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![Page 1: Developmental Psychology Research Methods Lab 1. Research Strategy Select research method (test, questionnaire, interview, observation) Decide on research.](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022032606/56649e865503460f94b88a86/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Developmental Psychology
Research MethodsLab 1
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Research Strategy
Select research method (test, questionnaire, interview, observation)
Decide on research design (overall plan that permits the best test of research idea)
Evaluate procedure for any possible harm to participants
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Different Aims; Different Methods
Basic Research e.g., How do infants acquire language?
Applied Research e.g., Do bilingual environments affect language
development? Action Research
e.g., Are outcomes from bilingual schooling positive enough to continue funding?
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Hypothesis
Research can: Test a prediction of one
theory against that of another
Test a prediction of one theory
Start with a research question, if there is no theory
A prediction often drawn from a theory.A prediction often drawn from a theory.
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Systematic ObservationNaturalistic Observation
In the “field,” or natural environment, where behavior happens
Observation in a day-care about children’s responses to peers’ distress
+ direct observation of everyday behaviour
- not all children have the same opportunity to display a particular behaviour in everyday life
Structured Observations
Laboratory situation set up to evoke behaviour of interest
All participants have equal chance to display behaviour
+ permit greater control over the research situation
+ method is especially useful for studying behaviour that investigators rarely have an opportunity to see in everyday life (e.g. relationships)
- Participants may behave in the laboratory differently as they do in their natural environment
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Collecting Systematic Observations
Event Sampling Observer records
all instances of a particular behaviour during a specific time period.
Time Sampling Observer records
whether certain behaviours occur during a sample of short time intervals.
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Limitations of Systematic Observation
Observer Influence Participants may react in unnatural ways Can be minimized
Observer Bias Observers record what they expect,
rather than what really happens.
Observed Behaviour Conveys little about the reasoning
that underlies the observed behaviour
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Interviews
Clinical Interview
Flexible, conversational style
Probes for participant’s point of view
Structured Interview
Each participant is asked same questions in same way
May use questionnaires, get answers from groups
Self-reports ask research participants to provide Self-reports ask research participants to provide information on their perceptions, thoughts, abilities, information on their perceptions, thoughts, abilities, feelings, attitudes, beliefs, and past experiencesfeelings, attitudes, beliefs, and past experiences
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Limitations ofClinical Interviews
Accuracy of participants’ expressions Wish to please the interviewer Trouble recalling exactly Difficulty articulating answers
Distortions in participants’ Recall Judgments
Flexibility may make responses too varied
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Psychophysiological Methods
Methods to uncover the biological bases of perceptual, cognitive, and emotional responses
Measure the relationship between physiological processes and behaviour
Help to infer perceptions, thoughts, and emotions of infants and young children
Measures of autonomic nervous system activity
Heart rate (infant staring at a stimulus – heart rate is stable; processing the stimulus – heart rate slows; experiencing distress – heart rate rises)
blood pressure Respiration Pupils stress hormones
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Methods of Measuring Brain Functioning
Electroencephalogram (EEG) Detect changes in electrical activity in the cerebral
cortex, which plays a central role in complex mental functions, including attention, perception, memory, language, planning, and problem solving
Brain-wave patterns are examined for stability and organization
Event-related potentials (ERPs) Detect the general location of cortical activity as a
child processes a particular stimulus Often used to study preverbal infants, impact of
experience on development of brain regions, and atypical brain functioning in children at risk for learning or emotional problems
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Methods of Measuring Brain Functioning (Neuroimaging techniques)
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Detects increases in blood flow and oxygen
metabolism throughout the brain magnetically Yields 3D-computerized pictures of the entire
brain and its active areas Provides most precise information about which
brain regions are specialized for certain capacities and about abnormalities in brain functioning
Positron emission tomography (PET) Depends on X-ray photography, which requires
the injection of a radioactive substance
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Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
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Near-infrared optical topography (NIROT)
NIROT is limited to examining the functioning of the cerebral cortex.
Infrared light is beamed at regions of the cerebral cortex to measure blood flow and oxygen metabolism while the child attends to a stimulus.
Can be used on very young babies as they sit on their parent’s lap.
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Psychophysiological Methods
Are powerful tools for uncovering relationships between the brain and psychological development but have some limitations Even though a stimulus produces a consistent
pattern of brain activity, the researcher cannot be certain that an infant has processed the stimulus in a certain way
Many factors can influence a physiological response
Children often do not perform as well as they do outside or without apparatus
Children’s fearful reaction to the equipment affects physiological measures
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Clinical/Case Study Method
Brings together a wide range of information on one child Interviews Observations Test scores Psychophysiological
measures
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Ethnography and the Study of Culture
Descriptive, qualitative technique
Goal is to understand a culture or social group
Participant Observation Researcher lives in community for
months or years
Benefits and Drawbacks of using Standardized tests
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Reliability and Validity
Reliability Consistency,
repeatability of a measure Inter-rater
Different observer have to agree on what they see
Test-retestSame measurement on separate occasions
Validity How accurately the
measure captures the characteristics the researcher is trying to study Internal validity:
study conditions External validity:
generalizability
After choosing research methods, it has to be ensured that the procedures provide trustworthy information
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Developmental Psychology
Research DesignsLab 2
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General Research Designs
Correlational Design Researchers gather information on individuals,
generally in natural life circumstances, and make no effort to alter their experiences
Then they look at relationships between participants’ characteristics and their behaviour or development
+ examining relationships between variables- no conclusion on cause and effect
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Correlation Coefficients
Magnitude Size of the number
between 0 and 1 Closer to one (positive
or negative) is a stronger relationship
Direction Indicated by + or - sign Positive (+): as one
variable increases, so does the other
Negative (-): as one variable increase, the other decreases
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Correlations
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Examples of Correlation Coefficients
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General Research Designs
Experimental Design Researchers assign participants to two or more
treatment conditions Events and behaviours are divided into independent
and dependent variables
+ permits inferences about cause and effect
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Independent and Dependent Variables
Independent Experimenter
changes, or manipulates
Expected to cause changes in another variable
Dependent Experimenter
measures, but does not manipulate
Expected to be influenced by the independent variable
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An Example of a Laboratory Experiment
The way angry encounters end (independent variable) affects children’s emotional reaction (dependent variable)
Unresolved anger condition vs. resolved anger condition
Anxious facial expressions, freezing in place, seeking of closeness to their mothers
Anger resolution can reduce the stressful impact of adult conflict on children
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Modified ExperimentsField Experiment
Use rare opportunities for random assignment in natural settings
Natural Experiment
Quasi-experiment Compare differences in
treatment that already exist
Conditions that cannot be experimentally manipulated for ethical reasons (child maltreatment, premature birth)
Groups chosen to match characteristics as much as possible
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An Example of a Natural Experiment Maltreated and non-maltreated
8- to 12-year-olds were enrolled in the same summer camp
Were observed and questioned under similar social conditions
Maltreated children showed more disruptive and aggressive behavoiur and were less cooperative
!Natural experiments cannot achieve the precision and rigour of true experimental research!
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Designs for Studying Development
Looking for information about the way participants change over time
Extend correlational and experimental approaches to include measurements at different ages
Longitudinal designs Cross-sectional designs Sequential designs Microgenetic designs
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Designs for Studying Development
LongitudinalSame participants studied repeatedly at different ages
Cross-sectional
People differing in age are all studied at the same time
SequentialSame groups of different-aged people studied repeatedly as they change ages
MicrogeneticSame participant studied repeatedly over a short period as they master a task
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Longitudinal Design: Advantage
Permits study of common patterns and individual differences in development and relationships between early and later events and behaviours.
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Longitudinal Design: Problems
Biased sampling The failure to enlist participants who represent the population of
interest
Selective attrition Participants may drop out for other reasons; the ones who remain are
likely to differ in important ways from the ones who do not continue
Practice effects Performance may improve as a result of repeated testing; better testing
skills, increased familiarity with the test (no developmental factors)
Cohort effects Children developing in the same time period who are influenced by
particular cultural and historical conditions; Results based on one cohort may not apply to children developing at other times
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Cross-Sectional Design
Advantages Efficient Not plagued by
selective attrition, practice effects, or theoretical and methodological changes in the field
Problems Does not permit
study of individual developmental trends
Age difference may be distorted because of cohort effects
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Sequential Design:Advantages and Problems
When the design includes longitudinal sequences, permits both longitudinal and cross-sectional comparisons
Reveals cohort effects Permits tracking of
age-related changes more effectively than the longitudinal design
May have the same problems as the longitudinal and cross-sectional strategies, but the design itself helps identify difficulties
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Example of a Sequential Design 3 cohorts
(1985, 1986, 1987)
3 years longitudinal
Developmental trends across five years
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Microgenetic Design Longitudinal designs can describe changes over
years, but cannot capture the processes that produce these changes
Microgenetic designs are an adaptation of the longitudinal approach present children with a novel task and follows their
mastery over a series of closely spaced sessions Within this ‘microcosm’ of development, researchers
observe how change occurs Especially useful for cognitive development (strategies
children use to acquire new knowledge)
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Ethical Treatment of Children in Research
Protection from harm Children have the right to be protected from physical and/or psychological
harm
Informed consent Have the right to have explained to them all aspects of the research that
may affect their willingness to participate
Privacy Right to delete their identity on all information collected
Knowledge of results Children have the right to be informed of the results of research
Beneficial treatments Children in control groups have the right to alternative beneficial treatments if
they are available
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The Case of Little Albert