their forty-day journey. The doctor is retorting; he is replying sharply to Dawsons positive remark about the French having behaved well. The doctor has judged the French. In his eyes, they have not behaved well.

Go through the answer choices one by one to see which choice comes closest to matching your sense of the doctors tone.

Choice A is incorrect. Nothing in the passage specifically suggests selfishness or unselfishness on his part, merely irritability.

Choice B is incorrect. The doctor sounds irritable, critical, sharp-tempered. He feels resentment for the lack of care received by the victims. He does not sound like magnanimous, forgiving man.

Choice C is incorrect. The doctor is not indifferent or uncaring. If he did not care, he would not be so sharp in challenging Dawsons innocent remark.

Choice D is also incorrect. The doctor is quick to counter Dawson, quick to criticize the French. Impatience, not patience, distinguishes him.

The correct answer is Choice E. The doctor is without illusions. Unlike Dawson, he cannot comfort himself with the illusion that things are going well. He has no illusions about life or death: most of us, he points out unsentimentally, die of exhaustion in the end.

CRITICAL READINGShould beSkeptical (Just because its in print doesnt mean it is right)Fact-oriented (Give me the facts and convince me that they are the relevant ones)Analytic (How has the work been organized? What strategies has the writer used?)Open-minded ( be prepared to listen to different points of view; do not be restricted by personal biases)

Questioning (What other conclusions could be supported by the evidence?)Creative ( What are some entirely different ways of looking at the problem or issue?)Willing to take a stand (Is the argument convincing? What is my position on the issue?)One who shows the ability to separate fact from opinion; recognizes propaganda techniques, compares different sources of information; recognizes important missing information; draws inferences that are not explicitly stated, and identifies the authors background and purpose

CREATIVE READING Must use his/her cognitive processes to develop ideas that are unique, useful, and worthy of further elaborationCan discover a new or improved solution to a problem, or a set of new ideasCan organize ideas in different ways, and make unusual comparisonsMust not be inhibited by conformity, censorship, rigid education, and desire to find an answer quickly

METACOGNITIVE READINGBeing aware of ones mental processes such that one can monitor, regulate, and direct them to a desired endHaving the ability to think about and control own learning

Practicing self-regulation and monitoring comprehension by answering the following questions:Are there any words I dont understand?Is there any information that doesnt agree with what I already know?Are there any ideas that do not fit together because I cant tell who or what is being talked about?

Are there any ideas that do not fit together because I cant tell how the ideas are related?Are there any ideas that dont fit together because I think the ideas are contradictory?Is there any information missing or not clearly explained?

Factors that affect reading performance What the reader brings to the reading situation (developmental stages)background experienceknowledge of subject vocabularypurposeMotivation and interest

the characteristics of the written text (print material)contentformat/readabilityconceptsorganizationauthors purpose

the learning context that defines the task and the purpose of the reader (reading situation)setting/environmenttaskoutcome

the strategies consciously applied by the reader to obtain meaningStrategy is a systematic plan, consciously adapted and monitored, to improve ones performance in learning (Harris and Hodges, 1995)

ExampleContext CluesMany eleemosynary, or philantrophic agencies, are helping the poor and disadvantaged people.

Maricel was very talkative, but Rico remained taciturn.

Rene gave his fake ID card to the guard and held his breath. The guard was busy talking to a friend and gave it a perfunctory glance, so Rene breathed normally again.

ExampleStructural AnalysisProlonged fever made the child suffer from dehydration.

Dehydration: hydro-water; de-down, flow; tion-act ofDehydration: act of drying up

Dyslexia: A Reading ProblemA case related to poor readingBrain-basedA learning disabilityLetter /word reversal, inability to remember/recall written or spoken directions, inability to recall or remember stories/text recently read, poor spelling and drawing ability, difficulty understanding or comprehending written or spoken information, left-right directionality,etc.Comprehensive neurodevelopmental exam

CausesVisual Perception DifficultyAuditory Perception DifficultyLanguage Processing DifficultyIneffective Reading Instruction

CorrectionImproving Left-Right directionalityImproving lateralityImproving CoordinationIntensive Phonics Instruction Program