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Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology

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Developmental Origins of Rumination in MiddleChildhood: The Roles of Early Temperament andPositive Parenting

Tina H. Schweizer, Thomas M. Olino, Margaret W. Dyson, Rebecca S. Laptook& Daniel N. Klein

To cite this article: Tina H. Schweizer, Thomas M. Olino, Margaret W. Dyson, Rebecca S. Laptook& Daniel N. Klein (2017): Developmental Origins of Rumination in Middle Childhood: The Rolesof Early Temperament and Positive Parenting, Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology,DOI: 10.1080/15374416.2017.1359787

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2017.1359787

Published online: 08 Sep 2017.

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EMPIRICAL ARTICLE

Developmental Origins of Rumination in MiddleChildhood: The Roles of Early Temperament and

Positive Parenting

Tina H. SchweizerDepartment of Clinical/Community Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Thomas M. OlinoDepartment of Psychology, Temple University

Margaret W. DysonDepartment of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego

Rebecca S. LaptookWarren Alpert Medical School, Brown University

Daniel N. KleinDepartment of Psychology, Stony Brook University

Rumination, a thinking style characterized by a repetitive inward focus on negative cogni-tions, has been linked to internalizing disorders, particularly depression. Moreover, researchsuggests that rumination may be a cognitive vulnerability that predisposes individuals topsychopathology. Surprisingly little is known, however, about the etiology and developmentof rumination. The present study examined the role of specific components of child tempera-mental negative emotionality (sadness, fear, anger) and effortful control (inhibition), as well asparenting behaviors during early childhood on the development of rumination in middlechildhood. Early childhood (age 3) temperament and parenting behaviors were assessedobservationally and rumination was self-reported in middle childhood (age 9) in a largecommunity sample (N = 425; 47.1% female). Two significant interactions emerged. First,temperamental anger interacted with inhibitory control (IC) such that high anger and low ICpredicted higher levels of rumination, whereas low anger and low IC predicted lower levels ofrumination. Second, IC interacted with parenting such that children with low IC and positiveparenting had lower levels of rumination. In contrast, children with high IC reported similarlevels of rumination regardless of parenting quality. Overall, these findings highlight theinterplay of early IC with temperamental anger and positive parenting in the developmentof ruminative tendencies in middle childhood.

Rumination has been conceptualized as a harmful responsestyle to stress that is an inward-focused, negative, andrepetitive way of thinking whereby one dwells on one’ssymptoms of distress (e.g., sad mood) without attempts toshift attention away from negative cognitions or mood or toalter the stressor (Nolen-Hoeksema, Wisco, & Lyubomirsky,

Correspondence should be addressed to Tina H. Schweizer, Departmentof Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 603 EastDaniel St., Champaign, IL 61820. E-mail: ths2@illinois.edu

Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 00(00), 1–12, 2017Copyright © Society of Clinical Child & Adolescent PsychologyISSN: 1537-4416 print/1537-4424 onlineDOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2017.1359787

2008). Rumination is hypothesized to generate additionalnegative cognitions, exacerbate and perpetuate negativemood, interfere with adaptive behavior, and contribute topsychopathology, particularly depression (Nolen-Hoeksema,1991). A large body of evidence supports the cross-sectionaland longitudinal relationship between rumination anddepressive symptoms and clinical disorder across studiesof adults, adolescents, and children (see Lyubomirsky,Layous, Chancellor, & Nelson, 2015; Nolen-Hoeksemaet al., 2008; Rood, Roelofs, Bögels, Nolen-Hoeksema, &Schouten, 2009, for reviews). Rumination has also beenidentified as a transdiagnostic risk factor for other forms ofpsychopathology, particularly internalizing disorders (e.g.,anxiety), in adolescents and adults (e.g., see Hankin,Snyder, & Gulley, 2016, for a review).

Although the link between rumination and psychopathol-ogy is well supported, we know surprisingly little abouthow rumination develops. Research suggests that tempera-ment and parenting play a significant role in the etiology ofrumination (e.g., Hilt, Armstrong, & Essex, 2012; Manfrediet al., 2011; Mezulis, Priess, & Hyde, 2010). Temperamentrefers to individual differences in emotional reactivity andregulation that are moderately heritable and relatively stableover time (Rothbart & Bates, 1998). According to oneprominent model of temperament, two of the three higherorder factors of temperament are negative emotionality (NE)and effortful control (EC) (Rothbart & Bates, 1998).Individuals with high NE are prone to experiencing negativeemotions, are more sensitive to stress and aversive stimuli,and exhibit avoidance and distress in novel or challengingsituations. Key lower order traits of NE include fear, awithdrawal response to unfamiliar or negative stimuli;anger/frustration, a response to a blocked goal; and sad-ness, a response to loss. EC is characterized by the ability todeliberately alter emotional and behavioral responsesincluding the abilities to inhibit and engage in behaviorand to shift and maintain attention (Rothbart & Bates,1998). One key component of EC, inhibitory control (IC),is the ability to inhibit a prepotent (dominant) response andinstead engage in a subdominant behavior in order toachieve a goal (Rothbart, Ellis, Rosario Rueda, & Posner,2003).

Because rumination encompasses a persistent focus onnegative mood, chronic individual differences in emo-tional reactivity are likely related to rumination risk.Indeed, NE in infancy has predicted rumination in ado-lescence (Mezulis et al., 2010). Furthermore, ruminationhas been found to mediate the relationship between NEand depressive symptoms in adolescents (Mezulis et al.,2010; Mezulis, Simonson, McCauley, & Vander Stoep,2011; Verstraeten, Bijttebier, Vasey, & Raes, 2011) andyoung adults (Arger, Sánchez, Simonson, & Mezulis,2012). Individual differences in the ability to controlattention and behavioral responses are also likely relatedto rumination, as it entails a repetitive focus on negative

cognitions and a failure to engage in alternative copingstrategies. In support of this, studies using cognitive tasksindicate that individuals high in rumination have greaterattentional control difficulties, particularly with inhibitingand shifting attention away from negative stimuli(Berman et al., 2011; Hilt, Leitzke, & Pollak, 2014;Joormann, 2006; Joormann & Gotlib, 2010; Joormann,Levens, & Gotlib, 2011; Koster, De Lissnyder,Derakshan, & De Raedt, 2011; Romens & Pollak,2012). Synergistic effects of NE and EC on ruminationhave also been found (Gulley, Hankin, & Young, 2016).Some evidence suggests that the combination of high NEand low EC is associated with higher levels of rumination(Hilt et al., 2012; Verstraeten, Vasey, Raes, & Bijttebier,2009). However, this pattern has not been consistentlysupported (Arger et al., 2012; Mezulis et al., 2011).

One potential reason for inconsistent findings could bebecause prior research has examined EC and NE asglobal constructs. Some theorists have argued that theunique yet interrelated components of EC might vary interms of their specificity for different outcomes (Nigg,2006). Although multiple studies have found evidencefor concurrent and prospective associations between lowEC and both externalizing and internalizing psychopathol-ogy (Eisenberg, Valiente, Spinrad, & Cumberland, 2009;Gartstein, Putnam, & Rothbart, 2012; Moffitt et al., 2011;Schoemaker, Mulder, Deković, & Matthys, 2013; Valienteet al., 2006), research examining IC, in particular, hasfound associations with emotion regulation and internaliz-ing symptoms in early childhood (Carlson & Wang, 2007;Rhoades, Greenberg, Domitrovich, 2009). IC may beespecially influential on the development of rumination.

It is also possible that components of NE may bedifferentially related to rumination risk. In particular, sad-ness may be more strongly related to rumination as com-pared to anger or fear. There is a well-establishedrelationship between rumination and internalizing pro-blems, especially depression (e.g., Lyubomirsky et al.,2015). In addition, some longitudinal studies of youngchildren have shown that temperamental sadness is astronger predictor of internalizing problems, like depres-sion, whereas anger has been more strongly associatedwith externalizing problems (Blair, 2002; Eisenberg et al.,2001; Eisenberg et al., 2009; Rydell, Berlin, & Bohlin,2003), although these problems often co-occur (Vidal-Ribas, Brotman, Valdivieso, Leibenluft, & Stringaris,2016). Furthermore, although rumination has been linkedto both depression and anxiety (e.g., Nolen-Hoeksema &Watkins, 2011), meta-analytic evidence indicates that therelationship between depression and rumination is stron-ger than that of anxiety and rumination (Olatunji,Naragon-Gainey, & Wolitzky-Taylor, 2013). Last, themajority of studies in the rumination literature have con-ceptualized and measured rumination as a response tosadness (e.g., Response Styles Questionnaire: Nolen-

2 SCHWEIZER ET AL.

Hoeksema & Morrow, 1991; Child Response StylesQuestionnaire: Abela, Brozina, & Haigh, 2002). Thus,temperamental sadness may be more relevant for rumina-tion than the other components of NE, though this possi-bility has not yet been tested.

In addition to temperament, parental influences duringchildhood likely contribute to rumination. Research hasdemonstrated that a variety of aspects of the “emotionalclimate” of the family including parenting style, positiveand negative affect expressivity, and the quality of theparent–child relationship are interrelated and crucial fordevelopment of child emotion regulation (ER) skills(Abela & Hankin, 2008; Bariola, Gullone, & Hughes,2011; Morris, Silk, Steinberg, Myers, & Robinson, 2007).Positive parenting behaviors such as support, high positiveaffect expression, and a higher quality parent–child relation-ship enhance ER, whereas negative parenting behaviorssuch as hostility, high negative affect expression, and alower quality parent–child relationship diminish ER (e.g.,see Morris et al., 2007, for a review). Broadly speaking,research on parenting and rumination has paralleled thispattern such that overcontrolling parenting (Hilt et al.,2012; Manfredi et al., 2011; Spasojevic & Alloy, 2002)and lower positive parenting (Gaté et al., 2013) have beenrelated to rumination. Similarly, family socialization of childemotional expression as indicated by higher negative-sub-missive family expressivity (e.g., sadness) (Hilt et al., 2012)and maternal encouragement of emotional expression inresponse to a stressor have also been linked to ruminationin youth (Cox, Mezulis, & Hyde, 2010).

It is also important to consider that the effects of childtemperament might be moderated by parenting. Hilt andcolleagues (2012) found that temperament and family con-text during preschool interacted to predict rumination inadolescence. Some of their results were consistent with adiathesis-stress model of risk (Ingram & Luxton, 2005) suchthat children high in NE had the highest levels of ruminationin the context of overcontrolling parenting; in contrast,children with low NE showed similar levels of ruminationregardless of the level of overcontrolling parenting.However, they also found that rumination was predictedby low-risk temperament in conjunction with negativefamily context. Specifically, low NE and a high negative-submissive family environment, as well as high EC andovercontrolling parenting, predicted elevated levels of rumi-nation (Hilt et al., 2012).

Although this literature has begun to illuminate the ori-gins and development of rumination, some limitationsshould be noted. First, most prior studies have used self-report measures of temperament (Arger et al., 2012; Mezuliset al., 2010; Mezulis et al., 2011; Verstraeten et al., 2009;see Hilt et al., 2012, for an exception) and parenting (e.g.,Hilt et al., 2012; Manfredi et al., 2011; Spasojevic & Alloy,2002; see Cox et al., 2010; Gaté et al., 2013, for exceptions)as opposed to observational measures, which reduce the

likelihood of inflated findings due to shared method var-iance. Second, only a few studies have examined the ante-cedents of rumination using longitudinal designs (Cox et al.,2010; Gaté et al., 2013; Hilt et al., 2012; Mezulis et al.,2010), which are important for establishing the temporalrelationships among variables. Finally, all prior work inves-tigating the relationships between parenting and ruminationhas measured rumination in adolescence (Cox et al., 2010;Gaté et al., 2013; Hilt et al., 2012) or adulthood (Manfrediet al., 2011; Spasojevic & Alloy, 2002). Examining rumina-tion in middle childhood, prior to the period of heightenedrisk for depression in adolescence (e.g., Costello, Mustillo,Erkanli, Keeler, & Angold, 2003; Hankin et al., 1998),could help to elucidate a developmental path to the onsetof internalizing disorders.

The present study examined the main and interactiveeffects of temperament and parenting during early childhood(age 3) on rumination in middle childhood (age 9) usingobservational measures of temperament and parenting.Another aim of the study was to examine whether keycomponents of NE (sadness, fear, anger) differentially relateto rumination risk. Due to the paucity of research examiningantecedents of rumination prior to adolescence, our hypoth-eses were mainly derived from the relatively larger literaturebased on adolescents and adults. We tentatively hypothe-sized that (a) sadness will predict later rumination morestrongly than fear and anger, (b) high sadness in combina-tion with low IC will exert the strongest effect on rumina-tion risk relative to high fear or anger in conjunction withlow IC, and (c) negative parenting will predict rumination.Interactions between parenting and temperament (IC, sad-ness, fear, anger) were also explored. Due to limitedresearch and inconsistent findings examining interactionsbetween parenting and temperament (Hilt et al., 2012), wewere unable to make firm predictions about the directions ofthese effects. Child cognitive ability was included as acovariate in analyses to reduce the influence of nuisancevariables. Depressive symptoms in middle childhood werealso controlled for in order to take into account any overlapbetween measures of rumination and concurrent depression(Treynor, Gonzalez, & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2003). Finally, wealso explored potential sex differences because priorresearch has found gender differences in temperament(e.g., Olino, Durbin, Klein, Hayden, & Dyson, 2013) andrumination (Jose & Brown, 2008).

METHOD

Participants

Participants were a subsample of 559 families from a largerlongitudinal study on preschool temperament and risk fordepression that took place in Stony Brook, New York(Dougherty et al., 2011; Olino, Klein, Dyson, Rose, &

DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF RUMINATION IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD 3

Durbin, 2010). The subsample consisted of families whocompleted an initial assessment during early childhood (age3) and who were successfully followed up in middle child-hood (age 9). The study was approved by the Stony BrookUniversity Institutional Review Board. Families with a 3-year-old child who lived within 20 miles of Stony Brook,New York, were recruited using commercial mailing lists.Children with at least one English-speaking biological par-ent and no significant medical disorders or developmentaldisabilities were eligible to participate. Study procedureswere explained to parents, and written informed consentswere collected at each assessment wave. Families werecompensated $320 for both lab visits. The present analyseswere based on a subsample of 425 parents and children(47.1% female) who had complete data on all measuresfor our study. The large sample size had adequate powerto detect small effect sizes.

At the initial assessment when children were 3 years old,most parents were married (94.8%) and middle class as indi-cated by a mean Hollingshead level of 2.2 (SD = 0.9;Hollingshead, 1975). The mean age of children was 3.5(SD = 0.3 years), and the racial-ethnic backgrounds of childrenwere White (94.4%), African American (3.1%), AsianAmerican (2.4%), Native American (0.2%), Hispanic (8.7%),and Non-Hispanic (91.3%). Children had an average cognitiveability level (M = 102.8, SD = 13.5) as indicated by the PeabodyPicture Vocabulary Test (Dunn & Dunn, 1997). There were nosignificant differences between our subsample and the largersample in terms of child sex, socioeconomic status, tempera-mental emotionality (sad, fear, anger), parenting, or cognitiveability. However, there were more White children in the partici-pating sample as compared to nonparticipants (M = .057,SD = .23 vs.M = .23, SD = .42 years), t(557) = –5.33, p < .01.Thus, race was controlled for in further analyses. Log transfor-mationswere applied to the sadness, anger, fear, and IC variablesto reduce skewness and kurtosis and all variables werestandardized.

Measures

Child Temperamental Emotionality

At age 3, child NE was assessed through coding 12videotaped tasks from the Laboratory TemperamentAssessment Battery (Lab-TAB; Goldsmith, Reilly, Lemery,Longley, & Prescott, 1995). Each episode was designed toelicit a range of emotional displays and behaviors (see Olinoet al., 2010, for a detailed description of each episode).Examples of episodes included Transparent Box andStranger Approach. In Transparent Box, sadness and angerwere elicited by leaving the child alone briefly to unlock atransparent box containing an attractive toy with a set ofkeys that were ostensibly functional. In Stranger Approach,fear was elicited by leaving the child alone briefly in anempty room and having a male research assistant enter the

room and speak to the child while slowly walking closer.Episodes that elicited similar affective reactions did notfollow one another, and there were brief rest periodsbetween episodes to control for carryover effects (fordetails, see Dougherty et al., 2011; Olino et al., 2010).

Emotional variables were coded from facial cues, vocalexpressions, and bodily posture in every episode, which werestandardized and summed to create total scores of sadness, fear,and anger across episodes.1 Ratings were made on a 3-pointscale (low, moderate, high) for each mode of expression (facial,vocal, bodily) and reflected the frequency and magnitude ofeach emotion display. Coefficient alphas were .83 (sadness),.62 (fear), and .78 (anger; N = 541). Interrater reliability(n = 35) was .79 (sadness), .64 (fear), and .73 (anger) as assessedby intraclass coefficients (ICCs). The Lab-TAB has reliablydistinguished between sadness, anger, and fear in children(Durbin, Hayden, Klein, & Olino, 2007), and these componentshave prospectively predicted different symptoms of psycho-pathology (Kopala-Sibley et al., 2016).

Child Inhibitory Control

At age 3, IC was assessed through coding two Lab-TABtasks: Tower of Patience and Snack Delay (Lab-TAB;Goldsmith et al., 1995). For Tower of Patience, the child andexperimenter alternated turns in building a tower out of card-board blocks. The child was instructed to wait until the experi-menter finished placing a block before completing the child’sown turn for 14 total trials. For Snack Delay, the experimenterput a piece of chocolate candy underneath a downward turnedtransparent cup in front of the child. The child was instructed towait until the experimenter rang a bell before she or he could eatthe candy for seven total trials. The coding criteria were adaptedfrom Carlson (2005) and included the numbers of times that thechild prompted the experimenter and failed to wait. Prompt andfail behaviors were averaged for a total IC score, which wasreverse-coded to ease interpretation; higher scores indicatedgreater IC. Alphas were .70 for fails and .75 for prompts(N = 541), and ICCs were .98 for fails and .99 for prompts(n = 8).

Child Cognitive Ability

The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (Dunn & Dunn, 1997)is a widely used measure of receptive vocabulary that is highlyreliable (α = 0.95), has high correlations with other measures ofverbal ability (Dunn & Dunn, 1997), and has a test–retest

1 Coders included undergraduate research assistants, study staff, andgraduate students who completed extensive training and were unaware ofother study variables. Coders were assigned to specific episodes and had toreach at least 80% agreement on all specific codes within the episode with a“master” rater before coding independently. To examine interrater reliabil-ity, videotapes of 35 children were independently coded by a second rater(only eight children were used to assess interrater reliability of InhibitoryControl because it uses simple count variables).

4 SCHWEIZER ET AL.

reliability of 0.92. Scores were included in the analyses tocontrol for differences in verbal comprehension and cognitiveability.

Parenting Behavior

At age 3, parenting behavior was assessed from codedvideotaped parent–child interactions based on six standar-dized tasks adapted from the Teaching Tasks Battery(Egeland et al., 1995): (a) Book Reading—the parent andchild read a book together and then discussed it, (b) Wheels—the parent tried to get the child to name as many thingswith wheels as possible, (c) Blocks—the parent worked withthe child to use small square blocks to build larger ones, (d)Matching—the parent worked with the child to match pieceson a board by color and shape, (e) Maze—the parent workedwith the child to complete a maze on an Etch A Sketch, and(f) Gift—the parent gave the child a small gift and then theylooked at toys. Most of the parents were mothers (93.9%).Altogether, the interaction lasted approximately 30 min.

Parental behavior rating scales included positiveaffectivity (PA), negative affectivity (NA), supportivepresence, hostility, and quality of the parent–child rela-tionship. PA encompassed parental expressions of posi-tive affect (e.g., smiling, laughing, hugging), whereasNA reflected parental expressions of negative affect(e.g., anger, shouting, grabbing child) during the inter-actions. Parental support was indicated by expressedpositive regard toward the child and emotional support.Parental hostility was indicated by expressions of frus-tration, discounting, and rejection of the child. Thequality of relationship was based on the dyadic interac-tion and rated for mutual aspects of the parent–childrelationship such as affective/verbal sharing, conflict/distress resolution, and ease of interaction. Scores foreach variable for each episode were averaged across allepisodes. Parental PA (ICC = 0.66) and NA(ICC = 0.73) were rated on a 3-point scale (low, mod-erate, high); supportive presence (ICC = .85), hostility(ICC = .83), and quality of relationship (ICC = .79)were rated on a 7-point scale (none/very low to veryhigh; N = 55). All parenting variables had significantcorrelations with one another ranging from .31 to .79. Asingle parenting quality variable was created by sum-ming PA, NA, support, hostility, and overall quality ofrelationship. Prior to aggregation, all variables werestandardized, and hostility and NA were reverse-coded.Higher scores on the parenting composite (α = .85)indicated better (or more positive) parenting behaviorsand lower scores indicated poorer (or more negative)parenting behaviors.

Child Depression

At age 9, child depressive symptoms were assessed withthe widely used Children’s Depression Inventory (Kovacs,

1992). The child is instructed to select the response foreach item that best describes how they were thinking andfeeling during the past week. Items are scored on a 3-pointscale (0–2), where higher scores indicate greater depres-sive symptoms. The mean was 4.77 (SD = 4.11), and thealpha was .74.

Child Rumination

At age 9, child rumination was assessed using theRuminative Response subscale from the Child ResponseStyles Questionnaire (Abela et al., 2002), a self-report mea-sure adapted from the Response Styles Questionnaire(Nolen-Hoeksema & Morrow, 1991). Children areinstructed to select the option that indicates how theyusually respond to feeling sad on a 4-point scale from 1(almost never) to 4 (almost always). The mean score was24.11 (SD = 7.08), and the alpha was .84.

Data Analyses

Hypotheses were tested with hierarchal linear multipleregression. Step 1 contained mean-centered child sadness,fear, anger, IC, and parenting, as well as the covariates ofchild race, cognitive ability, and depressive symptoms.Racial categories were coded 0 for White, non-Hispanicand 1 for Hispanic and/or Non-White due to the lowproportion of racial minorities in our sample. Child sexwas coded 0 for male and 1 for female. In Step 2, sevenmultiplicative pairwise interactions were included—fourwere between each temperament factor (sadness, anger,fear, IC) and parenting, and the remaining three werecomposed of temperament factors (sadness, anger, fear,IC). Significant interactions were probed by (a) plottingand testing simple slopes for significance at 1 SD aboveand below the mean for the moderator (Aiken & West,1991), and (b) identifying the regions of significance (atvalues of the independent variable) where the two slopeswere significantly different (Johnson & Neyman, 1936).Sex differences were explored with independent samples ttests and by including child sex in pairwise interactionswith each of the variables in Step 1 and in three-wayinteractions in Step 2. No significant sex differencesemerged, so these interactions were dropped from themodel.

RESULTS

Descriptive Statistics

Bivariate correlations between temperament, parenting,demographic variables, covariates, and rumination revealedthat higher anger, more negative parenting, lower childcognitive ability, and higher depressive symptoms wereassociated with higher levels of rumination (Table 1).

DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF RUMINATION IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD 5

A few sex differences were found with independentsamples t tests. Girls exhibited greater fear than boys inpreschool (M = .72, SD = .36 vs. M = .62, SD = .34), t(423) = –2.86, p = .004. On the other hand, boys exhibitedlower IC at age 3 (M = 4.59, SD = 1.04, vs. M = 4.88,SD = .98), t(423) = –2.96, p = .003, and reported greaterdepressive symptoms at age 9 as compared to girls(M = 5.25, SD = 4.34 vs. M = 4.23, SD = 3.79), t(423) = 2.60, p = .009. There were no significant sexdifferences for sadness, anger, parenting, or rumination.

Early Childhood Temperament and ParentingPredicting Rumination in Middle Childhood

When temperament, parenting, and the covariates wereconsidered simultaneously in Step 1, the bivariate asso-ciations of child anger and parenting with rumination(Table 1) became nonsignificant (β = .09, p = .09 andβ = –.08, p = .10, respectively) (Table 2). However, childcognitive ability (β = –.10, p = .04) and depressivesymptoms (β = .38, p < .001) were significantly asso-ciated with rumination. In Step 2, there were two sig-nificant interactions of IC with anger (β = –.15, p = .01)and IC with parenting (β = .11, p = .04). No otherinteractions were significant (ps > .05).

First, among children with high IC, there was norelationship between anger and rumination (β = –.32), t(409) = –.21, p = .83 (Figure 1a). In contrast, for chil-dren with low IC, those with low anger had lowerrumination, whereas those with high anger had greaterrumination (β = 4.91), t(409) = 3.50, p < .001. Theregions of significance on anger were at –.52 or morestandard deviations below the mean (–.18) and at 2 ormore standard deviations above the mean (.68). Second,among children with high IC, there was no relationshipbetween parenting and rumination (β = .05), t(409) = .34,

p = .73 (Figure 1b). In contrast, children with low IChad lower rumination when parenting was positive(β = –.23), t(409) = −2.61, p = .009. The region ofsignificance for parenting was at 1.34 or more standarddeviations above the mean (5.18).2

DISCUSSION

The present study examined the developmental antecedents ofrumination. Rumination has been consistently linked to psy-chopathology, particularly depression, across studies of chil-dren, adolescents, and adults. However, research examiningetiological influences (e.g., temperament, parenting) on rumi-nation is limited. Only one previous study (Hilt et al., 2012)has examined the effects of early childhood temperament andparenting on the development of rumination. We examined theindependent and interactive effects of specific facets of nega-tive temperamental emotionality (sadness, fear, anger), effort-ful control (inhibitory control; IC), and parenting during earlychildhood on the development of rumination in middle child-hood. Two main findings of the current study highlight theimportance of the joint effects of child temperamental emo-tionality and regulation, as well as temperament in conjunctionwith parenting on the formation of ruminative tendencies.

TABLE 1Intercorrelations Among Temperament, Parenting, Rumination, Demographic, and Control Variables

Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1. Sadness —2. Anger .44** —3. Fear .23** .07 —4. Inhibitory Control −.10* −.26** −.03 —5. Parenting −.06 −.14** −.08 .20** —6. Rumination .03 .12* .06 −.09 −.17** —7. Child Depression .13** .13** .02 −.12* −.16** .40** —8. Cognitive Ability .01 −.02 .03 .14** .18** −.15** −.10* —9. Child Sex .02 −.02 .14** .14** −.02 −.03 −.13** .07 —10. Child Race −.06 −.01 .03 −.14** −.13** .07 .02 −.17** −.09 —11. SES −.01 .08 .00 −.02 −.26** −.03 .00 −.09 .06 .06 —

Note: SES = socioeconomic status.

*p < .05. **p < .01.

2 To examine which aspects of parenting were driving the parenting and ICinteraction, a regression model was conducted including covariates of cognitiveability, race, and depressive symptoms; components of parenting (PA, quality ofrelationship, support, NA, hostility); IC, and interactions for each of the parentingaspects with IC. Results showed that higher parent PA significantly predictedlower levels of rumination (β = –.11, p = .04). There was also a significantinteraction between parent NA and IC (β = .30, p = .01). Children with high ICshowed similar levels of rumination regardless of level of parent NA. On theother hand, children with low IC showed higher rumination at high levels ofparent NA. These results suggest that parent PA andNAhave the greatest uniqueeffects on rumination.

6 SCHWEIZER ET AL.

First, we found a significant interaction between angerand IC during preschool on rumination in middle childhoodsuch that children who were both high in anger and low inIC had elevated levels of subsequent rumination. On theother hand, children who were both low in anger and IC hadlower levels of rumination. Second, early childhood parent-ing and IC jointly predicted rumination in middle childhood.Specifically, in the context of more positive parenting, chil-dren low in IC had lower levels of rumination. Child sex didnot moderate any association.

The finding that high anger in conjunction with low ICpredicted the highest levels of rumination extends prior worksuggesting temperamental antecedents of rumination. On theother hand, children with low anger and low IC had low levelsof rumination, perhaps because the arousal of anger may benecessary for low IC children to sustain rumination (Alloy &Abramson, 2007; Hilt et al., 2012). This result is consistentwith studies indicating that the combination of high NE andlow EC are associated with and prospectively predict rumina-tive tendencies among adolescents (e.g., Hilt et al., 2012;Verstraeten et al., 2009), as well as experimental studies ofadults showing that individuals with depression exhibit diffi-culties with cognitive inhibition of negative stimuli and report

higher levels of rumination (Joormann & Gotlib, 2010). Thisfinding extends prior work by highlighting the importance ofparticular facets of NE and EC that are present early on in lifeand confer risk for rumination.

That early temperamental anger, but neither sadness nor fear,in conjunction with low IC predicted the development of rumi-nation in middle childhood is a novel and somewhat surprisingfinding; however, it supports the idea that different aspects ofNEmight contribute to the onset of internalizing disorders throughdifferent pathways (Rothbart&Bates, 1998) and that ruminationmay mediate these pathways. Children can experience anger indifferent ways (see Vidal-Ribas et al., 2016, for discussion andreview). Some children may “stew inside” and become irritable,which is a major manifestation of mood dysregulation (Vidal-Ribas et al., 2016). Irritability is common in internalizing pro-blems like depression and anxiety and is included in the diag-nostic criteria (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of MentalDisorders, 5th ed.; American Psychiatric Association, 2013)for major depressive disorder in children and adolescents andgeneralized anxiety disorder for both youth and adults. Otherchildren may act out (Vidal-Ribas et al., 2016). In either case,preschoolers who are prone to anger and who have difficultyregulating this response (i.e., have poor IC) may generate stress

TABLE 2Regression Model Predicting Rumination in Middle Childhood From Early Childhood Temperament and Parenting

Behavior

Predictors F df R2 ΔR2 β SE t p

Step 112.44*** 8, 416 0.19 0.19 — — — —

Sadness −0.07 1.22 −1.43 .15Fear 0.06 0.91 1.33 .18Anger 0.09 1.07 1.72 .09Inhibitory Control 0.00 0.33 0.09 .93Parenting −0.08 0.08 −1.63 .10Child Race 0.04 1.39 0.78 .43Child Cognitive Ability −0.10 0.02 −2.10 .04Child Depression 0.38 0.08 8.34 .00Step 2

3.07** 7, 409 0.23 0.04 — — — —Sadness −0.05 1.22 −0.91 .36Fear 0.06 0.90 1.40 .16Anger 0.10 1.08 2.02 .04Inhibitory Control 0.05 0.33 1.01 .31Parenting −0.05 0.10 −0.89 .37Child Race 0.03 1.39 0.73 .47Child Cognitive Ability −0.08 0.02 −1.86 .06Child Depression 0.38 0.08 8.55 .00Parenting × Sadness 0.05 0.34 0.68 .50Parenting × Fear −0.01 0.22 −0.22 .83Parenting × Anger 0.13 0.26 1.86 .06Parenting × Inhibitory Control 0.11 0.07 2.02 .04Inhibitory Control × Sadness 0.09 1.29 1.61 .11Inhibitory Control × Fear 0.00 0.95 −0.06 .95Inhibitory Control × Anger −0.15 0.95 −2.70 .01

Note: N = 425. Bold p values are significant at p < .05.

**p < .01. ***p < .001.

DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF RUMINATION IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD 7

(e.g., peer rejection, academic failure), which could then lead tosubsequent rumination and internalizing problems (i.e., the fail-ure model; Capaldi, 19913; McLaughlin, Aldao, Wisco, & Hilt,2014).

Indeed, recent longitudinal and meta-analytic evidence sug-gests that early anger predicts impairment across social andacademic domains and precedes the onset of depressive andanxiety disorders (Dougherty et al., 2015; Rice et al., 2016;Vidal-Ribas et al., 2016). In addition, prospective work in ado-lescents has also shown that stress and social rejection(McLaughlin, Hatzenbuehler, & Hilt, 2009; Michl,McLaughlin, Shepherd, & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2013) predictincreases in rumination and internalizing symptoms.

The other main finding in our study was a significant inter-action between early childhood IC and parenting behaviors onrumination in middle childhood, which is consistent with theone other study that has examined this question (Hilt et al.,2012). However, the pattern of our finding differed from thatof Hilt and colleagues (2012). This may have been due, in part,to differences between studies in how parenting was conceptua-lized and measured, as well as differences in what aspects of ECthat tasks emphasized.4 Hilt et al. (2012) found that childrenwith low IC had stable, high levels of rumination regardless ofparenting quality, whereas children with high IC were at

increased risk to ruminate if they also experienced negativeparenting. In contrast, the present study found that preschoolchildren with low IC and positive parenting reported lowerlevels of rumination in middle childhood. On the other hand,children with high IC reported intermediate levels of ruminationregardless of parenting quality. This pattern is suggestive of thevantage sensitivity model (Pluess & Belsky, 2013), which pro-poses that there are individual differences in sensitivity to envir-onmental influences that confer disproportionate benefits inresponse to positive environmental experiences. Indeed, someresearch has found that children with low EC are more respon-sive to positive parenting than children with high EC, thoughthis pattern has not been consistently found (see Slagt, Dubas,Deković, & Van Aken, 2016 for a review).

Because our findings were partially consistent with priorliterature, which was predominantly based on adolescent sam-ples, it is important to consider whether rumination in child-hood might be a distinct phenomenon from rumination inadolescence. For instance, many studies have reported genderdifferences in rumination in middle to late adolescence (e.g.,Abela, Parkinson, Stolow, & Starrs, 2009; Broderick, 1998;Hampel & Petermann, 2005; Hankin, 2008, 2009; Hart &Thompson, 1996; Hilt et al., 2012; Jose & Brown, 2008).However, similar to the present study, gender differences inrumination have not been generally found in childhood orearly adolescence (e.g., Abela et al., 2002; Abela & Hankin,2011; Abela, Vanderbilt, & Rochon, 2004; Broderick &Korteland, 2004; but see Hampel & Petermann, 2005; Jose& Brown, 2008; Ziegert & Kistner, 2002, for exceptions). Inaddition, some research has found that rumination increasesand exhibits greater stability from late childhood throughadolescence (Hampel & Petermann, 2005; Hankin, 2008).

On the other hand, there is also evidence suggesting thatrumination functions similarly in children and adolescents.In addition to the present study, research in children has

FIGURE 1 a–b. “High” is 1 SD above the mean and “Low” is 1 SD below the mean. Note: Independent variables are mean-centered. 1a. The relationshipbetween anger and rumination as moderated by inhibitory control. The shaded portions indicate the regions of significance on anger at –.52 or more SDs belowthe mean (–.18) and 2 or more SDs above the mean (.68; p < .05). 1b. The relationship between parenting and rumination as moderated by inhibitory control.The shaded portion indicates the region of significance on parenting at 1.34 or more SDs above the mean (5.18; p < .05).

3 According to the failure model, externalizing problems contribute to peerrejection and academic failures, which lead to increases in rumination andsubsequent depression.

4 Although Hilt et al. (2012) examined the independent effects of self-reported overcontrolling parenting and negative-submissive family expressivity,the present study had a single dimension of parenting behaviors reflecting NA,PA, support, hostility, and the quality of the parent–child relationship,whichwereassessed observationally. Regarding EC,Hilt et al. (2012) utilized a task that maybe more reflective of attentional modulation (i.e., staring at a pinwheel), whereasthe tasks in the present studymay bemore reflective of behavioral inhibition (e.g.,Tower of Patience).

8 SCHWEIZER ET AL.

consistently demonstrated that rumination is positively asso-ciated with depressive symptoms concurrently (Abela et al.,2002; Abela, Hankin, Sheshko, & Stolow, 2012; Abelaet al., 2004; Broderick, 1998) and prospectively(Broderick & Korteland, 2004). Furthermore, several stu-dies of youth have failed to find that age moderates theassociation between rumination and psychopathology (e.g.,see Abela et al., 2012; Aldao, Noeln-Hoeksema, &Schweizer, 2010; Olatunji et al., 2013; Roelefs et al.,2009; Rood, Roelefs, Bögels, & Alloy, 2010). Evidencealso suggests that there could be overlapping (e.g., lowself-esteem, hopelessness; Abela et al., 2002) and unique(e.g., low social support for seventh graders but not thirdgraders; Abela et al., 2004) mediators of the relationshipbetween rumination and depression in children andadolescents.

Altogether, these findings suggest that rumination may beforming throughout childhood and adolescence but maintains aconsistent link to psychopathology across these developmentalperiods. There also appears to be both common and distinctmechanisms of the rumination–psychopathology link depend-ing on age. Thus, ourfinding that early temperamental anger, butneither sadness nor fear, in conjunction with low IC is related torumination inmiddle childhood does not preclude the possibilitythat other temperamental profiles (e.g., high sadness, low IC;high fear, low IC) might predict ruminative responses that couldemerge later on in development.

Our findings indicate that interventions during early child-hood aimed at enhancing child ER skills and the emotionalclimate of the family could help to prevent rumination, whichin turn might disrupt two pathways to the development ofinternalizing disorders. Interventions aimed at reducing angerand enhancing IC (e.g., impulse inhibition) appear to be parti-cularly relevant for reducing rumination risk. In addition, fol-low-up analyses (see Footnote 2) examining what specificaspects of parenting are most influential on child ruminationsuggest that efforts aimed at reducing negative emotionalexpressivity may help to prevent the development of ruminationfor children with low IC, and enhancing positive emotionalexpressivity should also prevent child rumination.

A major strength of the present study is the longitudinaldesign, which allowed us to examine the effects of child tem-perament and parenting during preschool on the emergence ofrumination 6 years later, in middle childhood. In addition, weutilized observational measures of temperament and parenting,which might be less susceptible to reporting biases than ques-tionnaire measures. One could argue that the finding of rumina-tion being predicted by IC in conjunction with anger only (butnot sadness or fear) might be due to the greater salience of angerto raters as compared to sadness and fear. However, significantbivariate associations between sadness at age 3 and depression atage 9 suggest that our observational measures sufficiently cap-tured expressions of the affective traits of interest in the presentstudy. Last, we focused on middle childhood, a period of devel-opment in which rumination has been understudied.

Limitations of our study are that our sample was predomi-nantly White and middle class and that our assessment ofparenting was largely restricted to mothers. In addition, it isnot feasible to assess rumination in preschoolers. As a result,we could not examine predictors of change in rumination.Furthermore, the present study focused on depressive rumina-tion and did not assess other forms of perseverative negativethinking (e.g., anger rumination; Peled & Moretti, 2010). It isalso worth considering that the number of variables in the modelcould increase the likelihood of spurious findings. However, theanalysis was already quite conservative given that each termwasa test of unique variance and the interaction terms include themain effects. Finally, it will be necessary to continue to followour sample to determine whether the variables that we identifiedas predicting rumination inmiddle childhood continue to predictrumination and internalizing psychopathology in adolescence.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank Benjamin L. Hankin for helpful feedback onearlier drafts of this article.

FUNDING

This research was supported by a grant from the NationalInstitute of Mental Health RO1 MH 069942 (Klein).

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