DEVELOPMENT OF SUSTAINABLE MATERIAL FOR HYBRID WALL...
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DEVELOPMENT OF SUSTAINABLE MATERIAL FOR HYBRID WALL SYSTEM TO IMPROVE INDOOR THERMAL PERFORMANCE ASHWIN NARENDRA RAUT A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Technology Management Faculty of Technology Management and Business Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia May 2017
Transcript of DEVELOPMENT OF SUSTAINABLE MATERIAL FOR HYBRID WALL...
DEVELOPMENT OF SUSTAINABLE MATERIAL FOR HYBRID WALL SYSTEM TO
IMPROVE INDOOR THERMAL PERFORMANCE
ASHWIN NARENDRA RAUT
A thesis submitted in
fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Technology Management
Faculty of Technology Management and Business
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
May 2017
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To my lovely mother and amazing father. I couldn’t have done this without you. I believe
that this achievement will complete your dream that you had for me all these many years
ago when you chose to give me the best education you could.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all I am thankful to my father Mr. Narendra Raut and my mother Mrs. Nilima Raut. I
owe all the achievements of my life including this thesis to my family.
I would like to express my sincere thanks to Dr. Christy P. Gomez, Associate
Professor, Department of Construction Management, UTHM, Johor, for providing necessary
guidance during the course of this dissertation. His prominence in giving me this
opportunity and his constant attention and support throughout my thesis conferred me with a
sense of responsibility. He was always there to help me at all times. Apart from a wonderful
teacher he is great human being and I respect him from the depth of my heart. On several
occasions, his magnanimous, affectionate attitude helped me in rectifying my mistakes and
proved to be a source of unending inspiration for which I am extremely grateful to him.
I am thankful to my Co-supervisor Dr. Roshartini Binti Omar for her timely help. I
would like to thank Mr. Koh Heng Boon from the Faculty of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia for his unselfish guidance. My heartfelt
feelings towards friends for their constant encouragement and moral support for completion
of this dissertation work. I am thankful to Mr. Salleh Bin Mansor (Engineering Assistant,
Materials Laboratory) for providing me assistance and helping me out in the utilization of
testing facilities.
Lastly, my final thanks to all those who directly or indirectly contributed their
valuable time and energy and gave inspiration for the fulfillment and realization of this
thesis.
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ABSTRACT
Thermal performance of building envelope has been of great importance in determining the
indoor thermal environment mainly due to the impact of existing global warming issues.
Due to the hot and humid climate of Malaysia, and poor thermal design of building
envelope, mechanical cooling of buildings is becoming almost a necessity. This necessity in
the case of low-income home owners is an added burden. Thus there is a need to provide
wall system with better thermal performance than conventional wall systems. Due to the
emphasis on developing sustainable built environments, researchers are striving for waste
incorporation in building wall material. However, the waste incorporated within the building
wall system, especially in bricks still lacks practical applicability when it comes to the
overall performance of the system in terms of mechanical, thermal and physical properties.
The focus of the research is to tackle the twin issues of sustainability and thermal
performance of building wall systems for affordable homes using a Design Science
methodology. A cost-effective sustainable alternative building wall system with better
thermal performance than conventional material is proposed by utilizing locally available
waste materials such as waste glass and oil palm industry byproducts. The enhancement of
thermal performance of wall materials was done by the introduction of cellular porous palm
oil fibers to lower the heat transfer. Fiber reinforced mortar (FRM) and thermally enhanced
sustainable hybrid (TESH) bricks were developed by optimizing the mix design using Glass
Powder, Palm Oil Fly Ash and Oil Palm Fibers based on Taguchi’s Process Parameter
approach. Both the FRM and TESH bricks, which constitute the thermally enhanced
sustainable hybrid (TESH) wall system, were analyzed for physical, mechanical and thermal
performance and they comply with the various codes of practice for building materials.
ANSYS WORKBENCH software was used to determine the thermal performance of the
newly developed TESH. The temperature distribution and rate of heat transfer through the
wall system was found to be significantly lower than conventional wall systems. Also,
comparative energy analysis established that the energy consumption is 10.6 % lower for
TESH. Due to the lower electricity consumption, the total energy costing for the building
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was also reduced by 10.2 %. Thus, TESH proves to be more sustainable and cost effective
within the operational phase of the building. TESH is a sustainable alternative for low-cost
housing units due to its proven low embodied energy as it comprises mainly of locally
available waste materials for its production.
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ABSTRAK
Prestasi terma envelop bangunan adalah amat penting bagi menentukan keadaan suhu udara
dalaman bangunan, terutama sekali memandangkan impak pemanasan global. Jenis
rekabentuk dinding luar and bumbung bangunan (envelop bangunan) yang tidak
menitikberatkan aspek kepananasan dalaman bangunan serta cuaca yang panas dan udara
yang lembab di Malaysia memaksa penhuni rumah menggunakan pelbagai alat penyejukan
udara. Kos bagi menyejukkan udara dengan peralatan mekanikal menambahkan kos hidup,
dan bagi penghuni rumah kos rendah ini akan menjadi suatu beban tambahan. Oleh yang
demikian tujuan kajian ini adalah menghasilkan satu sistem dinding berupaya menjamin
prestasi terma dalam rumah yang lebih baik berbanding sistem konvensional. Dalam usaha
berbuat demikian beberapa penyelidik juga berperihatin mengenai isu kelestarian alam bina
dan berusaha untuk menggunakan bahan buangan sampingan industri-industri dalam
membina dinding seumpama itu, tetapi prestasi menyeluruh tidak diambil kira. Fokus kajian
ini adalah untuk menyediakan satu sistem dinding alternatif yang berprestasi lebih
menyeluruh dari segi kelestariannya, berkos efektif dan mempunyai prestai ciri mekanikal
yang dapat meningkatkan prestasi terma bahagian dalaman rumah kos rendah. Bahan-bahan
buangan tempatan yang sedia ada digunakan berdasarkan pendekatan “Taguchi’s Process
Parameter Approach”, bagi menghasilkan campuran daripada kaca sisa dan hasil sampingan
industri kelapa sawit menggunakan metodologi “Design Science”. Peningkatan prestasi
terma dalam rumah dicapai dengan menggunakan “Oil Palm Fibers” yang mempunyai
gentian berliang selular, sebab ia dapat mengurangkan pemindahan haba dalam sistem
dinding yang terdiri daripada Fiber Mortar Bertetulang (FRM) dan bata hibrid berlestari
terma (TESH). Kedua-dua FRM dan batu bata TESH, yang merupakan Sistem Dinding
TESH dianalisis untuk prestasi fizikal, mekanikal dan haba dan ia dikenalpasti mematuhi
kod amalan piawai. Sistem dinding TESH dianalisis untuk pemindahan haba menggunakan
perisian ANSYS WORKBENCH. Taburan suhu dan kadar pemindahan haba melalui sistem
dinding didapati lebih rendah daripada sistem dinding konvensional. Analisis perbandingan
tenaga membuktikan bahawa sistem dinding TESH mempunyai prestasi lebih tinggi dalam
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mengurangkan suhu ruang dalaman rumah berbanding sistem dinding biasa dan terbukti
adalah lebih mampan berdasarkan analisis yang dilakukan pada fasa operasi bangunan.
Tenaga yang digunakan oleh sistem dinding TESH adalah 10.6% lebih rendah dan kos
tenaga kurang sebanyak 10.2%; maka ia terbukti boleh menjadi alternatif yang mampan
untuk mencapai keselesaan terma untuk unit rumah kos rendah secara lebih berkos efektif.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE i
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vii
TABLE OF CONTENT ix
LIST OF TABLES xvi
LIST OF FIGURES xviii
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xxiv
LIST OF APPENDIX xxvii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Research background 1
1.2 Indoor Thermal Environment for Malaysian climate 4
1.3 Building Envelope 5
1.4 Insulation through Wall Materials 7
1.5 Affordable Housing 9
1.6 Problem Statement 12
1.7 Aim & Objective 14
1.7.1 Aim 14
1.7.2 Objectives 14
1.8 Scope of Research 15
1.9 Significance of Research 15
1.10 Proposed Thesis Outline 16
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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 19
2.1 Sustainable Building Environment 19
2.2 Basic Concept of Thermal Conductivity 21
2.3 Previous Studies on Thermal Properties of Building
Materials 23
2.4 Towards Enhancing Performance of Bricks Developed
from Waste
26
2.4.1 Performance Analysis of Fired Bricks
using Wastes 33
2.4.2 Thermal Analysis of Unfired Bricks
using Wastes
38
2.5 Sustainability through Waste Utilization 42
2.5.1 Waste Glass Powder 43
2.5.2 Oil Palm Waste 47
2.5.3 Palm Oil Fly Ash (POFA) 48
2.5.4 Oil Palm Fibers (OPF) 49
2.6 Incorporation of Natural Fibers in Composites
for Thermal Insulation 51
2.7 Analysis Techniques for Thermal
Performance of Wall Material 54
2.7.1 Finite Element Method for Heat Transfer 54
2.7.2 Building Simulation 55
2.8 Concept of Hybrid Material 56
2.9 Summary 58
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 60
3.1 Introduction 60
3.2 Design Science Research Approach 61
3.2.1 Conceptual Framework 62
3.2.1.1 Divergent Phase 62
3.2.1.2 Transformation Phase 62
3.2.1.3 Convergent Phase 62
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3.3 Materials and Methods 67
3.3.1 Palm Oil Fly Ash (POFA) 67
3.3.2 Glass Powder (GP) 68
3.3.3 Oil Palm Fibers (OPF) 70
3.3.4 Crusher Dust (CD) 72
3.3.5 Lime 73
3.3.6 Cement 74
3.3.7 Water 74
3.4 Characterization of Raw Materials 74
3.4.1 Specific Gravity 74
3.4.2 Particle size Analysis 74
3.4.3 Chemical Composition 77
3.4.4 Soundness 79
3.4.5 Initial and Final Setting Time 80
3.4.6 Drying Shrinkage 80
3.4.7 Compressive Strength Test 81
3.4.8 Transverse Strength Test 82
3.4.9 X-ray Diffraction (XRD Analysis) 83
3.4.10 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 85
3.5 Testing Procedure for Developed Material 85
3.5.1 Bulk Density 88
3.5.2 Water Absorption 89
3.5.3 Initial Rate of Suction 89
3.5.4 Apparent Porosity 91
3.5.5 Compression Strength Test 92
3.5.6 Flexural Strength Test 93
3.5.7 Alkali Silica Reaction 94
3.5.8 Drying Shrinkage 95
3.5.9 Thermal Conductivity Test 96
3.5.10 Specific Heat Capacity 97
3.5.11 Characterization of developed materials 100
3.5.11.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy 100
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and Energy Dispersive
X- ray (SEM-EDX)
3.5.11.2 X-ray Diffraction (XRD) 103
3.5.12 Shear Bond Strength Test 104
3.6 Methodology Adopted for Thermal Performance
Analysis of Hybrid Wall System
106
3.6.1 Finite Element Analysis using
ANSYS Workbench
106
3.6.2 Building Energy Simulation using
Revit software
107
3.6.3 Environmental Profiling through Embodied
Energy Computation 111
CHAPTER 4 DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THERMALLY
ENHANCED SUSTAINABLE HYBRID (TESH) WALL
SYSTEM 118
4.1 Design and Development of Fiber Reinforced
Mortar (FRM) 113
4.1.1 Mix Design 114
4.1.2 Development of Fiber Reinforced
Mortar (FRM) 115
4.2 Design and Development of Trial Mixes of
TESH Bricks 118
4.2.1 Mix Design of bricks using Taguchi’s method
of Optimization 118
4.2.1.1 Taguchi’s process parameter approach 118
4.2.1.2 Mix Design and Procedure 120
4.2.2 Identification of optimal levels using ANOVA 122
4.2.3 Development of Thermally enhanced
Sustainable Hybrid (TESH) having
Optimal Mix composition 124
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CHAPTER 5 PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF DEVELOPED
HYBRID WALL MATERIALS BASED ON TRIAL
MIXES
126
5.1 Introduction 126
5.2 Performance analysis of Fiber Reinforced Mortar (FRM) 127
5.2.1 Effect of Fibers Addition on Bulk Density 127
5.2.2 Effect of Fibers Addition on Porosity 128
5.2.3 Effect of Fiber Addition on Water Absorption 129
5.2.4 Effect of Fiber Addition on Compressive Strength 130
5.2.5 Effect of Fiber Addition on Flexural Strength 132
5.2.6 Effect of Fiber Addition on Drying Shrinkage 133
5.2.7 Thermal Performance Analysis of Fiber
Reinforced Mortar (FRM)
135
5.2.8 Alkali-Silica Reaction 139
5.2.9 Micro-Structural Examination 140
5.3 Performance Analysis of Trial Mixes of TESH
Bricks 145
5.3.1 Physical Properties of Trial Mixes of
TESH Bricks 145
5.3.1.1 Effect of Fibers on Porosity, Bulk
Density, and Water Absorption 145
5.3.2 Effect of Fibers on Initial Rate of
Suction 147
5.3.3. Mechanical Performance of Trial Mixes of
TESH Bricks 148
5.3.4 Thermal Performance of Trial Mixes of
TESH Bricks 151
5.3.5 Microstructural Examination 156
5.4 Performance Analysis of Materials used for
Thermally enhanced sustainable hybrid
(TESH) Wall System 157
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5.4.1 Physical Performance of the Materials
used for Thermally enhanced sustainable
hybrid (TESH) wall system
158
5.4.2 Mechanical Performance of the Materials
used for Thermally enhanced sustainable
hybrid (TESH) wall system
159
5.4.3 Thermal Performance of the Materials
used for Thermally enhanced sustainable
hybrid (TESH) wall system 162
5.5 Summary 168
CHAPTER 6 VERIFICATION AND VALIDATION OF TECHNICAL
AND SUSTAINABILITY ASPECTS OF THERMALLY
ENHANCED SUSTAINABLE (TESH) WALL SYSTEM
169
6.1 Introduction 169
6.2 Comparative Thermal Analysis of Thermally
Enhanced Sustainable (TESH) and Conventional
Wall System using FEM Approach 170
6.2.1 Modelling and Boundary Conditions 170
6.2.2 Temperature distribution across the wall
system 174
6.2.3 Heat Flux Distribution across the wall
system
178
6.3 Comparative Energy Analysis of Thermally
enhanced Sustainable (TESH) Wall System and
Conventional wall system 182
6.4 Sustainability aspect of TESH bricks 191
6.5 Practical Implications 197
CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RECOMMENDATION 200
7.1 Introduction 200
7.3 Conclusions 201
7.2 Recommendations for Future Work 206
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REFERENCES 210
APPENDIX 235
VITA 269
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LIST OF TABLES
1.1 Low cost housing price structure based on location
and target group 11
1.2 Low cost housing price structure or Johor state 11
1.3 Barriers in promoting green building in Malaysia 12
2.1 Thermal conductivity of materials developed from waste 25
2.2 Thermal Performance of bricks made from waste materials 28
3.1 Specific Gravity of Raw Materials 74
3.2 Chemical Composition of Raw Materials 79
3.3 Soundness of glass powder and Palm oil fly ash 79
3.4 Initial and final setting time of glass powder and
palm oil fly ash 80
3.5 Drying shrinkage of glass powder and palm oil fly ash 80
3.6 Results of compressive strength test of glass powder and
palm oil fly ash 82
3.7 Results of transverse strength test of glass powder and
palm oil fly ash 83
4.1 Mix design for development of Fiber reinforced mortar
(FRM) 115
4.2 Factors and their levels for trial experiments 119
4.3 Mix ratio of control variables as per L16 orthogonal array 121
4.4 Signal to Noise ratio based on thermal conductivity
values of trial mixes 122
4.5 ANOVA analysis of control variables 124
5.1 Calculations of thermal conductivity of fiber-reinforced
trial mortar mixes 136
5.2 Calculations of thermal conductivity of trial mixes of
TESH bricks 153
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5.3 Physical properties of the materials used for
thermally enhanced sustainable hybrid (TESH) wall system 159
5.4 Mechanical properties of the materials used for
thermally enhanced sustainable hybrid (TESH) wall system 160
5.5 Result for shear bond strength test 161
5.6 Thermal properties of the materials used for
thermally enhanced sustainable hybrid (TESH) wall system 165
6.1 Building performance factors for energy analysis 182
6.2 Comparative energy analysis of modeledlow-cost house 185
6.3 Selection criteria for potential waste material to be
incorporated for developing thermally enhanced
sustainable bricks 192
6.4 Initial energy of raw materials during extraction and
processing 194
6.5 The procurement of raw material from the source 195
7.1 Difference between the brown and green agenda 200
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LIST OF FIGURES
1.1 Mean monthly temperature of Malaysia (Sep. 2014) 4
1.2 A block diagram showing various factors affecting the heat
balance of a building 7
1.3 Theoretical framework for enhancing thermal performance
of wall 8
2.1 a) Heat Transfer through a wall system 22
b) Heat Transfer through a wall material 23
2.2 Categories of Different types of Insulating Materials 24
2.3 Flow chart of brick making process 26
2.4 Disposal of oil palm waste at Kian Hoe plantation, Kluang,
Malaysia 48
2.5 Types of fibers produced from oil palm biomass 50
2.6 Concept of Hybrid Material 57
3.1 (a) Stage 1 of Design Science development system
conceptual framework 64
(b) Stage 2 of Design Science development system
conceptual framework 65
(c) Stage 3 of Design Science development system
conceptual framework 66
3.2 Palm oil fly ash after processing 68
3.3 Broken glass before processing 69
3.4 Glass powder after processing 69
3.5 Oil palm fibers in raw form before processing 70
3.6 Photograph of natural fiber processing machine 71
3.7 Oil palm fiber (OPF) treatment process 71
3.8 Oil palm fiber (OPF) after processing 72
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3.9 Crusher Dust after sieving through 2.38 mm
sieve size 73
3.10 Lime powder used as a binding material 73
3.11 Particle size analysis of crusher dust by sieve analysis 75
3.12 Particle size analysis of palm oil fly ash 76
3.13 Particle size analysis of glass powder 76
3.14 X-ray Fluorescence Analyzer 78
3.15 Blocks developed for compressive strength 81
3.16 Blocks developed for transverse strength 82
3.17 XRD pattern of glass powder 84
3.18 XRD pattern of palm oil fly ash 85
3.19 SEM image of glass powder at magnification level
(a) 100 µm (b) 50 µm 86
3.20 SEM image of palm oil fly ash (POFA) at magnification
level (a) 50 µm (b) 10 µm 87
3.21 SEM image of (a) lateral section of oil palm fiber and
(b) cross section of oil palm fibers 87
3.22 Mortar samples for bulk density test 88
3.23 Mortar samples for water absorption test 89
3.24 Mortar samples for initial rate of suction test 90
3.25 Testing procedure for porosity test 91
3.26 Testing procedure for compressive strength of mortar 93
3.27 Testing procedure for flexural strength 94
3.28 Determination of alkali silica reaction sing mortar bar test 95
3.29 Sample used for drying shrinkage of mortar 96
3.30 Schematic diagram of hot guarded plate apparatus 97
3.31 Hot Guarded plate apparatus 97
3.32 DSC machine with sample and reference material 99
3.33 Scanning Electron microscope (SEM) machine 101
3.34 Moulds and sample preparation for SEM analysis 102
3.35 Microscopy for quality control 102
3.36 Sputter coating machine 103
3.37 XRD Machine 104
3.38 Schematic diagram of flexural bond strength test 105
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3.39 Snapshot of interface of ANSYS Workbench software 106
3.40 Snapshot of interface of Revit software 109
3.41 Life cycle process of a material for embodied energy
calculation 111
4.1 Manufacturing Process of Fiber Reinforced Mortar (FRM) 117
4.2 Developed trial mixes of TESH bricks 121
4.3 Effects of variables on the S/N ratios 123
4.4 Manufacturing process of thermally enhanced sustainable
hybrid (TESH) bricks 125
5.1 The effect of various trial mixes on bulk density 127
5.2 The effect of various trial mixes on apparent porosity 128
5.3 The effect of various trial mixes on water absorption 130
5.4 The effect of various trial mixes on compressive strength 131
5.5 The percentage reduction in strength of fiber reinforced
mortar as compared to control mix 132
5.6 The effect of various trial mixes on flexural strength 133
5.7 Drying shrinkage results of developed mortars 135
5.8 Effect of thermal conductivity on various mix proportions 137
5.9 Relationship between porosity and thermal conductivity
of fiber reinforced mortar 138
5.10 Relationship between Thermal conductivity and
Compressive strength of fiber reinforced mortar 139
5.11 Results if expansion due to ASR reaction for glass
powder incorporation 140
5.12 (a) SEM images of control mix hydrated paste 141
(b) SEM images of 10% POFA incorporated mortar
mix hydrated paste 142
(c) SEM images of 10% GP incorporated mortar mix
hydrated paste 143
(d) SEM images of 10% GP incorporated mortar mix
hydrated paste 143
5.13 XRD pattern of hydrated powder pastes containing
POFA and GP at age of 90 days 145
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5.14 Average sample bulk density vs porosity for various
mix proportions 146
5.15 Average sample porosity vs water absorption for
different mix proportions 147
5.16 Initial rate of absorption for different mix proportions 148
5.17 Avg. compressive strength of bricks for different mix
proportions 149
5.18 Avg. flexural strength of bricks for different mix
proportions 150
5.19 Flexural testing of developed brick
(a) showing the failure pattern,
(b) showing the bridging effect of oil palm fiber (OPF) 151
5.20 Experimental and theoretical thermal conductivity of
bricks for different mix proportions 154
5.21 Relationship between porosity and thermal
conductivity of developed bricks for different
mix proportions 155
5.22 Relationship between compressive strength and thermal
conductivity of developed bricks for different mix
proportions 155
5.23 SEM-EDX image (20 µm) of the binder phase from
developed bricks 156
5.24 XRD patterns of hydrated sample of thermally
enhanced brick 157
5.25 Shear bond strength test on TESH bricks and
Fiber Reinforced Mortar (FRM) 161
5.26 Failure pattern of TESH brick and Fiber Reinforced
Mortar (FRM) 162
5.27 DSC graph for heat capacity of Fiber Reinforced
Mortar (FRM) 163
5.28 DSC graph for heat capacity of TESH Brick sample 163
6.1 Geometry of wall system developed in Designmodeler
ANSYS 171
6.2 Meshing of geometry for ANSYS heat transfer analysis 172
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6.3 Hourly temperature data for analysis 173
6.4 Hourly radiation data for analysis 174
6.5 Comparative results of outside surface temperature of
wall systems 175
6.6 Comparative results of indoor surface temperature of
wall systems 176
6.7 Comparative results of temperature at outside brick
mortar layer interface of wall systems 177
6.8 Comparative results of temperature at inner brick
mortar layer interface of wall systems 178
6.9 Comparative analysis of heat flux on the 1st hour of
period across the cross section of wall system 179
6.10 Comparative analysis of heat flux on the 6th hour of
period across the cross section of wall system 180
6.11 Comparative analysis of heat flux on the 12th hour of
period across the cross section of wall system 180
6.12 Comparative analysis of heat flux on the 18th hour of
period across the cross section of wall system 181
6.13 Comparative analysis of heat flux on the 24th hour of
period across the cross section of wall system 181
6.14 Ground floor plan of LCTH 183
6.15 First-floor plan of LCTH 183
6.16 3D Energy Model of LCTH 184
6.17 Annual energy consumption of modeled low cost house
having (a) conventional wall system
(b) Thermally enhanced sustainable hybrid (TESH) wall system 186
6.18 Parameters contributing total electricity consumption of
modeled low-cost house having
(a) conventional wall system
(b) Thermally enhanced sustainable hybrid (TESH) wall system 186
6.19 (a) Monthly energy consumption based on
various factors of consumption of modeled
low-cost house having conventional wall system 186
(b) Monthly energy consumption based on
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various factors of consumption of modeled
low-cost house having Thermally enhanced sustainable
hybrid (TESH) wall system 188
6.20 (a) Monthly electricity consumption based on
various factors of consumption of modeled
low-cost house having conventional wall system 188
(b) Monthly electricity consumption based on
various factors of consumption of modeled
low-cost house having Thermally enhanced sustainable
hybrid (TESH) wall system 189
6.21 (a) Monthly simulated energy peak demand of
modeled low-cost house having conventional
wall system 189
(b) Monthly simulated energy peak demand of
modeled low-cost house having TESH
wall system 190
6.22 Annual carbon emission for modeled
low-cost house having (a) conventional wall system
(b) Thermally enhanced sustainable hybrid (TESH)
wall system 191
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LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
Al2O3 - Aluminium oxide
ANOVA - Analysis of variance
ASHRAE - American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and
Air-Conditioning Engineers
BEM - Boundary element method
CaCO3 - Calcium Carbonate (Calcite)
CaO - Calcium Oxide
CAS - Calcium alumina silicates
C-A-S-H - Calcium alumino silicate hydrate
Cl - Chlorine
CO2 - Carbon dioxide
CO2e - Carbon dioxide equivalent
Cp - Heat Capacity (J/g.ºC)
Cpw - Heat capacity of water (J/g.ºC)
Cr2O3 - Chromium oxide
C-S-H - Calcium silicate hydrate
CSIRO - Scientific and Industrial Research Organization
D - Diameter (m)
DOF - Degree of Freedom
DSR - Design Science Research
e - Thermal Effusivity (WK-1m-2 s1/2 )
EE - Embodied energy
EFB - Empty fruit brunch
EPA - Environmental Protection Agency
FDM - Finite difference method
Fe2O3 - Iron oxide or Ferric oxide
FEA - Finite element analysis
FEM - Finite element method
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FRM - Fibre reinforced mortar
GBS - Green building studio
GHG - Greenhouse gas
GP - Glass Powder
HVAC - Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning
IAQ - Indoor Air Quality
IEA - International Energy Agency
IPCC - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IRA - Initial rate of absorption
K2O - Potassium oxide
k-value - Thermal Conductivity (W/m.K)
L - Length (m)
LCH - Low Cost Housing
LCTH - Low Cost Terrace Housing
LOI - Loss of Ignition
M - Rate of flow of water (kg/s)
MgO - Magnesium oxide
Mn2O3 - Magnesium oxide
MSW - Municipal solid waste
Na2O - Sodium oxide
NaOH - Sodium hydroxide
OPC - Ordinary Portland Cement
OPF - Oil Palm Fibers
OPS - Oil palm shell
P2O5 - Phosphorous pentoxide
POFA - Palm oil fly ash
q - Amount of heat transfer per unit area
Q - Amount of heat transfer
R-Value - Thermal Resistance
S/N - Signal to noise ratio
SEM - Scanning electron microscopy
ρ - Bulk Density (kg/m3)
SHGC - Solar Heat Gain Coefficient
SiO2 - Silicon dioxide (Silica)
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SO3 - Sulphur trioxide
SrO - Strontium oxide
SS - Sum of square
T1-6 - Temperature reading by sensors 1-6
TESH - Thermally Enhanced Sustainable Hybrid
TiO2 - Titanium dioxide
UTHM - Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
U-value - Thermal transmittance
V - Variance
XRD - X-ray Diffraction
XRF - X-ray Fluorescence
ZnO - Zinc oxide
α - Thermal Diffusivity (m2/s)
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LIST OF APPENDIX
APPENDIX TITLE PAGE
A Data sheet for testing of materials 230
B Data tables and calculations for
optimization of mix design 240
C Data sheet for raw material testing 243
D Data sheet and figure of thermal analysis 244
E Detailed energy analysis report 253
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Research Background
In designing comfortable room conditions, there are various factors that need to be
kept in mind. The factors that affect the indoor thermal quality include radiant
temperature, humidity, air movement, air temperatures, and human physiological
aspects like body metabolic rate, level of activity and clothing of the occupants
which affect the microclimatic condition within the indoor environment. A good
indoor thermal condition is essential for providing comfortable (primarily without
heat stress or thermal strain for the occupants) and healthy environmental conditions
to sustain occupants’ living quality. It is important to distinguish between thermal
condition of the indoor environment, which refers to the indoor air temperature and
thermal comfort which is a broader physiological state.
The optimal temperature of human body temperature based on human
physiological needs is at 37±0.5°C (97.7–99.5 °F), regardless of environmental
conditions. Thus, it is important to maintain the indoor temperature conditions in
buildings that meet the thermal comfort levels for better human productivity and
performance. Department of Standards Malaysia (2007) provides a guideline for
standard indoor environment design for Malaysian climatic conditions which
recommends the indoor temperature levels to be in the range of 23 – 26 °C. The
indoor thermal environmental condition is very much affected by local climate, and
air movement through the buildings is necessary to decrease indoor discomfort due
to overheating conditions in tropical climatic conditions (Rajapaksha et al., 2002).
To be more specific, environmental factors such as air temperature, air movement,
2
humidity and radiation influence the indoor thermal environment. It is noted by
Kubota and Ahmad (2006) that in warm and humid climates, external air movement
assists in controlling the indoor environment. In recent years, researchers have put
much emphasis on the rising concerns over low indoor thermal conditions of the
indoor air space. The indoor thermal conditions can adversely affect the well-being
of people as they generally tend to spend more than 70 - 90 % of their time indoors
(Sharpe, 2004; Triantafyllou et al., 2008).
In this modern era, occupants tend to use air conditioning systems for
achieving better indoor thermal conditions, especially in tropical climatic conditions.
One of the main drawbacks of dependency on a mechanical system to maintain
suitable indoor thermal conditions is an increase in the energy consumption in
residential buildings (Uno et al., 2012). It is noted by Bostancioglu and Telatar
(2013) that the building sector consumes the largest amount of energy during the
utilization phase of the building for heating and cooling purposes. Thus, it is
important to design the building in such a way that the consumption of energy during
the operational stage of the building can be kept at a minimal level (Jamaludin et al.,
2014).
Commercial buildings and several residential buildings in the hot-humid
climate are often equipped with air conditioning and mechanical ventilation systems
to sustain and enhance indoor thermal conditions. Besides this being an
unsustainable option, due to their financial limitations low cost house owners are
overly burdened in having to use the artificial means of HVAC. Thus, alternative
solutions that can provide the occupants of low cost houses with cost-effective
options to manage indoor thermal environment without burdening them with costly
technologies or building designs is an important consideration, and also can be a
more sustainable one.
In Malaysia as in other developing countries, the migration of residents, rapid
industrialization, and economic growth is one of the main reasons behind the
increase in high demand for housing and infrastructure projects. The construction
industry in Malaysia grew by 8.1 % year on year basis to record RM 32.6 billion in
the fourth quarter of the year 2016 (Department of Statistics Malaysia, 2017). The
Malaysian government together with the private sector has been funding a big
portion of the infrastructure construction and many housing schemes. However,
notably the housing projects financed by the government that aim to cater for the
3
lower income sector has some major drawbacks e.g. building technical failures,
safety and quality issues (Husin et. al., 2011), poor thermal design (Tinker et. al.,
2004). The affordable housing, primarily that of low-cost houses (sometimes referred
to as low-income housing) as designed and built before 2017, have been found to be
lacking in the provision of the basic level of thermal comfort for the occupants.
Previous studies by Ibrahim (2014) have indicated that the thermal design of low-
income housing is rather ineffective, resulting in the majority of the occupants not
being satisfied with the thermal comfort levels provided. It is noted by Tinker et al.
(2004), that the inappropriate design for maintaining thermal comfort is responsible
for overheating of the indoor environment during the day time. The extent to which
this phenomenon is evident and reported in Malaysia is regarding the estimation
made by a local Non-governmental Organization in the year 2000 that two million
houses may overheat (Tinker et. al., 2004) and that the occupants prefer to spend
their time outside the house during the day rather than inside.
There has been various research conducted within the past decade on indoor
environment of residential houses in Malaysia. Malaysia has humid tropical climatic
conditions, where urban houses are found to overheat by about 3⁰C throughout the
day (Davis et al., 2000). Based on the research done by Wahab & Ismail (2012), high
indoor temperature is attributed to the hot and humid air mostly trapped indoors
causing discomfort to the occupants. Generally, the thermal condition within the
indoor spaces worsens when there is no active air movement. Within the compact
layout of urban houses nowadays, even the 10% opening size with respect to the
floor area requirement under the Malaysian Uniform Building By Law 1984 Part III
does not seem to help much. In warm humid climate, the predominance of high
humidity necessitates steady, continuous air movement over the body to increase the
efficiency of sweat evaporation and to avoid any discomfort caused by moisture
forming on the skin and clothes (Ibrahim et al., 2014). Additionally, much research
(Al-Hammad et al. 1993, Budaiwi et al., 2002, Saleh, 2006) has also been undertaken
to improve wall insulation of buildings as the wall is one of the primary areas
through which heat is transferred (conducted) from external to internal and vice
versa.
In Hong Kong, research shows that architects and designers have to vary the
building height in order to maximize the ventilation. However, despite all the
research being undertaken and improvements in building technology, Al-Obaidi et
4
al. (2014) notes that about 75% of Malaysians depend on the mechanical cooling
systems to maintain suitable indoor temperatures. Thus, in the residential buildings,
occupants tend to consume more energy to power the mechanical cooling system,
which would increase as an added expense for operation and maintenance. The
excessive demand for energy consumption arises because of emphasis on modern
comfort standards, social customs, and design practices, which has made mechanical
cooling one of the important factors in daily life (Abdul Rahman et al., 2013).
1.2 Indoor Thermal Environment for Malaysian Climate
Malaysia is a tropical country located within the Equatorial Zone and therefore its
climatic conditions are stable, normally temperature ranges within 27°C and 32°C
during the day and 21°C and 27°C during the night (Jabatan Meteorologi Malaysia,
2016). The mean monthly temperature data map of Malaysia is shown in Figure 1.1.
Climatic conditions are such that this region encounters large variations in rainfall
according to the season; and the relative humidity is high throughout the year at
about 75%. The wind has a low but variable speed, predominantly from southerly
direction. The country has abundant sunshine and associated radiation for up to 6
hours each day. The solar radiation reaching the earth’s surface mostly gets diffused
due to the characteristic cloud cover.
Figure 1.1: Mean monthly temperature of Malaysia (Sept 2014)
Source: www.metgov.my
5
For maintaining a thermally comfortable environment within the available
spaces for building occupants, four environmental parameters such as air velocity,
mean radiant temperature, air temperature and relative humidity need to be present in
adequate proportions. Thermal performance of a building is affected by parameters
which can be grouped in two types: i) unsteady climatic excitation and ii) design
variables of building. The thermal performances of buildings are affected by
unsteady climatic excitation that occurs due to air temperature, solar radiation,
relative humidity and wind speed and direction. The building envelope design
variables are controlled by architects during design phase of buildings. The design
parameters of building envelope which determine the envelope’s thermal
performance with respect to the climatic conditions include the following as noted by
Yasa et al. (2014):
General layout and sitting.
The thermo physical properties of the building materials.
Location of windows and their sizes.
Shading of windows and envelope.
Insulation properties and thickness.
Surface treatment of the enclosing envelope.
Mass and surface area of partitions.
1.3 Building Envelope
Building envelope or building enclosure is defined as that part of any building that
physically separates the exterior environment from the interior environment(s). The
main function of the envelope is to isolate the interior environment from the exposed
exterior environment. Physically, the typical building enclosure usually consists of
the following components:
the roof system(s),
the above-grade wall system(s) including windows (fenestration) and doors,
the below-grade wall system(s) and
the base floor system(s).
Walls, roof, and foundation consists of building envelope which acts as an
interface between indoor and outdoor environments. By acting as a thermal barrier,
6
the building envelope plays a crucial role in maintaining interior temperature
conditions and helps determine the quantity of energy necessary to maintain
thermally comfortable conditions. Restricting the heat transfer to minimum level
through the building envelope is important for reducing the need for heating and
cooling of interior space. In cold/hot climates, by lowering the heat transfer through
the building envelope, it is possible to reduce the amount of energy required for
heating/cooling.
The process of heat transfer through the building envelope’s components are
complex and dynamic. The direction and level of heat flow depends upon outdoor
temperature, solar gains from the sun, indoor space temperature, and exposed surface
area. A block diagram showing various factors affecting the heat balance of a
building is shown in Figure 1.2. Building envelope components have three major
characteristics that influence the building envelopes thermal performance (Kosny et
al., 2014):
U-factor or Thermal resistance of material (depends on thermal conductivity
of material).
Thermal mass (depends on heat capacity of material).
Exterior surface conditions/finishes.
7
Figure 1.2: A block diagram showing various factors affecting the heat balance of a
building (MNRE, 2016)
1.4 Insulation through Wall Materials
It is without doubt that modern buildings are less able to control the indoor thermal
environmental conditions without mechanical air conditioning. The passive
technique used for reducing the dependency on mechanical air conditioning is mainly
through the application of thermal insulation in roofs and walls. Various other
techniques are looked towards for enhancing indoor thermal environment levels such
as architectural shading, very low SHGC windows, insulated and reflective walls &
roofs, optimized natural/mechanical ventilation. As this research aims to deal with
the issue of low cost housing, the insulation needs of building envelopes should not
have adverse impact on costing. The exterior wall covers majority of the building
envelope surface area, and in the case of low cost housing, the cost of the masonry
8
wall products will have to be kept to a minimum. However, not much research has
been done to find out surrogate wall materials that are particularly lower in cost.
Most heat gain from buildings in tropical climatic conditions is through walls
and roofs which represent the largest external area of low cost houses. Wall is one of
the significant components of a building envelope. In most of the buildings, walls are
designed as non-load bearing structural components. Mainly its function is to act as a
barrier between spaces inside the building and to act as a protection against
environmental exposures. The construction of buildings based on opaque materials
such as bricks, concrete and several types of finishes does affect the thermal comfort
inside the building. Therefore it is necessary to add some sort of insulation type
components for insulating the wall. Figure 1.3 represents the conceptual framework
to enhance the performance of wall systems. In this research, the focus was to
improve the thermal resistivity of wall system by tackling particular independent
variables as shown in Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3: Theoretical framework for enhancing thermal performance of wall
Thermal performance of wall frame assemblies can be increased by either: (i)
improving thermal resistance of insulation materials; (ii) providing thicker and wider
insulation space in wall cavity; (iii) installing insulating sheathing; (iv) reducing or
9
eliminating thermal bridging; or (v) providing airtight construction. Combination of
these methods is normally applied in practice to reach high R-values and sometimes
to improve other performance aspects such as constructability, durability, and costs.
European standard BS EN ISO 13790 (2008) states that, depending on the location
and climate, walls should be constructed by using material with a heat transfer
coefficient of 0.4–0.7 W/m2 K, the lower the better.
1.5 Affordable Housing
According to United Nations Human Settlements Program’s global report on Human
Settlements (UNHS, 2003) in 2001, it was estimated that about 924 million people or
31.6% of the world’s urban population lived in slums. The majority of them are in
developing areas across the globe and in fact, 60% of the global slum dwellers live in
Asia. It is estimated that the number of people living in slums can go beyond 2
billion in the next 30 years. However, economic liberalization process during the
1990’s forced many governments around the world to move towards market
economy and retreat from direct housing provision as promoted by international
agencies (Syafiee Shuid, 2010), increasing the ability to meet the requirements of
affordable housing through private sector participation.
In the Tenth Malaysia Plan it is stated that, continuous efforts will be put into
ensuring citizens of Malaysia of all income groups can have the opportunity to
acquire houses that are normally referred to as “adequate, affordable and good
quality”. Since the issue of housing is more crucial in urban areas, greater emphasis
is placed on the low-income group for better urban services and healthy living
(Government of Malaysia, 2010). The Malaysian government has a requirement that
for all private development, 30% of housing units should be of the low cost housing
type. Otherwise, the developer will have to pay the government the cost of building
those units, if so agreed. Studies based on all Malaysian Plans have shown that the
government encourages the private sector to develop more low-cost houses and low-
medium-cost houses. Hence, there is a huge demand and provision of low income
housing in Malaysia, which is being satisfied mainly by government policy.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights has declared that: “Everyone has the
right to a standard of living adequate for health and wellbeing of himself and his
10
family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social
services” (UN-HABITAT, 2002).
The Malaysian housing policy does focus on the objective to ensure access to
affordable and adequate shelter and related housing facilities for the lower income
groups (MHLG, 1999). Also, the Tenth Malaysia Plan focuses on lower income
groups residing in rural as well as urban areas; one of its longstanding objectives is to
emphasize on the provision of affordable housing for Malaysians.
According to the statistical records, as of 25th July 2011, it is estimated that
the population of Malaysia is approximately 28.59 million (Department of Statistics,
Malaysia, 2011), which consists of different religion, race and ethnicity. The
Malaysian government’s policy on low-cost housing scheme is focused on providing
essential needs to lower income group of the population, particularly in terms of
house ownership (Ministry of Housing and Local Government, 1968a). One of the
main focus areas in the Tenth Malaysian Plan is to ensure access to “quality and
affordable housing”. Thus, aiming to meet the needs of the lower income group by
providing affordable housing along with promoting an efficient and sustainable
housing industry (Malaysian Government, 2010). Incentives towards house
ownership for the lower income group includes subsidized cost of housing, packages
such as exemption on full stamp duty on all instruments, including loan agreement
on purchase on low cost houses have been provided (Malaysian Government, 2006).
The commitment of the government in housing provision for the lower income group
is clearly evident. National Housing Department was allocated by the central
government with RM 330 million to complete 6,500 units to be rented out or owned
under the People’s Housing Program in 2009. The National Housing Department
further planned to develop and provide 33,000 houses for low income population.
For providing the affordable houses to low income groups, the Ministry of Housing
and Local Government has categorized the housing prices based on the target income
group. Table 1.1 presents the Malaysian low-cost housing selling prices based on the
location and target income group. Whilst, Table 1.2 presents the price structure and
target income groups for the state of Johor. The house prices are subsidized and
purchase price maintained so as to be affordable to the major lower-income groups in
Malaysia based on federal and state categorizations of target groups.
11
Table 1.1: Low cost housing price structure based on location and target groups
Housing price per unit Location (Land price per square
meter)
Monthly income of
target groups
RM 42,000 City center and urban (RM 45 and
above)
RM 1,200 - RM1,500
RM 35,000 Urban and sub-urban (RM 15 – RM
44)
RM 1,000 - RM1,350
RM 30,000 Small Township & Sub-rural (RM10-
RM14)
RM 850 - RM 1,200
RM 25,000 Rural (below RM10) RM 750 – RM 1,000
Source: Ministry Of Housing and Local Government (MHLG), 2002
Table 1.2: Low cost housing price structure for Johor State
Category House price per unit Target groups
Low Cost RM 25 000 Below RM 2,500 per month
Low Medium Cost RM50 000 RM 2,500 - RM 3,000 per month
Low Medium Cost RM80 000/RM 90 000 RM 3,000 - RM 4,500 per month
Source: SUK Johor State, 2008
Even though the Malaysian government’s commitment is said to be the
provision of quality and affordable housing, however the aspect of control over the
thermal environment indoors is noted to be unsatisfactory (Abdulazeez and Gomez,
2016). Low cost housing (LCH) is perceived to have a lower standard of housing,
and in trying to provide affordable housing Abdulazeez and Gomez (2016) argue that
the quality of houses are always being compromised. The aim of providing suitable
indoor thermal conditions based on passive strategies are in line with the
sustainability agenda of minimizing energy utilization. It cannot be denied that there
are certain barriers in establishing sustainability agenda in low cost housing sector,
which are akin to that of issues related to green buildings as identified by Samari et
al. (2013), this is presented in Table 1.3.
12
Table 1.3: Barriers in promoting green building in Malaysia (Samari et al., 2013)
Lack of building codes and
regulation Lack of incentives Higher investment cost
Risk of investment Higher final price Lack of credit resources to
cover up front cost
Lack of Public awareness Lack of demand Lack of strategy to promote
green building
Lack of design and
construction team Lack of expertise
Lack of professional
knowledge
Lack of database and
information (case study) Lack of technology Lack of government support
1.6 Problem Statement
Previous studies (Ibrahim, 2014) have indicated that the thermal design of low-
income housing could be ineffective and, resulting from this, the majority of their
occupants are not satisfied with the indoor thermal environment levels provided.
Abdulazeez and Gomez (2016), note the dissatisfaction of home owners of low cost
housing in Malaysia in terms of poor spatial and functional attributes and their desire
for undertaking renovations to improve their thermal indoor environment levels.
Ibrahim et al. (2014) confirmed that the low income houses in Malaysia are
thermally uncomfortable under normal climatic and living conditions.
Al-Obaidi and Woods (2006) and Nugroho et al., (2007) confirmed that
there is an issue of poor thermal conditions in Malaysian terraced house design.
According to Tinker et al. (2004), the building envelope often fails to provide basic
levels of thermal comfort in low cost houses because of inferior standards of houses
provided at affordable rates. However, in their research undertaken in comparing the
traditional Malay house and Modern Low income house in Malaysia, they attribute
this problem of the building envelope from the perspective of improving building
ventilation. In their research undertaken in 2004, Tinker et al. (2004), reported that
two million houses may overheat because of inferior standard of housing. Al
Yacouby et al. (2011) indicated that about 75% of Malaysians depend on the air-
13
conditioning system to maintain the indoor temperature within comfort levels. Thus,
thermal conditions in low cost terrace housing has been identified to be at an
undesirable level.
Whilst the issue of improving control over indoor thermal environment levels
is being given much consideration, there is a growing concern of trying to ensure that
such efforts are not done at the expense of being unsustainable. Reddy & Jagdish
(2003) note that conventional wall materials have negative environmental effects
because of their high embodied energy (clay bricks: 2.0 KWh per brick; cement
bricks: 1.5 KWh per brick). Also these conventional wall materials have been
overused in construction industry, in the sense of not being superseded by more
technologically advanced and sustainable alternatives. Foreseeing this problem,
many researchers have studied the utilization of waste materials to produce bricks.
Most researchers striving for this characteristic in wall materials however overlook
other crucial criteria such as mechanical performance in trying to select raw
materials and design mix proportions for achieving lower thermal conductivity. The
majority of such newly developed waste incorporated bricks still lack practical
applicability when it comes to overall performance as sustainable wall materials.
Thus, while tackling the issue of thermal performance, sufficient emphasis needs to
be given to the performance characteristics of the newly developed wall component.
Research on better thermal performance wall materials (low thermal
conductivity), which also have additional sustainable characteristics, seems to be
compromised on retaining the physical, and mechanical properties as required
according to international standards. Thus, this research is undertaken to tackle the
twin issue of providing better thermal performance building envelopes (low thermal
conductivity) that are sustainable at the same time having the required desired
physical and mechanical properties. The critical component of the building envelope
that contributes to high building thermal performance (low thermal conductivity) is
that of the building wall material. It is without doubt that a multitude of factors
contribute to indoor thermal environment as is explained in Chapter 2. However, this
research focuses on discerning the suitable building wall composition that has low
thermal conductivity in terms of its thermal transmitivity (U-value) which primarily
depends on thermal conductivity and thickness of wall.
14
1.7 Aim & Objective
1.7.1 Aim
To develop sustainable hybrid wall material for low cost terrace house
(LCTH), to overcome undesirable thermal conditions faced by occupants.
1.7.2 Objectives
The objective of this research are as follows:
I. To determine the final mix design based on the analysis of thermal properties
of trial mixes of thermally enhanced sustainable hybrid samples (brick +
mortar).
II. To analyse the thermal, physical, mechanical, and microstructural
characteristics of trials mixes of sustainable hybrid bricks and Fiber
reinforced mortar (FRM).
III. To verify and compare the thermal, physical and mechanical properties of
final optimal mix of thermally enhanced thermally enhanced sustainable
hybrid sample (TESH brick + FRM) with Conventional wall material.
IV. To analyse the heat transfer behaviour of final optimal mix of TESH wall
system using ANSYS simulation software in terms of Finite Element
Analysis (FEA).
V. To perform the comparative building energy analysis for TESH wall system
and Conventional wall system to understand the performance of TESH wall
system during building’s operational stage.
VI. To verify the sustainability aspect of developed TESH brick using embodied
energy analysis.
15
1.8 Scope of Research
This study is focused on utilization of industrial and municipal waste in a hybridized
form to be incorporated into building wall construction as a potential for increasing
control over indoor thermal environment levels of low-cost terrace housing. The
chosen industrial and municipal waste used is sourced locally as the materials are
available abundantly in Malaysia (focused on natural fibers, waste glass, natural
pozzolanic materials and oil palm waste). The laboratory work for this study has
been accomplished by conducting significant testing on the newly developed sample
of bricks and mortar. These included the testing of the physical, mechanical and
thermal properties and their influence on the performance of the wall system (bricks
and mortar). The analysis on the results to achieve the objectives included
investigation of the heat transfer properties of the wall system and its energy and
sustainability performance on the building. This research is primarily focused on
developing a cost-effective hybrid wall system that can provide greater potential for
control over indoor thermal environment. The focus is on tackling the thermal
performance in terms of thermal transmittance value (U-value) of wall system.
1.9 Significance of Research
The building sector is one of the largest consumers of resources causing high carbon
emissions. In the backdrop of environmental issues, many countries are adopting
sustainable technologies and materials. Therefore, it is crucial to find suitable
surrogate materials which have sustainable features. One way to overcome this
situation is to adopt natural renewable sources or non-hazardous waste materials.
Implementation of sustainability features in the manufacture of energy efficient
products would certainly benefit the environment. Also, the amount of raw materials
consumed by the construction industry is approximately 24% of the global raw
material resource (Bribián et al., 2011). Thus, for achieving the goal of sustainable
development in the construction industry, the selection of building material plays a
pivotal role. There have been continuous efforts to research on the viability of
reusable waste materials as alternative building materials. Efforts have been ongoing
to utilize demolition waste, municipal solid waste, agricultural waste and industrial
16
waste in building materials (Rao et al., 2007; Lin, 2006; Raut et. al., 2013; Shih et
al., 2004). However, most of the studies while studying the incorporation of waste
materials have failed to address the twin objectives of addressing the thermal
insulation characteristics of such material for improving energy efficiency needs and
their overall mechanical performance. Thus, this research focuses on utilizing the
locally available waste materials as alternative constituent materials for bricks and
mortar, keeping in view their final intrinsic physical properties after being
incorporated within the hybrid mix of the wall components.
This research is anticipated to enhance the indoor thermal environment levels
by providing an alternative wall system which provides better thermal insulation
compared to the conventional wall system, especially for low cost housing in
Malaysia. Over the years, the issue of providing better indoor thermal environment
has not received sufficient attention. This research provides a solution to the current
existing issue of inefficient indoor thermal environment in low cost houses. The
research also contributes towards promoting sustainable built environment by
reducing the dependency on mechanical cooling systems, thus lowering the energy
needs of the building. The reduction of energy consumption by using such a passive
strategy will eventually be beneficial for occupants as well as it will promote
sustainability.
Previous attempts to achieve better thermal performance of wall systems have
failed to undertake thorough analysis of brick and mortar as well as to provide
complete analysis of required key parameters. Thus, by undertaking a more systemic
design science approach, the researcher has been able to provide a “prototype”
(Thermally Enhanced Sustainable Hybrid wall system), which has direct
applicability that can provide better thermal environment within indoor spaces. Thus,
this research is able to tackle the twin issues of sustainability and enhance the indoor
thermal environment by promoting the usage of locally available waste material to
develop a thermally enhanced sustainable hybrid wall system.
1.10 Proposed Thesis Outline
This thesis presents the research undertaken for the purpose of developing alternative
building wall material that provides better thermal indoor environment based on
17
utilizing agro-waste (industrial waste) and municipal waste for design and
development of sustainable building bricks/blocks. To achieve the above aims the
thesis is organised according to the following eight chapters.
Chapter 1: This chapter includes an overview of low cost housing in Malaysia. It
also presents brief descriptions on current conditions of quality in terms of
functionality (particularly that of indoor thermal performance that is influenced by
the building envelope) of Low cost housing. It also focuses on the need of
sustainable insulating material for improvement of indoor thermal environment
specifically that of providing better thermally performance of enclosed building
spaces of which a key attribute is that of indoor air temperature and thermal
performance of components of building envelope.
Chapter 2: This chapter focuses on the detailed literature review of sustainable
insulating materials aimed at contributing towards enhancing indoor thermal
environment levels by having high building thermal performance, equivalent to the
building material having low thermal conductivity. Also, the potential use of various
agricultural industrial waste materials for developing wall material is discussed. This
chapter also discusses the brief literature review of locally available waste materials
(i.e. oil palm waste and waste glass). Finally, it discusses the concept of hybrid
material and its various definitions provided by researchers.
Chapter 3: Chapter 3 discusses the methodology adopted for designing and
developing sustainable hybrid material for various waste materials. It also discusses
the various testing and its analysis conducted on identified raw materials for
development of Thermally Enhanced Sustainable Hybrid (TESH) Wall System.
Chapter 4: Chapter 4 outlines the detailed procedure undertaken for designing and
developing thermally enhanced sustainable hybrid wall material.
Chapter 5: This chapter includes the evaluation of performance analysis of
developed hybrid wall material by conducting Physico-Mechanical & Thermal
testing.
18
Chapter 6: Chapter 6 presents the simulation of heat transfer through thermally
enhanced sustainable hybrid (TESH) wall system by using Finite Element Modelling
(FEM) method. Also, this chapter presents the comparative energy analysis for
TESH and conventional wall system. The embodied energy analysis is also
performed for TESH bricks to validate it as a sustainable product.
Chapter 7: This chapter outlines the conclusion drawn from the work described in
chapters 4-6.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter briefly discusses the developmental necessities of sustainable building
environment against the backdrop of unprecedented degradation of urban climate and
ecological imbalance. A review is provided of the basic concept of thermal
conductivity, various potential thermal insulating materials which can be developed
as alternative hybrid wall material that also serves as a sustainable solution. A brief
overview of the concept of hybrid material as put forward by previous researchers is
also presented.
2.1 Sustainable Building Environment
Buildings are an inseparable part of society; they are the places where we live, play,
learn and work. The time spent indoors varies according to the socio-economic
commitments and adaptive practices. In developed countries such as United States,
people tend to spend 90 % of time indoors (Hoppe, 2002). As centers of our social
and economic lives, buildings also have significant environmental impact due to
consumption of energy and resources. The International Energy Agency (IEA)
(2009) has estimated that building sector contributes to nearly 60% of the global
electricity demand. However, the energy demand varies depending on the
geographical location, climatic conditions, and socio-economic practices. This
consumption can explain why the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) estimates that by 2030, Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions due to residential
and commercial buildings will account for over one-third of total emissions (Levine,
et al., 2007).
20
The building sector is one of the most important industries in the world and
has a substantial impact on the living environment and the ecosystem. From a
sustainable building perspective, the environmental concerns associated with
building design becomes of utmost importance. With respect to sustainable design
strategies of buildings, thermal performance of building plays a vital role in attaining
a sustainable built environment. A sustainable building is one which is designed:
I. To minimize consumption of energy and resources by utilizing recycle materials
and minimize the emission of greenhouse gases throughout its life cycle.
II. To harmonize with the local climate, traditions, culture and the immediate
environment,
III. To sustain and improve the quality of human life and maintaining the capacity of
the ecosystem at the local and global levels.
According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), “Sustainability is
the ability to provide for future generation needs without compromising present
necessities for the continuity of the human and natural environment”. Nowadays,
there is more focus on sustainable development, resulting in the environmental
assessment of building performance and the certification as a green building. In this
assessment one of the main objectives is to provide a healthy living indoor
environment for occupants, meanwhile keeping the usage of natural resources to its
minimum level, thus lowering overall negative impact to the natural environment
(Byrd and Ramli, 2012).
Achieving enhanced levels of indoor thermal environment in a sustainable
manner is key to addressing the issue of producing a healthy living indoor
environment. Much research has been done to tackle indoor thermal environment
issues within the global green rating building context. But not much emphasis has
been put to address wider sustainable built environment issues in terms of
consideration of provisions for sustainable building wall material. Hence, greater
emphasis needs to be placed on the properties of materials used in constructing a
building that can contribute towards better indoor thermal environment.
21
2.2 Basic Concept of Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity is one of the key properties for analyzing the thermal
insulation of a material. Thermally insulated buildings must possess lower values of
thermal conductivity. Thermal conductivity of material is defined as the property of a
material to conduct heat. The category of thermal insulation materials refers to
materials that have a low rate of heat transfer through it. Hence, these materials have
a low thermal conductivity (W/(mK)) which allows the use of relatively thin building
envelopes. In other words, the building envelopes utilizing such material have a high
thermal resistance (m2K/W) and an overall low thermal transmittance U-value
(W/(m2K). The Thermal Conductivity (k) of a material is defined as the rate of heat
flow through a given cross sectional area (given in Equation 2.1).
𝑞 = −𝑘. 𝐴.𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 - (2.1)
Whereas, the total overall thermal conductivity ktot, i.e. the thickness of a material
divided by its thermal resistance, is in principle made up from several contributions
as outlined in Equation 2.2:
ktot = ksolid + kgas + krad + kconv +kcoupling + kleak - (2.2)
Where, ktot = Total overall thermal conductivity,
ksolid = Solid state thermal conductivity,
kgas = Gas thermal conductivity,
krad = Radiation thermal conductivity,
kconv = Convection thermal conductivity,
kcoupling = Thermal conductivity term accounting for second order
effects between the various thermal conductivities in
Eq.(2.2),
kleak = Leakage thermal conductivity.
The solid state thermal conductivity, ksolid is caused due to lattice vibration between
the atoms causing the transfer of heat, i.e. through chemical bonds between atoms.
The gas thermal conductivity, kgas is caused due to the collision of molecules with
22
each other in gaseous state thus enabling the transfer of thermal energy from one
molecule to the other. The radiation thermal conductivity, krad is caused due to
electromagnetic radiation in the infrared (IR) wavelength region which is emitted
from a material surface. The convection thermal conductivity, kconv is caused by the
thermal mass transport or movement of air and moisture. The main factor resulting in
transfer of thermal energy is the temperature difference between materials and its
surrounding. The various thermal insulation materials and solutions utilize various
strategies to keep these specific thermal conductivities as low as possible (Jelle,
2011). Figure 2.1(a) and Figure 2.1(b) illustrates the various forms of heat transfer
through a material.
Figure 2.1 (a): Heat Transfer through a wall system (Balaji, et al. 2014)
23
Figure 2.1 (b): Heat Transfer through a wall material (Balaji, et al. 2014)
2.3 Previous Studies on Thermal Properties of Building Materials
Most of the studies involving thermal performance of building materials are focused
mainly on the thermal insulation of walls and its thickness by using various thermal
conductivity measurement techniques (Al-Hammad et al. 1993, Budaiwi et al., 2002,
Saleh, 2006). There has been much research solely focused on the thermal
performance of building wall materials incorporating low thermal conductivity
materials. The effectiveness of the insulation mainly depends on the low heat transfer
rate of the material to prevent the heat gain within the indoor space through the wall
materials. One way of enhancing the energy efficiency in buildings is to improve the
heat insulation properties of the buildings. Insulating materials can be classified
according to their chemical or their physical structure. The most widely used
insulating materials can be classified as shown in Figure 2.2.
24
Figure 2.2: Different categories of insulating materials (Papadopolous, 2005)
Choi et al. (2007) analyzed composites for their insulating properties by
varying the building wall thickness. The method adopted for measurement was
steady state method using Lambda heat flow meter. Their research also addressed the
issue of reliability of the performed quantitative analysis in terms of the
measurement precision and uncertainty of the insulating composite materials. It was
observed that with the increase of thickness by about four times, thermal resistance
was also observed to vary from 3% to 4%, this was due to the heat loss from the
sides. When the theoretical value and the actual value for three types of composite
insulation were compared, then variation in the thermal values was found to be
around 5%.
Abdelrahman et al. (1990) measured thermal conductivity of locally available
bricks in Saudi Arabia by using hot guarded plate technique. The measurements were
conducted at 40°C mean test temperature for establishing thermal performance of
bricks. The results suggested that observed values for thermal conductivity was
mostly on the higher side compared to those reported in handbooks (mainly at mean
temperature of 24°C). In a more recent work, Al-Hazmy (2006) analyzed the heat
transfer rate through common hollow building blocks. Experiments were performed
considering the cavities filled with insulating material and gas filled conditions.
Results concluded that the cellular movement of air within cavities of bricks
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